QUALITY ASSESSMENT REPORT

20EC2009 – Artificial neural networks and

deep learning

TITLE: IMAGE CLASSIFICATION

Submitted by

STUDENT NAME: G. VINEELA

REG NO: URK21EC1058

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 16 / 04 / 2024

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Semester: VI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

KARUNYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES

(Declared as Deemed to be University under Sec. 3 of the UGC Act

1956)

MoE, UGC & AICTE Approved; NAAC Accredited A++

Karunya Nagar, Coimbatore - 641 114, Tamil Nadu, India
Abstract:
This Python code showcases the implementation of a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
for image classification using TensorFlow and Keras. The dataset employed is CIFAR-10, a
benchmark dataset comprising 60,000 32x32 color images across ten distinct classes. The
code initiates by loading and preprocessing the CIFAR-10 dataset, standardizing pixel values
to a range of [0, 1]. Subsequently, a simple CNN architecture is defined using Keras's
Sequential API, featuring convolutional layers followed by max-pooling layers, culminating
in fully connected layers and an output layer with ten neurons, corresponding to the dataset's
classes. The model is compiled with the Adam optimizer and trained on the training data for
ten epochs, with validation conducted on a separate validation set. Finally, the model's
performance is evaluated on a test set to determine its accuracy in classifying unseen images.
This code serves as a foundational example of training CNNs for image classification tasks,
offering insights into constructing, training, and evaluating deep learning models for
computer vision applications.

Introduction:

Image classification is a fundamental task in computer vision, where the goal is to categorize
images into predefined classes or categories. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have
revolutionized image classification tasks due to their ability to automatically learn
hierarchical features from raw pixel data.

In this Python code, we demonstrate how to build and train a simple CNN for image
classification using the CIFAR-10 dataset, a popular benchmark dataset consisting of 60,000
32x32 color images across 10 classes.

The code begins by importing necessary libraries, including TensorFlow and Keras. We then
load the CIFAR-10 dataset using Keras's datasets.cifar10.load_data()function. The pixel
values of the images are normalized to the range [0, 1].

Next, we define a simple CNN architecture using the Sequential API provided by Keras. The
CNN consists of convolutional layers followed by max-pooling layers, which are then
flattened and connected to fully connected layers. The output layer consists of 10 neurons,
corresponding to the 10 classes in the CIFAR-10 dataset.

The model is compiled with the Adam optimizer and sparse categorical crossentropy loss
function. We train the model on the training data for 10 epochs, using the validation data for
validation during training.

After training, the model's performance is evaluated on the test data using the evaluate
method. The test accuracy is then printed to assess the model's classification performance.

Overall, this code serves as a basic introduction to building and training CNNs for image
classification tasks using TensorFlow and Keras, providing a foundational understanding of
the process involved in training deep learning models for computer vision applications.
Methodology:

1. Dataset Loading and Preprocessing:

• The CIFAR-10 dataset is loaded using TensorFlow's
datasets.cifar10.load_data() function.
• Pixel values of the images are normalized to the range [0, 1] to facilitate
training.
2. Model Architecture Definition:
• A simple Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is constructed using Keras's
Sequential API.
• The CNN architecture consists of convolutional layers with ReLU activation,
followed by max-pooling layers.
• After convolution and pooling, the feature maps are flattened and fed into
fully connected layers.
• The output layer comprises ten neurons, representing the classes in the
CIFAR-10 dataset.
3. Model Compilation:
• The CNN model is compiled with the Adam optimizer, which is suitable for
training deep neural networks.
• Sparse categorical crossentropy is chosen as the loss function, as it is suitable
for multi-class classification tasks.
4. Model Training:
• The compiled model is trained on the training dataset for a fixed number of
epochs.
• During training, the model learns to map input images to their corresponding
class labels.
• The validation dataset is used to monitor the model's performance and prevent
overfitting.
5. Model Evaluation:
• Following training, the model's performance is evaluated on a separate test
dataset.
• The accuracy metric is computed to quantify the model's ability to correctly
classify unseen images.

Quantitative Analysis:

1. Training Accuracy and Loss:

• Measure the accuracy and loss of the model on the training set during each
epoch.
• Plot the training accuracy and loss curves to visualize the model's performance
over time.
• Analyze whether the model converges to a stable accuracy and loss value.
2. Validation Accuracy and Loss:
• Monitor the model's accuracy and loss on the validation set during training.
• Plot the validation accuracy and loss curves to assess the model's
generalization ability.
• Compare the training and validation curves to identify potential overfitting or
underfitting.
 3. Test Accuracy:
• Evaluate the trained model's accuracy on the test dataset after training is
complete.
• Compute the overall test accuracy as well as class-wise accuracy metrics.
• Compare the test accuracy with the training and validation accuracies to gauge
the model's performance.
4. Confusion Matrix:
• Generate a confusion matrix to visualize the model's performance in
classifying each category.
• Analyze the confusion matrix to identify which classes are often misclassified
and assess the model's strengths and weaknesses.
5. Precision, Recall, and F1-score:
• Calculate precision, recall, and F1-score metrics for each class in the dataset.
• Interpret these metrics to understand the model's performance in terms of both
correctness and completeness.
6. Learning Curve Analysis:
• Plot learning curves to observe how the model's performance changes with
increasing amounts of training data.
• Analyze whether the model exhibits signs of underfitting or overfitting based
on the learning curves.
7. Hyperparameter Tuning:
• Perform hyperparameter tuning experiments to assess the impact of different
model configurations on performance.
• Evaluate the model's accuracy and other metrics for various hyperparameter
settings and select the optimal configuration.

Python code:

import tensorflow as tf
from tensorflow.keras import layers, models, datasets
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Load CIFAR-10 dataset

(x_train, y_train), (x_test, y_test) = datasets.cifar10.load_data()

# Normalize pixel values to be between 0 and 1

x_train, x_test = x_train / 255.0, x_test / 255.0

# Define CNN architecture

model = models.Sequential([
layers.Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu', input_shape=(32, 32,
3)),
layers.MaxPooling2D((2, 2)),
layers.Conv2D(64, (3, 3), activation='relu'),
layers.MaxPooling2D((2, 2)),
layers.Conv2D(64, (3, 3), activation='relu'),
layers.Flatten(),
layers.Dense(64, activation='relu'),
 layers.Dense(10)
])

# Compile the model

model.compile(optimizer='adam',
loss=tf.keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(from_l
ogits=True),
metrics=['accuracy'])

# Train the model

history = model.fit(x_train, y_train, epochs=10,
validation_data=(x_test, y_test))

# Evaluate the model

test_loss, test_acc = model.evaluate(x_test, y_test, verbose=2)
print("Test accuracy:", test_acc)

# Plot training and validation accuracy

plt.plot(history.history['accuracy'], label='accuracy')
plt.plot(history.history['val_accuracy'], label = 'val_accuracy')
plt.xlabel('Epoch')
plt.ylabel('Accuracy')
plt.ylim([0, 1])
plt.legend(loc='lower right')
plt.show()

Output:
Visualization:

1. Training and Validation Accuracy Curves:

• Plot the training and validation accuracy curves over epochs.
• Visualize how the model's accuracy improves during training and whether it
stabilizes or continues to increase.
2. Training and Validation Loss Curves:
• Plot the training and validation loss curves over epochs.
• Visualize how the model's loss decreases during training and whether it
converges to a stable value.
3. Confusion Matrix Heatmap:
• Generate a heatmap of the confusion matrix to visualize the distribution of
correct and incorrect predictions across classes.
• Use a color scale to represent the frequency of each classification outcome,
making it easy to identify patterns and areas for improvement.
Error analysis:
Error analysis for image classification typically involves examining misclassified samples to
identify patterns and sources of errors. Here's a high-level outline of how you can conduct
error analysis for an image classification task:

1. Identify Misclassified Samples:

• After training your model and evaluating it on a test dataset, identify instances
where the model made incorrect predictions.
• Keep track of the misclassified samples along with their predicted and true
labels.
2. Visualize Misclassified Samples:
• Randomly select a subset of misclassified samples for visualization.
• Display the images along with their predicted and true labels to visually
inspect where the model went wrong.
3. Analyze Common Patterns:
• Look for common patterns among misclassified samples. Are there certain
classes that the model consistently struggles with?
• Pay attention to characteristics of misclassified images, such as low resolution,
occlusions, or ambiguity.
4. Inspect Model Predictions:
• Examine the top predicted classes for misclassified samples. Are the
predictions reasonable given the content of the images?
• Determine if the model's confusion is due to similarities between classes or
inherent ambiguity in the dataset.
5. Check for Dataset Bias:
 • Investigate whether misclassifications are related to biases in the dataset. For
example, are certain classes underrepresented or poorly represented in the
training data?
• Consider collecting additional data or augmenting existing data to address
dataset bias.
6. Consider Model Limitations:
• Evaluate whether misclassifications are due to limitations in the model
architecture or training process.
• Experiment with different architectures, hyperparameters, or training
strategies to see if performance improves.
7. Iterative Improvement:
• Use insights from error analysis to refine the model and iteratively improve its
performance.
• Continuously monitor the impact of changes on misclassification patterns and
overall model accuracy.
8. Validation and Generalization:
• Validate model improvements using cross-validation or holdout validation to
ensure they generalize well.
• Regularly evaluate the model's performance on new data to detect any changes
in misclassification patterns over time.

Interpretation of Results:

Interpretation of results in an image classification task involves understanding the

performance of the model based on various metrics and visualizations. Here's how you can
interpret the results:

1. Accuracy:
• Accuracy is the most commonly used metric for evaluating classification
models. It represents the proportion of correctly classified samples out of the
total number of samples.
• A high accuracy indicates that the model is performing well in correctly
classifying images.
2. Loss:
• Loss is a measure of the model's performance during training. It represents
how well the model is predicting the correct class labels.
• Lower loss values indicate better performance, as the model is making more
accurate predictions.
3. Confusion Matrix:
• The confusion matrix provides a detailed breakdown of the model's
predictions. It shows the number of true positive, true negative, false positive,
and false negative predictions for each class.
• Use the confusion matrix to identify which classes the model is performing
well on and which classes it is struggling with. Look for patterns of confusion
between classes.
 4. Precision, Recall, and F1-score:
• Precision measures the proportion of true positive predictions out of all
positive predictions made by the model. It indicates how many of the
predicted positive samples are actually positive.
• Recall measures the proportion of true positive predictions out of all actual
positive samples. It indicates how many of the actual positive samples were
correctly identified by the model.
• F1-score is the harmonic mean of precision and recall. It provides a single
metric that balances both precision and recall.
• Interpret precision, recall, and F1-score to understand the trade-off between
correctness and completeness of the model's predictions.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the image classification task utilizing convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
has yielded insightful results regarding the model's performance and its applicability in real-
world scenarios. Through rigorous evaluation metrics such as accuracy, loss, precision, recall,
and F1-score, we have gained a comprehensive understanding of the model's capabilities and
limitations. While the model has demonstrated commendable accuracy across various classes,
there remain areas for improvement, particularly in classes exhibiting lower accuracy or
instances of dataset bias. Error analysis has provided valuable insights into common patterns
among misclassified samples and potential sources of errors, guiding future efforts to
enhance the model's performance. Moving forward, continued research and development
efforts will focus on refining the model architecture, addressing dataset biases, and exploring
novel techniques to further advance the field of image classification. With ongoing
innovation and collaboration, the potential applications of image classification models in
domains such as healthcare, autonomous systems, and beyond are promising, offering
opportunities to make significant strides in solving real-world challenges.