Daass 3

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS 7
(d) Equation (1.2) yields
Vv 0.311 m3
n= = = 0.346
V 0.9 m3
(e) From the definition of the unit weight of water,
Ww 1.4 kN
Vw = = = 0.143 m3
γw 9.81 kN/m3
(f) Finally, from (1.5):
Vw 0.143 m3
S= = = 0.459 = 45.9%
Vv 0.311 m3
1.2.1 Relative Density
The compressibility and strength of a granular soil are related to its relative density
Dr , which is a measure of the compactness of the soil grains (their closeness to
each other). Consider a uniform sand layer that has an in situ void ratio e. It is
possible to tell how dense this sand is if we compare its in situ void ratio with the
maximum and minimum possible void ratios of the same sand. To do so, we can
obtain a sand sample from the sand layer and perform two laboratory tests (ASTM
2004: Test Designation D-4253). The first laboratory test is carried out to estimate
the maximum possible dry unit weight γd−max (which corresponds to the minimum
possible void ratio emin ) by placing a dry sand specimen in a container with a
known volume and subjecting the specimen to a surcharge pressure accompanied
with vibration. The second laboratory test is performed to estimate the minimum
possible dry unit weight γd−min (which corresponds to the maximum possible void
ratio emax ) by pouring a dry sand specimen very loosely in a container with a
known volume. Now, let us define the relative density as
emax − e
Dr = (1.19)
emax − emin
This equation allows us to compare the in situ void ratio directly with the maximum
and minimum void ratios of the same granular soil. When the in situ void ratio e
of this granular soil is equal to emin , the soil is at its densest possible condition and
Dr is equal to 1 (or Dr = 100%). When e is equal to emax , the soil is at its loosest
possible condition, and its Dr is equal to 0 (or Dr = 0%). Note that the dry unit
weight is related to the void ratio through the equation
Gs γw
γd = (1.20)
1+e
10 PROPERTIES OF SOIL
soil) that includes a wide spectrum of particle sizes. In this case the soil is well
proportioned—it includes gravel, sand (coarse, medium, and fine), and silt/clay.
There are two useful indicators, Cu and Cc , that can be obtained from the grain-size
distribution curve. Cu is the uniformity coefficient, defined as Cu = d60 /d10 , and Cc
is the coefficient of gradation, defined as Cc = d30 2
/(d10 d60 ). Here d10 , d30 , and d60
are the grain diameters corresponding respectively to 10%, 30%, and 60% passing, as
shown in Figure 1.3. For a well-graded sand the value of the coefficient of gradation
should be in the range 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3. Also, higher values of the uniformity coefficient
indicate that the soil contains a wider range of particle sizes.
1.3.2 Hydrometer Analysis
Sieve analysis cannot be used for clay and silt particles because they are too
small (<0.075 mm in diameter) and they will be suspended in air for a long time
during shaking. The grain-size distribution of the fine-grained portion that passes
sieve No. 200 can be obtained using hydrometer analysis. The basis of hydrometer
analysis is that when soil particles are dispersed in water, they will settle at different
velocities because of their different sizes. Assuming that soil particles are perfect
spheres dispersed in water with a viscosity η, Stokes’ law can be used to relate the
terminal velocity v of a particle to its diameter D:
ρs − ρw 2
v= D (1.21)
18η
in which ρs is the density of soil particles and ρw is the density of water.

Equation (1.21) indicates that a larger particle will have a greater terminal velocity
when dropping through a fluid.
In the hydrometer laboratory test (ASTM 2004) a dry soil specimen weighing
50 g is mixed thoroughly with water and placed in a graduated 1000-mL glass
flask. A floating instrument called a hydrometer (Figure 1.4) is placed in the flask
to measure the specific gravity of the mixture in the vicinity of the hydrometer
center. In a 24-hour period the time t and the corresponding depth L are recorded.
The measured depth (see Figure 1.4) is correlated with the amount of soil that is
still in suspension at time t. From Stokes’ law, (1.21), it can be shown that the
diameter of the largest soil particles still in suspension is given by

18η L
D= (1.22)
[(ρs /ρw ) − 1]γw t
in which γw is the unit weight of water. From the hydrometer readings (L versus t)
and with the help of (1.22), one can calculate the percent of finer particles and plot
a gradation curve. The part of curve B (Figure 1.3) with particle diameter smaller
than 0.075 mm is obtained from a hydrometer test.
SOIL CONSISTENCY 11
Hydrometer
1000-mL
Flask
FIGURE 1.4 Hydrometer test.
1.4 SOIL CONSISTENCY
Clays are flake-shaped microscopic particles of mica, clay minerals, and other
minerals. Clay possesses a large specific surface, defined as the total surface of
clay particles per unit mass. For example, the specific surfaces of the three main
clay minerals; kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, are 15, 80, and 800 m2 /g,
respectively. It is mind-boggling that just 1 g of montmorillonite has a surface of
800 m2 ! This explains why clays are fond of water. It is a fact that the surface
of a clay mineral has a net negative charge. Water, on the other hand, has a
net positive charge. Therefore, the clay surface will bond to water if the latter
is present. A larger specific surface means more absorbed water. As mentioned
earlier, montmorillonite can increase 15-fold in volume if water is present, due
to its enormous specific surface. Montmorillonite is an expansive clay that causes
damage to adjacent structures if water is added (rainfall). It also shrinks when it
dries, causing another type of damage to structures. Illite is not as expansive, due
to its moderate specific surface. Kaolinite is the least expansive.
It is clear that the moisture (water) content has a great effect on a clayey soil,
especially in terms of its response to applied loads. Consider a very wet clay
specimen that looks like slurry (fluid). In this liquid state the clay specimen has
no strength (i.e., it cannot withstand any type of loading). Consider a potter’s clay
specimen that has a moderate amount of moisture. This clay is in its plastic state
because in this state we can actually make shapes out of the clay knowing that it
will not spring back as elastic materials do. If we let this plastic clay dry out for
a short time (i.e., so that it is not totally dry), it will lose its plasticity because if
we try to shape it now, many cracks will appear, indicating that the clay is in its
semisolid state. If the specimen dries out further, it reaches its solid state, where it
becomes exceedingly brittle.

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PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS 7

(d) Equation (1.2) yields

(e) From the deﬁnition of the unit weight of water,

(f) Finally, from (1.5):

1.2.1 Relative Density

1.3.2 Hydrometer Analysis

in which ρs is the density of soil particles and ρw is the density of water.

FIGURE 1.4 Hydrometer test.

1.4 SOIL CONSISTENCY

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