Reforms of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte ruled France as First Consul from 1799 to 1804

and as Emperor from 1804 to 1814 to 1815. He was called the "child of
the revolution". When he was appointed First Consul, he continued
the catalog based on domestic achievements. He insisted that he was
the heir of the revolution that he "founded on its principles." At the
same time, he renounced his own Jacobin ties and broke with the
doctrinal period of the French Revolution. He rejected Rousseau's
ideology and Robespierre's efforts to implement it. In this sense, he
considered his task "to close the romanticism of the revolution". At
one extreme, Napoleon appeared as a manifestation of revolution,
especially in those parts of Europe previously untouched by
revolutionary upheaval. On the one hand, the Napoleonic empire was
seen as a perversion of the revolutionary ideal; For example, Trotsky
later used bonapartism as a misnomer to describe the capture of the
revolution by military reactionaries. He traced much of his intellectual
inspiration back to earlier philosophers of the Enlightenment - writers
such as Montesquieu and Voltaire. This gave him much in common
with the enlightened despots of Russia, Austria, and Prussia; he
shared their dark vision of the "superstitious and criminal" nature of
humanity and their belief that the only way to prevent chaos was
through the firm and authoritarian enforcement of humane and
enlightened policies. So Napoleon looked back after 1779, and some
of his measures showed signs of the ancien regime.

He combined the revolution and the ancien régime in such a way that
it created an entirely new element. It could be described as
"democratic", "referendum" or "dictatorship". The revolution was an
important background for the political and constitutional reforms of
Napoleon. It removes the barriers of the ancient regime, including
parliaments, corporations, and other interests. Napoleon incorporated
some of the achievements of the revolution directly into his system.
At the local administration level, he kept the divisions created by the
Constitutional Assembly in 1790 and continued the policy of
centralizing the Riigikogu and the Board. That centralization and unity
of government was the basis of Napoleon's authority, and because of
the foundation created by the Revolution, he had more powerful
powers than any Bourbon monarch. The security thus obtained by his
position enabled him to take liberties with legislative and executive
power, although he always claimed to be continuing and rationalizing
revolutionary practice. parliaments with three chambers instead of
two, but also ensured that each had precise and strictly limited
powers. On the other hand, the manager was reduced. It originally
consisted of various committees of the National Assembly, but in
1795 it was reduced to five directors; Napoleon continued the process
by entrusting power to three consuls. But even after he made himself
consul for life in 1802 and was crowned in 1804, he insisted that he
was still involved in the revolution, insisting that "the government of
the republic is entrusted to the emperor." He also tried to maintain a
semblance of democracy through a broad franchise, although he
developed and refined a directory formula to make democracy
indirect by using a multi-list system that operated in legislative
elections.

Napoleon also displayed characteristics more commonly associated

with the ancien regime and the age of enlightened despotism. He took
care, for example, to avoid any clear ideology in his constitutions;
thus, there was no reference to liberté, égalité or fraternité of the
revolution. he felt that a declaration of rights would only weaken the
power of the executive. In addition, he had a pragmatic approach to
constitutional reform that allowed him to use 18th-century tools and
thus link the revolution to Bourbon France and Frederick Prussia.
Therefore, he established a senate, adapted the old conseil d'état, and
restored the intendant as prefect and sub-prefect in local
administration. Above all, he managed to combine the power base
inherited from the revolution with traditional royal authority. Like
Louis XIV, he supported the concept of divine right.

He also adopted the title le Grand in 1807, following the example of

18th-century rulers such as Peter I, Frederick II, and Catherine II. The
title "Emperor" was not quite a throwback to the ancient regime.
Napoleon's military success allowed him to maintain a dictatorship
based on massive popular support but without the party politics
characteristic of parliamentary democracies. He refused to be a party
member and tried to depoliticize the regime by destroying the
"factional spirit" that "fed the people into the abyss". Napoleon
strengthened his position by using the most effective cult of
personality he had seen in Europe. He manipulates public opinion by
publishing only favorable material and widely using the Big Lie.
Relying on the image created by the carefully controlled press and the
paintings of David and Géricault, Napoleon was able to appeal directly
to the people for their support.

Napoleon publicly acknowledged the impact of the revolution on his

economic policy. He strengthened the work of the Directory to bring
departments under more effective financial control of the central
government. He expanded this principle of centralization by insisting
that the Paris administration appoint tax collectors instead of
departments. To reduce tax evasion, he made a nationwide survey of
capital and property, which was proposed by the National Convention
in 1793 but later rejected. Currency was returned to a metal base
according to the guidelines laid down in the Catalog of 1797, and
credit was given a more systematic outlet in the Bank of France
(1800), again an institution established between 1795 and 1799. The
value of the reformed currency was based on the decimal system
introduced during the Terror but was only sporadically used before
1799. Napoleon also promoted and encouraged industry through the
use of fairs and exhibitions, initiated by the Catalogue. All in all, he
fully exploited the more helpful policies of the Revolution to ensure
that there was no return to the economic chaos and economic
complaints of the Bourbon era. In a sense, however, Napoleon's
economic thinking was more compatible with the ideas of the 18th
century. Although he was popular with the bourgeoisie and relied on
their support, like enlightened despots he preferred the system of
mercantilism and its opportunities for government intervention. He
also retained the 18th-century understanding that the economy was
based on agriculture rather than industry.

In addition, the basic principles of its Commercial Code (1808) are the
Commercial Ordinance of Colbert (1673) and Maritime Ordinance
(1681). Napoleon also restored some of the financial institutions of
the ancient government: in 1791, the lost chambers of commerce
were restored. Perhaps the most obvious return to the practices of
the ancient regime, on the other hand, was Napoleon's favoring of
indirect taxation at the expense of direct taxation. He imposed heavy
taxes on beer, alcohol, wine, and salt. As we have seen, Napoleon's
dictatorial power depended on his military success and personal
prestige. This meant that he had to focus his economic policy on
building a huge war machine that could ensure his supremacy in
Europe. He set several particularly important precedents for the
future. The first was the Great Empire. The second was the
continental system. Third, Napoleon imposed stricter controls on
industry than ever before. The revolution made important changes in
society. As a rule, Napoleon kept them. The power of the bourgeoisie,
which had always been hidden under the ancient regime, was freed by
the revolution, which established the general principles of bourgeois
society and a liberal state. Napoleon continued to win the support of
the bourgeoisie, who saw improvements. in the consulate. and a more
stable version of the directory. The household also found Napoleon
ready to preserve some of the great achievements of the revolution,
such as the destruction of feudalism and the sale of church lands;
Therefore, they were satisfied with the support of the administration,
which strengthened their ownership of small farms. Urban workers
were less fortunate; Napoleon expressed no particular concern about
the harsh working conditions.

The revolution also brought about educational policy and structure

and the law. The National Convention divided the education structure
into primary, secondary, and higher levels. In 1791 the Constituent
Assembly decided to draw up "a code of civil law common to the
entire kingdom". The legislation that followed was imperfect but
provided the basis for Napoleon's reforms, especially in the areas of
marriage, divorce, property, and inheritance. According to J.
Godechot, B. Hyslop, and D. Dowd, Napoleon's Civil Code "expressed
the great social upheavals of the Revolution and reinforced its great
conquests." However, Napoleon wanted to return to some of the
practices of the ancient regime, especially in re-establishing the
French nobility. Noblesse as a class was abolished. From the
foundation of the empire in 1804, Napoleon moved to recreate the
social elite, creating a new hereditary aristocracy that included, in
descending order, princes, dukes, counts, barons, and knights. To
some extent, this was a compromise: it kept the careers open to the
talent that the Revolution had made possible while returning to an
emphasis on a "servant bureaucracy" of enlightened despots. It can
also be argued that Napoleon restored the upward mobility between
the bourgeoisie and the nobility that existed during the reign of Louis
XIV but ended in the 18th century.
A compromise was also made regarding legal standards and religion.
For example, the Civil Code emphasized equality before the law, but at
the same time restored the authority of the head of the family in an
almost tyrannical form. There was also a partial return to 18th-century
property law. The revolution banned first birth because the will was to
benefit all children equally. The Civil Code retained this prohibition
but allowed the testator to give away 25 percent of his estate as he
wished. Napoleon's attitude towards women marked a complete
departure from the liberating tendencies of the Revolution; he
demanded a complete return to Roman law and the submission of
women to their husbands. He also took a step back with the Code of
Criminal Procedure (1808), which effectively revived the infamous
ancien régimen Lettres de cachet, and the Criminal Code (1810),
which reintroduced branding. Napoleon's attitude to religion was very
similar to that of an enlightened despot. He saw it as a useful social
cement but wanted to avoid the danger of religious conflict.
Napoleon's contribution to the social fabric of France was a more
conscious and thoughtful shaping of society than ever before. He
tried to create a pyramid, a hierarchy of classes, each linked to the
regime according to its interests and each aware of its place. The
emperor's power passed through all levels through administrative
reorganization and legal changes. At one extreme, Napoleon appeared
as a manifestation of revolution, especially in those parts of Europe
previously untouched by revolutionary upheaval. On the one hand,
the Napoleonic Empire was seen as a perversion of the revolutionary
ideal; For example, Trotsky later used bonapartism as a misnomer to
describe the capture of the revolution by military reactionaries. The
Napoleonic era also created conflict. The most important of them was
the struggle of the self-proclaimed monarch, heir to the revolution,
with rulers whose powers and rights extended far back to the ancient
government.