C E N S U S OF C E Y L O N 1946

VOL. I PART I
GENERAL REPORT
 D E P A R T M E N T OF CENSUS & STATISTICS

CENSUS OF CEYLON 1946

VOL. I . PART I — G E N E R A L R E P O R T
By

A. G. RANASINHA, C.M.G., C.B.E.

SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS, 1946

Printed at The Ceylon Government Press, Colombo

1950
Printed August 1950

Price Rs. 15
 Bank House,
Colpetty,
June 9, 1950.
The Hon. Mr. J. R. JAYEWARDENE, M.P.,
Minister of Finance,
Colombo.

SIR,
I HAVE the honour to submit to you, as the Minister in charge of the subjects o f " Census and
Statistics " under the present Constitution, the General Report on the Census of 1946, which was
taken on the directions of the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce functioning
under the Constitution then prevailing.

The Census was conducted on the eve of political changes in the country, and its early results
were made available to the Delimitation Commission appointed to define the 95 electorates which
were fixed by the Ceylon (Constitution) Order in Council, 1946. The results thus reported were, of
course, provisional, but it is evidence of the remarkable efficiency with which the Commissioners of
Census and their staffs throughout the Island co-operated in the undertaking that the finalized total
after the statistical scrutiny and revision of the schedules, was found to be only '09 per cent, in excess
of the result first announced.

This Report was originally planned to be published at the end of 1949. It now appears six
months later, but by census standards of other countries it may be claimed that it has not been unduly
delayed. To cite but one instance, the Report of the Census of Canada, held in June, 1931, did not
appear till after September, 1936. Such delay as has occurred intheissueof thisReportis dueinpartat
least to the inauguration of the new Constitution and to my appointment to a new office in October,
1947. My preoccupation with the onerous responsibihties of that office, and my subsequent complete
severance f r o m the Department of Census and Statistics precluded my continuing to direct personally
the complicated processes of tabulation, but in anticipation of Ihis happening I had prepared a large
number of pro forma Tables in which the results of the Census could be presented. These Tables,
carefully compiled by the excellent staff of the Census and Statistics Department under the general
guidance of its present Director, M r . K. Williams, and the particular supervision of his Deputy,
M r . U. G. P. de Mel, have furnished the necessary material for this Report. A Digest of these Tables
is being issued as a companion volume to this Report to enable such of the public, as wish to do so,
to f o r m their own conclusions f r o m the basic census data thus more easily presented. The new
awareness of the importance of statistics, which seems to be now prevalent in Ceylon, makes such a
publication generally useful, while the longer Tables which are being published in a series of separate
Volumes will provide the professional statistician with more detailed material for his research.

The Report itself has been drafted mainly f r o m what may be termed a historical angle.
A census is a stock-taking, and since the present has its roots in the past, this approach would not seem
unjustified. The factual data of a census lend themselves to various interpretations, and the statistician
with a scientific turn o f mind will be the first to acknowledge that his conclusions and estimates,
however conscientiously drawn or carefully computed, can never acquire cast-iron certainty, and are
often likely to " gang agley " in the unpredictable dynamics of human behaviour. This must necess-
arily make for modesty and hesitancy, and it is in this manner that an attempt has been made \n the
Report to observe trends and tendencies that seem to be suggested by the Census of 1946. The
responsibility f o r the expression of such observations is wholly mine, except where the contrary is
clearly indicated.
 I did not feel competent to supply the public with the encyclopaedic matter, dismissed by Turner
as " not directly relevant", which make the Reports of Arunachalam (1901) and Denham (1911) such
veritable storehouses of interesting information. On the other hand, if the purpose of writing is to be
read, it seemed to me that the material of the Census of 1946 should be presented to the general reader
in a f o r m somewhat different f r o m that in which the results of the 1921 Census had been presented. I
have also not attempted any purism in the transliteration of Sinhalese and Tamil personal and place
names but have contented myself with spelUng them in Enghsh as they are usually spelt.

It remains for me to place on record my sense of indebtedness to the several persons who assisted
me in the census operations. In the preparations for the Census I was greatly encouraged by the
interest taken by His Excellency Sir Henry Moore, Governor, and the Ministers (Messrs G. C. S. Corea,
R. Hewavitarana and I. X. Pereira) who presided over the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry
and Commerce during the period of early census activity. While the preparations were being made, I
took advantage of a short visit to England on other duty with the Leader of the State Council to discuss
census proposals and technique with the late Dr. R. R. Kuczynski, D r . D. V. Glass and the Registrar-
General of England. The discussions proved extremely useful and assisted me greatly in my task.
I was helped in no small measure by the ready co-operation of the staff of the Ministry
of Labour, Industry, and Commerce especially of M r . R. Coomaraswamy, C.C.S., Secretary
to the Minister. At the Census Office, M r . P. O. Fernando, C.C.S., and Dr. N. D. Wijesekera assisted
me wholeheartedly. Both of them worked very hard indeed, particularly the latter, as the
preparations mounted to a climax. The actual taking of the census was carried out under the
generally efficient supervision of the various Government Agents, Assistant Government Agents, the
Municipal Commissioners of Colombo and Kandy, and the Deputy Mayor of Galle, and the Chairmen
of the several Urban Councils in the Island who functioned as Commissioners of Census within the
limits of their respective jurisdiction. The scrutiny of the population schedules, and the coding,
sorting, and tabulation were conducted under the immediate supervision of Miss Kulam Breckenridge
and Messrs. R. H. de Alwis, C.C.S., U. G. P. de Mel, D. Gurusinghe, and G. W. A. Tampoe,
three of whom, however, were transferred out of the Census Office before the work was over. In the
Census of Agriculture, I was assisted by M r . P. O. Fernando, C.C.S., and on his transfer by M r . L.
Jayasundera, C C S . The bulk of the statistical work devolved on Mrs. I. Kannangara and M r . F. C.
V. Wickremaratne. An effective liaison between the field and the head office was kept up during the
operations by M r . H. W. Jayasekera. To the willing and ready co-operation of M r . A. D. R. M.
Perumal I owe the speedy submission of special material I called for in the course of the drafting of
this Report. But the officer, to whose devoted services I owe, perhaps, the most is M r . Felix R.
Sirimanne, Stenographer-Secretary, who sacrificed many a Sunday and Public Holiday, and spent many
long hours on working days in typing what I dictated or wrote throughout the whole period I was
myself engaged in census work.

I am. Sir,
Your obedient Servant,

Superintendent of Census, 1946.

 C O N T E N T S
PAGE

CHAPTER I — T H E PEOPLES OF C E Y L O N : AN E P I T O M E OF HISTORY ...

Founding of the Sinhalese Race—Early Aryan Organization—Dravidian
Influence—Cholian Invasions—Parakrama Bahu the Great—Beginning of
the Decline—Effects of the Tamil Invasions—Moor Settlements—The
Kingdom of Kotte—Portuguese Voyages of Discovery—Ceylon and the
Western World—Fort erected in Colombo—Embassy to John I I I of
Portugal—Career o f Vidye Bandara—Ascendancy o f Raja Sinha I —
Rise of the Kingdom of Kandy—The Malwana Convention—Disastrous
Expedition to Kandy—End of Portuguese Rule—Legacy of Portugal—
Dutch Administration—Policy of Conciliation—Malabar Dynasty—
Difiiculties of the Dutch—Capitulation to the British—Effects of the
Dutch Occupation—British Relations w i t h Kandy—Plot against the
King—Kandyan Convention and After.

CHAPTER I I — C E Y L O N AT T H E EVE OF T H E CENSUS OF 1946 27

Effects of the War—Structure of the Central Government—Provincial
Administration—Local Government Units—Agriculture and I r r i g a t i o n -
The Co-operative Movement—Education—Health and Social Services—
Labour Conditions—Transport Facilities—Other State Services—
Trade and Finance—Natural Resources—Mineral Riches, Gems and
Pearls.

CHAPTER I I I — ( I ) T H E T A K I N G O F T H E CENSUS 39

Scope of a Modern Census—Ceylon Censuses under British Rule—

The Census of1946—Rangeof Information—Difficulties of Organization—
Preliminary Preparations—Division into Units—Enumerators, Selection
and Training—High Degree of Co-operation—Basis of Enumeration—
Announcement of Results—Census Documents—-Coding and Tabulation.

C H A P T E R in—(II) A N O T E O N T A B U L A T I O N B Y M A C H I N E S 51

Punching and Sorting.

CHAPTER I V — T H E GROWTH OF THE ISLAND'S POPULATION 54

Population in Ancient Times—Evidence of the Ruins—Rise and Fall in
Numbers—75 Years of Population Growth—Comparison w i t h other
Countries—Significance of the Figures—Natural Increase and Migration—
Births and Deaths—Decline in the Death Rate—Reproduction Rates
and what they Mean—Significance of the Ceylon Rates—Question of
Over-Population—Limits of Expansion—Quality of Population—^Towards
a Population PoUcy.

CHAPTER V—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION 71

Density and Rate of Growth—Regional Distribution—Urban and Rural
Population
T H E WESTERN PROVINCE : Colombo District, Kalutara District.
 PAGE
T H E CENTRAL PROVINCE Kandy District, Nuwara Eliya District,
Matale District.
T H E SOUTHERN PROVINCE : Galle District, Matara District, Hambantota
District.
T H E NORTHERN PROVINCE : Jaffna District, Mannar District, Vavuniya
District.
T H E EASTERN PROVINCE: Batticaloa District, Trincomalee District.
T H E NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE : Kurunegala District, Puttalam District,
Chilaw District.
T H E NORTH-CENTRAL PROVINCE : (Anuradhapura District).
T H E PROVINCE OF U V A : (BaduUa District).
T H E PROVINCE OF SABARAGAMUWA : Ratnapura District, Kegalla District.
VILLAGES, T O W N S A N D BUILDINGS IN CEYLON :

CHAPTER VI—SEX 141

Preponderance of Males—Sex Ratio at Birth—Masculinity Ratios by
Age Groups—Effect of Maternal Death Rate—Analysis by Race
Groups—Regional Variations—Sex Ratio and Marriage.

CHAPTER VII—(I) RACE 150

Racial Spirit—Differentiation of the Sinhalese—The Low-Country
Sinhalese—The Kandyan Sinhalese—The Ceylon Tamils—The Indian
Tamils—The Ceylon Moors—The Indian Moors—Burghers and
Eurasians—Other Races.

CHAPTER VII—(11) A N O T E ON T H E E T H N O L O G Y OF T H E RACES OF C E Y L O N . 164

I. SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Sinhalese—Some Primitive Tribes—The Ceylon Tamils—The
Moors—The European Element—Other Racial Groups
II. PHYSICIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Vedda and Pre-Dravidian—Sinhala, Dolico and Brachys—Other Racial
Types—Intermixture of Racial Types.

CHAPTER V I I I — R E L I G I O N ... ... ... ... 172

The Doctrine of Buddhism—Influence of Hinduism—The Buddhist
Population—Hinduism—The Hindu Population—The Christian
Population—Distribution by Sects—Adherents of Islam—Other Religions

CHAPTER IX—LITERACY ... ... ... ... 186

Extent of Illiteracy—Distribution by Districts—Literacy in Towns—
Literacy in Mother Tongue—Literacy in English

CHAPTER X—CONJUGAL CONDITION A N D FERTILITY 192

I. GENERAL
Marriage Laws—The Married Population—Age at Marriage—The
Divorced and Widowed—Age and Conjugal Condition—Race and
Conjugal Condition
 PAGE
II FERTILITY

Mothers by Age Groups—Children Born and Children Living—Indices

of Differential FertiUty—First Births by Age of Mother

CHAPTER XI—AGE ... ... ... ... 208

Common Errors—Precautions taken—Divergence from Standard
Grouping—Population below 5 Years—School-Going Sector—
Employable Group—" Natural Age Groups "—Population above 21—
The Female Population—Septugenarians—Length of Life in Ceylon

CHAPTER X I I — B I R T H P L A C E A N D L E N G T H OF RESIDENCE ... 218

Invaders and Immigrants—Foreign Born Population—Countries of
Nativity—Length of Residence—Ceylon Born Population—Internal
Migration

C H A P T E R X I I I — G A I N F U L O C C U P A T I O N A N D E M P L O Y M E N T STATUS ... 224

I GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Change in Activity Roles—The Gainfully Employed—Broad Occupational

Groups
II PRODUCTION

Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry—Industry (Manufacturing, Mechanical

Pursuits and Mining)
III DISTRIBUTION

Transport and Communications—Commerce and Trade

IV SERVICE OCCUPATIONS

The Public Service—The Professions—Personal and Domestic Service

V T H E TEMPORARILY UNEMPLOYED

VI FEMALES G A I N F U L L Y EMPLOYED

VII WAGE EARNERS

CHAPTER XIV—ORPHANHOOD ... ... ... ... 234

Excess of Fatherless Children—Orphanhood by Districts—Proportionate
Distribution

C H A P T E R X V — T H E ESTATE P O P U L A T I O N ... ... ... 237

DecUne in Growth—Predominance of Indian Tamils—Sex Ratio, Literacy
and Marriage—Comparison with Peasant Population

CHAPTER X V I — T H E P H Y S I C A L L Y I N F I R M ... ... ... 241

I GENERAL : Collection of the Data
II T H E B L I N D POPULATION : Causes o f BUndness, Decline in Incidence
III DEAF-MUTES

IV T H E CRIPPLED
 PAGE

C H A P T E R X V I I — H O U S I N G A N D HOUSEHOLDS ... ... 246

Dwellings—Material of Outer Walls—Material of Roof—Number of
Rooms—Tenure—Rentals—Family Households.

CHAPTER X V I I I — A G R I C U L T U R E ... ... ... ... 251

Cultivable Extent—Acreage under Tea—Acreage under Rubber—Acreage
under Coconut.
PADDY CULTIVATION

Distribution of Holdings—Extent of Fragmentation—Types of Tenure

SMALL HOLDINGS, GARDENS AND CHENAS

THE CHANGING PATTERN

APPENDIX 1—Proclamation by Governor, Census Ordinance, &c. ... ... 261

APPENDIX 2—Memoranda and Connected Papers ... ... ... 271

APPENDIX 3—Census Schedules and Instructions ... ... ... 284

I N D E X OF PERSONS ... ... ... 317

I N D E X OF PLACES ... ... ... 321
SUBJECT I N D E X ... ... ... 325
AUTHORITIES CITED ... ... ... 339
 LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER III.

Table 1.—Information asked for on the Population Schedule since 1871.

Table 2.—Census Units into which the Island was divided.

CHAPTER I V .

Table 3.—Population, Amount of Increase, and Per cent, of Increase, Ceylon, 1871-1946.
Table 4.—Growth of Population, 1891-1941, and Per cent. Increase in Certain Countries.
Table 5.—Intercensal Increase, Births, Deaths, Natural Increase, and Migration Increase.
Table 6.—Annual Births and Deaths in Ceylon, 1921-1930, with the Crude Rates per 1,000 of the
Total Population.
Table 7.—Annual Births and Deaths in Ceylon, 1931-1945, with the Crude Rates per 1,000 of the
Total Population.
Table 8.—Area, Population and Crude Density of Selected Countries.

C H A P T E R V.

Table 9.—Population at the Census of Ceylon, 1827 (exclusive of the Military).

Table 10.—The Population of Ceylon by Provinces at the Censuses of 1931 and 1946, with their
Area and Crude Density, and showing the Intercensal Increase Per cent.
Table 11 .—Rates of Growth of Population in the Provinces, 1891-1931.
Table 12.—Distribution of Population in Regions in Ceylon demarcated on Basis of Pattern of
Life, and showing the Proportion Per cent, in each Region to the Total Population.
Table 13.—The Urban Population in Ceylon by Provinces in 1901 and 1946, showing the Proportion
Per cent, to the Total Population.
Table 14.—Area, Population, and Density of Population of the Towns in Ceylon, 1946.
Table 15.—The Population (exclusive of Services and Shipping) of Colombo District (exclusive of
Municipality of Colombo) f r o m 1871.
Table 16.—The Number of Estates and the Estate Population of Colombo District, 1946, in each
Chief Headman's or D. R. O's Division.
Table 17.—The Population of the Chief Headman's or D. R. O's Divisions of Colombo District,
(excluding Colombo Municipality) in 1946 and 1931, showing Numerical Increase and
Per cent. Increase.
Table 18.—Population (exclusive of Services and Shipping) of the City of Colombo f r o m 1871
showing Intercensal Increase, and Percentage Increase.
Table 19.—Area, Population, and Density by Wards of the City of Colombo.
Table 20.—Population of Colombo, 1946, by Age Groups and Sex.
Table 21.—Percentage Distribution of the Population of Colombo by Race, 1921, 1931, and 1946.
Table 22.—The Population of the Kalutara District, since 1871, Numerical Increase, and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 23.—Population of Kalutara District, 1931 and 1946, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's
Divisions (inclusive of Urban Council Areas), showing Population, Intercensal Numerical
Increase, and Per cent. Increase.
Table 24.—Population of Kalutara District by Age Groups and Sex, 1946 and 1921.
Table 25.—Population of the Central Province f r o m 1891, showing Numerical Increase, and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 26.—Population of Kandy District (inclusive of Kandy MunicipaUty) showing Numerical
Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 27.—Increase of Population by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisons (inclusive of Kandy
Municipality and Urban Council Areas) Kandy District.
Table 28.—Growth of Population, Kandy District (inclusive of Kandy MunicipaUty) by Race,
1921-1946.
Table 29.—Population of Kandy District (inclusive of MunicipaUty) by Age Groups.
Table 30.—Population of Matale District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946, 1931
and 1921, showing Intercensal Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 31.—Population by Race, Matale District, 1946-1921.
Table 32.—Population by Race, Nuwara EUya District, showing Rates of Increase, 1921-1946.
Table 33.—Population of Southern Province f r o m 1891.
Table 34.—Population of Galle District, 1871-1946 (including MunicipaUty of Galle), showing
Numerical Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 35.—Population of Galle District, showing Area, Population in 1931 and 1946, Numerical
Increase, and Per cent. Increase by Divisions (inclusive of Municipality of Galle and
Urban Council of Ambalangoda.)
Table 36.—Population of Galle District (inclusive of Galle Municipality) by Race, 1946, and 1921,
showing Per cent. Increase or Decrease.
Table 37.—Population of Matara District, 1871-1946 showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 38.—Population of Matara District, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946.
Table 39.—Population of Matara District by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 40.—Population of Hambantota District, 1871-1946, showing Numerical Increase, and Per
cent. Increase.
Table 41.—Population of Hambantota District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions (inclusive
of U. C. Areas) 1946 and 1931.
Table 42.—Population of Hambantota District by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 43.—Population of Hambantota District by Age, 1946.
Table 44.—Population of Jaffna District, 1881-1946, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 45.—Population in Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946 and 1931, showing Numerical
Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 46.—Population of Jaffna District by Race, 1946 and 1921, showing Numerical Increase and
Per cent. Increase.
Table 47. Population of Jaffna District, 1946, by Age Groups.
Table 48.—Population of Mannar District, 1871-1946, showing Numerical Increase, and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 49.—Crude Birth and Death Rates (Mean) for Intercensal Periods from 1^01-1946, Mannaf
District.
Table 50.—Population of Mannar District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946 and
1931, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 51.—Population of the Mannar District, by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 52.—Population of Mannar District, by Age Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 53.—Population of Vavuniya District, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946
and 1931, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 54.—Population of Batticaloa District, 1901-1946, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 55.—Population of Batticaloa District, 1946 and 1931, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's
Divisions.
Table 56.—Population of Batticaloa District, by Age Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 57.—Population of Trincomalee District, 1871-1946, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 58.—Population of Trincomalee District, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946
and 1931.
Table 59.—Population of Trincomalee District by Age Groups 1946, and 1921.
Table 60.—Population of Kurunegala District, 1881-1946, showing Numerical Increase, and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 61.—Balancing Equations in respect of the Population of Kurunegala District, 1901-1946.
Table 62.—Population of Kurunegala District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions (inclusive
of Urban Council Areas), 1^46 and 1931, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 63.—Per cent. Increase of Population of Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, Kurunegala
District, 1911-1921, 1921-1931, and 1936-1946.
Table 64.—Population of Kurunegala District, 1946 and 1921, by Race.
Table 65.—Population of Kurunegala District, by Age Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 66.—Population of Puttalam District f r o m 1901, showing Numerical Increse and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 67.—Population of Puttalam District, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946 and
1931, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 68.—Population of Puttalam District by Race, 1946 and 1921, showing Numerical Increase
or Decrease, and Per cent. Increase or Decrease.
Table 69.—Population of Chilaw District, 1891-1946, showing Numerical Increase, and Per cenf
Increase.
Table 70.—Mean Birth and Death Rates, Chilaw District, for Intercensal Periods since 1901.
Table 71 .—Population of Anuradhapura District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946
and 1931, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent. Increase.
Table 72.—Population of Anuradhapura District by Race, 1946 and 1921, showing Numerical
Increase or Decrease and Per cent. Increase or Decrease.
Table 73.—Population of the Province of Uva (or BaduUa District), f r o m 1891, showing Numerical
Increase, and Per cent. Increase.
Table 74.—Estate and Non-estate Population of the Province of Uva f r o m 1891, showing Relative
Increase.
Table 75.—" Balancing Equations " in respect of the Population of Uva Province (BaduUa District)
1901-1946.
Table 76.—Population of Uva Province (Badulla District) by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions,
1946 and I 9 3 I .
Table 77.—Population of Uva (BaduUa District) by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 78.—Population of Uva Province (Badulla) by Age Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 79.—Population of Ratnapura District f r o m 1891, showing Numerical Increase and Per cent.
Increase.
Table 80.—" Balancing Equations " in respect of the Population of Ratnapura District, 1901-1946.
Table 81.—Population of Ratnapura District, 1901-1946, showing Relative Growth of Estate and
Non-estate Population.
Table 82.—Population of Ratnapura District by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946
and 1931.
Table 83.—Population of Ratnapura District, by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 84.—Population of Ratnapura District by selected Age Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 85.—Population of Kegaila District f r o m 1891 showing Numerical Increase and Percent.
Increase.
Table 86.—Population of Kegaila District showing relative Growth of Estate and Non-estate Popula-
tion, 1891-1946.
Table 87.—Population of Kegaila District, by Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's Divisions, 1946 and 1931.
Table 88.—Population of Kegaila District, by Race, 1946 and 1921.
Table 89.—Population of Kegaila District, 1946 and 192r, by selected Age Groups.
Table 90.—Distribution of Population in Ceylon by Villages and Towns (exclusive of Estates),
1871-1946.

CHAPTER V I .
Table 91.—Population of Ceylon, classified by Sex, 1871-1946.
Table 92.—Number of Live Births in Ceylon, Male and Female, 1937-1945, showing Ratio of Males
per 1,000 Females.
Table 93.—Number of Deaths of Infants in Ceylon during the first Year of Life, 1937-1945.
Table 94.—Death Rate in Ceylon per 1,000 Population, 1937-1945 for Males and Females in selected
Age Groups.
Table 95.—Distribution by Sex per 1,000 Persons for various Age Groups in Ceylon, 1946.
Table 96.—Population by Sex of Race-Groups Indigenous to Ceylon, and of Race-Groups Immigrant
to Ceylon, showing Ratio of Males to 1,000 Females in each Race-Group, 1946.
Table 97.—The Population by Sex in the Revenue Districts of Ceylon, 1946 and 1921, showing
Ratio of Males to Females.

Table 98.—Ratio of Males to 100 Females in Various Age and Race-Groups, 1946.

CHAPTER V I I .
Table 99.—Population of Ceylon, by Race, 1946 and 1921, showing Numerical Increase or Decrease
and Per cent. Increase or Decrease.
Table 100.—Percentage Distribution of the Low-Country Sinhalese in Revenue Districts (inclusive
of Municipalities and Urban Council Areas) 1946 and 1921.
Table 101.—Low-Country Sinhalese by Age Groups, 1946.

Table 102.—Percentage Distribution of the Kandyan Sinhalese in Revenue Districts (inclusive of

Municipalities and Urban Council Areas), 1946 and 1921.
Table 103.—Kandyan Sinhalese by Age-Groups, 1946.
Table 104.—Percentage Distribution of the Ceylon Tamils in Revenue Districts (inclusive of
Municipalities and Urban Council Areas), 1946 and 1921.
Table 105.—Percentage Distribution of Indian Tamils in the Revenue Districts (inclusive of
Municipalities and Urban Council Areas), 1946 and 1921.
Table 106.—Percentage Distribution of Ceylon Moors in the Revenue Districts of Ceylon (inclusive of
Municipalities and Urban Council Areas) 1946 and 1921.
Table 107.—The Population of the " Burghers and Eurasians " in Ceylon, 1871-1946.
Table 108.—Percentage Distribution of " Burghers and Eurasians " in Revenue Districts (inclusive of
Municipalities and Urban Council Areas), 1946 and 1921.
Table 109.—The Veddah Population of Ceylon, 1871-1946.
Table 110.—European Population in Ceylon by selected Age-Groups, 1946.

CHAPTER V I I I .

Table 111 .—The Buddhist Population in Ceylon, 1871-1946, showing Percentage of the Total
Population.
Table 112.—The Sinhalese Population (Low-Country and Kandyan), 1871-1946, showing Percentage
of the Total Population.
Table 113.—Buddhist Population, Ceylon, 1946, by Revenue Districts, (inclusive of Municipalities
and Urban Council Areas), showing Percentage of Total Population of Districts.
Table 114.—Percentage Distribution of Buddhists by Revenue Districts, 1946 and 1921.
Table 115.—The Hindu Population in Ceylon, 1871-1946, showing Percentage of the Total Population.
Table 116.—The Tamil Population (Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils) in Ceylon, 1871-1946, showing
Percentage of the Total Population.
Table 117.—The Hindu Population of Ceylon, 1946, by Revenue Districts.
Table 118.—Percentage Distribution of Hindus by Revenue Districts.
Table 119.—Christian Population by Revenue Districts, 1946.
Table 120.—Numerical Distribution of Christian Sects in Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 121.—Muslim Population in Ceylon, 1871-1946.
Table 122.—Percentage Distribution of Muslim Population in the Revenue Districts, 1946 and 1921.

CHAPTER I X .

Table 123.—Percentage of Literates in Ceylon Relative to Population aged Five Years and over,
1881-1946.
Table 124.—Illiterate Population (Aged Five Years and over) in Ceylon, 1946.
Table 125.—Percentage of Illiterate Persons in Districts (inclusive of Municipal and Urban Council
Areas).
Table 126,—Percentage of Literates in English to the Total Population, by Sex, in each District
(excluding children, aged 0-4 Years), 1946 and 1921.
CHAPTER X.

Table 127.-—Proportion of Married per Mille of Population, Males and Females, aged 15 Years and
and above in each Revenue District, 1946.
Table 128.—The Married Population of Ceylon by Age-Groups, 1946, showing Per Cent. Married
in each Age-Group.
Table 129.—Divorced Population, 1946, by Districts.
Table 130.—Conjugal Condition of the Total Population of Ceylon, showing Per Cent. Distribution.
Table 131.—Conjugal Condition of Population, 15 Years and over, showing Per Cent. Distribution.
Table 132.—Conjugal Condition of every Thousand in selected Age-Groups, 1946 and 1921.
Table 133.—Conjugal Condition among Indigenous Race Groups, Ceylon, 1946 and ,1921, showing
Proportion per Thousand of each Sex (Age 15 Years and over).

Table 134.—Inter-Racial Marriages, Ceylon, 1936-1945 and 1911-1930.

Table 135.—Conjugal Condition of Mothers by Age-Groups, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 136.—Children born to Mothers classified by Conjugal Condition of Mothers, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 137.—Number of Children Born and Living by Conjugal Condition of Mothers, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 138.—Children 0-4 Years Per Women, 15-44 Years, Ceylon, 1881-1946.
Table 139.—Number of " Ever Married " Women, and Average Women, by Revenue Districts,
Ceylon, 1946.
Table 140.—Mothers and Children Born and Living, classified by Rural and Urban Population,
Ceylon, 1946.
Table 141.—First Births by Age of Mother, Ceylon, 1946, showing Number of Mothers to whom
these occurred in each 5-Year Age-Group, and their proportion to all Mothers.
Table 142.—Proportion of Mothers, Aged 15-19 Years, who have had first Births in that Age Period
to all Mothers in each District, Ceylon, 1946.

CHAPTER X I .

Table 143.—Percentage of Population at each Age in the Group 28-32 Years inclusive, to the Total
Population in the Group, 1946 and 1921.
Table 144.—Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-Grouping, Ceylon, 1946, 1921, and 1911.
Table 145.—Proportion in certain Age-Groups, 1946, per Thousand of Population.
Table 146.—Population, Aged 0-4 Years, by Sex, 1946 and 1921.
Table 147.—Crude Birth Rates, 1941-1945, and 1916-1920, Ceylon.
Table 148.—Deaths of Infants, Aged 1 Year and less to 1,000 Births in the Years 1936-1945, and
1911-1920.
Table 149.—Percentage of Population of each Sex in each Natural Age-Group, 1946 and 1921.
Table 150.—Percentages of the Population in Five-Year Age Groups, in Revenue Districts (inclusive
of MunicipaUties and Urban Council Areas), 1946
Table 151 Percentage of the Population, Aged 21 Years and over in each Revenue District by Sex
1946.
Table 152.—Female Population, Ceylon, 1946 and 1921, by selected Age-Groups
CHAPTER X I I .

Table 153.—Percentage of Population of Ceylon, 1891-1946 by Birthplace in and out of Ceylon.

Table 154.—Foreign-Born Population, Ceylon, 1946, in Revenue Districts.
Table 155.—Countries of Nativity of Population born outside Ceylon, 1871-1946 (except 1881 and
1931).
Table 156.—Foreign-Born Population by Length of Residence, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 157.—Ceylon-Born Population, classified by Sex showing Percentage Resident in District of
Birth, 1946.
Table 158.—Ceylon-Born Population of Towns, above 100,000 in Total Population classified by Sex,
showing Percentage Resident in Birth Town, 1946.

CHAPTER XIII.

Table 159.—Gainful Workers, Ceylon, 1946, by Broad Occupational Groups, showing Percentage in
each Group of all gainful workers.
Table 160.—Gainfully occupied in Tea, Rubber, Coconut and Tobacco growing by Percentage
Employment Status, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 161.—Proportion Per Cent. Unemployed of Total Population.
Table 162.—Showing Districts, and the Predominant Occupational Division next to Agriculture, 1946.

Table 163.—Wage Earners by Income Groups.

CHAPTER X I V .
Table 164.—Orphanhood by Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 165.—Proportion of Orphans per 1,000 Persons under 21 Years of Age in each District, Ceylon,
1946.

CHAPTER X V .
Table 166.—The Estate Population, 1871-1946.
Table 167.—Proportion of Estate Population to the Total Population of each District, 1901-1946.

Table 168.—Estate Population by Race, 1921-1946.

Table 169.—Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-Grouping of the Estate Population, 1946.

CHAPTER X V I .

Table 170.—The Blind Population, by Sex, Ceylon, 1881-1946, showing Proportion per 10,000 of
Population.
Table 171.—Cumulative Number of Blind, by Age at which vision was lost, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 172.—Number of Blind in every 100,000 of each Sex of the Population in each Race.
Table 173.—Deaf-Mutes of each Sex, Ceylon 1881-1946.
CHAPTER XVII.

Table 174.—Percentage Distribution of Dwellings in the Island, classified by Principal Material of

Construction of Outer Walls, for Urban and Rural areas, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 175.—Percentage Distribution of Dwellings classified according to the Material of Construction
of Roof for Urban and Rural areas, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 176.—Percentage Distribution of Dwellings classified by the Number of Rooms for Urban and
Rural areas, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 177.—Percentage Distribution of Dwellings classified by Tenure for Urban and Rural areas,
Ceylon, 1946.

Table 178.—Percentage Distribution of Unfurnished Dwellings classified by Rentals paid for Urban
and Rural areas, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 179.—Percentage Distribution of Households according to size, for Urban and Rural areas,
Ceylon, 1946.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Table 180.- -Acreage of Tea on " A " Estates in the Revenue Districts, showing Percentage of the
Total Acreage of Tea on " A " Estates in the Island, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 181.- -Rubber on " A " Estates, by Districts, showing Acreage and Percentage Distribution,
Ceylon, 1946.
Table 182.- -Coconut Cultivation (exclusive of Town and Village Gardens), showing Distribution
by Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 183.- -Paddy Cultivation, Maha 1945-46, (exclusive of such Cultivation within Estates) by
Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 184.- -Asweddumized Paddy Lands (exclusive of Paddy Lands within Estates) by Districts,
showing Number of Holdings, Total Extent, and Average Size, showing distribution
by Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 185.- -Asweddumized Paddy Land Holdings (exclusive of Paddy Lands within Estates) by Size
of Holding in Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
Table 186.- -Proportion Per cent, of Asweddumized Paddy Land Holdings below one acre in extent
to all Asweddumized Paddy Land Holdings in each District, (exclusive of Paddy Lands
within Estates), Ceylon, 1946.
Table 187.—.Asweddumized Paddy Land Holdings, (exclusive of Paddy Lands within Estates) fully
owned, and other, by Revenue Districts, Ceylon, 1946.
 DIAGRAMS
PAGE

1. Population Card—Ceylon Census, 1946 52

2. Growth of Population, 1871-1946 56

3. Intercensal, Natural and Migration Increase of Population, 1871-1946 60

4. Crude Birth Rates for Specified Countries, 1946 63

5. Crude Death Rates for Specified Countries, 1946 ... 64

6. Maternal Death Rates for Specified Countries, 1938 145

7. Percentage of Literates in Ceylon, 1871-1946 187

8. Conjugal Condition of the Population, 1946, classified by Age-Groups and Sex 198

9. Distribution of Population, 1946, by Functional Age-Groups 213

 MAPS
FACING PAGE

1. Historical Map of Ceylon 1

2. Historical Map of Asia 10

3. Ceylon, showing Provinces and Districts 30

4. Ceylon, showing the Density of Population by Revenue Districts 66

5. Ceylon, showing the Distribution of Population by Revenue Districts 72

6. Western Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 80

7. Central Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 88

8. Southern Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 97

9. Northern Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 105

10. Eastern Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 112

11. North-Western Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 118

12. North-Central Province, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 126

13. Province of Uva, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 128

14. Province of Sabaragamuwa, showing Districts, D. R. O's Divisions and Chief Towns 133
 HISTORICAL MAP
OF

CEYLON

Mannar Uahalittha

• Uannar

Trincomalee

Koltiar
ANURADHAPURA

Putitlam Kala Wewa

POLONHARUWA
Sigiriya ( PULATTHWASARA )

BaWealoa

Deduru Om

Vat alt
Kurunegala
1
, Galagedara/
DAMBADCMIYA Uahiyangana

KANDY

Hegombo

Oampola "C

Badulla

*e/j... G i l ! ! / S//a*a*a
COLOMBO

idam a Peak
'^V-z'sfsaman kulaJ

Kalu£fn#a

Kalulara

Tissmaharama

Hembartota

Uatara Printed b) Saner Dept.. Ctjlon July liSC

 CHAPTER r

THE PEOPLES OF C E Y L O N :
AN EPITOME OF fflSTORY
" Stemmata quid faciunt ? Quid prodest, Pontice, longo
Sanguine censeri ?
" Family-trees are useless, nor a long ancestral line of any value."
" An ancestor is about as good an inheritance as you can have.' ^

L IT may seem strange that the Report of the Census of 1946 in Ceylon should open with a tag
from Juvenal, and a refutation of it from Dr. Glover. But a modern census, it is well.to remind
ourselves, is something more than a mere count of heads. It is an assessment of quality as well as of
quantity, a study of a particular population organized in a particular society, an endeavour to determine
the stage of evolution reached in its national life. It, therefore, not only enumerates the population
but also seeks to analyse its composition against the background of history, tradition, and environment.
" We are the product of the strength and weakness of our forebears," said the Rt. Hon.
D. S. Senanayake once, " I do believe that it is not yet too late to eliminate the weakness and to conserve
the strength."^ This assumption of the importance of ancestry in the estimation of the present product
is the justification for this beginning.

The population of Ceylon is not homogeneous. It consists of several discriminated groups each
of which possesses a distinctive race-consciousness which has developed on the basis of differences in
physical type and in social, historical and religious background. There are, of course, no " pure "
races in the world in the sense of pure biological categories, each representing a distinctive and exclusive
heredity. In every race-group there is without doubt some degree of mixture of outside stock, and the
physical type itself is modified under the influence of environment. But where race-consciousness
exists, intermixture is largely checked, and the discriminated groups stand out as races.

FOUNDING OF THE SINHALESE R A C E

Of these groups, the Sinhalese are numerically the largest. An ancient chronicle,'' begun by a
Buddhist monk in the fifth century of the Christian era, itself claiming to be based on earlier works
since lost, ascribes the founding of the Sinhalese race in Ceylon to a prince of Northern India, Vijaya,
and his followers, whose landing in the Island is made to coincide with " the day that the successor of
former Buddhas reclined in the arbour of the two delightful Sal trees to attain nibbana." This day is
now reckoned to have been in the year 543 B.C.^ The history of Ceylon is the history of the Sinhalese
since that day.

1 J u v e n a l I I I . viii.
a Glover, T. R. : The Value of Abraham.
3 Senanayake, D. S. in Foreword to Brohier's " Ancient Irrigation Works. "
* T h e Mahavamsa. Overlaid as it is with mjrth and legend, it still remains our best source-book for our early
history.
^ T h i s date is still and will perhaps be always disputed. B u t in the light of the revised reading of the
K h a r v e l a inscription V. A. Smith assumes the correctness of this date which is in accord with the
Ceylon tradition. (Oxford History of I n d i a , p. 48). "
 The invaders found the land in the occupation of a people who had attained some degree of
civilization.! Described in the chronicle as " Yakkas ", they seem to have been poUtically organized
and to have possessed at least two settlements which could be called " cities ". Aided by what would
now be called a Fifth Column in their midst, the Sinhalese found little difficulty in subjugating them.
Their early disappearance from recorded history as a separate and distinctive race-group suggests
quick merger with the Sinhalese, although some believe that the nomadic Veddahs who still survive
in the Uva and Eastern Provinces of Ceylon are descended from them.
The conquerors soon established themselves in extensive settlements throughout the Island
giving it the name of " Sinhala ". The inauguration of their leader as sovereign was, however, delayed
"on account of his not having a queen-consort of equal rank to himself,"^ and it was decided to send a
deputation to King Pandava of Southern Madura " for a royal virgin." It has been too easily assumed
by some that the alliance, which was the result of this mission, was " with a Tamil princess from
Southern India," rather than with a North Indian princess from the Madura in the Southern
Madhyadesa of the Pandu Kingdom in the basin of the Ganges. The balance of probability seems,
however, to incline towards the latter theory.^
The Sinhalese brought with them that culture that the Aryan immigrants into India had attained
in the sixth century before Christ. Their language was the Aryan dialect of the region whence they
came, one of the Prakrits, that is to say, an unelaborated provincial dialect as opposed 1o the literary
Sanskrit which was methodically elaborated on the lines of the Vedic language. That language,
enriched in vocabulary and modified in structure by later influences, still subsists as the distinctive
language of the Sinhalese people.

EARLY ARYAN ORGANISATION

The social, religious, and political life of the Aryan of the day was doubtless influenced by the
injunctions and inhibitions of the so-called Code of Manu, which was beginning to be made known
from about three centuries earlier.* Society was organized in village communities or towns, and
divided into four classes,—the priestly, the miUtary, the industrial, and the servile. Only the first
three classes, though by no means equal, were recognized as forming the community, for whom laws
and government were necessary. The village community was a little republic in which the democratic
principle was applied, while the choice of the chieftain or monarch was usually made by election after
consultation among the leaders of high rank. In the stage of evolution reached during this period,
the Aryans knew the art of agriculture under irrigation, were acquainted with most of the metals, used
the horse, the elephant, and the chariot, and, in their social customs, held marriage sacred and gave a
high position to their women. Liberality to the priesthood was regarded as incumbent on every
virtuous man, and as the especial duty of a King. But it was acknowledged that the priesthood could
not prosper without the miUtary class, and, indeed, that the prosperity of both depended on their
cordial collaboration. The administration of justice was a function of the King in person, while the
third, and probably the largest class, the industrial, practised agriculture, kept herds, and carried on
such trade as existed. The chronicles of the Sinhalese, in their reference to events of this period,
reflect the existence of such an order.

' T h i s may, perhaps, be disputed. B u t cf. Parker , " Ancient Ceylon ".
' Mahavamsa, Chapter V I I .
' T h e existence of a P a n d y a n Kingdom in South I n d i a at the time is in doubt. T h e earliest reference is
in an Asokan inscription a few centuries later. On the other hand the K i n g d o m of the Pandus in the
Madhyadesa or Central I n d i a , the region whence V i j a y a and his followers migrated, was well-established,
and the fact that his nephew Panduwasa is recorded as having found his queen in the daughter of S a k y a
P a n d u of the Gangetic Valley suggests that V i j a y a liimself would have sought his consort from this
region.
* Autliorities agree that the " Code " is not the work of a single age.
 It is to the credit of the early Sinhalese Kings that they adopted a policy of conciliation towards
the conquered natives and won their active co-operation in the development of the country. New
settlements sprang up, irrigation tanks were constructed, Ihe capital city of Anuradhapura was extended
and embellished, and pleasure gardens laid out. Intercourse with North India continued to be main-
tained, and resulted in the third century before Christ in the inauguration of a new epoch in the
Island's history. Dominating the neighbouring sub-continent of India at the time was the great
figure of Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, who had
wrested the Punjab and the Kabul valley from the Macedonian follower of Alexander the Great,
Seleucus Nicator. A sad sense of wrong-doing inspired by bloody and aggressive wars had made
Asoka a zealous convert to the gentle doctrines of the Buddha, and his missionary fervour caused
him to send to Ceylon his son Mahinda to eff'ect the conversion of the Sinhalese King, Devanampiya
Tissa. The new teaching, declaring the Truths as to sufiFering, its origin, the passing away of pain,
and the Path that leads to it, and exhorting the breaking of the Ten Bonds, the termination of the
Four Intoxications, and the riddance of the Five Hindrances, took firm root in the country and affected
the entire national Ufe of the Sinhalese. There can be little doubt that the amiability and tolerance,
which foreigners find today are the most pleasing features of the national character of the Sinhalese,
have been woven into its texture by their adherence to a faith or philosophy which inculcates, as a
first precept, a feeling of friendship towards all men, indeed towards all beings.

DRAVIDIAN INFLUENCE
The enthusiastic devotion of the new converts found expression in further missions to North
India in quest of relics to be enshrined in the dagobas that were being erected throughout the land.
Temples and monasteries were built and endowed with a munificence that only rehgious zeal could
have inspired. Meanwhile the secular business of government, if not altogether neglected, took
second place, and within a few decades of the death of Devanampiya Tissa, the Sinhalese King
Suratissa was put to death by two Tamils, " powerful in their cavalry and navy ",' who assumed
the sovereignty of the Island and jointly ruled the country for twenty-two years. A short restoration
of Sinhalese sovereignty was followed by a formidable invasion of Tamils under Elara who estab!I.,.ica
himself as King and ruled for forty-four years until overthrown by the heroic Dutugemunu, the son
of a sub-King in the South of the Island who had maintained a precarious independence. Dutu-
gemunu succeeded also in defeating in a decisive battle a fresh invading army of Tamils, under
Bhalluka, Elara's nephew, who had landed in the Island within a week of his uncle's cremation. The
Sinhalese, however, were not allowed to enjoy for long the peaceful prosperity which the reign of
Dutugemunu had given them. Not many years had elapsed since his death when a great army of
Tamils landed and drove the Sinhalese King Valagambahu from his capital, who, however, taking
advantage of dissensions among the Tamils, was able, after nearly fifteen years of exile, to regain his
lost Kingdom. It was in the reign of this King that the Buddhist Scriptures were reduced to writing
in Ceylon " in order that the religion might endure for ages," 2 — a noble purpose for the fulfilment of
which this country may justly claim a great share of the credit. Indeed, the preservation of the
doctrines of the Buddha ahnost in their pristine purity is, perhaps, the greatest contribution made by
the Sinhalese to the vast and still barely explored treasure house of Asiatic civilization.

With the fall of the Mauryan dynasty, to whom the Sinhalese owed their conversion to
Buddhism, the close connexion between them and the peoples of the Gangetic Valley not unnaturally
relaxed. There could be little sympathy between them and the Sunga dynasty which, succeeding the

1 Mahavamsa, C h . X X I . Tumour's translation. Geiger translates differently: ' Sons of a freighter who
brought horses hither ".
« Mahavamsa, C h . X X X I I I .
Mauryan, marked its rise by fostering a Brahmanical reaction and savagely persecuting Buddhist
monks. In place of that earUer Hnk with the more distant North India there was now a growing
association with the neighbouring Dravidian races of Southern India who formed the peoples of the
Kingdoms of Pandya, Chola, and Kerala. Although the Sinhalese seem to have had for five centuries
after Valagambahu a respite from the martial irruptions of the Tamils, there is much evidence of
what may be called peaceful penetration. Tamil mercenaries, public officials, and queen consorts
figure in the dismal records of palace intrigues, assassinations and insurrections which form the
history of the Sinhalese during this period. The invasion of South India by Gaja Bahu, the con-
struction of irrigation works and other works of public utility by Vasabha and Mahasena, the bringing
of the Tooth-Relic from Kalinga, the pubhc health programme of Buddhadasa, the learned
Buddhaghosa's visit to Ceylon and his translation of the Buddhist commentaries are the few bright
events that stand out in the gloom.

A successful invasion by the Pandyan Tamils about 437 A . D . gave Tamil Kings suzerainty
over the Island for about twenty-five years until Dhatu Sena, after an arduous struggle, regained for
the Sinhalese their lost dominion. But the crime of Kasyapa, the parricide, who built the fortress of
Sigiriya which remains a marvel of architecture to this day, compelled his brother Mogallana to seek
Tamil aid from South India to avenge it, and the precedent of securing Tamil assistance was followed
by a number of Sinhalese princes who disputed the succession to the Sinhalese Kingdom in the latter
half of the first millenium of the Christian era. Srinaga, Agrabodhi I I I , Jethatissa, Dathopatissa
fought the civil wars mainly with Tamil troops and the state of the country during this period is
described by the chronicler in these terms : " By reason of this continual warfare the people were
sore oppressed and suffered greatly and the country was brought to great poverty." ^ There is evidence
also of an exiled Sinhalese prince (Manavarma) assisting the King of Pandya in his own wars in South
India.

CHOLIAN INVASIONS
But it was not till about the middle of the ninth century A . D . that a Pandyan King again
invaded Ceylon on his own account. This, however, was merely a plundering expedition in which
it is recorded that" a number of Tamils scattered about the country joined," and Sena I, who
occupied the Sinhalese throne at the time, was enabled to continue his sway over " a Lanka made of
no value whatsoever." The tables were turned, however, against the South Indian power in the
reign of his grandson Sena I I , whose general invaded Pandya on behalf of a claimant to its throne.
Later in the tenth century A . D . the Cholians asserted their supremacy over the Pandyans, and an
exiled Pandyan King came over to Ceylon to entreat for aid but found the country so torn by civil
strife that he left to secure the help he needed from Kerala. The ChoUans then began to direct their
attention to Ceylon and invasions occurred in the reigns of Udaya I I I , Mahinda I V , and Mahinda V.
The first of these invasions was rolled back from Ruhuna which successfully held its own, and the
Sinhalese King found himself strong enough to send a general to the Chola territory on a punitive
expedition. The second was an attempt against the North of the Island which was beaten ofi" without
difficulty. But the third which seems to have been directed by the powerful Cholian King Rajaraja
the Great was more formidable and successful. Even Ruhuna was penetrated, and the Cholian
suzerainty was exercised by Governors from the capital city of Polonnaruwa.

Once again, however, a kindly destiny provided a heroic Sinhalese prince to hold aloft the
banner of Sinhalese independence. Kirti, known to history as Vijaya Bahu I, Uved in Kataragama
in Ruhuna "employing the four stratagems of war^ with great cunning for the destruction of the

1 Mahavamsa, C h . X L W .
' " Sowing dissension, sudden attack, negotiation, and buying off " are the " four stratagems of war ".
Cholians who forcibly held the Raja-rata." Polonnaruwa was in course of time invested and, though
the first siege was raised by a relieving army from Chola, was eventually captured. A rebellion
among his own subjects was suppressed. Anuradhapura was taken and " the King of the Cholians,
having heard of the destruction of his hosts, sent not any more men to Lanka, saying ' Now are the
Sinhalese powerful'." It was fortunate for the country that Vijaya Bahu was long-lived. A revolt
of the nobles was crushed. Order was restored. Justice which had long been neglected he caused
to be administered according to law. Taxation was " according to equity ". Himself a poet, he was
a patron of men of letters. He allied himself with Kalinga and Pandya against the Cholians whose
King was refused the hand of his sister, and for the invasion of whose country he made elaborate
preparations which, however, could not be carried out owing to the mutiny of part of his forces. He
established new contacts with the countries to the East of the Bay of Bengal, the Ramanna provinces
of Burma between Arakan and Siam, where Buddhism was flourishing, and he invited and established
in Ceylon a fraternity of Burmese monks. To him too is attributed the endowment of Gilimale for
the benefit of pilgrims to the Shrine of the Sacred Footprint on Adam's Peak.

After the death of this great King, there occurred another invasion, on this occasion by a
man " born in the country of the Aryans," a chief " of the Palandipa ", named Viradeva, who thought
" he could take possession of Lanka." The Sinhalese King Vikrama Bahu I, son of the great Vijaya
Bahu, went out to meet him and was defeated, but eventually succeeded in rallying his forces and
slaying the invader. The country, however, was divided between Vikrama Bahu and three cousins,
each of whom ruled in his own territory as an independent sovereign. Below them petty chieftains
set themselves up and made war on each other. The order of Vijaya Bahu I gave place to anarchy.
Irrigation works were neglected or destroyed, the endowments of the monasteries were robbed or
plundered, rich villages and coconut plantations were laid waste, and the people were oppressed by
grievous taxes which were levied " even as juice is extracted from the sugar cane by the mill." ^

PARAKRAMA BAHU T H E G R E A T

Such was the state of the country when the young and ambitious prince Parakrama Bahu,
destined to earn fame as the greatest of Sinhalese Kings, aspired to bring the whole country " under
the canopy of one dominion." Covering the Island with a network of spies to bring him the necessary
information, he bided his time, meanwhile restoring order in the territory he ruled and promoting its
development by the construction of irrigation works which enabled this portion of the country to
possess " a perpetual supply of paddy." At length the preparations for the struggle were complete.
Bloody battles with Gaja Bahu II of Raja-Rata, and Manabharana of Ruhuna, resulted in their utter
defeat and discomfiture. Manabharana's mother, Sugala a grand-daughter of Vijaya Bahu I, fought
desperately to maintain the independence of the Southern Kingdom but was overpowered. A second
rebellion was quickly suppressed and Parakrama achieved his ambition of being the undisputed
overlord of Lanka.

While the internal administration of the country was being reorganized news reached Para-
krama that the King of Ramanna, the country with which Vijaya Bahu I had formed an alliance and
from which he had brought forth his Order of Burmese monks, was banning the export of elephants to
Ceylon, insulting the Sinhalese ambassadors, prohibiting Sinhalese ships from calling at his ports,
and had intercepted a Sinhalese princess on her way to Cambodia. The prestige of the Sinhalese
demanded that a punitive expedition be despatched against the offending King. A mighty armada
was built and equipped. " All the country round about the coast seemed like one great workshop
busied with the constant building of ships." ^ In spite of adverse weather part of this great fleet

> Mahavamsa, Ch. L X I .

' Mahavamsa, Ch. L X X V I .
reached Ramanna. The Sinhalese landed and laid waste the country. The King was slain and the
supreme authority of the lord of Lanka was proclaimed to the enemy in his capital by beat of drums.
The intervention of the Burmese priesthood in Ceylon enabled a treaty to be concluded in terms of
which the Sinhalese army of occupation was withdrawn on condition of the payment of an annual
tribute of elephants.
Hardly had the Burmese war ended when an urgent message from the King of Pandya entreating
help against his enemy Kulasekhara was received in Ceylon. Parakrama, proud of this appeal for his
protection from a neighbouring King, sent a large force under his general Lankapura, who, however,
failed to arrive in time to save the King. Lankapura, nevertheless, conducted a vigorous campaign
on behalf of his heir, Vira Pandu, against Kulasekhara, and, though the latter had all the resources
of South India marshalled to assist him, succeeded in defeating him in a series of engagements which
are described by the chronicler in great detail. Reinforcements to Lankapura were sent under the
command of Jagad Vijaya, and the two generals joining their forces eventually overwhelmed Kula-
sekhara and restored Vira Pandu to the Pandyan throne. Large numbers of Tamil prisoners, horses,
and elephants were sent to Ceylon. ^

While Parakrama's generals spread the fame of his arms abroad, he himself was fulfilling in the
internal government of the entire country the promise of that genius for administration he had exhibited
when he was ruler only of a part. He divided the Island into twelve provinces and eighty-four
districts and formed a Council to assist him into which he seems to have admitted not only the chief
officials and governors of the districts but also some of the leading commons. He undertook and
successfully accomplished the reconciliation of the varying sects of Buddhistic teaching, purged the
monastic orders of the lazy and the immoral, built almonries for the poor and hospitals for the
sick, and beautified and adorned his capital Polonnaruwa with magnificent buildings and pleasant
parks, whilst not neglecting the repair and renovation of the old city of Anuradhapura. But his
greatest achievement lay in the " many tanks and channels " that he built " so that he might put an
end to the calamity of famine among men." Indeed, besides the great tank, famous as ." Parakrama's
Sea," he is reported as having constructed no fewer than one thousand four hundred and seventy-
one smaller reservoirs, and repaired the breaches in a thousand three hundred and ninety-five.

BEGINNING OF THE DECLINE

It is a lesson of history that the petty ambitions of lesser men can cause the rapid decline of a
State built up with care by a great leader. Parakrama Bahu died towards the end of the twelfth
century A . D . and in the next twenty-five years palace rivalries placed in succession on the throne of
the great King as many as thirteen persons whose " lust of wealth and power " was unequal to the
task of maintaining a stable government in the country. The disorder that prevailed invited invasion,
and first the Pandyan King, and then Magha of Kalinga with his " giants of Kerala " found Ceylon
an easy prey.
Magha estabhshed himself at Polonnaruwa and was anointed King by a section of the Sinhalese
chiefs. Unlike Elara of old, who preserved an equitable balance between the conquerors and the
conquered, Magha showed an extreme partiality to his own Tamil followers " to whom he gave fields
and pastures, houses and gardens, servants and oxen and buff'aloes, yea, everything that pertained to
the Sinhalese." ^ He despoiled the monasteries and the great dagobas, but the Buddhist hierarchy
was luckily able to remove and hide in a safe place among the Kotmale hills the sacred Tooth-Relic

* Cholian annals, however, state that L a n k a p u r a was later defea.,t9d and his head nailed to the gates of
Madura.
I Mahavamsa, C h , L X X X ,
and the Alms-Bowl before he could lay hands on them. " Alas ! Alas ! " wails the chronicler,
" even so did those Tamil giants, like the giants of Mara, destroy the Kingdom and the religion of the
land." 1 For twenty-two years the country groaned under the oppression of Magha.
DisaflFected Sinhalese chieftains, however, built themselves fortresses and maintained a pre-
carious independence within them. A noble descendant of Siri Sangabo, a prince named Vijaya
Bahu rallied the chiefs of the Vanni, and, establishing himself in the fortress of Dambadeniya,
recovered the Maya-Rata from the Tamils. The sacred relics were brought back from their hiding
place and installed in a shrine built for them at Beligala. But Vijaya Bahu I I I died before the
reconquest of Lanka was complete, and it was left to his son Parakrama. Bahu II to accomplish this.
The Sinhalese under this King kept up an incessant and harassing warfare on the Tamils and gradually
drove them from the open country to take refuge in the city of Polonnaruwa. Attempting to sally
forth from the city, they were annihilated, and Parakrama Bahu 11, freeing the country from the
Tamils " by the power of his might, took heed to himself to secure the prosperity of the whole Island
of Lanka."
Not for long, however, could the Sinhalese enjoy the peace and prosperity they had regained
with such difficulty. Barely a decade had passed since Parakrama Bahu II assumed the sovereignty
of the Island when a fresh invasion from a new direction took place. Chandrabhanu, a prince from
the Malay Peninsula, " landed with a fierce band of Malays. "^ Though he claimed the goodwill of
the Sinhalese as a Buddhist himself, he found little support, and the King's nephew Vira Bahu, who was
sent to expel him, succeeded in defeating him and forcing him to withdraw from the Island. He
returned some years later with reinforcements from South India, but by that time the King's son
Vijaya Bahu was a popular hero, and found little difficulty in getting the Sinhalese to beat off the attack.
Chandrabhanu fled from the country leaving many dead and much booty on the field of battle. -
Despite these interruptions, the history of the country for the thirty-five years under Parakrama
Bahu II recalled something of the grandeur of the reign of his illustrious namesake. It is pleasing to
find it recorded that " the whole country abounded with food." The monasteries were reformed,
priests of great eminence were brought from abroad, learning was encouraged, new temples were
built and old ones repaired, the city of Polonnaruwa which had fallen into decay was re-embellished,
and Ihe road from Dambadeniya to it " made smooth ".
The son of Parakrama Bahu II succeeded him as Vijaya Bahu IV but was assassinated by his
own general Mithra. The army, however, proved loyal to Vijaya Bahu's brother Bhuvenaka Bahu I,
who was duly anointed King. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the last of the invasions
from South India took place. Arya Chakravarti, the general of the Pandyans, headed the expedition.
He entered the city of Yapahuva and took back with him to the Pandyan King " the Tooth-Relic and
all the solid wealth that was there." The successor of Bhuvenaka Bahu 1, his nephew Parakrama
Bahu I I I , adopted a concihatory attitude towards the Pandyans and visited Pandya in person, and
persuaded its King to give back the sacred Tooth-Relic. Meanwhile, in India, the Islamic power
was being extended in the South by MaUk Kafur, the Hindu renegade and favourite of Ala-ud-din who
held court in Delhi, and the Dravidian Kingdoms of Pandya and Chola fell before his ruthless
advance, and Ceylon was freed from further invasion from South India.

E F F E C T S O F T H E T A M I L INVASIONS
It is, perhaps, convenient to pause here in this narrative in an endeavour to assess briefly
the effisct on the country of these fifteen centuries of association and conflict with the peoples of South
India, The most apparent result is, indeed, the introduction of a new element into the population

' Mahavamsa, C h . L X X X .
8 Mahavamsa, Ch, L X X X I I I ,
of the Island. Up in the extreme north, and away in the east, remote from the turmoil and strife
of the heart of the Sinhalese Kingdom, a new physical type, dark-skinned, thick-Upped, brachycephalic,
combining what ethnologists would call the Mediterranean and the Armenoid types, settled down
and developed a separate race-consciousness, which has given us today a discriminated race-group
which we call " Ceylon Tamils ". Heirs to a civilization which claims an antiquity beyond the
Aryan, they speak a language which is recognized as the oldest, richest, and most highly organized
of the Dravidian group. In their original home in Southern India, they doubtless worshipped local
deities in a pre-Vedic form of Hinduism, until the sweeping surge of Brahmanism caught them up,
admitted these local gods into the Vedic pantheon, and established a catholic creed which, subjected
though it was to Brahmanical law, we now accept as modern Hinduism. Within the territory which
fell more directly under the governance of the Sinhalese Kings, and more especially in the provinces
that have lately begun to be called " the Kandyan provinces," there was indubitably much
fusion of blood and language, and much intermingling of religious beliefs and social customs. It
could not indeed have been otherwise. Sinhalese princes of the royal blood took unto themselves
Tamil consorts, and nobles and commonfolk doubtless did Ukewise. The Sinhalese court had
numerous Tamils in positions of trust and responsibility. The army had a large body of Tamil
soldiers and was officered by many Tamil captains. Tamil prisoners taken in war were distributed
throughout the country. Tamil words found their way in large numbers into the vocabulary of the
Sinhalese. Hindu gods and goddesses became objects of Sinhalese worship and almost every Buddhist
vihare had a Hindu devale in close proximity to it. The observance of caste which, in the Sinhalese
community, had never been too rigid under the influence of the teachings of the Buddha, became
stricter in accordance with Brahmanical precepts. Nor was this all. The influence of the North
Indian Renaissance under the Gupta dynasty, which had been extended to the Dravidian Kingdoms
of the South by the conquests of Samudragupta in the fourth century of the Christian era, was carried
to Ceylon by the peoples of these Kingdoms in a hybridized form of art, architecture, sculpture, and
letters. Nevertheless, it was not altogether an alien influence, for the Tamils themselves derived the
best part of their culture from the same source whence the Sinhalese had obtained theirs, and the
Sinhalese were Hindus before they became Buddhists.

MOOR SETTLEMENTS
It is a curious circumstance that the Moslem power which under Ala-ud-din had extinguished
the Pandyan Kingdom did not proceed southward across the Strait to the conquest of Ceylon. The
resurgence of Hindu nationalism under the brothers Harihara and Bukka, which was inspired by the
tyranny of Mohammed bin Tughlak and which resulted in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire,
formed no doubt a formidable bulwark against the further extension of the Moslem arms. No Moslem
armada arrived oflF the shores of Lanka. But what the sword of Islam failed to achieve, the pedlar's
pack successfully accomplished.
" Yavanas," a name originally applied to the Ionian Greeks but later extended to Arab
settlers in India, had already established themselves peacefully on the coasts of India. Their
first settlement in India was Kayalpatnam to the North-East of Cape Comorin. Whether,
as one tradition suggests, they arrived in India because they were expelled from Arabia by
the Prophet for displaying cowardice at the battle of Ohod, or whether, according to another, they
voluntarily fled from Arabia to escape from the tyranny of a Caliph of a later date, it is estabUshed
that towards the close of the first millennium of the Christian era they were well settled in South India,
had ingratiated themselves with its inhabitants, had intermarried with them, mostly with the Tamils,
and had even adopted the Tamil language, though holding fast to their monotheistic religion. The
Sinhalese chronicler records that, when success met the arms of Lankapura, the general of Parakrama
the Great, on his campaigns in Pandya and Chola, " the Yavanas brought presents unto him." '
They were known to be skilful traders and their enterprise brought them across to Ceylon to sell their
wares. A whole colony is said to have landed at Beruwala in the Kalutara District in 1024 A . D .
There is also no doubt that there was direct intercourse between Arabia'and Ceylon and some Arabs
arrived in the Island from their homeland and effected settlements on the coasts of Ceylon. They
soon obtained a firm footing in the Island, and spread themselves throughout the country, giving rise
in their ubiquity to a popular Sinhalese saying that there was no place where the Moorman and the
crow could not be found. Despite the adoption of the Tamil language and the freedom with which
they inter-married, the unifying influence of their religion has helped the descendants of these early
Arab settlers to preserve a distinctive race-consciousness, and to regard themselves as a separate group
which calls itself " Moors."

Although the Moslem conquest of South India had freed the Sinhalese from the nuisance of
invasion from that part of the sub-continent, they seem to have been obliged about this period to
acknowledge the overlordship of the Tamil King of Jaffna by the payment of tribute to him. Towards
the end of the fourteenth century a new city, Jayawardhana-Kotte, was founded by " a mighty prince
of great wisdom ", Alagakkonara or Alakeswara by name, who assumed the Kingship as Bhuwenaka
Bahu V. He refused to pay tribute to Arya Chakrawarti of Jaff"na, hanged his tax-collectors, routed
liis armies, and destroyed his fleet.
Meanwhile, in distant China events were happening that were destined to have a sequel in
Ceylon. The successors of Kublai Khan found themselves hard pressed to maintain their authority
over their rebellious subjects. Chu Yuan-Chang left a Buddhist monastery to organize Chinese
resistance against the Mongol rulers. The movement proved successful, and about the time that
Alagakkonara was building Jayawardhana-Kotte the last of the successors of the Great Khan was
deposed, the victor was proclaimed Emperor with the imperial name of Hung Wu, and once more a
Chinese dynasty, the Ming, was established on the imperial throne of Pekin. It was in the reign of
the son of Hung Wu, the Emperor Yung L o , that a Chinese expedition under Chung Ho was despatched
to cruise along the coasts of the Kingdoms of the Western Ocean to impress on these countries the
might of the Chinese Empire. As an ardent Buddhist, anxious to enhance the prestige of China
in the Buddhist world, Yung Lo seems to have coveted the sacred Tooth-Relic and to have instructed
Chung Ho to demand it from the Sinhalese in exchange for rich presents of silk and gold. Alagak-
konara dechned to yield it up, and Chung Ho withdrew. Three years later he was back in Ceylon,
this time with a powerful fleet of sixty-two ships, packed with soldiers. In the fighting that ensued,
the Chinese were able by a clever ruse to slip past the Sinhalese army and take Jayawardhana-Kotte
by storm. Alagakkonara was captured and carried off to China, together with his queen and leading
nobles, but was permitted to return to Ceylon after three years of captivity. The record of the Ming
Dynasty proudly proclaims : " From this time onward the barbarian nations across the sea showed
themselves more submissive to the Son of Heaven : envoys with tribute filled the highways, and
frequent payments of tribute were received from the Kings of Ceylon." ^

KINGDOM OF KOTTE
The released captive was not restored to the throne which was occupied at his return by
Parakrama Bahu V I . The struggle for the hegemony of the Island which it had been found necessary
for the Sinhalese to carry on with the Tamils of Jaffna was continued during the reign of this King.

1 Mahavamsa, Ch. L X X V I .
2 In regard to this interesting episode on which much controversy has arisen, I have followed in the main
the account of L i o n e l Giles in his " China under the Ming D v n a s t v ". Cf. Journal, R. A. S. (Ceylon)
Vol. X X I I , No. 65, 1912, and the earlierJoumals Vol. X V I I I , No. 55, 1904, and V o l X X I I , No. 63, 1910.
Sapumal Kumaraya conquered the Northern Kingdom and established the supremacy of the Sinhalese,
and the figure of this prince, mounted on his black charger, attacking the hosts of Arya Chakrawarti, and
" deluging the streets of Yapapatuna with blood," is one of the most romantic pictures drawn by the
Sinhalese historians. The suppression of a rebellion in the hill-country, and the despatch of a
punitive expedition against South India, are among the events recorded by the chroniclers as having
occurred during the long reign of Parakrama Bahu V I . But more than these exploits, perhaps, what
has added lustre to his reign is the fact that at Totagamuwa, at the temple which the great Vijaya
Bahu I had erected and which Parakrama Bahu IV had renovated, Sri Rahula was at this time enriching
Sinhalese literature with poems " composed and finished in language most chaste."

An attempt to place his nephew on the throne in succession to his father was foiled by Sapumal
Kumaraya who marched down from Jaffna and assumed the sovereignty at Kotte as Bhuwenaka
Bahu V I . An insurrection in the South was suppressed through the loyalty of his brother, the prince
of Ambulugala, who, however, on the death of Bhuwenaka Bahu seven years later seized the Kingdom,
putting to death Pandita Parakrama, the adopted son of his brother, and, assuming the title of Vira
Parakrama Bahu, reigned at Kotte for twenty years. His son Dharma Parakrama Bahu succeeded
him, but in the hill country Vira Vikrama, " an exceeding mighty man " established an independent
sovereignty with his capital at Kandy. While the country was thus divided and distracted by internal
strife, the Western world had become pregnant with a mighty future.

PORTUGUESE VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY

It is a convention among historians to assign the beginnings of the modern world to the events
that took place in Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century A . D . It is stated that the capture of
Constantinople by the Turks compelled many scholars to flee with their precious manuscripts to the
dead countries of Western Europe and caused a Renaissance, or New Birth of Learning. But the
greater diffusion of ancient manuscripts in a Europe that was dead could scarcely have galvanized it
to that manifestation of vital energy that gave birth to a new civilization. The fact of the matter was
that Europe was not dead. It had, indeed, lain for a time in a sort of stupor, enthralled as it was by a
feudal and theological despotism. But it had already begun to stir. It had produced a Dante and a
Roger Bacon. Its peoples were slowly but surely emancipating themselves from the shackles of their
mental and spiritual slavery. The spirit of enquiry and criticism was abroad, and in the fifteenth
century, aided no doubt by the application of printing to the spread of knowledge, it found expression
in audacious speculations and adventurous actions.

Perhaps the most momentous of these from the viewpoint of Ceylon's history was the quest
over the wide seas for the Land of Prester John by the " Western Nile ", which Prince Henry of Portugal
initiated in order to secure the final triumph of the Cross over the Crescent. It was this search for a
famed Christian priest-King of immeasurable wealth, with whose aid he hoped to overwhelm the infidel
Moors, that caused the prince to gather about him cartographers and astronomers and shipwrights
in a zealous endeavour to transform the fishermen of Portugal into the greatest sailors of the age,
and to convert their fishing caravels into the best sailing ships afloat. In place of a powerful Christian
King the Portuguese did eventually find a semi-savage chieftain in Abyssinia battling with countless
tribes, but they gained something more beneficial. They acquired by experience the art of organizing
and equipping expeditions by sea to distant lands, they became skilled mariners, and their captains ear-
ned a just reputation for courageous leadership. They soon became the masters of the Eastern Seas,
and it was not long before they were rewarded with the prize of a rich Colonial Empire.

It was one of these expeditions, fitted out " to seek Christians and spices,"—for the desire for
commercial gain had now become mingled with crusading zeal—that brought Vasco da Gania in A.D,
to
 HISTORICAL MAP
SIBERIA

MANCHU
ASIA
rARTARY

Kambal Qaoh
Pokin
"•™'/sYRIA
ZIPA^OU
TUSKESTON
JAPAN
lUahgu
MONGOLIA
.•iSr^ATHAY NDnkin
KABUL VALLEY
PERSIA Kashmir

TIBET
Maooa Ormuz Oelnl
ARABIA
INDIA
Canton
KUTC IdADYA OcSA t. L a u r u a Island
Banaal
EINAN '-"'O'Vl ) PHILIPPINES
HINDUSTAN ,0 HAINAN
CEYLON
DECCAN ft. fialmyra or Mrfro
Boak BAY OF BENGAL

Madurao^ «
CapsComorin^ ( \ CEYLON
OolomSoVJ zEiLAN
CELEBES

IBATAVIA _ —^

EAST INDIES

PrmM tit iarrt/ Ow«.. C<vlM^/>/*$*

1498 to Calicut on the south-west coast of India by the perilous way of the Cape of Good Hope, and
enabled the Portuguese to secure their first foothold in the East Indies. Seven years later the accident
of a storm drove Lourenco de Almeida, son of the first Portuguese " Viceroy of India ", to the shores
of Ceylon. A treaty was soon concluded in terms of which the Sinhalese undertook to give the
Portguese 400 bahars,^ of cinnamon each year, and the Portuguese in return undertook to defend the
country against external aggression. The King of Portugal announced to the Pope of Rome the
discovery of Taprobane, and there commenced that first continued association between Ceylon and a
European Power which was destined to last a hundred and fifty years.

C E Y L O N AND T H E W E S T E R N WORLD
Ceylon was not, indeed, altogether unknown to the peoples of the West prior to the advent of
the Portuguese. If, on the ground of the aflfinity which the corresponding Sanskrit and Tamil words
bear to the Hebrew words for " the ivory, apes and peacocks that King Solomon received through
the voyages of " the navy of Tharshish " once in three years, it is justifiable that the land of Ophir,
with which presumably this intercourse was carried on, should be identified with the region in the South
of India, it is not perhaps unreasonable to believe that, situated as Ceylon was, its inhabitants helped,
some five centuries before the landing of Vijaya, in the supply of these rare commodities to adorn
and astonish the capital city of the King of Israel. It may not then be mere fancy to assert that the
Tyrian pennant waved on the shores of Ceylon. Onesicritus, who piloted the expedition of Nearchus
from the mouth of the Indus to the head of the Persian Gulf on the orders of Alexander the Great, is
said to have heard of Ceylon three centuries befi re Christ. The discovery of the existence of the
monsoons which enabled Hippalus in the first cer ury after Christ to sail his boat straight across the
Arabian Sea instead of creeping along the West coast of India shortened the duration of the voyage
and promoted more frequent converse. A Roman customs collector in the reign of Claudius had
been driven by the winds and sojourned six months in Ceylon, and had persuaded the Sinhalese King
to send an embassy to Rome.^ In the second century Ptolemy the geographer had given an elaborate,
though erroneous, description of this country. Yet another embassy had gone to the Emperor
Constantine in the fourth century and had arrived in the imperial city when Julian wore the purple.''
Even a Christian Church had been planted in Ceylon in the sixth century according to Cosmas
Indicopleustes.^ And it has already been observed that Arab settlements had been effected since the
rise of Islam, one of which indeed was in the anchorage of Colombo a township which Ibn Batuta^
had found flourishing in the fourteenth century under Muslim domination.

It was in fact the Muslims who sensed the greatest danger in the arrival of the Portuguese in the
East. The monopoly of the rich and profitable trade in pepper and spices which they had enjoyed

' A bahar in the cinnamon trade weighed 744 D u t c h pounds.

' ' ivory ' Heb. shen habbin Sk. ibham, Tamil ibam ; ' apes ' Heb. kapi Sk. kapi Tamil kapi ; ' peacock '
Beb. tuki Tamil tokei.
» Pliny, H i s t . Nat. V I . 24.
* Ammian, X X . 7
' Cf. Gibbon : Decline a n d F a l l . C h . XL : " Ceylon, Serendib or Taprobana was divided between two
hostile princes ; one of whom possessed the mountains, the elephants and the luminous carbuncle, and
the other enjoyed the more solid riches of domestic industry, foreign trade, and the capacious harbour
of Trinquemale, which received and dismissed the fleets of the E a s t and West. In this hospitable Isle,
at an equal distance (as it is computed) from their respective countries, the silk merchants of C h i n a ,
who had collected in their voyages aloes, cloves, nutmeg and sandalwood, maintained a free and
h f i T i f i f l f . i a l cnmmerRo with the inhabitants of the Persian Gulf. The subjects of the great K i n g exalted.
was now broken. The Portuguese ' Viceroy of India ' was sending out small squadrons in various
directions to sweep them o f f the trade routes. Indeed it was one of these detachments that Lourenco
de Almeida commanded when he was driven by the winds and the waves to the coast of Ceylon. The
Muslim traders therefore did their best to incite the native inhabitants against their formidable rivals.
Their attempts met with some success in Colombo when the Sinhalese townsfolk attacked the Portu-
guese, but a volley f r o m the ships' guns routed the rabble and served to display the might of Portugal.

F O R T ERECTED I N C O L O M B O

Dharma Parakrama Bahu thereupon adopted a conciliatory attitude towards the Portuguese
and in 1518 permitted them to erect a fort in Colombo. He died not 'ong after, and the vacant throne
was offered to his younger brother Sakalakala Walla, Prince of Udugampola, who had acquired a
high reputation by his exploits against Muslim pirates who had attempted to despoil the rich pearl
banks o f f the North-West coast of the Island. But the honourable Sakalakala Walla saw " several
objections" 1 to his own acceptance of the offer and placed his brother Vijaya Bahu on the
throne. The new K i n g supported a rising of the Sinhalese of Colombo against the Portuguese fort
by laying siege to i t . The garrison, however, was relieved by the arrival of food and reinforcements
f r o m Goa after being besieged for six months. Soon after, a palace intrigue which aimed at placing
Vijaya Bahu's step-son on the throne in succession to him in preference to three sons of his led to an
insurrection by the latter and his own assassination. Bhuwenaka Bahu the eldest assumed the Kingship,
but independent principalities were carved out of the late King's dominions at Sitawaka and Rayigama
respectively for his two younger brothers, the energetic and ambitious Mayadunna, and the milder
Madduma Bandara. Meanwhile the Portuguese were experiencing the greatest difficulties in main-
taining their f o r t at Colombo, and Vasco da Gama who had arrived as " Viceroy " in 1524 had it
dismantled, leaving only a factory behind for the purchase of cinnamon and the collection of the
annual dues under the treaty with the Sinhalese. In Calicut the Rajah was harassing the Portuguese
on land and sea, grandiloquently calling himself ' Samorin' or ' Lord of the Sea ', and making
overtures to the Sinhalese to aid him in expelling the hated foreigner.

The shrewd Mayadunna who, though the youngest of the brothers, had been the most active
and resourceful in foiling the Court attempt, and who therefore felt he had not been sufficiently re-
warded, receiving as he did only the small principality of Sitawaka saw in Samorin a powerful ally
to aid him in wresting Kotte f r o m the weak hands of Bhuwenaka Bahu. The latter importuned the
Portuguese to rebuild their fort. The history of the next decade is in fact the history of the struggle
between Mayadunna and the Muslims on the one hand, and Bhuwenaka Bahu and the Portuguese
on the other. Kotte was twice besieged and relieved. At length a decisive naval victory off Rames-
waram gained by M a r t i n Alfonso de Souza over the Samorin convinced Mayadunna that he could
expect no further aid f r o m that quarter. Peace was restored and maintained for some years.

EMBASSY T O J O H N I I I O F P O R T U G A L

Bhuwenaka Bahu took advantage of the unwonted quiet prevailing in his realm to send an
embassy to the K i n g of Portugal. He caused a golden image of his grandson Dharmapala to be made
and sent it to Lisbon with instructions to his envoy to plead for support for his succession to the throne.
He played on the reputed fanaticism of John I I I of Portugal by requesting the despatch of missionaries
to preach Christianity to the Sinhalese. The mission was a complete success, and also secured certain
important directives to the Portuguese in Ceylon in regard to their dealings with the Sinhalese. The
> Rajavaliya, p. 74. (Ed. B. Gunasekara).

12
return of the diplomatic mission was followed by intense religious activity. The Cross was planted
all along the Western seaboard. Churches sprang up, converts were aided in their spiritual fervour
by temporal privileges and immunities, while in the palace itself a Franciscan Friar was entrusted with
the education of the young prince Dharmapala, the acknowledged heir to the throne, though the K i n g
himself remained true to his Buddhist faith.

In the meantime Vira Vikrama Bahu, who ruled Kandy and who had aided Bhuwenaka Bahu
and his brothers to win Kotte f r o m Vijaya Bahu, had strengthened his position as an independent
sovereign of the hill-country. He had reduced to subjection the chieftains of the Vanni and the
Eastern and South-Eastern regions, and controlled the harbour of Trincomalee. He began to woo
the Portuguese by offering them a site for a factory at Trincomalee and expressing a desire to be
converted to Christianity. His intentions became known to Bhuwenaka Bahu and Mayadunna,
and the latter in particular, thwarted as he was at Kotte, saw the chance of aggrandising himself at the
expense of Kandy. Combining his forces with those of his brother, Mayadunna marched against
Vikrama Bahu. At length the hesitancy of the Portuguese was followed by action, but aid came too
late. The disappointed Vikrama Bahu had been compelled to buy peace at a heavy price from his
cousins of Sitawaka and Kotte.

CAREER O F V I D I Y E B A N D A R A
Mayadunna, who hitherto had refrained f r o m seeking friendship with the Portuguese, also
began now to court them. Bid and counter-bid for their support by the contending Sinhalese princes
enriched the Portuguese and quickened their avarice. The notorious Noronha himself, who was now
" Viceroy", landed in Ceylon and demanded from Bhuwenaka Bahu a large sum of money. A few
months after he left for Goa, the BCing was shot dead and his grandson, Dharmapala, whose image
had been crowned at Lisbon by John I I I , was raised to the throne, his father Vidiye Bandara assuming
the Regency. The rapacious Noronha once again came to Ceylon, hunted for the late King's treasures,
pillaged the King's palace, marched on Sitawaka which was hastily evacuated by Mayadunna, sacked
the city, pillaged Kotte, took with him an infant son of Bhuwenaka Bahu as hostage, and departed
for Goa leaving behind him a bitter memory of outrage, and an intense desire for revenge among the
Sinhalese. Vidiye Bandara regained his power, and began to harass the Portuguese and to perse-
cute their Christian converts. In an attempt to placate him part of the stolen treasure was restored
by the Portuguese. Gradually, however, they began to reassert themselves. They rebuilt the fort at
Colombo, and when they felt themselves strong enough, they arrested Vidiye Bandara and cast him. into
a dungeon. But love found a way out, for his wife, the beauteous Samudra Devi, had a tunnel bored
underground, and rescued her husband. Vidiye Bandara struck terror once more into the hearts of
the Portuguese and their Sinhalese followers. Meanwhile, the death of Samudra Devi suggested to
Mayadunna a marriage of convenience between his daughter and Vidiye Bandara which proved un-
fortunate. The bride was soon back at her father's house, and Mayadunna had yet another motive
to seek the support of the Portuguese. The allies, under the command of Mayadunna's youngest son,
the boy-prince, T i k i r i Bandara, who soon won by his prowess the title of Raja Sinha, defeated Vidiye
who fled to Kandy. He secured some aid f r o m Karaliadde, who had succeeded to that Kingdom,
and returned to give battle to Raja Sinha. Once more defeated, the desperate Vidiye took refuge
with Edirimanasuriya, Prince of the Seven Korales, but repaid his hospitality by murdering him and
seizing his principality, thus estranging from himself the sympathy of his own people of Kotte. The
combined forces of Kotte, Sitawaka, and the Portuguese now overwhelmed the hapless man, who fled
by sea to the Tamil Kingdom in the North. There at the Nallur Temple, in the course of a great festival
which the Tamil King had arranged in his honour, an accidental explosion alarmed the nerve-shattered
man. Suspecting treachery he drew his sword to cut his way through, and in the fight that ensued
he and his son were slain.

13
A S C E N D A N C Y OF RAJA S I N H A 1
With the turbulent spirit of his father removed from the scene, Dharmapala fell more and more
under the influence of his Franciscan mentors and openly professed Christianity, receiving the baptismal
name of D o n Juan. Many of his courtiers followed suit. The friars went about the country making
many converts. The endowments of the great Buddhist temples were transferred to the new religion.
The fashions and manners of the Portuguese were imitated by their Sinhalese admirers, and their
language adopted. Mayadunna took advantage of the situation thus created in the Kingdom of Kotte.
He was now able to pose as the defender of the national faith and win the support of the people of
Kotte. Only the capital held out against him and, although D o n Juan Dharmapala and the Portu-
guese withstood the siege for long and made many sorties, the pressure of Mayadunna's armies under
Raja Sinha was so great that at length it was decided to evacuate Kotte and fall back on Colombo. The
glory of Jayawardhana-Kotte, the city fortress which Alagakonnara had built and adorned two
centuries earlier, had departed.
Mayadunna had now achieved his long-cherished ambition of adding the dominions of Kotte
to his own territory. For some time he was left undisturbed by the Portuguese. Their own pre-
occupations in South India in resisting the Mushm Confederacy which had destroyed the Vijayanagara
Empire on the field of Tahkota in the very year of the abandonment of Kotte, and which threatened
their own fortress of Goa, prevented any effective aggression against Mayadunna. Meanwhile, the
marriage of D o n Juan Dharmapala with the daughter of the K i n g of Kandy, whose hand Mayadunna
had sought for Raja Sinha, gave the sovereign of Sitawaka a pretext for war with Kandy. Raja Sinha
marched against that Kingdom which proved an easy conquest, and once more a Sinhalese sovereign
held sway over the entire country.
The death of Mayadunna a few years earlier had made Raja Sinha, who had indeed been
de facto ruler in the latter years of his aged father's life, King in his own right. He now set himself
to make a mighty effort to expel the formidable foreigner f r o m the soil of Lanka. An insurrection
in Kandy was ruthlessly suppressed. A merciless purge of all suspects was carried out. The complicity
of some of the Buddhist hierarchy in a plot to assassinate him soured and embittered him against the
religion of which his father had avowed himself the champion, and Raja Sinha became a Hindu and
re-embellished the Berendi K o v i l at Sitawaka. Meanwhile, elaborate preparations for a great siege
of Colombo were set afoot, preparations which in their magnitude recalled those of the Great Parakrama
for his expeditions abroad, albeit they were made now for a land campaign. The Beira Lake, which
formed one of the main defences of Colombo, was successfully drained, and when all was ready Raja
Sinha marched his army before its walls. For seven longmonths both besiegers and besieged performed
countless heroic deeds of valour. Twice at least the Sinhalese almost succeeded in taking the city
by storm. At length, however, relief and reinforcements reached the beleaguered garrison, and Raja
Sinha felt the futihty of waiting any longer before the city, and retired, a disappointed man, to Sitawaka.
The campaign, undertaken with such great hope and at such great cost, had been of no avail to oust
the hated foreigners f r o m his realm, although it had served to display to them, and through them
to posterity, his own remarkable military genius. Meanwhile, the sovereignty of the Island had been
gifted by D o n Juan Dharmapala to the K i n g of Portugal. The last fell blow to " the Lion K i n g " was
delivered when Konappu Bandara, who had long sojourned at Goa and had obtained aid f r o m the
Portuguese, successfully resisted him and threw off his yoke. " The power of my merits has declined ",
said the broken-hearted King, refusing to have a wound in his foot treated, and as he was brought in
his barge to his own royal city he died " w i t h o u t uttering another w o r d ' ' . ^ But the memory of
him in his splendour still lives in the lines of Alagiyawanna : " Glory, Liberality and Truth he cherished,
second to them he held his life, ". -

1 Rajavaliya, p. 94. (Ed. B. Gunasekara).

» Sevul Sandesaya.

14
RISE O F T H E K I N G D O M O F K A N D Y

The death of Raja Sinha moved the centre of Sinhalese resistance to the Portuguese from Sita-
waka to Kandy, where Konappu Bandara ruled as K i n g under the name of Vimala Dharma Suriya.
It also suggested to the Portuguese a new policy, the establishment of a Portuguese dynasty to rule
over Lanka. The treachery of Mannamperuma, General of Nikapitiye Bandara, who had succeeded
the son of Raja Sinha as King of Sitawaka, brought the lands and treasures of that great K i n g under
the control of the Portuguese and their puppet, Don Juan Dharmapala. Mannamperuma received the
honorific title of Jayavira Bandara and proceeded with the Portuguese general, De Souza, and the
armies of Kotte and Sitawaka to eftect, as he thought, an easy conquest o f the H i l l country. The Portu-
guese took with them Donna Catherina, the young daughter of Karaliadde of Kandy, whose legitimate
position was being usurped by Vimala Dharma Suriya. Vimala Dharma Suriya fled before the in-
vaders, who entered Kandy and enthroned the princess, but reports that it was intended to marry her
to Souza or at least to a Portuguese nobleman of high rank alienated the Sinhalese. Jayavira himself
began to play a double game, making overtures .to Vimala Dharma whilst feigning support to his allies.
His treachery was matched with treachery. Proof of his overtures was sent to Souza by Vimala Dharma
and he was put to death. Vimala Dharma seized the opportunity and inflicted a severe defeat
on Souza, and taking the Sinhalese princess with him married her promptly, and strengthened his title
to the throne of Kandy. Another Portuguese general, Azavedo, took the field against him, but a
Sinhalese chieftain,Domingos Correa, who accompanied him, deserted and rebelled against the Portu-
guese, calling himself Edirille Bandara. Azavedo was forced to retreat, but the loyalty of the Sinha-
lese chief Samarakoon to Dharmapala saved the situation. In spite of assistance f r o m Vimala
Dharma, Edirille Bandara was defeated and captured by Samarakoon who surrendered him to the
Portuguese who executed him. Vimala Dharma persuaded Siman Correa to conduct a harassing
warfare against the Portuguese, and the latter calling himself Navaratna Bandara, K i n g of Sitawaka,
stirred up the Sinhalese. In the meantime Don Juan Dharmapala died, and his donation in favour of
the K i n g of Portugal was claimed by the Portuguese as vesting the Kingdom in him.

T H i : M A L W A N A CONVENTION
By a Convention at Malwana the claim was upheld with the approbation of the assembled
chiefs and populace, and the policy of establishing a new Portugal in Ceylon was formally accepted.
The Sinhalese, however, insisted on their customs being observed, and the administration of the terri-
tories of Kotte and Sitawaka, which extended from Puttalam to the Walawe, was vested in four Dissa-
vanies. The patriotic Sinhalese who declined to acquiesce in the new dispensation found refuge with
Vimala Dharma at Kandy who won the affection and veneration of his people by inviting a fresh
mission of Buddhist monks from Burma and by recovering the sacred Tooth-Relic and placing it in an
edifice specially built to receive it,—the Dalada Maligawa of Kandy. In imitation of the great Buddhist
Kings before him, he also made the arduous pilgrimage to the Sacred Foot Print at Adam's Peak.
N o r did he relax his efforts against the Portuguese. He despatched aid to Siman Correa, the " Nava-
ratna Bandara " of Sitawaka, but the loyal Samarakoon fought l i i m and defeated him again. In the
confused struggle for supremacy over the Hill country, desertions to the Portuguese by disgruntled
place-seekers among the Sinhalese were balanced by desertions by disappointed or criminal officers
and soldiers f r o m the Portuguese ranks lo Vimala Dharma. Siman Correa, his hopes of an independent
Kingdom for himself having faded, went back as a convinced Christian to the Portuguese. Manuel
Gomez fought on behalf of Vimala Dharma and laid waste the Portuguese-occupied coast f r o m Chilaw
to Negombo. The wily K i n g even laid a deep plot to reduce Simao Pinhao, the most valiant of
Azavedo's commanders. Azavedo himself first won and then lost the fort of Balane, believed to be the
key to the Kandyan Kingdom, and was compelled to hurry back in headlong flight, the loyalty of

15
Samarakoon again proving useful. Alt seemed lost to the Portuguese except Colombo and Galle,
when Vimala Dharma received news of the arrival of a small Dutch fleet under De Weert off Batticaloa.
But a trick of fate for a time saved the Portuguese suzerainty in the Island f r o m its imminent extinction.
The drunken De Weert made a ribald remark when in audience with the K i n g who ordered him to be
seized. In the scuffle that ensued he was killed with several of his followers. The Dutch fleet sailed
away the next day refusing the aid Vimala Dharma needed. Vimala Dharma himself died in the
following year.
After some uncertainty as to the succession, Senerat, the brother of Vimala Dharma who had
been called back f r o m a monastery by the late King to be guardian to his son Asthana Bandara, assumed;
the Kingship marrying the widowed queen Donna Catherina. The policy of the new King was the;
avoidance of open war with the Portuguese, and for several years after his accession he succeeded in
maintaining an uneasy peace. The Portuguese themselves were too en^rojsed in the affairs of their
own territories to make any serious attempt to reduce the Kandyan Kingdom to subject'on. Azavedo
indeed continued to carry out his programme of " t w o expedhions every year" against the Kandyans,
and also endeavoured to effect an economic blockade by cutting off imports of cloth, opium, and salt
into the HiU country. Senerat on his part looked to assistance f r o m abroad, and received the Dutch-
man De Boschouwver at his court with much favour. He granted the Dutch permission to build a
f o r t at Kottiar and undertook to give them the monopoly of the trade in cinnamon, pearls, and precious
stones. Meanwhile Azavedo was promoted " V i c e r o y " and left for Goa, but his successors in Ceylon
were given detailed instructions framed by Azavedo himself in the light of his long experience. The
Dutch aid that De Boschouwver had promised Senerat was not forthcoming as quickly as the latter had
anticipated, and De Boschouwver himself had to leave Ceylon to secure it. While matters were in
this pass, an unexpected occurrence once more set the whole country aflame.

Away in the desolation of Anuradhapura, the ancient seat of the early Sinhalese Kings, there
appeared a strange unkempt figure with matted hair who claimed to be Nikapitiye Bandara, whom
the treachery of his general Mannamperuma, the Jayavira Bandara of Sitawaka, had ousted f r o m his
lawful Kingdom. He had emerged f r o m the wilds to deUver the Sinhalese f r o m the yoke of the hated
Portuguese. He soon found himself at the head of a considerable force. The disaffected and the
patriotic rallied round this romantic figure. He even received assistance f r o m Senerat himself. A
series of successes enabled him to march triumphantly almost within sight of Colombo itself, but a
decisive battle in which he was routed forced him to flee and put an end to his pretensions.

DISASTROUS E X P E D I T I O N T O K A N D Y
The Portuguese now found it prudent to conclude a treaty of peace with Senerat whose sove-
reignty over the Kandyan Kingdom they now formally acknowledged. The treaty was signed none
too soon. De Boschouwver who had gone to Europe to find the aid he had promised for Senerat
had failed with the Dutch East India Company but had succeeded in persuading the ambitious and
energetic Danish K i n g , Christian I V , to fit out a fleet to help him. The expedition under
Ove Giedde arrived at Kottiar in 1620 but unfortunately the envoy had died on the voyage, and
Senerat who had made peace with the Portuguese declined the proffered aid. Once again destiny
had declared for the Portuguese.

Perhaps the greatest of their Captains-General in Ceylon, Constantine De Saa, now arrived
in the Island, and set himself the unenviable task of reorganizing and purifying a corrupt and undisci-
plined administration. De Saa also crushed the resistance of such Sinhalese as still opposed the Portu-
guese, and added the Tamil Kingdom of Jaffna to the Portuguese dominions in the Island. But he
was recalled to Goa to make way in Colombo for the Viceroy's son, Jorge d' Albuquerque, whose

16
 maladministration resulted in a mutiny among the Portuguese troops themselves. De Saa returned,
fortified Trincomalee ostensibly against any other European Power that had designs on Ceylon, expelled
f r o m Portuguese domains the Moors whose trading activities and power of the purse he considered
detrimental to Portuguese interests, and at length, acting on instructions and smarting under taunts
from Goa, provoked war with Senerat by fortifying Puliyantivu, an Island in the lagoon of Batticaloa.
Initial success attended the Portuguese arms. As De Saa entered Kandyan territory the capital
was evacuated by the Sinhalese. De Saa set it on fire, but thought it unsafe to proceed further into the
interior and retreated to Colombo, fighting a battle at Ambatenne. Senerat attempted to create a
diversion in Jaffna by claiming that Kingdom on behalf of his sons who had married the daughters of
its lawful King, but a detachment under Carvalho Cam routed the invading Sinhalese. Senerat's
eldest son, Kumara Sinha, Prince of Uva, began ravaging Portuguese territory, and De Saa felt obliged
once again to take the field. With masterly strategy, the Sinhalese fell back before the invading army,
and the triumphant Portuguese army entered Badulla, and sacked and burnt the town. But the retreat
proved disastrous. At Randeniwela, the Portuguese were hemmed in on every side, and in the battle
that followed De Saa himself fell. The dalliance of the victorious Sinhalese helped the garrison at
Colombo to prepare for its defence, and the siege of the city which was next undertaken by the Sinhalese
failed.

E N D O F PORTUGUESE R U L E
But the end of Portuguese authority in the Island was not far off. A new Raja Sinha had a
appeared on the stage, who had won his spurs at Randeniwela. Born at Mahiyangana, the famed
spot where Buddha flying through the air had come down to earth to preach to the assembled Yakkhas,
this son of Senerat and Donna Catherina had all the omens at his birth favourable for a great future.
The death of Senerat in 1536 placed him on the throne of Kandy and in a position to shape his own
policy. He was astute enough to perceive that the expulsion of the Portuguese could not be effected
except with foreign aid, and he at once began to treat with the Dutch. The nervous Portuguese sought
to forestall him by declaring war on a flimsy pretext. Diego de Melho marched on Kandy, which
Raja Sinha evacuated. The memory of Randeniwela made de Melho beat a hurried retreat. But
it was too late. Once again the hills around and the vales below swarmed with Sinhalese troops at
the pass at Balane, and the Portuguese army was annihilated. Meanwhile, the Dutch had responded
eagerly to Raja Sinha's request for aid. Westerwold arrived with a fleet off Batticaloa and captured
the Portuguese fort of Puliyantivu. A treaty with the Dutch was concluded. Anthony Caen stormed
Trincomalee. Lucasz seized Negombo. Costar besieged and captured Galle. Negombo was
indeed wrested back only to be recaptured by the Dutch a few years later. But Colombo still remained
Portuguese, the city which Raja Sinha declared must be destroyed " as the origin and the mother of all
the evil that had come upon this Island and the lawful Kings thereof. " *

Raja Sinha was disappointed. His resentment was aggravated by the retention by the Dutch
of the forts they had captured, contrary to the express terms of the treaty he had made with them.
His proud and straightforward nature spurned " the tergiversations and subterfuges " of his new allies,
and caused him to destroy by force an encampment they had constructed on his territory at Pannare.
But both he and the Dutch realized only too well that it was in their common interest to subordinate
their differences and act together against the Portuguese. The latter, however, had a brief respite.
News had reached Ceylon of the revolution in Portugal which had placed a native dynasty, the House
of Braganza, once more on its throne. The United Provinces had welcomed this development and had
concluded a peace on a uti possidetis basis in respect of conquests abroad. The Dutch applied its pro-
visions to Ceylon, and negotiated a truce with the Portuguese. Raja Sinha indeed made dignified

'Cf. Pieris, P. E . , "Ceylon, the Portuguese E r a , " p. 319.

17
jjrotestations that the terms of the truce were not In accord with the agreements of the Dutch with him.
The Portuguese in a desperate effort to save the situation sought Raja Sinha's favour during the truce,
but the K i n g was not foolish to trust his fortunes to a falling foe. The truce ended in 1652, and the
Dutch informed the K i n g that they were now ready to deliver their long-delayed attack on Colombo.
The feats of the briUiant Figueira, like the last flicker of a dying candle, postponed the end for a time.
But at length Colombo was besieged by H u l f t and taken by storm in 1656, though H u l f t himself was
killed before the final assault. Mannar and Jaffna capitulated in 1658, and the power of the Portuguese
in Ceylon was extinguished.

LEGACY OF PORTUGAL

It is a remarkable tribute to the Portuguese genius for assimilation that no distinctive race-group
with peculiar ethnic or social characterstics has come down to attest the one hundred and fifty years
of Portuguese authority in the country. The Portuguese in Ceylon were no mere adventurers, come
" to shake the pagoda tree " and depart to Portugal with their pickings, but settlers in a new land which
they had adopted as their home. Thus, when on the fall of Colombo, Raja Sinha offered them shelter
in his dominions, they gratefully accepted the offer and were established i n many parts of the H i l l -
country. No " colour-line indeed, marred the freedom of intercourse between them and the Sinha-
lese. Intermarriage was frequent and was not looked at askance either by the Portuguese or the
Sinhalese. The fact that his own daughter and nieces had Portuguese husbands did not estrange
Sinhalese support f r o m Domingos Correa. The fact that his mother was a Sinhalese lady did not
hinder Figueira f r o m being the last great captain, beloved by the Portuguese soldiery. It is indeed true
that in the so-called " Burgher " community of Ceylon a few who claim to be descendants of the Portu-
guese are included, but the Tupasses and Mesticos have long since disappeared as a separate element
in the population, and the jargon they spoke is now seldom heard. But at the apogee of Portuguese
influence, the Sinhalese court and the Sinhalese people alike learned the language of Portugal, took pride
in Portuguese names and titles, fashioned their clothes and conduct in Portuguese style, cultivated their
religion, and moulded their education on the Portuguese pattern. This influence was, indeed, greatest
in the Ceylon littoral, in the long stretch of coast f r o m Puttalam in the North to Dondra and Walawe
in the South, but it was not altogether absent f r o m the inland. A smafl negro element too has been
added to the composition of the population of this region by the importation of African slaves and soldiers.
But ethnic and cultural fusion has been so complete that echoes of the vanished power of Portugal
can now be heard only faintly, in the surnames of some families, in the common names of articles in
use in home and oflfice, i n the lilt of amoebaean verses, in the rhythm of baila dances, and, perhaps
a little more markedly, in the sound of the angelus calling the devout Catholic to worship.

DUTCH ADMINISTRATION
The Dutch undertook with characteristic thoroughness the administration of the Portuguese
territory they occupied. The prime necessity for a profitable commercial enterprise was peace, and
this the Dutch made every eff'ort to secure. Raja Sinha was addressed with the grossest flattery.
Insults and humiliations at his hands were borne with the greatest patience. Knowing his fondness
for animals, they sought and despatched to him the rarest and the finest they could find. Raja Sinha
on his part kept himself disdainfufly aloof, receiving the envoys and keeping them about his court but
not giving them safe conduct back. He did not indeed want war, but he had no great desire for the
continuance of friendly relations with alHes who had broken faith with him. The negative attitude
of the Sinhalese King, however, enabled the Dutch to conduct the aff"airs of their territory with some
benefit to its inhabitants and much profit to themselves. Agriculture was fostered, especially the

18
growing of rice which was undertaken with such energy that it was possible to build up an export
trade in i t . Irrigation works were constructed or repaired. Cattle were imported f r o m India. The
cultivation of cotton and tobacco was promoted and protected. Even the silkworm was introduced.
The trade in cinnamon, arecanut and elephants, besides specific taxes and the takings of the pearl
fishery, swelled the revenue, and the Dutch East India Company was able to pay every year a handsome
dividend to " lay the foundation of a great many private fortunes in Holland ".

But other European nations were also sailing the Indian seas and founding trading factories
wherever they could. The British, who were regarded by the Dutch as their greatest rivals and f r o m
whose memory the bitterness of the Amboyna outrage ^ had not yet been effaced, now began to
appear with alarming frequency off the coasts of Ceylon. It was known that British envoys had been
received in audience by the Sinhalese King, and had been given permission to erect a factory at Kalpitiya.
The Dutch quickly seized Kalpitiya for themselves, and built a f o r t at Point Pedro. Meanwhile a
rising against Raja Sinha created a fortunate diversion in favour of the Dutch who took advantage of
an appeal f r o m him for help to erect a f o r t in his own dominions at Ruanwella. But the rising was soon
repressed and further Dutch infiltration into the interior was checked by the suspicious K i n g whose
chieftains drove them out. The French too arrived off Trincomalee with a fleet under Admiral de la
Haye, and obtained the King's permission to occupy Kottiar. But sickness and storms drove the
French away, and the small garrison that was left behind surrendered to the Dutch, although a French
envoy and his retinue arrived at Raja Sinha's court and were added to the number of Europeans in his
realm, of whom the Englishman, Robert Knox, the author of the Historical Relation of Ceylon,
was already one. The tactful diplomacy of the Dutch Governor Pyl prevented any serious rupture
and in 1687 Raja Sinha IL died and was succeeded by his son Vimala Dharma Suriya 11.

POLICY OF C O N C I L I A T I O N
Any hopes the Dutch may have had of taking advantage of the youth and inexperience of the
new K i n g were soon dashed to the ground when it was discovered that, with the disciplined mind of
one who had been brought up in a monastery, he was willing to consult and act on the advice of his
Ministers. A demand for the removal of Dutch control of the ports of the country and for the surren-
der of occupied territory was met with protestations by the Dutch, who, however, yielded in permitting
the Sinhalese nobleman Navaratna who was in their employ to accept f r o m the King a gift of land in
occupied territory, thus acknowledging the King's suzerainty. They also agreed to make to the K i n g
an annual payment in return for the right to collect cinnamon f r o m the King's territory, and quietly
evacuated such of the hinterland as they still occupied. Moreover, the rehgious intolerance which
had been shown by them to Sinhalese Roman Catholics and Buddhists aroused the King's resentment
and made him demand f r o m the Dutch that freedom of worship which in his own domains he and his
father before him had always conceded to his subjects. The demand, a decision on which was long
postponed on various pretexts, was ultimately refused, but in practice the observance of the laws res-
tricting free worship was not strictly enforced, much to the chagrin of the Dutch Protestant clergy
themselves. Van Rhee, who succeeded Pyl as Dutch Governor, went beyond his predecessor in this
policy of conctUation. He agreed to open the ports, placed a vessel at the King's disposal to fetch
Buddhist priests f r o m Burma, and another to bring a royal princess f r o m Madura. Governor de Heere
continued the good work, and in the regime of his successor Johannes Simonsz, a register of the Dutch
Regulations and a summary of the local Placaats, under which justice was administered in the Sinhalese
Low-country, were compiled; while an authoritative statement of the Thesawalamai, or customary law

'The massacre of English settlers by the Dutch in .l.D. 1623 was the theme of Drydeu's tragedy
"Amboyna or the Cruelties of the Dutch to English Residents" 1673.

19
of the Jaffna Tamils, was at the same time prepared and promulgated. Vimala Dharma Suriya himself
sought merit by performing " divers good deeds ", among them the building of a new Dalada Maligawa
to house the sacred Tooth-Relic, and a pilgrimage on foot to the Holy Peak, and died in 1706 after a
peaceful and prosperous reign of twenty years.

The Dutch took immediate advantage of his death. The ports they had opened at his request
were closed to the inhabitants of the Sinhalese Kingdom, and though the young K i n g Narendra Sinha
retaliated by closing his land frontiers to the Dutch, the peace which had marked Vimala Dharma
Suriya's reign continued undisturbed. The Dutch Governor Becker set himself to purge the adminis-
tration of the abuses that had crept in through the avarice of the Company's officials, and the compi-
lation of fresh tombos or registers was undertaken. The country's resources were exploited to the full
and the highest profits were obtained f r o m the trade in the usual commodities,—arecanut, cinnamon,
rice, salt, elephants and even from the horse-breeding industry which had been started in the Island of
Neduntivu or Delft off Jaffna. Rigorous measures were taken to exclude their trade rivals, the Moors,
but could not altogether prevent their incursions. Narendra Sinha's friendship was assiduously culti-
vated, and the beneficial results of this pohcy were seen when disaffected elements in Dutch territory
such as the chiefs of the Vanni, or the restive cinnamon peelers, or the people of the Western lowlands
did not receive f r o m the Sinhalese K i n g the support and assistance they had expected from him in their
risings against the Dutch. A conspiracy of certain nobles against Narendra Sinha in the early years
of his reign had been discovered and frustrated,—the conspirators paying the penalty for their treason
with their lives. The K i n g himself devoted the rest of his long reign of thirty-three years to peaceful
pursuits. He made pilgrimages to Mahiyangana and the Sacred Peak, visited " the venerable city of
Anuradhapura ", formed the pleasant' suburb ' of Kundasale and, as the temple of the Tooth-Relic
that his father had built was decaying, he " caused a fine two-storeyed building to be erected ", and
a dazzling casket set with seven hundred gems " to be made to receive the relics, and placed them in
charge of the great Buddhist monk Saranankara. The death of Narendra Sinha in 1739 ended the
long line of Sinhalese Kings, for he left no issue to succeed him.

MALABAR DYNASTY

His nominee was a brother of his queen f r o m Madura, who assumed the title of Sri Vijaya
Raja Sinha. A faction of the Sinhalese nobility did indeed attempt to place a Sinhalese on the throne,
Narendra's son by a Sinhalese lady, but jealousy among the Sinhalese prevented unanimity, and the
attempt was foiled. The new King married a lady f r o m Madura and her father Narenappa Nayakar,
who was in the years to come to wield the greatest influence at the Kandy Court, accompanied her with
a whole retinue of relatives and friends. Indeed, the Sinhalese King's court began now to wear that
" novel, namely Malabar, countenance " which a Dutch Governor ^ observed as a strange phenomenon
in the succeeding reign. An altered poHcy towards the Dutch was also soon apparent, and that friction
which it had been deemed prudent by both parties to avoid in the past was now deliberately sought
by the King's advisers. Not only did they reiterate their demand for the opening of the ports, but
they encouraged smugghng by Coast Moormen and fomented strikes among the Company's cinnamon
peelers. The Dutch, however, by flattery and obsequiousness still continued to avoid open war, and
even sought to win the King's favour by undertaking to convey an embassy to Siam for Buddhist monks
f r o m that country. The King's reign was relatively short, and in 1747 he died, leaving the Sinhalese
throne to his young brother-in-law, Narenappa Nayakar's son, who assumed the title of K i r t i Sri
Raja Sinha.

' Jan Schreiider, Extraordinary Councillor of India and Governor, 17.17-1762.

20
 Described by the chronicler as a prince who " found favour in the eyes of his people by the
exceeding beauty of his person ", * K i r t i Sri receives laudatory mention for his encouragement of
Buddhism. He had set himself to " walk in the excellent path of the duties of a King, " which in respect
of religion led him to place the sacred Peak in the custody of Saranankara, to dedicate the valuable
lands at Kuttapitiya to the shrine, and to obtain from Siam a mission of ordained Buddhist monks.
Meanwhile in the Low-Country the Dutch were experiencing great misfortunes in their administration.
Plague and cyclonic storms, religious friction, corruption and maladministration caused grave dissatis-
faction among the people of the occupied territory and culminated in an uprising against the Dutch.
K i r t i Sri and his ministers openly espoused the cause of the rebels, stormed Matara and captured
Kalutara and Hanwella. They also sought aid f r o m the Nawab of the Carta'tic who rejected the appeal
scornfully as made not by a brother sovereign, but " by a country gentleman from Madura ". -
Assistance besought f r o m the British at Port St. George, Madras, seemed more hopeful, for Pybus,
a member of the Madras Council, was sent in 1762 to the Kandyan Court on an exploratory mission.
Pybus had no powers to commit the British authorities at Madras, and his mission therefore was
inconclusive.

DIFFICULTIES OF THE DUTCH

The Dutch Governor, van Eck, now realized that war with Kandy could no longer be
deferred, and invaded the Sinhalese Kingdom. The first expedition was ill-planned and proved disas-
trous, and the Governor himself headed a second which marched on the capital by way of Galagedera.
K i r t i Sri, as his predecessors had done before him in the days of the Portuguese, vacated Kandy, and
withdrew to Badulla. The King's palaces at Kandy and Kundasale were plundered, the city was
sacked, but the perils of a prolonged stay were recognized, and van Eck returned to Colombo, his path
beset by Sinhalese guerillas who harassed him all the way. He had left a garrison behind at Kandy which
was compelled after a few months to evacuate, and march back to Colombo, suffering heavy losses.
Van Eck himself died,—it was said he had killed himself in despair,—and was succeeded by Falck,
perhaps the ablest of the Dutch Governors in Ceylon. The new Governor soon perceived that within
the Kandyan Kingdom itself all was not quite well, and that the war had occasioned much hardship to
the subjects of K i r t i Sri. He determined to exert the greatest military pressure to increase the distress
among the Sinhalese. Sabaragamuwa was ravaged. An expedition marched towards Uva f r o m
Trincomalee, laying waste the country. Another occupied and sacked Matale. At the same time
Falck endeavoured by diplomatic means to convince the K i n g of the advantages of peace.

At length negotiations were initiated, and on February 14, 1766, a new treaty was concluded. A
situation had been reached when Falck was in a position to dictate the terms. The claim to sovereignty
of the Sinhalese King over the territory occupied by the Dutch before the war was abandoned, and in
addition the K i n g ceded to them the whole of the seaboard which had been undisputedly his, up to a
width of about two miles, in return for an annual payment of the revenue that might be collected
therefrom. The Dutch secured general authority to peel cinnamon in the King's territory, and the
customary humiliating prostrations, which ambassadors on the annual mission to the Court of Kandy,
started eighty years before in Vimala Dharma Suriya's reign were expected to make, were dispensed with.
The King's subjects were given free access to the salt pans in Dutch territory. The peace thus concluded
gave Falck the opportunity of taking effective measures for the development of the territory which
was now formally acknowledged to be Dutch. Rice cultivation was promoted to the utmost, even
the large tract of fields known as Mutturajawela near Colombo being reclaimed and cultivated, though
perforce abandoned again in a few years. An attempt to cultivate cinnamon in Colombo was made.
' Mahavamsa. Ch. X C I X .
2 Cf. Pieris, P. E. : Ceylon and the Hollanders, p. 108.

21
Successful pearl fisheries were conducted, and, strange to say, a more tolerant policy was adopted
towards religions other than Dutch Protestantism. Falck himself proceeded to the ancient Buddhist
shrine at Mulgirigala and endeavoured to win over the people by a show of seeking understanding of
their religious views. Even the Moors whom his predecessors had repressed received some measure
of sympathetic recognition at his hands, for Falck had their customs recorded and observed as law.
K i r t i Sri for his part made use of the peace by devoting his attention to matters of the spirit, and not only
fostered the Buddhist religion but also encouraged a great literary revival. Destiny, however, was
moving and the allotted span of Dutch domination in Ceylon was drawing to a close. K i r t i Sri died
on the 2nd of January, 1782, and two days after his death, a British fleet under Sir Edward Hughes
anchored off" Trincomalee.

C A P I T U L A T I O N T O T H E BRITISH
This was no collection of ships accidentally driven to the shores of Ceylon or cruising along on
an expedition of explorations or plunder. It had arrived in the Island in pursuance of a planned cam-
paign in the conduct of a war that had broken out between Holland and Britain. For Britain in her
fight with her American Colonies which, strange to say, were being encouraged in their struggle for
freedom by Bourbon despotism, was insistent on forcibly searching the ships of every country on the
seas, and Holland at the instance of Catherine of Russia had joined the other European Powers in
what was termed the Armed NeutraUty. In the course of the war, the British had recently blockaded
and stormed Negapatam on the Indian coast, and had planned to capture Colombo and cut off the
cinnamon trade of the Dutch. Trincomalee and Fort Ostenburg were easily captured by Hughes, and
an ambassador, Boyd, was sent with proposals for a treaty of alliance to the court of the new King of
Kandy, Rajadhi Raja Sinha, who had succeeded K i r t i Sri. But the diffidence of the King and his
ministers to treat with one who, like Pybus before him, did not appear to be vested with full powers,
prevented any results, and Boyd left in chagrin only to be captured by a French ship. Meanwhile
the French Admiral de Suffren was seeking every opportunity to meet and defeat Hughes. He arrived
at Trincomalee and compelled the British garrison left behind by Hughes to surrender, and though
Hughes returned and fought an encounter off Trincomalee, that town and its Fort Ostenburg remained
in French hands till the Treaty of Paris in 1783 restored it to the British who gave it back to the Dutch.
In 1785 the Dutch Governor Falck died and was succeeded by van de Graaff. The new Gover-
nor was anxious to enhance the prestige of the Dutch and was inclined to display an aggressive attitude
towards the Sinhalese King. But instructions f r o m Batavia held him in check. Meanwhile events
were occurring in Holland, almost kaleidoscopic in their variety. The "patriot p a r t y " that was
opposed to the Stadtholder was beaten to its knee by a Prussian invasion in favour of William V, and
Holland became for a b r i e f period the friend of Britain. Cornwallis, who had surrendered to the Ameri-
can revolutionaries at Saratoga, and who was now in charge of British affairs in India, even sought the
aid of the Dutch in Ceylon against Tippoo Sahib of Mysore. But an outbreak of smallpox and serious
local disturbances kept van de Graaff's hands fuUy occupied, while -the ambitions of the Sinhalese
nobleman Pilima Talawa were beginning to play their part in affecting the country's destiny. These
however, were very smafl matters in a world that changed with cataclysmic suddenness in 1789. Holland
was caught up in the vortex of the French Revolution, and Pichegru's army expelled the Stadtholder
and set up the Batavian Republic with the " patriot party " in close afliance with France, and hostile
to Britain. In Ceylon, on the strength of a letter from the exiled Stadtholder, the British demanded
the transfer of the Dutch Settlements, and when the bewildered Dutch were hesitant, took Trincomalee
and Fort Ostenburg by force. Batticaloa, Point Pedro, and Jaffna soon surrendered. Mannar,
Kalpitiya, and Negombo were occupied, and preparations were made against Colombo. A mercenary
regiment under the Dutch transferred itself to the service of the British, and van Angelbeek, who had
succeeded in July 1794 as Dutch Governor, capitulated to the British on the 16th of February, 1796.

22
EFFECTS OF T H E D U T C H O C C U P A T I O N

Thus ended the period of Dutch political power and commercial activity in Ceylon. Historians
have seen in the administration by the Dutch of the territory occupied by them a similarity in outlook
and method to the management of an estate by its proprietor. The Dutch East In'^ia Company which
was responsible for the administration was a trading company intent on profit, and was innocent of any
imperial spirit. Since peace was an essential for successful trade, peace was sought even at the cost
of insults and humuhations. Since the produce of agriculture formed the material of trade, agriculture
was fostered with care and diligence, and new lands were brought under cultivation and new crops were
introduced. Since the movement of produce needed facilities for transport, the country was intersected
by a network of canals and roads. A system of law and justice provided security and order. It can
scarcely be gainsaid that the Dutch occupation of the Maritime Provinces of Ceylon resulted in their
economic development and improvement. But trade rivals were rigorously repressed, while Dutch
settlers and discharged Dutch servants of the company were set up in trade with special privileges and
exemptions. In the engrossing pursuit of wealth, defence was deemed unnecessary since internal
peace prevailed, and it is not therefore surprising that the edifice of Dutch domination crumbled at the
first touch of an external foe.

It is, perhaps, the misfortune of Ceylon that the period of its occupation by the Dutch followed
and was not contemporaneous with the golden age of Dutch art and Dutch literature. It was not the
civilization of the Holland of Rembrandt and Vondel, but the utilitarian civilization of a Holland of
merchants and carriers that Ceylon in its destiny saw and received. Their carefully compiled tax
registers, their methodical book-keeping, their skill in building construction, their domestic virtues
of neatness, cleanliness and culinary proficiency aroused interest and admiration, but the prestige of a
nation of mere traders never stood too high. None the less, it is their law, known to the world as
Roman-Dutch law founded on the Institutes of Justinian and modified by Dutch custom and Dutch
interpretation, that forms the basis of the common law of this country. But from the demographic
angle, their main contribution lies in the addition to the permanent population of the Island, firstly,
of a group of European descendants who have developed a common race-consciousness under the
distinctive designation of " Burghers ", and, secondly, of a yellowish-brown group of Javanese extrac-
tion whose ancestors were brought by them into Ceylon for military sevices or as pohtical deportees, ^
and who, though Muslim by religion, preserve a separate race-consciousness under the name of
" Malays ".

The successor to the Dutch East India Company in the administration of the Maritime Provinces
of Ceylon was the Enghsh East India Company, which, in terms of Pitt's India Act of 1784, was under
the political, financial, and military superintendence of the British Crown. In the political situation
of Europe then obtaining, it was expected that peace between the Dutch and the British might be
effected at any moment, the result of which might be the transfer to the Dutch of the newly acquked
territory. There was therefore no attempt at the outset to organize a pohtical administration, and
the Company busied itself in the collection of revenues, imposing new taxes and adopting methods and
personnel it was accustomed to employ in the neighbouring Province of Madras. The social and eco-
nomic organization of the inhabitants and their ancient customs were completely disregarded, an
attitude which engendered the gravest disaffection and stung them to rebel. A compromise solution
to carry on the administration under a Civil Governor appointed by the Crown, whilst the revenues
collected were placed at the disposal of the Company, was found unworkable, and in 1801 the country
was made independent of the Company, and all powers, civil and military, were vested solely in the
Governor.

1 Some of these were Javanese princes. Cf. Arunaohalam, P, : Census of Ceylon, 1901. p. 82

23
BRITISH RELATIONS WITH KANDY

Meanwhile in Kandy faction was again rearing its ugly head. Pilima Talawa, as the head of the
Sinhalese nationalists opposing the Dravidian dynasty, was gathering in his hands the reins of power.
He found himself sufficiently strong to'dethrone Rajadhi Raja Sinha, but hesitated to provoke the
jealous envy of his fellow nobles by assuming the Kingship himself. Nor did it suit his purpose to
acknowledge the deposed King's nominee, Muttusamy, a brother of one of his queens, as his successor
to the Sinhalese Throne. Instead, he toyed with the idea of placing on the throne a young prince named
Kannasamy, said to be a natural son of Rajadhi by a sister of his queen, whom he expected to be a
puppet in his hands. With Rajadhi's death a short time after his dethronement, the idea was carried
into effect and Kannasamy was proclaimed King under the title of Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha.
The new K i n g was not averse to carrying out the behests of his creator. The Nayakkar
party was broken up. Its leaders fled for protection to the British. If PiUma Talawa had been
content to remain the power behind the throne, the course of events would indeed have been different.
But the delusion of patriotism maddened his ambitious mind. He would establish a new Sinhalese
dynasty on the throne of the Sinhalese Kings, and that dynasty would be founded by himself or derived
f r o m his blood. W i t h this end in view he began a series of negotiations with the British who for their
part were not disinclined to consider proposals which would give them effective control over the
territory of the Sinhalese Kingdom. But the persistence with which the British Governor North
declared his intention of protecting the person and dignity of the King displeased and disappointed
Pilima Talawa, and the only result of the negotiations was an expensive embassy under General
Macdowall with a mihtary escort to the Court of Kandy. Pilima Talawa's prolonged absence f r o m
Court had enabled his personal enemies to poison the King's mind against his erstwhile benefactor
who found it necessary to embroil the British in a war with the King in order to regain his declining
influence. Governor North himself had also conceived of independent action against the Sinhalese
by espousing the cause of Muttusamy, the nominee of the late King Rajadhi, who was believed to
have "a very considerable party in the country."/ Macdowall from Colombo and Barbut from
Trincomalee marched on Kandy which at their approach was completely evacuated by King and
people. The installation of Muttusamy found little favour. Pilima Talawa was active on the side
of the fugitive K i n g to the great bewilderment of the British. There was nothing for it but to leave
a garrison behind at Kandy and to withdraw to Colombo, as the Portuguese and the Dutch had done
before on hke expeditions. M a j o r Davie was placed in charge at Kandy, but soon found his position
untenable. He received safe conduct to Trincomalee from Pilima Talawa for his forces and
Muttusamy, but at a ferry over the swoUen river the surrender of Muttusamy was peremptorily
demanded in the name of the King. Davie reluctantly acceded but found that the surrender of
Muttusamy had not made his passage any the smoother. Davie himself was ordered to return to
Kandy with his men who were disarmed and, while the Malays, who formed part of his force, were
impressed into the King's service, the British troops were massacred in cold blood. Only a corporal
escaped to tell the horrible tale, while Davie and two of his captains, and a Dutch surgeon were
kept in confinement.

This terrible episode was followed by an invasion of British occupied territory, but
though Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha himself led the attack on Colombo the British succeeded in repelling
the invasion. A second expedition against Kandy was planned but abandoned owing to dififerences
of opinion between Governor North and the new General Wemyss. An economic blockade of the
Sinhalese Kingdom was substituted instead. A sullen truce ensued, interrupted by occasional devasta-
tory expeditions. Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha thought the time opportune to attempt to assert himself
and break the power of the Sinhalese chiefs. He seems to have felt it safer to rely on his Nayakkar
I North to Hobart, 16th March, 1802.

24
relatives whom he now openly favoured than on the Sinhalese courtiers f r o m whom he withdrew
his confidence. Acting on the advice of the Nayakkars, he began to institute inquiries into the conduct
even of the great chieftains, to elevate to high office men whose rank did not warrant such appointment,
to adopt a systematic policy of reshuffling offices and breaking up districts, to reimpose death duties
on estates, and to encourage and develop local village and district councils. He seems also to have
believed that, by impressing for service at Kandy on a large programme of public works labour f r o m
the remoter districts, he would bring odium on the chieftains concerned and at the same time weaken
their command of manpower in any uprising they may be inclined to support.

PLOT A G A I N S T T H E K I N G
But the new policy alienated both chiefs and people. A revolt was indeed repressed by Pilima
Talawa himself who apparently regained for a brief spell his ascendancy over his protege, the King.
But his ambition of founding a Sinhalese dynasty was clearly indicated when he sought to marry his
son to the daughter of Mampitiya Bandara, a natural son of K i r t i Sri Raja Sinha. The King found
himself in a position to summon the great chief on charges of maladministration before the Great
Court of the Nobles, and the jealousy with which his power was regarded by his peers enabled Sri
Vikrama to strip him of his offices and to compel his retirement into private life. In his disgrace and
despair Pilima Talawa plotted to murder the King, and to raise a rebellion in provinces that were loyal
to him. But the plot was discovered and frustrated. The rebellion was quickly quelled. And
Pilima Talawa paid with his fife the penalty for his failure. In his place as first adigar, with i l l grace
the K i n g accepted his nephew Ehelapola who was the next leading chieftain in the realm. The history
of the few remaining years of Sinhalese independence revolves around this ill-starred personality.
An alleged failure to give worthy gifts on the occasion of the King's nuptials was made an excuse for
banishing Ehelapola f r o m the King's immediate presence, and sometime later he was summoned
as his uncle had been, to answer charges of unjust exactions and maladministration. But Ehelapola
refused to obey the summons and raised the standard of revolt. The King deprived him of his offices,
seized his family as hostages, and appointed his personal enemy Molligoda as first adigar, and
despatched him to suppress the revolt. Ehelapola made frantic appeals to the British for aid, but
the Governor, Brownrigg, while he was inclined to lend him secret assistance, was not prepared
actively to intervene. The revolt soon fizzled out, and Ehelapola found himself seeking an asylum
in British territory.

The fury of Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha knew no bounds. He wreaked a terrible vengeance
on the unhappy hostages in his hands. He alienated the Buddhist hierarchy by seizing temple
property, imprisoning several priests and executing one who was suspected of complicity in
the revolt. He prepared for war with the British but the call to arms found poor response among
his subjects. Migrations into British territory took place and the time seemed ripe for Britain to offer
to the Sinhalese King's subjects " the benign protection of the British Government". An occasion
for war alone was wanting, but an occasion was soon found. The K i n g had caused some Sinhalese
traders, subjects of the British, to be seized as spies and sent back to British territory with their
persons mutilated. Brownrigg seized upon this incident with avidity. " A wanton, arbitrary and
barbarous piece of cruelty " ^ had been perpetrated by the inhuman King. What was more, he
had taken " evident pains to give it the character of Insult to His Majesty's Government ". He issued
a proclamation that " in vindication of the honour of the British name," and " for the subversion of
that Malabar domination which during three generations had tyrannized over the country " he had
decided to employ his " powerful resources " " for the deliverance of the Kandyan people from these
oppressions ".

1 Brownrigg to Bathurst, 30th October, 1814.

25
K A N D Y A N CONVENTION A N D AFTER

Acting closely on advice tendered by Ehelapola himself, he ordered his troops to

march on Kandy. The K i n g had fondly hoped that the experience of 1803 would deter the British
f r o m making the attempt, and when he learnt that they were indeed on their way and were meeting
with Httle resistance f r o m Molligoda, whom he had sent against them, he had the unfortunate bearer
of the i l l tidings executed on the spot. As the invading forces approached, he fled f r o m the capital,
but 1803 did not repeat itself. There was no Sinhalese army to conceal itself in the woods and to swoop
upon the British in its own time. For the chiefs and people were no longer for the King. Ehelapola's
men soon discovered his hiding place, and he was taken prisoner and removed to Colombo. At
the Hall of Audience in the palace of the Sinhalese Kings a Convention was agreed to on the 2nd of
March 1815 and the sovereignty of the Kingdom was vested in the British Crown to be exercised through
the Governors of Ceylon saving to the chiefs and headmen appointed by the British Government
" the rights, privileges and powers of their respective offices ". But within a few years the disaffection
of the chiefs in regard to the permitted exercise of their power combined with national sentiment
in a desperate attempt.to throw off the British yoke. A pretender was set up in the wilds of Uva
and Keppetipola and other chiefs espoused his cause. Molligoda, however, remained loyal, and the
rebellion was ruthlessly repressed. The opportunity was taken to tighten British control and, although
a few other insurrections took place within the first half of the century, all of them of small moment
and all of them abortive, the country was set on the path of peace and ordered progress as a component
unit of the British Empire.

That Empire itself was changing in its character. No longer was it regarded as merely an
opportunity for trade or spoOation. The lessons of the American Revolt and the French Revolution
had been learnt. British statesmen were developing a moral conscience. The humanitarian ideals,
which inspired the abohtion of slavery in the face of the opposition of massive vested interests, were
being extended into a wider sphere. The principle of trusteeship, of government primarily for the
welfare of the governed, was being openly avowed. It was fortunate for Ceylon that British adminis-
tration generally, though not always, acted in accord with this changed outlook. The freshening
breeze of British democracy blew over the land f r o m end to end and expelled the foul air of pohtical
intrigue of an effete and corrupt society. The Sinhalese indeed lost the sentimental satisfaction of
an uncertain independence. But they gained the more solid benefits of personal security and
protection under a law which recognized no gradations of race or rank. The country was opened
up by an inflow of British capital and foflowed in the wake of British economic enterprise in a century
unparalleled for an onward march towards prosperity. New elements were added to its population
by immigration, particularly by the importation of South Indian Tamils for work on the large planta-
tions in the h i l l country. But the unifying influence of a single government exerting its authority
over all peoples hving in one common territory has created a new community sentiment of nationhood,
the sense of belonging together to one nation. Each race-group is bringing its own separate
inheritance to the common store, and in the blend of the best in each lies the hope of the future. To the
nascent nation the brave story of another small Island nation that has fought for the freedom of man
more than once against fearful odds serves as an inspiring example. The birth of the Ceylonese nation,
moulding itself on British democratic institutions and having before it the noblest British ideals, is,
perhaps, Britain's greatest and proudest achievement in Ceylon.

26
 CHAPTER II

C E Y L O N AT T H E E V E OF THE CENSUS OF 1946

1 HE Second World War was in its second year when the eighth decennial census of Ceylon,
fell due to be taken. The war notwithstanding, certain countries of the British Empire, such as
Canada and Ceylon's great neighbour India, were making preparations to conduct a Census in 1941,
and, following their example, the Government of Ceylon appointed a Superintendent of Census on
the 24th of A p r i l , 1940 Three months later, however, influenced no doubt by the course of the war
the Government decided to abandon the project, and the series of decennial censuses was definitely
broken. Four years later, as the chances of a successful conclusion of the war grew more hopeful,
the governments of countries within the British Empire began to turn their attention to post-war re-
construction. It was felt in Ceylon that the absence of any reliable statistics since 1921,—for the 1931
Census had not collected detailed information except in respect of the population of Colombo—•
constituted a very serious handicap, and the suggestion for a " full " census was once again put
forward. Political developments, moreover, indicated that a census would be useful in connexion
with any reapportionment of seats i n the Ceylon Legislature that a Commission, - recently appointed
with L o r d Soulbury as Chairman, might make. Accordingly on December 1, 1944, a new appointment
of a Superintendent of Census was made with instructions to carry out not merely an enumeration of
the population as i n 1931, but a " f u f l " census as soon as practicable. On the 8th of May, 1945
the war in the West came officially to an end. On the 14th of August, 1945, the unconditional surrender
of Japan terminated it in the East. It was, therefore, a Ceylon emerging f r o m the gloom of the greatest
war in history, in which it had itself played no mean part since the beginning of 1942, that formed the
object of the demographic survey concluded on the 19th of March, 1946.

EFFECTS O F T H E W A R
Providentially it was not a very war-scarred Ceylon. But for some demolished buildings in
Colombo and Trincomalee, and for some ugly structures and levelled landing-places that the needs of
war dotted here and there and also f o r the countless rubber trees that showed signs of having been
hacked for their precious liquid, the face of the country was scarcely disfigured. The principal products
of Ceylon stifl commanded both an assured market and good prices, though not perhaps the best.
The exodus of Allied troops, whom Ceylon's strategic position had caused to be stationed here, had
begun, but they had not all departed, and there was still much money in the country. There was a
shortage of imported goods, particularly foods, which was being met by schemes of control and ration-
ing, and by efforts at increasing the quantity and improving the quality of local proi^uction. Unusable
purchasing power was still finding its way into savings and development loans. War conditions had
caused some movement of population in search of economic advantage, but the transferred population
seemed settled in its new habitat. Social conservatism broke down to a large extent and found new
avenues of gainful employment for many women. A n d though general employment was not nearly

' Mr. B. S. V. PouUer, C C S .

' The Commission visited Ceyliin in December 1944 and conducted its investigations until April 1946.
Its Report wan published on October 9, 1945.
27
at the f u l l as in the war years, the problem of mass unemployment seemed still out of sight though,
perhaps, around the corner. The permanent features of the governmental structure and the country's
economy were unchanged, and the war had served to prove the political competence of the people of
Ceylon whose claim to self-government could hardly be denied or deferred much longer.

STRUCTURE O F T H E C E N T R A L G O V E R N M E N T
•
Ceylon had.ceased to be a Crown Colony but was not yet a Dominion. The demand by the
people for greater participation in the government of their country had grown so insistent that rapid
constitutional changes had been effected in 1912, 1921, and 1924, and the constitutional ' evolution '
of the country had reached a stage some fifteen years earlier when it had been officially declared that
it was the desire of His Majesty the King " to promote the devolution upon the inhabitants of Ceylon
of responsibility for the management of the internal affairs of the Island." In accord with this desire,
a State Council had been established in 1931 on which was conferred the unique responsibility of a
combined executive and legislature. The Council consisted of three ex-officio members and 58 unofficials,
50 of whom were elected by adult suffrage on a territorial basis, and 8 of whom were nominated by the
Governor " to make it more generally representative of the national interests." The ex-officio
members, designated ' Officers of State', were the three principal Secretaries to the Government,
the Chief Secretary, the Legal Secretary, and the Financial Secretary, performing functions relating
to Defence, External Affairs and the Public Service ; the administration of Law and Justice ; and the
control of Finance, Supply and Establishments respectively. They had the right to sit in the State
Council and to address it on matters coming up for discussion, but had no voting rights. Of the
unofficials, barring the Speaker who was elected at the first meeting of the Council, and the Deputy
Speaker and Deputy Chairman of Committees who ceased to be members of an Executive Committee
on appointment to their offices, the rest were divided, as nearly as possible in equal numbers, among
seven Executive Committees which were entrusted with the administration respectively of seven groups
and functions specified under the following headings: —

Executive Committee Principal Subjects and Functions

1. Home Affairs ... Provincial Administration, Police, Prisons, Excise

2. Agriculture and Lands ... Crown Lands, Agriculture, Irrigation, Co-operation

•3. Local Administration ... Local Government, Motor Transport

4. Health ... Medical and Sanitary Services

5. Labour, Industry and Commerce ... Commerce, Tourism, Labour, Statistics, Industries

6. Education ... Education, Archaeology

7. Communications and Works ... Public Works, Posts, Railway, Electrical Under-
takings, Aviation

Each Executive Committee elected its own Chairman who was then appointed by the Governor
as Minister for the group of subjects and functions which his Committee had to administer. The
several Chairmen together with the Officers of State comprised the Board of Ministers which was
not quite a Cabinet as ordinarily understood in British Parhamentary Government, since it had no
collective responsibility except in respect of the Annual Budget, although it settled priorities of
Government business and determined the procedure for settlement of matters affecting more than one
Executive Committee.
28
 The Governor still retained wide powers, tn the legislative sphere, he had the right to enact
legislation on his own, to reserve for the signification o f His Majesty's pleasure any bill passed by the
Council, to postpone its operation for six months or to refer it back, or to require a bill which he
thought involved questions of principle to be passed by a two-thirds majority before being presented
to him for his assent. The control of the Public Services was vested in him, though a Public Service
Commission of members of the Public Service with the Chief Secretary as Chairman was constituted to
advise him. He had also the emergency power of assuming control of any Government department
by proclamation for " grave cause." The Governor was, however, required " to give the most
favourable consideration to the views expressed and to the advice tendered to him " by the
appropriate authority under the Constitution, " to consult freely with his Ministers," and " to keep
himself fully informed of their wishes and opinions and those of the people of the Island," but was
expected to discharge his responsibility " according to his own deliberate judgment."

The. life of the State Council under the Constitution was four years, but prolongation was
possible in special circumstances, and the second State Council which came into being on March 17,
1936, had its term extended twice and was still functioning at the date of the census of "1946, which was,
in fact, conducted under the general direction of the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry and
Commerce of that Council.

The Board of Ministers meanwhile pressed for full responsible government and put forward
concrete proposals which were embodied in a draft Constitution, and the Soulbury Commission visited
Ceylon in 1944-45 and after consultation with various interests in the Island published its Report in
October 1945, recommending, as a step to full Dominion Status a new Constitution on the British model,
with a bi-cameral legislature and a Cabinet of Ministers with collective responsibility. The main
recommendations were accepted by the State Council of Ceylon on November 9, 1945, and the draft
of an Order-in-Council was in preparation at the time of the Census.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

The pivot of the machinery of administration could still with justice be claimed to be the
Government Agent who was in fact, the successor of the Collector or Agent of Government in the
Maritime Provinces, and of the Revenue Commissioner of the Board of Commissioners for the
Kandyan Provinces in the early days of the British Occupation. It is interesting to note that in the
instructions to Collectors issued in 1808 " the first object for every Collector " was stated to be " to
make himself acquainted with the various districts in his Province and the various headmen in such
districts by making frequent circuits through the whole of his Province. It is by adopting this
measure alone that any Collector can get a thorough knowledge either of the real character of the
headmen under him or of the actual situation of the country over which he presides."

For administrative purposes, the country was divided in 1946, as it had been since 1889,i into
nine Provinces : — 1 . Western, 2. Central, 3. Southern, 4. Northern, 5. Eastern, 6. North-Western,
7. North-Central, 8. Uva, 9. Sabaragamuwa. The boundaries of the Provinces had not been altered

1 By the aiinute of October 1, 1833, five Provinces were established,—The Western, Central, Northern,
Southern and E a s t e r n . T h e Western Province included what is now the North-Western Province
and the District of Kegalla. The Central Province included a great part of the present Province of
U v a . T h e Northern Province included Nuwarakalawiya. T h e Southern Province included the
Ratnapura District and Wellassa and K a n d u k a r a of Badulla District, while Eastern Province included
Tamankaduwa of the present North-Central Province and Bintenna of Badulla District. In 1845
the North-Westem Province was constituted; in 1873 the Nortli-Central Province; in 1886 U v a
Province ; and in 1889 the Province of Sabaragamuwa.

29
 since 1904 when the Horton Plains were transferred f r o m Sabaragamuwa to the Central Province.
Except the North-Central and Uva Provinces which were undivided, the other Provinces were sub-
divided into Revenue Districts as follows :—

Province District
Western Colombo
Kalutara
Kandy
Central
Matale
Nuwara Eliya
Galle
Southern
Matara
Hambantota
Jaffna
Northern
Mannar
Vavuniya
Batticaloa
Eastern
Trincomalee
Kurunegala
North-Western Puttalam-Chilaw
Ratnapura
Sabaragamuwa Kegalla

At the head of each Province was the Government Agent, who was usually a very senior officer
of the Ceylon Civil Service, recruitment to which was by competitive examination open to candidates
who were graduates of a British University and who had been nominated by the Governor to sit for
the examination. The duties of the Government Agents were manifold. They were responsible for
the general administration of their Provinces and were entrusted not only with the collection of revenue
but also with such varied tasks as the disposition of Crown lands in accordance with Government
poUcy and the discharge of functions pertaining to a Deputy Warden of Fauna and Flora. The
Revenue Districts were generally in charge of less senior members of the same Service, who performed
similar administrative work within their limits to that done by Government Agents themselves in
the districts of their provincial headquarters. The offices of the Government Agents and their
District Assistants were termed Kachcheries (from the Hindustani word Kachahri), recalling the days
when the English East India Company introduced into Ceylon the revenue collecting system f r o m
the presidency of Madras. The state of emergency occasioned by the war had rendered it necessary
to strengthen the normal Provincial Administration, and twenty Assistant Government Agents were
functioning in 1946 at various stations in the country to deal particularly with the work of Food
Production and Control, and PubUc Safety and Propaganda.

The backbone of the provincial administrative structure continued to be the Headman System,
though it was vastly changed in character f r o m the ancient system which prevailed in the days of the
Sinhalese Kings. 108 geographical divisions into which the 19 Revenue Districts of the Island were
divided still bore in the Sinhalese districts the ancient names of ' Korale ' or 'Pattu ' and throughout
the country the generic designation of " Chief Headmen's Divisions," although " Chief Headmen "
with the historic titles of " Mudaliyar " in the Sinhalese Low-country Districts, of " Ratemahatmaya "
in the Kandyan Districts, and " Maniagar " or " Vanniah " in the Tamil Districts were fast giving
place to a new class of " Divisional Revenue Officers " recruited on a different basis, by examination
and selection, in pursuance of a decision of the State Council on the Report of a Commission appointed
30
 CEYLON
SHOWING
PROVINCES AND D I S T R I C T S

""""••fl Q

J 1F r < 0
o n T BI C

NORTHERN

0 I t 1 I I C 1

' PRtfVINCE
•>••>*
D I I t > I C 1

\TI1IIIC0I»HI
•\ nisTiici
1
NORTH CENTRAL

\ a t p u I«

PROVINCE

OUTIICI

NOR/H WESTERN \

0 1 I I " I t ' *Sj

I » I T I C « L 0 •
n I J T • I t I
PROVINCE
V CENTRAL '=;'V'''" PROVINCE

I 1 < 0 1

. E B . L i * PRQVINCE
• Ut>>> E l K *
Sf.S'.Vc", ipROVINCE^ DIITIIC1 PROVINCE
» D 0 I I «
n 1 ST«I C1

WESTERN V

v.- * OF U VA
PROVINCE A ,
• 11 • > r u • >
(UUTtll OISTRICI
. 0IITIIC1
^SABARAQAMUWA J

• orsiBiei

"''''r^UTHERNV PROVINCE
• >TI(> *.
OlSTIlt' .>

Pr;n(erf by S»rve,Dep(.,Cey/on. July 1950.

in 1934 to enquire into and report on the working of the Headman System. There were, in fact,
only 12 Chief Headmen, as such, in service at the end of the census. " T h e dissolvent touch of
European influences," as a British Governor' had remarked, had caused the old system to crumble
to pieces, and in effect a new system took its place which substituted for the authority of local
influence a service by paid servants and agents of the central government. The ' C h i e f Head-
man's Division ' comprised several so-called ' Superior Headmen's Divisions', generally called
' Peruwa ,' ' Palata ' or ' Pattu ', in the Sinhalese Districts and in charge of which were ' Vidane
Arachchies ' in the Low-country, ' Koralas ' in the Kandyan districts, and ' Udayars ' in the Tamil
districts. These were also being suppressed in pursuance of the decision of the State Council referred
to above, and only about one-third of the original number of " Superior Headmen " remained in
service at the. date of the census. The Village Headman was in charge of the smallest unit of
administration, the ' Village Headman's Division ' or ' Wasama ' consisting of one large village or
more than one smaller villages. There were about 3,800 such headmen in service at census eve.

L O C A L G O V E R N M E N T UNITS
While the ancient Headman System had developed into an instrument of the central govern-
ment, local government was still carried on in rural Ceylon through Village Councils or Gan-Sabhawas.
From time immemorial, village affairs in Ceylon had been conducted by elders of the village assembled
under a shady tree or in the village ambalama, in the same way as the Teutonic markmen had met in
the mark moot to settle the affairs of the mark^. Through all the vicissitudes of history, this "miniature
C o u n c i l " preserved itself and its democratic character, and by admonition and exhortation
endeavoured to instil into the inhabitants of the village a sense of justice and of responsibility to the
individual and the community. The organization was indeed essential for a people whose life was
centred around the village tank, and its usefulness was recognized by early British administrators,
but statutory sanction to the enforcement by the village council of the old customs affecting irrigation
and cultivation was first given only in 1856 by Governor Ward. The interest created among European
students of pohtical and constitutional history and comparative jurisprudence ^ by the discovery of
what was believed to be the common origin of the system of communal self-government in Teuton
Europe and Hindu India had its repercussions in Ceylon and Governor Robinson enacted an
Ordinance in 1871 giving legal recognition to the Gan Sabhawas, and defining their composition,
and the limits of their administrative and judicial jurisdiction. This was revised in 1889, and the
revised law was operative until the Executive Committee of Local Administration functioning under
the Constitution of 1931 effected far-reaching amendments by a series of enactments dating from
1938. These have enlarged the powers and functions of these Village Committees considerably and
approximated them to those of urban local authorities. There were about 400 Village Committees
in the Island at the time of the Census.

The Executive Committee of Local Administration also increased the number of Urban Councils
in the Island. At the census of 1931 there were only II Urban District Councils. At the census of
1946 no fewer than 38 such bodies were in control of affairs within their respective areas which ranged
in extent from one-twelfth of a square mile to nine and a quarter square miles. Three Municipal
Councils, at Colombo, Kandy and Galle, comprising elected representatives of the inhabitants of
these towns, discharged the functions associated with self-governing corporations vested with authority
to take measures for the promotion of the comfort, convenience, and welfare of their citizens.

' Governor Sir Artliur Gordon (afterwards, L o r d Stanmore) in an Address to the Legislative Council
October 29, 1889.
- Fustel de Coulangcs, however, denying tlie existence of the mark sj'Steni calls it " a figment of the
Teutonic imagination. "
Maine, Freeman and others.
31
Although district councils, called Rate-Sabhas,* functioned in the days of the Sinhalese Kings, the
modern District Council and Municipality are purely extraneous institutions, adapted f r o m the British
model, and have no historic connexion with them. The first Ordinance estabUshing Municipalities
was enacted in 1865, and the first Local Board of Health and Improvement, which may be regarded as
the precursor of the Urban Council, was established in 1876. Minuwangoda was the only Local
Board functioning as such at the date of the Census of 1946. Small towns needing sanitary measures
beyond the means of Village Committees were administered under the Small Towns Sanitary Ordinance
of 1892 and at the time of the census were awaiting conversion into Urban Councils or Town Councils
proposed to be established by impending legislation, or absorption within the jurisdiction of Village
Committees. There were twenty-one such Sanitary Boards Towns at the census of 1946.

AGRICULTURE A N D IRRIGATION

While general administration was conducted through the Provincial and District organization
with the Headman System as its core, numerous technical departments of Government were engaged
in activities designed under the direction of their respective Executive Committees to develop the
resources of the country. The Department of Agriculture, which at its inception had merely taken
over the advisory and publicity functions which were being performed by a semi-official society called
the Ceylon Agricultural Society and its executive, the Board of Agriculture, which had been founded
in 1904, was calhd upon in the war years to discharge the onerous responsibility of directing an
Island-wide drive for the production of food crops. The Department of Irrigation, which had been
estabhshed in 1900 by severance f r o m the Department of Public Works on account of the growing
recognition of the importance of irrigation in a country subject to the vagaries of rainfall but dependent
on water for the cultivation of its main food crop, was entrusted not merely with the restoration of
old tanks or the construction of new ones, but also with the projection of large multi-purpose schemes
on a scale of unprecedented magnitude. The Department of Mineralogy undertook the systematic
geological survey of the Island and continued the mineralogical investigations first begun in 1902
under the direction of D r . Ananda K. Comaraswamy. Under the stimulus of war-time scarcities
Government-owned factories, originally conceived as models and pilot plants, became active produc-
tion units under the direction of the Department of Commerce and Industries, and a new industrial
consciousness was evident throughout the country, which was further enhanced by the large number
of training centres in cottage industries opened at various places.

T H E CO-OPERATIVE M O V E M E N T

One of the most remarkable developments in the economic hfe of the country was in evidence
in 1946. The Co-operative Movement had been enlisted by Government during the war years to
assist in the distribution of supplies of food and clothing. The number of Consumers' Societies rose
f r o m 22 in 1938 to 4,034 in 1946 counting a membership of 1,022,134, ration book; of nearly two.
thirds of the population being attached to them. Ninety Wholesale Unions supplied these Retail
Societies while the wholesale supply of Societies and Unions was in the hands of the Co-operative
Wholesale Establishment. Besides these Consumers' Societies, there were 27 Agricultural Produce
Sale Societies, 32 Fishing Societies, 34 Coconut Sale Societies, 21 Textile Societies, and 10 Dairies

' T h e R a t e - S a b h a was composed of delegates from eacli \'illafi:e in the pattu and heard appeals against
decisions of the Gan-Sabhas.

32
The Movement progressed with enthusiasm especially in the Jaffna Peninsula where the success of
the Jaffna-Malayalam Co-operative Tobacco Sale Society inspired confidence and resulted in a
Motor-Boat Society, a Ferry Service, and a Hospital being estabUshed on co-operative lines. Central
Banks and Banking Unions provided funds, and a Commissioner for Co-operative Development was
entrusted with the responsibility of further extending the Movement.

EDUCATION

Education in the Island underwent a far-reaching change with the introduction on October 1,
1945, by the Executive Committee of Education, of a Scheme of Free Education for English schools,
which was intended to make all education free " f r o m the Kindergarten to the University but
which also compelled the use of the pupil's mother-tongue as the medium of instruction in the primary
classes of English schools. Adult education through evening classes organized in Government schools
was fostered, while an autonomous University was established on July I, 1942, with Faculties of
Oriental Studies, Arts, Science and Medicine. Professional education in law was imparted by the
Ceylon Law College, an institution controlled by the Incorporated Council of Legal Education, a
body incorporated in 1900, while the Ceylon Technical College, first established as a Technical school
in 1893, conducted courses of instruction in Engineering, Commerce, and Arts and Crafts.

H E A L T H A N D SOCIAL SERVICES

Medical institutions for the sick among human beings and animals alike and the cultivation
of medicinal herbs and roots had been among the works of beneficence on which Sinhalese Kings of
old based their claim to merit, and a State Medical Service may well be regarded as part of the national
heritage. But in the first half-century of the British Occupation the medical wants of the Island were
attended to by the MiUtary Officers with a small Civil Staff, and it was only in 1858 that the Civil
Medical Department was separated from the Military Service. The Department of Medical and
Sanitary Services which had been evolved through various phases from the Civil Medical Department
was in 1946 responsible for health measures on Western lines throughout the country, while an attempt
was made to save the indigenous medical science, or Ayurveda, f r o m the disrepute attaching to it by
the practice of quacks, by the establishment of a College and Hospital for promoting a more systematic
knowledge of its theory and practice. There were at the date of the Census 189 Government
Hospitals throughout the Island, including a maternity hospital, an eye hospital, a hospital for women
and children, an infectious diseases hospital, two leper asylums, ^ and a mental hospital. The
inadequacy of accommodation at the general hospitals led to the adoption of a scheme for the construc-
tion of Rural Hospitals. Towards the end of 1945 a new weapon in the control of malaria in the f o r m
of D . D . T . spraying was in use, and reports seemed to indicate that an appreciable reduction in the
incidence of this disease was not too remote.

Though social services, other than health, education, and a limited f o r m of public assistance,
were not yet organized under a department of government, a Commission had been appointed in 1944
to report on the adequacy of the existing services and on the introduction of social insurance schemes,
and its report was awaited.- Meanwhile the Poor Law Ordinance was in operation in the Municipali-
ties of Colombo, Galle and Kandy applymg the provisions of the Enghsh Poor Law, except those
dealing with the able-bodied, to these local authorities which delegated their functions to Public
Assistance Committees which were held responsible for providing outdoor relief in the form of

' The one at Hendala was built by the D u t c h Governor Simonsz (1703-1707).
» Since published as S. P. V I I — 1 9 4 7 .

33
monthly allowances. Indoor refief was provided in Colombo where a City Refuge was maintained,
but on the whole philanthropy was a matter of voluntary agencies or private charity. Indeed it has
been a tradition of national life that alms to the poor and destitute should be given by all who could
afford to share their substance with their less fortnunate neighbours.

LABOUR CONDITIONS

Labour conditions had been the subject of study by an expert from the British Colonial Office
and his report had been published in 1943.i Labour, Indeed, received marked attention. Economic
pressure in the years of world-wide depression, in which to its misfortune the first State Council had
begun to function, had compelled the indigenous labourer to overcome his reluctance to accept hired
employment as an unskilled worker and had brought him into active competition with the immigrant
labourer, mostly Indian, who had acquired a reputation for sustained hard work and reliability.
The competition had made the Executive Committee of Labour adopt a preferential policy for the
compulsory employment of a percentage of Ceylonese labour which thus made considerable headway
in the ' labour market even in employment which hitherto had been the exclusive preserve of the
immigrant. Legislation provided for workmen's compensation, for maternity benefits, for wages
boards for the several trades, and for the regulation of shops within municipalities and urban council
areas. Trade Unionism in Ceylon, though displaying some weakness in organization, grew in
influence and strength by obtaining substantial benefits for workers under the machinery of compulsory
arbitration which Defence Regulations, kept alive even after the war, provided for the settlement of
trade disputes in all essential services.

The labour problem in Ceylon may be said to have acquired its peculiar character owing to
the planting industry which imported immigrant labour to serve its needs. To the planters the country
owes also the rapidity with which communications were developed in the Island. The policy of
' first, roads ; second, roads ; and third, roads,' which Governor Barnes (1824-1831), himself the
first coffee planter in Ceylon, initiated, opened up the Hill Country, and was later extended with such
vigour that there were in 1946 over 17,500 miles of roads and cart tracks traversing the Island. The
Public Works Department, which became fully fledged as a department of Government in 1867,
had the responslbihty of constructing and maintaining all the arterial roads of the country, the aggregate
mileage of which at the time of the census was 6,364. Minor roads were controlled by District Road
Committees which functioned under the presidency of the Government Agent or Assistant Government
Agent in each Revenue District, while all streets within the limits of municipalities and urban councils
were the care of these local bodies, the village committees looking after natural cart tracks within
their respective areas. There were 29,949 motor vehicles in the Island in 1945, and two Ordinances
were enacted in 1938 and 1942 with the object of organizing and controlling motor traffic.

TRANSPORT FACILITIES

The need felt by the planter for the quick transport of the produce of his plantation to the port
for shipment to overseas markets was also primarily responsible for the construction of the railway
and the improvement of Colombo Harbour. The Ceylon Railway Company floated in England in
1845 to construct the railway from Colombo to Kandy found itself in difficulties owing to a financial
crisis in 1847 and although it undertook the construction in 1858 its contract with the Government
was soon annulled and a private contractor Faviell was entrusted with the task which was successfully
completed in 1866-67. Extensions to the railway soon followed, connecting up the plantation areas
I S. P. X I X . — 1 9 4 3 .

34
with Colombo, but it was not until Governor Ridgeway (1896-1903) adopted a more general policy
that the Northern and North-Central Provinces were also served by the Railway. The entire Railway
System, which at the time of the census of 1946 covered a mileage of 912 miles as against 297 at the
census of 1901, was under the ownership and control of the State, and during the war years was put
under a very heavy strain. Though replenishments of essential materials and rolling stock were
wanting, the Railway carried in the five-year period 1940-45 more than twice as much traffic as it
had done in the previous five-year period 1934-39. W i t h the cessation of hostilities, however, new
locomotives and coaching stock were being expected to provide the public with quicker and more
comfortable service.

The situation of the magnificent land-locked harbour of Trincomalee on the East coast of
Ceylon did not hold out promise of its developing into a commercial port of call for vessels plying
on the sea-routes between Europe and the Far East which made use of the natural harbour o f ' Point
de G a l l e ' on the Southern coast. But the presence of currents and submerged rocks made the
harbour insecure and dangerous, and the planting industry pressed for the conversion of the open
roadstead of Colombo into an artificial harbour by the construction of breakwaters even at great
expense. The battle of the harbours was eventually won by the proponents of Colombo, the decision
being accelerated by the refusal of steamers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company to call at Galle
after the wreck of one of their ships off that harbour. The first block of the South-West Breakwater
of the Harbour of Colombo was laid by the Prince of Wales (afterwards Edward V I I ) in 1875, and
Colombo at the date of the census was a safe and capacious artificial harbour, reputed to be the third
largest in the British Empire and the seventh largest in the world, provided with excellent facilities for
docking, bunkering, and loading and unloading, and with an ample fresh water supply, accommodating
a vast tonnage of ocean-going vessels, and handling in 1945 over two million tons of imports and
exports, valued at above a thousand two hundred and fifty million rupees or ninety-six million pounds
sterling.

More leisurely transport for goods was afforded in inland waters, particularly along the Western
coast of the Island by a series of canals, associated with the Dutch, connecting a chain of lakes and
the estuaries of rivers, and forming a continuous waterway f r o m Kalutara in the South to Puttalam
in the N o r t h , a distance of about 120 miles. Further up in the North a boat channel was maintained
for about 40 miles by dredging in the lagoon at Jaffna.

The progress of civil aviation, interrupted by the war, was resumed with the enthusiasm derived
from the general airmindedness which familiarity with aircraft during the war had generated. The
Colombo Airport, located at Ratmalana, 10 miles South of the City, was being reconditioned and
redecorated, and there was every reason in 1946 to expect internal and international air transport
services to be rapidly developed.

OTHER STATE SERVICES

The country possessed a good postal and telecommunication service. 180 Post Offices, including
a General Post Office first established in Colombo in 1895, and a Central Telegraph Office opened in
Colombo in 1811, and 382 sub-Post Offices dealt with almost every kind of postal, telegraph, and
telephone business, while the remoter rural areas were served by 484 Village Receiving Offices which
handled mails. The telegraph system comprised 10,316 miles of wire, while the telephone system, taken
over by Government in 1896 f r o m the Oriental Telephone Company with only 151 miles of wire, now
operated along 70,445 miles of wire. Twenty years of broadcasting in Ceylon had been completed,

35
and on the occasion of the anniversary a new 15 Kilowatt medium wave transmitter (428'6 metres),
satisfactorily covering the whole Island, was brought into operation, over 12,000 radio licensees
paying for the service of broadcasting in 1946.

Electricity in the country was used mainly for house and street fighting, but in Colombo an
increased supply was in demand for industrial needs. In 1928 the Government had bought over the
supply f r o m a private Company, and a new Department of Government Electrical Undertakings
was estabfished as a commerical concern. Both the unit output and the peak load of power stations
' r u n by the Department had in the previous ten years been considerably increased, while hopes for'
cheaper power were centred around the Hydro-Electric Scheme at Norton Bridge which promised a
power development of 25,000 K . W . in its first stage.

TRADE A N D FINANCE

If the barometer of a country's prosperity is its so-called " trade balance ", Ceylon at the eve
of the census may be deemed to have been at least moderately prosperous, for the value of the exports
of its produce in 1945 exceeded that of its retained imports by Rs. 45 millions, and indeed had been
similarly in excess for several years preceding. New trade contacts had been established, and the
United States of America and the Middle East countries of Egypt and Iran were fast developing their
trade with this country.

The actual revenue of the Government in the previous financial year had been about Rs. 304
millions against an actual expenditure of Rs. 254 millions. The public debt was, however, only
some Rs. 437 millions, or about Rs. 67 per head of population, as against about £594 per head in the
United Kingdom. The unit rate of income-tax had been raised in the previous year f r o m 7^ per cent,
to 8^ per cent., but contrasted favourably with the standard rate of 9 shillings in the £ in Great
Britain, and only one person in every 260 fell within its taxable scope, while in the latter country one in
three were chargeable.

Although about 90 murders occur each year in every million of population in Ceylon, against
about 4 per milUon committed in Great Britain, crimes with violence against property were only about
half as many, and road accidents only about a third as many as in Great Britain per head of population
and only one in 65,000 destroys himself as against one in 8,000 in England and Wales. Law and order
seemed well maintained under the judicial system inaugurated by the Charter issued in 1833, and by
the system of policing founded in 1865 with the Headman System an invaluable auxifiary, and Ceylon
could not be considered an unsafe place in which to dwell.

N A T U R A L RESOURCES

Ceylon on the whole was indeed a green and pleasant land, i In South-Central Ceylon, a
mountain mass, positioned across the fine of direction of the two monsoons, brought rain at all times
of the year to the Western littoral f r o m Negombo down to Matara, while the rest of the Low-country
remained dry except during the North-East monsoon from October to January when the North and
the East especially received the rains. Evergreen forests with tall trees of uniform height and a dense
and rich undergrowth were to be seen in the wet Low-country in regions where the hand of man had
not cultivated the ground. Rice fields yielding two crops a year occupied the level lands and the
bottoms of the valleys, while on the higher ground could be seen the typical homestead of the
Sinhalese peasant, with his viUage garden of mixed cultivation, of jaks and coconuts and arecas, and

' ef. Fa H i a n : Travels C h . X X X V I I I : " T h e plants and trees are always verdant. "

36
f r u i t trees and yams, and betel creepers and black pepper and vegetables. Coconut cultivation was
to be seen in large areas of ground, especially near the Western coast and along the railway to Kandy.
Near Kegalla a different kind of palm, the areca, was seen with greater frequency, cultivated for the
export of its nuts. Tea and rubber were found in the valley of the Kelani River, and near Kalutara,
and on the western side of the central hills covered proportionately more ground. Higher up, on
the colder and less sunny slopes of the Western montane zone, the cultivation of tea, and more tea,
was in evidence, but the denudation of the forests above 5,000 feet in elevation had ceased with the
ban imposed by Government on the alienation of land of that elevation. The highest hills were thus
still forest-clad, a most important safety measure for the conservation of rainfall and the water supply
of streams. Where vegetation had been bared, reafforestation schemes had planted trees mainly of the
Australian species, grevillea and eucalyptus and fir. Eastwards over the main watershed the forest
was broken by areas of grass land, called ' patnas ', covered with a coarse turf of large grasses, but
on the South and East of the Eastern montane zone tea cultivation largely appeared. To the North-
west, North, East, and South-East of the mountains over an area about three-fifths of the country
lay the Dry Zone, which received rain from October to January only but which contained large
forests of many valuable hardwood timbers, an area the reclamation of which to the eultivation of
rice under irrigation has once again been undertaken. To the extreme N o r t h lay the country of an
industrious people where a living was being wrung out of a reluctant soil by the cultivation of
tobacco, vegetables, and numerous other crops.

M I N E R A L RICHES, GEMS A N D PEARLS

N o r was the country's reputation for its mineral riches undeserved. Of high commercial value
was its graphite (plumbago), widely distributed throughout Ceylon, but mined especially in the
Colombo, Kalutara, Kurunegala and Kegalla Districts : the heavy war demand for it when Mada-
gascar, under the control of Vichy, denied supplies to the Allied Powers caused its export to skyrocket
to as high a figure as 27,700 tons in 1942. Monazite and other thoria-bearing minerals Uke thorianite,
first discovered to the world near Ba'angoda in Ceylon, so useful for the manufacture of incandescent
gas mantles ; ilmenite or manaccanite, or titanic iron, a source of titanium oxide which could be used
as a substitute for white lead or zinc ; phlogopite, or " fiery-looking " mica used as an insulator for
electrical purposes, made Ceylon famous in the mineral world. Above all Ceylon was noted for its
precious stones, the finely coloured, transparent varieties of corundum (Sk. ' Kuruvinda', Tamil
' Kurundam '), such as the sapphire, and the ruby, which at its best in Ceylon approaches more nearly
the ' pigeon's blood ' colour than the ruby of Burma ; the interesting varieties of chrysoberyl, such
as the cat's eye, unfortunately a victim to the caprice of fashion, and the strongly dichroic alexandrite,
dark-green by day and raspberry-red by night ; the feebly dichroic zircons {Arabic Zargoon) which
when heated lose their colour but gain in brilliancy and find their way to the market as " Matara
diamonds " ; red spinels, often mistaken for rubies ; beryls tinted with the bluish-green colour of
seawater, and therefore known as ' aquamarine '; garnets, small in size but brilliant in colour ; and
moonstones with their bluish opalescence, almost a Ceylon monopoly in the world's gem markets.

The country had also enjoyed from ancient times the reputation of being " the most
productive of pearls of all parts of the w o r l d " . These lustrous calcareous concretions produced by
the mollusc known as the Pinctada Margaritifera had been fished for from time to time in some
nineteen ' paars ' or pearl banks lying seven or eight miles off the North-Western coast of the Island
f r o m Negombo to Mannar, and although long intervals had occurred between each series of fisheries
they had yielded large revenues to the Sinhalese Kings and to the Western Powers who controlled the
coast. In 1906 the rights of the fishery had been leased to a Company for a term of 20 years at an
annual rent of some 3 lakhs of rupees. The lessees under the terms of the covenant had to expend a

37
certain sum of money each year on the experimental or practical culture of the pearl oyster and on the
improvement of the pearl banks. Unfortunately, however, since 1925 when 15,775,036 oysters were
fished, the Government share reaUzing Rs. 526,355, it has not been possible to carry out a fishery,
and a recent inspection had revealed a disappointing spatfall and the almost complete disappearance
of the adult oyster. The weather and currents had presumably caused the disappearance of many
beds of young oysters before they arrived at maturity.
Three hundred years ago. Captain Joao Ribeiro^ wrote of Ceylon : " Can all those who have
travelled over the earth or read of its greatness tell me if they have seen or heard of any land with the
treasures which I have shown to exist in the Island ? Africa yields a little gold, amber and ivory ;
the wealth of America is scattered over a vast continent. Does Brazil, Arabia, Persia, any of the
individual Kingdoms of India, Pegu, Slam, the Moluccas, China or Japan, produce such wealth In
such a small compass as Ceilao ? . . . . I fancy that those who declare this Island was the
terrestrial Paradise do not say so owing to its fertility and the abundance of everything required to
maintain life, nor f o r the pleasantness and healthfulness of the land, nor for the footprint . .
. . but because so many kinds of riches are found therein, small as it is."

Ceylon in 1946 could still claim that she merited this description. She was also awakening,
with the rest of Asia, to the sense of a new dynamic within her. N o longer was Asia, aloof, to let the
legions thunder past, and to plunge in thought again. She would not disdain to take a part in shaping
the thought of the world.

1 T r . b y P . E . Pieris. \

38
 CHAPTER I I I

(I) T H E TAKING OF T H E CENSUS

G /ENSUSES, difTering in character, appear to have been taken for a variety of purposes in
diR"erent countries since the rise of ordered governments in the world. In the third millennium before
Christ, in ancient Babylon, the Kings of the second dynasty of Ur recorded on tablets^ particulars relating
to temple property, agriculture, stock-raising, and so on, with the object presumably of assessing the
wealth of their domains for purposes of taxation. In the second millennium before Christ, Rameses II
of Egypt^ divided the country into administrative districts and registered every head of a family and
all members of his household for the purpose of carrying out pubhc works as well as for taxation.
Confucius^, writing in the sixth century before Christ, purports to give statistics of the Chinese Empire
f r o m the time of Emperor Yu about three thousand years before him. Among the Hebrews, Moses*
was directed to number the children of Israel and to levy a poll-tax of half a shekel of silver per
head, and King Davld=, carried out an enumeration " of the valiant men who drew the sword " which,
however, was not finished " because there fell wrath for it against Israel " . Solon" in Greece made
his famous division of the population into classes after making an estimate of the worth of the goods
of every private citizen.

But the term "census" itself is derived from the Latin word "censere ", to assess, and is asso-
ciated with that " mustering of the host", that distribution of the Roman assidui (freeholders) into
tribes, classes, and centuries which the Roman King Servius TuUius is believed to have effected.
Every fifth year, according to the constitution which bears his name, the population of Rome was to
be enumerated together with the property owned by each family. The officers in charge of the
classification were called " censors",—different, of course, in the character of their authority f r o m the
" censors " of recent wartime memory,—who were expected to perform the lustrum or purificatory
sacrifice, on behalf of the people, which followed each census. The intercensal period of five years
was thus itself called the lustrum. The Roman census was a quinquennial registering and rating
of Roman citizens and their property at the end of each lustrum, and the Roman historians L i v y '
and Tacitus^ record the taking of the census on several occasions, while in the Bible there is mention
of two censuses conducted by Cyrenius, Governor of Syria**, right at the beginning of the Christian era.

There can be httle doubt that in ancient Ceylon too, although no authentic records have yet been
traced, there were enumerations undertaken f r o m time to time, if not with the regularity of Roman
censuses, at least whenever occasion required. The call-up of labour for the construction of irrigation
works and religious edifices, or the musters of troops for war could scarcely have been systematically
conducted, unless records had been compiled to show at least the heads of families who held lands to
which such services were attached. Nor would the King's revenues, derived mainly f r o m cultivated
holdings, have been permitted to suffer for want of such records. Indeed, the known existence of

' Some of these tablets are preserved in the British Museum.

' Breasted : History of E g j ' p t , p. 16.n.
' In the book known as the " S h u - K i n g ", or Book of Historical Documents.
* Numbers, I. i ff.
° I I Samuel X X I V ; 1 Chronicles X X V I I .
« Halliday : The Greek City States, cf. Herodotus, I I . 177.
' L i v y : I I I 24 ; X X X V 9 ; X X X ^ H I 36 ; X L I I 10.
8 Tacitus, I 31 ; X I , 25
« St. L u k e , C h . II ; Acts, C h . V,

39
lekam-mitti, ox palm leaf registers, in the declining days of the Sinhalese Kingdom would justify
the inference that, in the days of its greatest authority, detailed inventories of all that was needed to be
considered for taxation or general administration would have been carefully taken and registered
in appropriate records.

SCOPE OF A M O D E R N CENSUS

However that may be, the modern census is far different in its character and purpose f r o m the
ancient enumerations. It has ceased to be directed towards a specific object, fiscal, military, or other.
It is now conducted as a sociological inquiry and collects information which is not only useful for
administrative purposes, but is also of importance to the student of economics. The change may be
said to have occurred with the revival of census-taking in the seventeenth century A . D . when, with
the encouragement of the great French financier, Colbert, the Minister of Louis X I V . , the Intendant
of the Colony of New France in North America conducted in 1666 a " nominal " or name by name
enumeration of the people, on a fixed date, showing age, sex, occupation and conjugal condition K

The revival was not indeed welcomed in all European countries. In England, for instance,
when the proposal to take a census was first mooted towards the close of the eighteenth century A.D.
opposition was strongly expressed in the House of Commons in the belief that the aim of census-taking
was to press into the King's armed forces able-bodied men and transport them to distant colonies, one
eloquent Parliamentarian ending his speech with the threat to duck in the horse-pond any inquisitional
census-officer who dared to question him as regards the numbers of his family or household. But the
technique of census-taking, first adopted in Quebec, and so different f r o m the method described
by Marco Polo^ as prevalent in the China of Kublai Khan, has developed in the direction of obtaining
information on prepared schedules on which questions are asked the answers to which provide the
raw material for the deduction of valuable secondary resuhs.

The modern census by a direct count determines the aggregate number of persons
in the country and their local distribution. It considers whether the population has increased
or decreased since the last census ; whether the rate of growth or decline is rapid or slow ;
whether it tends to aggregate itself in certain centres, or is more or less evenly distributed
throughout the country ; whether wealth or benefits in a given locality relate to few or
many ; whether political representation has been effected equitably. It enquires how the
population is divided in respect of the natural groupings of sex and age. Since marriage is a well-
estabUshed social institution, the classification of the population according to conjugal condition is
deemed of almost equal importance. For any serious disproportion of the sexes might affect
marriage and the increase of population, and might react on social phenomena such as morality.
A classification of occupations by sex would, moreoever, be of great social and economic significance.
When the results of a classification by age are considered, it would be possible to observe whether
there is an increased burden on the productive class by reason of an excessive number of young children
and old people, or whether there is a tendency to depopulation or race-suicide. Since the potential
element in the growth of population is the number of women of child-bearing age, forecasts of popula-
tion could more accurately be made by relating this information to the vital statistics of a country.

' Coates : Census of Canada, 1930.

' Marco Polo, Venetian traveller, (c. 1254—1324 A. D . ) writes : " It is the custom for every burgess of this
city " ( K i n s a i , the modern Hangchow) " and in fact for every description of person in it, to write over
his door his own name, the name of his vrife, and those of his children, his slaves, and all the inmates
of his house, and also the niunber of animals that he keeps. And if anyone dies in the house, then
the name of that person is erased, and if any child is b o m its name Is added. So in this way the
Sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the City. A n d this is the practice also throughout
all Manzi and Cathay. " Quoted by Lionel Giles in " C h i n a under the Ming D y n a s t y . "

40
An enumeration of families and a description of their composition as to number would form the data
for a study of sociological development, while an intelligent review of a nation's economic condition
must depend on information obtained by the census regarding the occupations of those it enumerates.
Enough has, perhaps, been said to show that, under the modern system the census is " an institution
of great value, that the results obtained by it are essential for intelligent administration, and for the
proper investigation of economic and sociological questions' ".

C E Y L O N CENSUSES U N D E R B R I T I S H R U L E

In Ceylon the first census to which the modern technique may be said to have been applied
was that conducted under the superintendence of W. J. Macarthy in 1871, which commenced the
series of decennial censuses unfortunately interrupted since 1931. The undertaking was given legal
sanction by the enactment of an Ordinance (No. 5 of 1868) which was framed on the fines of the English
law covering censuses. It was conducted through enumerators working under the direction of the
Government Agents of the several Provinces and their District Assistants, and the particulars of
information were furnished on schedules left at each house to be filled up by the householder. The
schedule asked questions relating to sex age, occupation, race, religion, conjugal condition, place of
birth, relationship to head of family, infirmity, and also required particulars of the roof, walls, and
accommodation of each dwelling house. In-certain districts, however, the information was collected
on ola leaf writing material and transcribed later into the schedules. As was to be expected, there
appears to have been a general idea that new taxation was intended, but in certain districts the census
had the effect of increasing the number of marriages registered as the rumour was prevalent that the
object of the census was to discover the number of unmarried youths to be sent over to Europe " to
fill the gaps caused by the late war " , the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 !

Prior to 1871, in the British Period, estimates of population had been made f r o m time to time
on the basis of returns made by the Headmen. On the 27th January, 1824, shortly after he assumed
the Governorship of the Island, Sir Edward Barnes signed an order for a census to be taken, but the
results of the census were published as in 1827. An enumeration of the population in the Maritime
Provinces had been made in 1814, following apparently the tradition of the Dutch who appear to
have taken periodical censuses, following instructions received in Ceylon " from the Governor-
General and Council of India to the Governor in Ceylon " about the time of the final overthrow of
Portuguese Rule in Ceylon. In these instructions the unrefiability of the fists prepared by the Dissawas
was referred to and a census contemplated—" against the name of each individual may be added
the present value of his estate so that each person may be charged accordingly-",—obviously an
enumeration for the specific purpose of taxation. Van der GrafiFe's census of 1789 is, however, the
only Dutch record traced. No record of a census by the Portuguese has been found.

In the mode of census-taking initiated in Ceylon in 1871, the importance of the Schedule on
which the particulars of information are collected is self-evident. If the information is to be of value
by a comparison with the development of other countries as reflected in their respective census records,
it is equally evident that a general understanding as to the subjects which may be considered most
likely to be accurately ascertained at a census should be arrived at by the statistical experts of the
world. Periodical conferences of such experts did, indeed, take place, and at the meeting of the
International Statistical Institute, held at St. Petersburg, in 1872, it was agreed that the minimum
requirements of a census should be (a) that it should be nominal, i.e. by name ; (b) that it should

1 K n i b b s : Census of Australia, 1911.

• " Instructions from the Governor-General and Council of I n d i a to the Governor in Ceylon, 1656-1065 "
(trans. Sophia Pieters) p. o9.
41
enumerate " la population de fait " ; (c) that it should be decennial ; (d) that it should be completed
within 24 hours ; and (e) that the information to be obtained should include : (i) the name of the
individual, (ii) his age, (iii) his sex, (iv) his relationship to the householder, (v) his civil status, (vi)
his occupation, (vii) his religion, (viii) his language, (ix)his education, (x) his birthplace and nationality,
(xi) his residence, and (xii) special mention of infirmities, such as blindness, deaf-mutism, cretinism,
idiocy, and insanity.

T H E CENSUS OF 1946

I t will be observed that the Ceylon Census schedule of 1871 had provided for the collection
of all the information suggested at the St. Petersburg Conference as the international minimum,
except "language", "education" and "residence". Variationsoftheschedulewereeffectedatsubsequent
censuses, but the requirement o f a " f u l l " census made by the Ceylon Government on the appointment
of the Superintendent of Census in December, 1944, needed clarification. Accordingly, a
memorandum was submitted to the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce on
December 7, 1944, with the request that the scope of the " full " census directed by i t should be more
precisely indicated. The matter was further discussed in conference with the Government Agents in
February, 1945, and a further memorandum was prepared in March containing proposals for the
conduct of the census. This was transmitted to the Secretary of State for the Colonies for the expert
advice of the late D r . R. R. Kuczynski of international repute, who was at the time the Demographic
Adviser to the Colonial Office. It was received back with the following comments f r o m Sir George
Gater, Permanent Under-Secretary of State* :—

" The memorandum prepared by the Superintendent of Census has been seen by Kuczynski
and others in the Colonial Office who have special knowledge of the subjects which it is pro-
posed to cover in the census. I enclose a note, prepared in the office, which sets out a number of
suggestions which they have made.

" As regards the proposals generally, Kuczynski has expressed the view that, while the
proposed population census is ambitious, if compared with what is done in this country and in
nearly all Colonial Territories, it is not more ambitious than the censuses of India and of most
of the Dominions. In his opinion, the memorandum, which it has been a pleasure to study,
makes it clear that the Superintendent of Census knows his business ; and the proposals are, in
general, so satisfactory that his suggestions are limited to a few technical aspects."

The final decisions of the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce on the
memorandum were : — ( I ) that a Population Census on the enlarged schedule as proposed by the
Superintendent of Census and modified by the Colonial Office Note should be taken ; (2) that a
Census of Agriculture should be concurrently considered on the schedules proposed in the
memorandum subject, however, to such modifications as were rendered necessary in the light of the
observations contained in the Colonial Office Note ; (3) that a Census of Industry should be taken
at a later date but that this should be carried out as far as practicable through the medium of the postal
service ; and (4) that the necessary legislation to enlarge the scope of the Census should be enacted
by an amending Ordinance. ..

• Sir George C a t e r to Sir Henry Moore, .^ith .Tunc 1945.

42
RANGE OF INFORMATION
The varying range of the Ceylon Population Census as compared with the International
M i n i m u m , is indicated in the tabular statement given below :—

T A B L E 1 — I N F O R M A T I O N ASKED FOR ON THE POPULATION SCHEDULE SINCE 1871

St. Petersburg 1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1946
Item International City of
Minimum Colombo
only
1. Name X X X X X
i i . Age x X X X X
i i i . Sex X X X X X
iv. Relationship to head of
household X ... —
Civil status (or Conjugal
Condition) X
V I . Date of marriage X
vii. Age at birth of first child ... X
viii. Number of children X
ix. Principal Occupation X
X. Subsidiary Occupation
x i . Industry ... X
xii. Occupational status X
xiii. Salary or Wages X
xiv. Dependency X
XV. Orphanhood X
xvi. Religion ... X
xvii. Language... X
xviii. Education (or Literacy) ... X
xix. English Literacy X
X
XX. English Speaking
X
xxi. Sinhalese or Tamil Speaking
X
xxii. Birthplace X
X
xxiii. Nationality (or Race) X
X
xxiv. Residence X
X
XXV. Length of Residence
X
xxvi. Kind of Building
X
xxvii. Number of Rooms
X
xxviii. Whether rented or owned...
xxix. If mortgaged race of mort-
gagee ...

It was decided that the questions relating to the date of marriage and the number of children and the
age of the mother at the birth of the first child should be asked only of married women, and that the
particulars of infirmities should be collected on a special schedule.
The Census of Agriculture was to be taken on five different schedules,—Estates, Small Holdings,
Village and Town Gardens, Chenas, and Asweddumized Paddy Lands. The forms of the schedules
were settled in consultation with the Director of Agriculture and his senior departmental officers.
The principal questions asked in the Estates and Small Holdings Schedules were similar and related
to the status of the person-in-charge, the total extent, the extent of cultivable land not under cultivation
and of waste or uncultivable land, encumbrances (if any), crop returns, livestock, dairy produce, agri-
cultural implements, &c., but further particulars on cognate matters were asked for from Estates.
The other three Schedules were of a very simple character.
43
DIFFICULTIES OF ORGANISATION

While the particulars of information to be collected at the Census were thus being settled by
discussion and consultation, the machinery required for the purpose of collection was set in motion.
There was, of course, in the war conditions in which the early preparations were made, a certain degree
of uncertainty as regards the availability of the several essential requirements for the efficient conduct
of the undertaking. Office accommodation in Colombo was impossible to secure in the excessive
congestion then prevailing in that city, and the Census Office was begun in a private bungalow in
Negombo which was placed at the disposal of the Superintendent of Census, with much inconvenience
and loss to himself, by a gentleman connected with a family with a traditionally high sense of civic
duty. ^ Paper, without which essential commodity any preparations for a Census must inevitably
prove abortive, was reported to be in very short supply, and in an attempt to economize, the schedules
printed for the curtailed 1931 Census were rescued f r o m the Registrar-General's Office where they were
lying in varying degrees of deterioration, and the additional questions were printed on the reverse of
the retrieved forms. There had always been available for decennial censuses previously undertaken
by the Registrar-General as Superintendent of Census the nucleus of a trained statistical staff to handle
the census operations at the central office, but the inabihty of that officer and of the Director of Com-
merce and Industries who was also the statutory Director of Statistics to cope with the heavy volume
of work involved in a census undertaking led to the creation of an organization altogether de novo.
Nor was it possible to secure the services of any but one junior officer who had had any experience
at all of census-taking, for it had been nearly twenty-five years before, that a demographic census of
any pretensions had been undertaken in Ceylon.

These difficulties, however, were resolved with some good fortune in course of time.
It was found possible to transfer the office to Colombo in July 1945 to a semi-permanent

I
building hastily erected by the Public Works Department on private land leased for the
purpose. The position in regard to the paper supply improved with the cessation of hostilities,
and it was found possible to recruit and train the requisite staff. The well-established administrative
system of the country, the Headman System, had been largely utilized in the past in carrying out the
work of the Census, and, although it was appreciated that a very heavy strain had been placed on it
by many war-time duties, the fact that no adequate or satisfactory substitute could be found compelled
the imposition on it of this additional load. The Government Agents and their District Assistants
were Commissioners of Census by law and were made responsible for the undertaking in their
districts, but in Municipal and Urban Council areas the respective Mayors and Chairmen were the
ex-officio Commissioners, and although it was possible under the law to replace them by specially
appointed Commissioners, the excellent co-operation of all local authorities throughout the Island
rendered the adoption of such a course altogether unnecessary.

PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS

The first task was the preparation of a complete list of towns and villages in the Island. The
task was facilitated by the availability of Lists of Villages published in 1926 which had only to be
revised and brought up to date. Lists of Estates, classified for census purposes as " A " and " B "
Estates, were also compiled. An " A " Estate was defined as an estate above 20 acres in extent, the
census schedule in respect of which could be filled up in English by the person-in-charge, " B " Estates
being other Estates. Nextwas undertaken the preparation of lists of buildings and agricultural holdings
in each village and their numbering to enable enumerators to cover them in their canvass. W i t h
these lists to guide them, the District Commissioners of Census were instructed to divide their districts

> Mr. A. N. D. Abeyesinghe, O . B . E , now Mayor of Negombo.

44
into "Census Blocks" to be assigned to the enumerators. The delinnitation of these " B l o c k s " was
left to the discretion of the Commissioners with due regard to local conditions, distances between
buildings, the nature of the country, and other considerations. Most Commissioners adopted the
village as a separate " Census Block but in some cases several villages were combined into one Block
with one enumerator in charge of all of them. The average size of the Block was about 60 buildings
or a population of 300 in rural areas, or of 600 in urban areas. The whole Island was thus divided
into 33,002 " Census Blocks ". A number of these Blocks was then grouped together according to
contiguity and compactness in units which were called " Census Circles ", and census supervisors
were appointed to these Circles for the purpose of supervising the work of the enumerators of the Blocks
within their respective areas. The Circles were usually one or more " Superior Headman's Division "
or in Urban areas a Ward or a part of a Ward as circumstances indicated.

DIVISION INTO UNITS

The division of the Island into these Census units is indicated in the following tabular
statement :—

TABLE 2.—CENSUS UNITS INTO W H I C H THE ISLAND WAS D I V I D E D

Province Census Commissioner's District Number of Number of

Census Circles Census Blocks
Western :
1 ... Colombo District* 47 3,693
2 ... Colombo Municipality 30 601
3 ... Avissawella U. C. 5 5
4 ... Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia U. C. ... 11 161
5 ... Gampaha U. C. ... 5 7
6 ... Ja-ela U. C. 4 7
7 ... Kolonnawa U. C. 7 29
8 ... K o t t e U . C. 10 86
9 ... Minuwangoda L. B. 3 4
10 ... Moratuwa U . C . . . 13 89
11 ... Negombo U. C. ... 12 110
12 ... W a t t a l a U . C. ... 7 35
13 ... Kalutara District* 35 1,669
14 ... Beruwala U. C. ... 8 34
15 ... Horana U. C. ... 5 12
16 ... Kalutara U . C . ... 10 44
17 ... Panadura U. C. 7 56
Central.
1 Kandy District* ... 31 2,433
2 K a n d y M . C. ... 15 163
3 Gampola U. C. ... 9 38
4 Hatton-Dickoya U. C. 7 13
5 Kadugannawa U. C. 6 6
6 Nawalapitiya U. C. 8 38
7 Matale District* 14 701
8 M a t a l e U . C. ... 9 35
9 Wattegama U. C. 6 6
10 Nuwara Eliya District* 11 806
11 Nuwara Eliya U. C. 10 22
* Excludes urban areas under the jurisdiction of a Municipal or Urban Council.

45
 Province Census Commissioner's District Number of Number of
Census Circles Census Blocks
Southern :
1 ... Galle District* 19 2,353
2 ... Galle M . C . 15 185
3 ... Ambalangoda U. C. 10 33
4 ... Matara District*... 38 1,564
5 ... Matara U . C . ... 10 68
6 ... Weligama U. C. 7 50
7 ... Hambantota District* 18 1,007
8 ... Hambantota U. C. 6 13
9 ... Tangalla-Beliatta U. C. 8 26

Northern .
1 Jaffna District* ... 32 1,525
2 Jaffna U. C. 12 110
3 Mannar District ... 9 559
4 Vavuniya District 4 304

Eastern
1 Batticaloa District* 29 1,071
2 Batticaloa U. C. 10 51
3 Trincomalee District* 7 254
4 Trincomalee U. C. 60

North- Western
1 Kurunegala District* 53 3,441
2 Kuliyapitiya U. C. 7 10
3 Kurunegala U. C. 12 22
4 Puttalam District* 9 520
5 Chilaw District* 5 543
6 C h i l a w U . C. ... 9 37
7 Puttalam U. C. ... 9 25

North-Central.
1 Anuradhapura District* 21 2,501
2 Anuradhapura U. C. 52

Uva :
1 Badulla District* 26 1,641
2 Bandarawela U. C. 7 15
3 Badulla U. C. ... 9 33

Sabaragamuwa
1 Ratnapura District* 17 2,225
2 Balangoda U. C. 6 8
3 Ratnapura U. C. 9 36
4 Kegalla District* 23 1,736
5 Kegalla U. C. ... 6 21

Total 823 33,002

•Excludes Tirban areas under the jurisdiction of a Municipal or Urban Council

46
E N U M E R A T O R S , SELECTION A N D T R A I N I N G

The selection and appointment of Census Supervisors and Enumerators was also left to the
District Commissioners, but instructions were issued that only persons of intelligence and probity
who were either thoroughly familiar or could easily make themselves familiar with the topography
of the Block should be so appointed. It was stressed that the work of a Census Enumerator was a
responsible task, removed f r o m routine, and called for a conscientious realization of its importance
and of the difficulties which mistakes would involve, and that it should not be regarded as work which
could be adequately performed by any and every applicant. In view of the addition to the census
schedules of questions affecting married women and the desirability of getting replies direct f r o m them,
special female enumerators were recommended to be appointed who could be allotted also the duty
of entering up the supplementary Infirmities Schedule. Besides these, a certain number of
supernumerary general enumerators as substitutes to take the place of any general enumerators who,
from illness or other cause, would be unable to attend to the work of enumeration, and of outdoor
enumerators to enumerate travellers, pilgrims, vagrants, and others out of doors on the night of the
census was also authorized. The Estates which covered a large part of the Island especially in the
Central and South-Western districts had assigned to them enumerators working under the supervision
of their own Superintendents on the general directions of the Commissioners of Census within their
area.

It should be added that owing to the large numbers of members of the Services still in the Island
at the date of the Census, special arrangements were made with the Army, Navy and A i r Force autho-
rities for their enumeration. Similarly, the Shipping in the Harbours and travellers on the Railways
had special enumerators assigned to them.

The total number of enumerators employed on work on the census was as follows :—
General enumerators 32,021
Female 2,963
Out-door 1,598
Estate 3,174
Supernumerary 743
Supervisory 23
Railway 429
Special 1,701

Total 42,652

In order that this organization might function efficiently, the training of the selected personnel
was carefully undertaken. Training Classes were held at which the written instructions issued to the
several grades of census officers were explained and points in doubt were cleared up. An extensive
' d r i l l ' was conducted when each enumerator was required to make the proper entries on sample
schedules for a hypothetical family and agricultural holding.

H I G H D E G R E E O F CO-OPERATION

Since the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy and usefulness of a census lies with the average
citizen who is expected to give truthful answers to the questions asked in the census schedules, measures
were taken to enlist his interest and co-operation in the work of the census. Appeals were made by
His Excellency the Governor and the Hon. the Minister for Labour, Industry and Commerce; addresses
were made to various clubs and other institutions by the Superintendent of Census ; and the Press,
the Clergy, and the Broadcasting authorities gave excellent support. The high degree of co-operation

47
received f r o m all sections of the public was acknowledged in the following words by the Superintendent
of Census, when announcing the first results of the census in a broadcast made on the night of the 23rd
March 1946, four days after the date of the census :—

" The great experiment of carrying out under emergency conditions an undertaking of
complexity and importance has now ended. Mingled with a sense of relief is a feeling of gratitude
to the people of Lanka whose good sense, good citizenship and splendid co-operative spirit were
manifested in an outstanding manner at dusk on the 19th of March last when an unusual hush
settled throughout the whole Island in an expectation that something momentous was about to
take place. In few countries I venture to suggest could so high a standard of voluntary co-opera-
tion with its Government have been attained. It ought to be a matter of just pride to all of us
that in a task of such magnitude no act of compulsion was necessary. It is a happy augury that,
when we are on the threshold of a new era in this country, we should have been able to accomplish
by persuasion what was done elsewhere by compulsion. "

BASIS O F E N U M E R A T I O N

The census itself was conducted on a combined de jure and de facto basis. It would have been
noted that the International Statistical Institute had agreed that the enumeration of the census should
be made of " la population de fait ", which consists of all present in a given locaUty at a given time,
but in some countries, like Canada, the census enumerated " la population de d r o i t " , consisting of
all usually resident in a locality, inclusive of those temporarily absent, and exclusive of those only
temporarily present. The two methods are respectively known as the de facto and the dejure systems.
The trend latterly in most countries has been to retain the de facto enumeration, and combine it with
a record de jure for purposes of comparison. The two methods, of course, have their respective

i
advantages and disadvantages. The de facto method was comparatively simple, as it only took a
direct count of all persons present in a locality at the time of the census, whether strangers or habitual
residents, whether tramps, vagrants or other houseless persons. On the other hand, it had the dis-
advantage of enumerating visitors while excluding temporary absentees so that, unless care was taken
to fix the census date for a period when such casual concentrations of people were not likely, the results
might indicate undue inflation of population in certain areas, and undue diminution in other areas.
The de jure method had a certain theoretical advantage, as it purported to reflect the correct ' domicile '
of each person enumerated, the locahty to which he ' belonged', but the practical diflSculties of deciding
what constituted temporary residence and what permanent, and the extra labour involved in ear-marking
non-permanent residents and in tracing and assigning absentees on the census date detracted
somewhat f r o m its theoretical value. It was decided that a Preliminary Census of Population on the
de jure principle should be begun on the 18th February, 1946, and rules for the guidance of census officers
were carefully drafted and issued. The Census of Agriculture was conveniently conducted pari passu
with this Preliminary Census. The Final Census of Population took place between 6 p.m. and midnight
on the 19th March, 1946, and checked up the records obtained at the preliminary census, by adjusting
them according to the de facto system of enumerating persons at the places where they were found.

A N N O U N C E M E N T OF RESULTS

Three days after the night of the Census, a Gazette Extraordinary on March, 23, 1946, conveyed
to the public the first results of the Census. The total population in the Island by Provinces, Districts,
and Urban Areas, exclusive of Shipping and Services, was announced in this publication. It was
possible to give these early results as each enumerator had on instructions prepared under the super-

48
vision of his supervisor an abstract from his schedules on a special f o r m given him for the purpose.
These were integrated for each Commissioner's area, and rushed to the central Census Office where they
were scrutinized and compiled for publication. The transmission of the schedules themselves f r o m
each Commissioner's area followed shortly after, and further details were released in Gazettes Extra-
ordinary on the 24th A p r i l , 1946, and 8th June, 1946,—the former classifying the population by sex,
age, race, and religion, according to Provinces, Districts, D.R.O.'s Divisions, Municipalities, Urban
Council and Local Board Areas, and Census Circles ; and the latter giving the population of each
Village Headman's Division and of " A " Estates. These were published in response to numerous
requests f r o m members of the public in connexion with the Delimitation Commission which was then
sitting to define the limits of the 95 territorial electorates into which the country had been divided
by the Constitution on the basis of the total population of the Island as ascertained at the enumeration
of 1931.

CENSUS D O C U M E N T S
The completed census documents received from the various Commissioners were as follows :—
(1) Lists of Buildings and Agricultural Holdings in their respective Book-covers.

Population Census :
(2) The General Schedule : this provided for the entering of particulars, in respect of
each person enumerated, in vertical columns instead of horizontally. Each schedule
contained space for entries in respect of five persons only. The columns were
bounded by perforations so as to be easily detachable for use as slips for hand
sorting without the labour required in copying out the schedules into separate slips.
(3) The Occupiers' Schedule : this was identical with the General Schedule, except that
it was used in an " Institution " as defined for census purposes, namely, " a building
the chief occupant of which could discharge the duty of filling up the schedule
completely and accurately in English on his sole responsibility".
(4) The Outdoor Schedule : for use in the enumeration of travellers or others resting
or sleeping out of doors or in carts, boats, &c. The Outdoor Population did not
include occupants of galas, ambalamas, tents, &c., who were enumerated on the
General Schedule.
(5) The Infirmities Schedule on which were entered particulars of the blind, the deaf,
the deaf-mute, the blind and deaf, the blind and deaf-mute, and the crippled.
(6) The " A " Estates Schedule identical with the General Schedule, but filled up by or
on the responsibiUty of the Estate Superintendent or Person-in-charge in respect of
all persons on such estate at the night of the Census.

Agricultural Census :
(7) The "A " Estates Schedule.
(8) The " B " Estates Schedule.
(9) The Small Holdings Schedule.
(10) The Town and Village Gardens Schedule.
(11) The Chenas Schedule.
(12) The Asweddumized Paddy Lands Schedule.

49
CODING AKD TABULATION

The Schedules on receipt were distributed among specially trained staff for the purpose of detailed
scrutiny. Errors or omissions were followed-up and adjustments made. Meanwhile, since it was
decided that the tabulation should be undertaken by mechanical apparatus, an elaborate ' code ', or
rather set of codes, was prepared so as to apply to the numerous entries on the schedules a series of
descriptive numbers which would be transferred to the card to be used on the machines. A contract
for the supply of the necessary machines on hire was entered into with a well-known firm in England
who had a Branch in India, but unfortunately the receipt of the full complement of the machines which
was expected in Juhe 1946 was delayed owing to shipping difficulties for several months thus holding
up the process of tabulation. Ad hoc requests f r o m Departments which required to be supplied
urgently with special information asked for further interrupted the programme of tabulation. However,
218 pro forma Tables were got ready to be filled in as soon as the results were produced f r o m the
machines. The schedules as revised were passed on to the coding staffs f r o m whom they were sent to
the card-punching personnel. After punching, the cards were checked or verified as to accuracy by
being passed through a verifying machine. The cards were then passed to the sorting and tabulating
machines. After examination and check for inconsistencies and errors, the results of the tabulation
processes were transferred to the Tables referred to above.

50
 CHAPTER I I I

(U) A NOTE ON TABULATION BY MACHINES

By
U. G. P. DE M E L , Deputy Director of Census and Statistics

. L T H O U G H the compilation of census tables by means of a punched card mechanically

sorted and tabulated is an " old story ", (the United States Census employed them in 1890) it was
only in 1946 that machines were used for census purposes in Ceylon, and a brief description of the
process of compiling and tabulating data by the use of machines may be given here.

The method is to transfer f r o m each census schedule to a punched card all the information on
the schedule. These punched cards are then put into machines which sort the cards by means of
electrical contacts made through the punched holes.
• The tabulating card used in the 1946 Census {See diagram below) contained 38 columns with
12 punching positions in each column. Ten of these punching positions are indicated by printed digits
0-9 which correspond to the digits of the numerical data to be punched. The 11th and 12th punching
positions at the top of the card (not indicated in diagram) are commonly referred to as X and Y posi-
tions, these also being utilized to extend the digit system when required. The tabulating card was
divided into 23 groups of columns or " fields". The heads of information represented by these fields
were as follows :—
Circle number ; Block number ; Building number ; Race ; Rehgion ; Literacy ; Sex and
Conjugal Condition ; Age ; Birth Place ; Occupation ; Relationship to Head of Household ;
Parents, whether either or both are hving or dead ; Date of Marriage ; Date of First Marriage (in
case of women who have previously married and have either contracted a subsequent marriage or are
divorced or widowed ) ; Number of children born ; Number of children alive ; Age of Mother at
birth of first child ; Length of Residence of self ; Length of Residence of family ; Ability to speak a
Language ; Industry ; Employment status ; Salary.
The division of the card into fields was preceded by the compilation of an exhaustive code which
provided for the numerical representation of every possible type of data recorded on the schedule. Where
the information on each separate head did not exceed 12 possible variations a field of one column
sufficed ; a two column field was necessary where the variations exceeded 12 but were less than 100 ;
and a three column field made provision for data which contained variations of 100 and over but less
than 1,000.

P U N C H I N G A N D SORTING
After the preparation of the necessary code the data on the schedules were converted into the
appropriate numerical notations according to the scheme set out in the code. The next operation was
to punch the coded notations on the tabulating card. This was done on the mechanical key punch.
Each card was placed by the operator in the carriage of the machine prior to punching. As the
punching operation proceeded the machine automatically spaced to the left, thus bringing each column
51
 Diagram 1

POPULATION CARD CEYLON CENSUS 1946

LlJ Z lU
o o
a < <
I-
2 <
Q a. Z O <
I ^ 111 a 3
-i
O
(- o Q
D < cc o < < < Z
m cc o a. Q z 25

O O O 0 0 0 O o o O O O 0 O O
II o o

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 I 3 3 3 3 3 3 II 3 I 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

El

6 6 6 6 6 I 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

B I

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
I 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 24 25 26| 29 30 34 35 36

Specimen Punched Card used at the Census of 1946

52
of numerals on the card into the punching position. When the desired information had been recorded
in this manner, the operator moved the card, inserted another and repeated the process. In order to
eliminate possible errors the punched cards were next put through the mechanical verifier which was
operated in a similar manner as the key punch. This repetition of work (by a different person)
revealed the errors made by the one who originally performed the task. If a key was struck which
did not correspond to the hole already punched in the card th?fcarriage of the verifier refused to advance,
thus calling attention to the error. Comparison with the original data and the punched card was then
made to determine whether the error occurred in punching or in verifying.

The cards, after being punched and verified, were run on the counter sorter machines which
carried out the various cross-classifications required for the projected tables. The results of the sorting
were automatically recorded on panels on the counter sorter and these were copied out by hand on
sheets of paper. The tabulation sheets released by the machine section were passed on to the compila-
tion staff who constructed from them the tables which will appear in the statistical volumes of the Census
Report.
A l l these various operations,—coding, punching, verifying, sorting and tabulating—required a
great deal of training and very close supervision. The officers who carried out the machine operations,
although they had no previous training, soon acquired a high degree of proficiency. As an inducement
for attaining this desired end, "stars" were awarded to coders and punchers whose output was above
the normal.

The description of the facts punched on the card as shown on opposite page is as follows :—

Column
I and 2 ... Circle No. ^ On March 19, 1946, this person lived in building N o . 69 on
3 and 4 ... Block No. V Sirikandura Estate, situated in Horawella Division of
5, 6, and 7 ... Building No. J Kalutara District
8 and 9 ... Race.—This person is an Indian Tamil
10 ... Religion.—This person is a Christian of the Methodist denomination
II ... Literacy.—This person is literate in Tamil (mother tongue)
12 ... Sex and Conjugal Condition.—This person is a female and married according to
custom
13 and 14 ... Age.—She is 55 years of age
15, 16, and 17 ... Birth Place.—She was born in Tinneveliy District in South India
18, 19, and 20 ... Occupation.—She is a labourer on a rubber estate
21 ... Relationship to Head of Household.—She is the mother of the chief occupant of
the house
23 and 24 ... Date of Marriage.—She was married in 1913
27 and 28 ... Number of Children born and number still living.—She has had one child who is
still alive
29 and 30 ... Age at Birth of First Child.—She was 24 years of age when she gave birth to her
first child
31 and 32 ... Length of Residence in Ceylon.—She immigrated to Ceylon between the years
1916 and 1925
33 ... English literacy and ability to speak Sinhalese and Tamil.—She is illiterate in
Enghsh and can speak only Tamil
34, 35, and 36 ... Industry.—She is dependent for her living on the rubber plantation industry
37 ... Employment Status.—She is a wage-earner
38 ... Wage.—She is in receipt of a wage ranging between Rs. 20 and Rs. 40 per month.

53
 CHAPTER IV

T H E GROWTH OF T H E ISLAND'S POPULATION

H I L E i t m a y b e safely assumed that the administrative organization of the ancient Sinhalese
included the keeping of statistical records for purposes such as the verification of the performance of
services attached to land, the muster of troops, the call-up of labour for public works, the issue of water
to rice fields under irrigation, the collection of the King's revenue or the exemption f r o m taxation of
lands dedicated to the priesthood or otherwise privileged, the lack of any direct information coming
down f r o m an authoritative writer of antiquity as regards the population in the Sinhalese Kingdom has
led to a great deal of speculation among modern writers who have interested themselves in the subject.

P O P U L A T I O N I N A N C I E N T TIMES
This not unnatural theorizing has, however, been rather unfairly dismissed by a former Census
Superintendent,! as " pure guesswork, little better than the Emperor Heliogabalus' estimate of the
greatness of Rome f r o m 10,000 pounds of cobwebs having been found in the c i t y " . Yet the foolish
frolicsomeness of a dissolute Roman Emperor, who had more rational means at hand to assess the
populousness of his Imperial City if only he had been minded to use them^ could hardly be placed w i t h
justice on the same level as the reasoned general conclusions of these writers as regards the extent of the
population in those ancient times, based as they were on the best evidence available. It is only in an
ancient ola manuscript of uncertain date^, said to have been "kept in the temple town of Tissawa in
Seven Korales ", that any direct reference to the population of the Island under the Sinhalese Kings has
yet been traced. The manuscript gives a total population for the Island of 7 0 | million persons distributed
among 400,000 villages in each of the three Divisions of the country, or an average of about 59 persons
to each village. The number of villages given in this manuscript is not far removed f r o m the number
which according to the Rajavaliya Parakrama Bahu II declared f r o m his deathbed was to be found
in his realm. There were 1,470,000 villages in Ceylon in the three Ratas which he had united under one
canopy of dominion, 450,000 in the Pihiti or Raja Rata, 250,000 in the Maya Rata, and 770,000 in the
Ruhunu Rata. On the basis of only a milUon villages, two houses to a village, and five persons to a
house, a Census Superintendent ^ calculated the population at ten millions in the early 14th century
of the Christian era. An aggregate of 1,541,000 villages is given in the Rajaratnakaraya^ as existing
in the three Provinces of Matara, Jaffna, and Uva in the 15th century A . D . The Defence Force of
Kakavanna, father of Dutugemunu, consisted of eleven thousand one hundred and ten men ' but the
army of Parakrama Bahu the Great which invaded India thirteen centuries later is stated to have
consisted of 2,125,000 warriors

1 Denham : Ceylon at the Census of 1911, p. 9.

' Cf. Gibbon : Decline and Fall, Ch. X X X I . The births and deaths of Roman citizens were duly registered,
' Cited by Denham : Ceylon at the Census of 1911, p. 9.
* Rajavaliya, p. 65.
= Arunachalam, P., Census of Ceylon, 1901, p. 23.
' Rajaratnakaraya, p. 112.
' Mahawamsa, Ch. X X I I I .
' PujavaUya, p. 3.5 (Tr. by Mudlr. Gunasekara). These were selected, ten out ot everj' hundred. Assuming
an equal proportion of women, the population must have exceeded 40 millions.

54
EVIDENCE OF THE RUINS
It was not, however, on these figures but on the evidence of " the great and general
remains" that the early British writers formed the conclusion that the population of the
Island in the zenith of its prosperity must of necessity have been many times as great as it was at the
period at which they wrote. The grounds on which this conclusion was based were expressed by
Emerson Tennant in a brilliantly-worded passage which has now been made familiar by the frequency
with which it has been quoted. Trite though it may be, it may bear reproduction again : " The
labour necessary to construct any one of these gigantic works for irrigation is in itself an evidence of
local density of population, but their multipUcation by successive Kings, and the constantly recurring
record of district after district brought under cultivation in each successive reign, demonstrate the
steady increase of inhabitants and the multitude of husbandmen whose combined and sustained t6il
was indispensable to keep these prodigious structures in productive activity . . . . No one who
has visited the regions, now silent and deserted, once the homes of millions, can hesitate to believe that
when the Island was in the zenith of its prosperity, the population of Ceylon must of necessity have
been at least ten times as great as it is at the present day ". A similar line of argument had been taken
earlier by Forbes i : " The great extent of Anuradhapura, covering within its walls a space of two
hundred and fifty-six square miles, will not give any just grounds on which to estimate the extent of its
population ; as tanks, fields, and even forests are mentioned as being within its limits. The number
and magnitude of the tanks and temples . . . . are the best vouchers for the numerous
population which a t these periods existed i n Ceylon . . . . The public works o f Parakrama
Bahoo the First proved that even then Ceylon had a much more numerous population than it now
possesses . . . . Let those who doubt that an immense population formerly existed in Ceylon
compare the prodigious bulk of the ancient monuments of Anuradhapura, Magam and Polonnaruwa,
with those erected by later Kings of the Island ; then let them compare singly the remains of the
Kala tank, the Kaudela tank, or many others, with any or all the public works accomplished in Ceylon
for the last five hundred years."

In the absence of census records oiie must perforce be content with a finding expressed in these
general terms, that there must have been in the Island at the height of its prosperity under the ancient
Kings a population exceeding by many times that found in Ceylon when the British first began to make
their enumerations. The Dutch Census of 1789 had given a population of 817,000 in the maritime
territory of the Dutch East India Company, and Bertolacci had estimated the population of the settle-
ments in 1806 at 700,000. The Census directed by Governor Barnes gave a population for the whole
Island of only 889,584 persons in 1827.

RISE A N D F A L L I N N U M B E R S
The sceptical modern critic could point to this small population and challenge as unfounded the
belief of those who considered that Ceylon had once been the home of many millions. But theories
which have of late found favour among some students of population phenomena may be cited to
account for the declension of the population f r o m the numerous millions assumed to have once
existed in the land. In nearly 2,400 years of history, Raymond Pearl's " logistic curve " ^ which
illustrated his theory of " the natural and universal tendency of population growth " could have

> Forbes : Eleven Years in Coylon. I. p. 237.

3 Cf. Bowley, A. I . . : " I regret that so much prominence has been given to the logistic equation. "
Journal, Royal Statistical Society L X X X V I I I , 1925, p. 76. Wilcox, W. F . : " I do nob believe in any
simple law of population growth, " in " Population and the World War. " Journal of the American
Statistical Association 18 : 710-711.
55
 Diagram II

THOUSANDS OF PERSONS THOUSANDS OF PERSONS

8,000 1,000

6,000 i 6,000

4'000 t 4'00O

2,000 2,000

•i 0

1871 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1946

Growth of Population, 1871-1946

56
gone its full course. Beginning its cycle by a slow increase, increasing its rate steadily until the midpoint
of the cycle was reached, the population of the Island would have slowed down its growth thereafter,
and the end of the cycle had nearly been reached with the extinction of the Sinhalese Kingdom. The
changed conditions of political, social, economic and cultural environment which British Rule intro-
duced into Ceylon have started a new cycle, a new logistic curve, which is now being demonstrated.
Or, again, in the same lengthy period there might have occurred " a natural exhaustion of reproductive
powers " as envisaged in the theory of the cyclical rise and fall of population enunciated by Corrado
G i n i . 1 The Sinhalese nation, running through the parabola of birth, senescence, and death, had in
the latter days a biologically weakened population, susceptible to disease and epidemics and to defeat
and extinction in war by a more vigorous people.

75 YEARS OF P O P U L A T I O N G R O W T H
It would indeed be a fascinating exercise to consider the known facts of history in
the light of these theories, but the firm data in regard to the population of the country
begin only w i t h the first decennial census of 1871. The total de facto population of the
Island at that census was 2,405,576. The de facto population at the census of March 19, 1946, was
6,693,945. When the non-resident population (Services and Shipping) is excluded in both cases, the
figure for 1871 is 2,400,380, and that for 1946 is 6,657,339 persons. These constitute the population
that may be regarded as " belonging to " Ceylon.
In the tabular statement given below is indicated the population of Ceylon at the Census held
in 1871 and since, the amount of increase, and per cent, of increase :—
TABLE 3.—POPULATION, A M O U N T OF INCREASE, A N D PER CENT.
OF INCREASE, CEYLON, 1871-1946
Year and Date of Census Population Amount of Increase Per Cent. Increase
1871. March 27 2,400,380 —
1881. February 17 2,759,738 359,358 15-0
1891. February 26 3,007,789 248,051 90
1901. March 1 3,565,954 558,165 18-6
1911. March 10 4,106,350 540,396 15-2
1921. March 18 4,498,605 392,255 9-6
1931. February 26 5,306,871 808,266 18-0
1946. March 19 6,657,339 1,350,468 25-4
The table shows that in seventy-five years the population of Ceylon has increased by 4,256,959,
or by 177-3 per cent., the mean rate of the increase being about 14-7 per decennium. Kuczynski,
rejecting Carr-Saunders' estimate of the growth of the world's population by l i 6 per cent, per year,
has concluded that the present increase is not more than 5/8ths of 1 per cent. ^ Ceylon's rate of increase
is more than twice the world's rate of growth of its population. On the basis of this rate of increase,
and of stability of conditions, the following estimates of the future population of Ceylon, which cannot
be regarded as " predictions ", are recorded :—
Year Population
1951 ... ... ... ... 7,147,000
1961 ... ... ... ... 8,197,000
1971 ... ... ... ... 9,402,000
1981 ... ... ... ... 10,784,000

I f the estimate for 1981 is realized, Ceylon will have doubled its population in fifty years, while it has
been computed that the world will double its population i n 110 years.

» Corrado Gini: Population (Lecture on the Harris Foundation, 1929).

' B. R. Kuczynski: " The World's Future Population " (Lecture on the Harris Foundation, 1929).

57
C O M P A R I S O N W I T H OTHER COUNTRIES

For purposes of comparison, the following Table has been prepared, showing the growth of
population in certain selected countries in the 50-year period, 1891-1941. Care has been taken to
select only such countries as have retained in 1941 practically the same territorial area, as they had in
1891 :—
TABLE 4 — G R O W T H OF POPULATION, 1891-1941, A N D PER CENT,
INCREASE IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES

Country Population, 1891* Population, 1941* Per Cent.

Millions Millions Increase
Belgium 6-09 8-25 35-5
England and Wales 29 00 42-09 45-1
Scotland 4-03 5-03 24-8
Netherlands 4-55 9-02 98-2
France 38-48 40.24 4-6
Spain 17-55 25-94 47-8
Portugal 4-71 7-71 63-7
Norway 1-99 3-03 52-2
Sweden 4-47 6-59 47-4
Denmark 2-15 3-91 81.8
Italy 30-95 44-31 43-1
Switzerland 2-94 4-38 49 0
Canada 4-83 11-51 117-6
United States 64-37 132-81 106-3
Mexico 11-72 2216 89-1
Argentine 3-31 14-61 341-4
Brazil 14-63 43-71 130-4
AustraUa 3-17 7-10 123-9
New Zealand 0-62 1-62 153-2
Japan 34-35 74-22 1161
India and Pakistan . 279-69 389-00 39-0
Burma 7-60 16-54 117-6
Thailand (Siam) ... 4-92 15-23 209-5
Federated Malay States l-03t 2-21 104-8
CEYLON 301 6-21 100-6
* Adjusted Estimate, where no census figures for the year were available,
t Popvilation in 1911.

I t will be apparent from the above Table that, great as has been the growth of Ceylon's total
population, there are countries which show a greater increase. Most of these are the " new " countries
which have encouraged immigration, and all the countries of Asia except India and Pakistan. The four
former Federated Malay States more than doubled their aggregate population in thirty years. Of the
countries in Europe, the population of none shows a larger growth than Ceylon, but the Netherlands
have kept nearly in step, and have almost doubled the population in fifty years, while a mainly agri-
cultural country like Denmark has increased its population during the 50-year period by 81 '8 per cent.

S I G N I F I C A N C E O F T H E FIGURES

The significance of the figures relating to the growth of the population in Ceylon
may, perhaps, be more easily grasped if they are put in the f o r m of a graph which,
though inaccurate in detail, will show the trend of the growth in the last 75 years
see Diagram II on page 56.

58
 The population of the Island has, of course, grown as a result of two factors, firstly, a
natural increase, that is, by births exceeding deaths, and, secondly, a movement of people which has
brought a number of persons born in other countries to find a more or less permanent abode in
Ceylon. A system of registration of births and deaths had prevailed in the country since 1847, but birth
registration had been regarded as optional until 1887 when successful prosecutions by the Registrar-
General 1 under the Penal Code immediately eflfected an improvement in the birth-rate. Compulsory
registration was enforced under a consolidated law enacted in 1 8 9 5 , and the system has now been in
force for over fifty years and can be regarded as providing on the whole reliable statistics. As
regards migration, the greatest movement takes place between India and Ceylon and affects mainly
the estate labour population. The source of the statistics relating to this is the Board of Immigra-
tion and Quarantine, while other migration statistics are kept by the Police Department chiefly
in connexion with the control and registration of aliens.

N A T U R A L INCREASE A N D M I G R A T I O N
The following Table shows the Intercensal Increase of Population, the Births and Deaths during
the Intercensal Period, the Natural Increase, and, as the Migration Increase, the difference between
Intercensal Increase and Natural Increase :—

T A B L E 5—INTERCENSAL INCREASE, BIRTHS, DEATHS, N A T U R A L

INCREASE, A N D M I G R A T I O N INCREASE

Period Intercensal Births Deaths Natural Migration

Increase Increase Increase
1871- -1881 ... 359,358 ... 708,150 . . 588,358 . 119,792 . 239,566
1881- -1891 ... 248,051 ... 836,636 .. 692,376 . 144,260 . 103,791
1891- -1901 558,165 ... 1,122,041 . . 896,635 . 225,406 . . 332,759
1901- - 1 9 1 1 540,396 ... 1,459,618 . . 1,103,471 . 356,147 . 184,249

1911- -1921 ... 392,255 ... 1,648,066 . . 1,328,656 . .. 319,410 . 72,845

1921- -1931 808,266 ... 1,946,115 . . 1,289,165 . . 656,990 . 151,276

1931- - 1 9 4 6 ... 1,350,468 .. 3,209,520 . . 1,928,604 . .. 1,280,916 . 69,552

The picture presented by the figures in the Table may, perhaps, be seen with better perspective
in Diagram I I I on page 6 0 .

The diagram shows at a glance that in two decades within the last seventy-five years, in 1 8 7 1 -
1 8 8 1 , and again i n 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 0 1 , the increase o f the country's population was occasioned more by an
influx of immigrants than by an excess of births over deaths. In the first of these decades, the increase
by immigration was double that by natural increase, and in 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 0 1 i t was about one and a half
times as much. This picture is confirmed by the facts of history, for it was in 1 8 7 1 - 1 8 8 1 that the
prosperity of the coffee plantations was at its highest and much labour was brought in f r o m India,
but in the next decade the estates were developing a leaf disease and were being abandoned. In 1 8 9 1 -
1 9 0 1 tea was rising, phoenix-like over the coffee, and was enjoying a period of extraordinary boom.
In the succeeding decade, it was becoming stabilized, rubber and coconut were expanding, but the latter
part of the decade of 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 1 saw the severe rubber slump, causing a reduction o f labour on the

1 Mr. (afterwards Sir) P. Arunachalam, C C S . Cf. Census of Ceylon, 1901, p. 216.

59
 Diagram III
THOUSANDS OF PERSONS
THOUSANDS OF PERSONS
1,600
1,600

IntercensalIncrease

Natural Increase
1,200
1,200
l>;:%'::->!t;7^ Migration Increase

800
809

400
400

1871-1881 1881-1891 1891-1901 1901-191] 1911-1921 1921-1931 1931-1946

Intercensal, Migration and Natural Increase of Population, 1871-1946

estates. From the middle of 1924, however, rubber recovered, but the effects of the world-wide
economic depression were beginning to be felt towards the end of the decade, and continued well into
the early years of the 1931-1946 period. The adoption of a definite policy by the Ceylonese Govern-
ment of discouragement of non-Ceylonese labour was followed in 1939 by the imposition of a ban on
emigration f r o m India which, although it caused some hardship to employers and Indian workers alike,
has resulted in giving the smallest addition to the population of this country by immigration that it
has had at any intercensal period during the last seventy-five years. The detailed figures of the move-
ment of passengers into and out of Ceylon, however, show a great increase in immigration since the end
of W o r l d War I I ' which is, perhaps, attributable to a large extent to the political conditions prevailing
in the neighbouring sub-continent of British India (now India and Pakistan).

BIRTHS A N D D E A T H S
The diagram also shows a very great natural increase in the last two intercensal periods, and since
this is a phenomenon caused by births exceeding deaths, it would be useful to examine in detail the annual
figures of births and deaths during these periods, and what are termed the " crude " birth-and death-
rates. These rates are commonly used to measure population growth by natural increase, but it should
be noted that they are not altogether appropriate i, for they are based on the total population, and do

1 T h e balance " i n w a r d " flow of movement of passengers to Ceylon in 1945 is the highest ever recorded.

60
 not take into account the sex and age composition. Births occur only to a small section of the popula-
tion, to women in the reproductive ages, while it is obvious that as old age sets an extreme limit to life,
a population with a greater or smaller proportion of aged persons can expect to have " killed o f f " a
correspondingly larger or smaller number of such persons. Nevertheless, in spite of their " crudity ",
these rates are regarded as reflecting broadly the trend of a population towards increase or decrease,—
the birth-rate being considered a fair index of fertility or completed reproduction, and the death rate
of health and longevity. The Table given below shows the Annual Births and Deaths in Ceylon in
1921-1930, and the succeeding Table the same information for the intercensal period, 1931-1945.
Both Tables give the crude rates per thousand of the total population.

TABLE 6 . — A N N U A L BIRTHS A N D DEATHS I N CEYLON, 1921-1930, W I T H THE CRLTOE D E A T H

RATES PER 1,000 OF THE T O T A L POPULATION

Year Births Crude Birth- Deaths Crude Death

Rat e per 1,000 Rate per 1,00
1921 183,917 40-6 140,749 311
1922 179,856 39T 126,820 27-5
1923 181,437 38-7 141,891 30-3
1924 178,867 37-5 122,958 25-8
1925 193,261 39-9 117,543 24-2
1926 206,888 42-0 124,884 25-3

I
1927 205,469 41-0 113,003 22-6
1928 213,308 41-9 132,334 26-0
1929 198,005 38-3 135,274 26-2
1930 205,107 39T 133,709 25-5

Total 1,946,115 Mean 39-8 Total 1,289,165 Mean 26'5

TABLE 7.- - A N N U A L BIRTHS A N D DEATHS I N CEYLON, 1931-1945, W I T H THE CRUDE

RATES PER 1,000 OF THE T O T A L POPULATION

Year Births Crude Birth- Deaths Crude Death-

Rate per 1,000 Rate per 1,000
1931 199,170 37-4 117,452 22-1
1932 199,370 37-0 110,649 20-5
1933 209,032 38-6 114,690 21-2
1934 206,512 37-2 127,069 22-9
1935 192,755 34-4 204,823 36-6
1936 192,060 34T 123,039 21-8 .
1937 216,072 37-8 124,210 21-7
1938 208,389 35-9 122,299 21-0
1939 212,111 360 128,611 21-8
1940 212,980 35-8 122,738 20-6
Glass, D. y. : T h i s rate IS inappropriate for two reasons. F i r s t , it compares incomparables . . . .
becondly, the potential child-bearing section of the population varies in size and age over periods of
u-^i. • • J ^""''^'•'y *he crude death-rates relate the annual total of deaths to a population
which may be changing very significantly in &ge ".(Population Policies and Movements in Europe,

61
 Births Crude Birth- Deaths Crude Death-
rear
Rate per 1,000 Rateper 1,000
1941 219,864 36-5 113,003 18-8
1942 221,064 36-7 ... . 112,044 18-6
1943 248,820 40-6 131,061 21-4
1944 232,827 37-1 133,985 21-3
1945 238,494 36-7 142,931 22-0

Total 3,209,520 Mean 36-8 Total 1,928,604 Mean 22-2

DECLINE I N THE D E A T H RATE

It is apparent f r o m these Tables that during the 15-year period 1931-1945 the mean crude
birth-rate had dropped to 36-8 from 39-8 which was the mean in the intercensal period 1921-1930.
But even greater decline has occurred in the death-rate, f o r from a mean of 26-5 in the intercensal
period 1921-1930 the crude death-rate had gone down to a mean of 22-2 in 1931-1945. The figures
for the 15-year period 1931-1945, if compared with those for the preceding period of 15 years {i.e.,
1916-1930), would reveal the same broad picture,—the birth-rate would show a decline f r o m a mean
of 39-1 to a mean of 36*8, and the death-rate a drop f r o m a mean of 29-9 to a mean of 22-2. PubUc
Health statisticians may, perhaps, be inclined to claim at once that the figures suggest that the large
increase in population is due not so much to an increase in the fertility of the people of Ceylon as to a
greater control over death. The suggestion can be sustained by the observation that in this respect
the country is but repeating the experience of the Northern and Western European countries, and of
Japan. ^ But it should also be remembered that Ceylon has had at least for the last seventy-five years
a birth-rate continuously in excess of the death-rate and that this would in fact tend to lower the death-
rate through the supply it affords of people annually reaching the more healthy ages.

A comparison of the crude birth- and death-rates of other countries would be of interest, and
Diagrams IV and V (pages 63 and 6 4 ) depict for 1946 the birth- and death-rates of certain selected
countries.
The diagrams demonstrate that Ceylon shares with Egypt, Japan, and some South American
and East European countries a relatively high fertility and mortality, while Northern and West Euro-
pean countries have low birth- and death-rates. The rate of natural increase, however, seems to be
greater in Egypt, Venezuela, and among the Whites of the Union of South Africa than in Ceylon which
is in this respect almost on a level with Japan.

R E P R O D U C T I O N RATES A N D W H A T T H E Y M E A N
Population increase may be measured somewhat more accurately by a different approach.
So long as babies are built in mothers' wombs, so long will the size o f a population be governed by the
composition of that section of it that comprises potential mothers. But the fecundity, or child-bearing
capacity, of these mothers is never fully realized As Kuczynski expressed i t : " The full effect of
fecundity would be realized if all females, throughout their entire child-bearing period, had sexual
intercourse with procreative men and did nothing to prevent conception nor to procure abortion.
Since those conditions are never and nowhere fulfilled, fertility always and everywhere lags behind
fecundity. " ^ He concluded that " the basic birth data for an accurate measurement of fertility are

' Cf. K y o i c h i I s h i i : Population Pressure and Eeononio Life of J a p a n , ch. 11.

« K u c z y n s k i , R. R. : Measurement of Population Growth.

62
 Diagram IV

10 20 30 40 50
I I I I I I II I I I I I I I I I M I I M I I I I I •! I I I I 1 I I I I I j I I I I ( r I I I

.+ Egypt

Ceylon

Venezuela

British G u i a n a

Chile

Netherlands

S , Africa

Canada

Japan

New Z e a l a n d

Rumania
I I
Australia
I I
Denmark

U. S . A,
I
Norway

Scotland

Sweden

E n g l a n d & Wales

Belgium

I I I I I I 1 I 1 I I 1 I I i I I I I I I I I I I • I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I 1 I I

0 10 20 30 40 50

B I R T H S P E R 1,000 O F P O P U L A T I O N

:-f. 1945 RATE

Crude Birth Rates for Specified Countries, 1946 (Per 1,000 of the Population)

63
 Diagram V

10 20 30 40 50
I I I I I I I I III I I I I M I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I 1 I I I I I IIr I I

Ceylon

Japan K^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Chile ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

British G u i a n a ^^^^^$^;^^^^^^:^^j^^^js^si^^^

^•'"""^'^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Belgium
I I

Scotland

England & Wales

Sweden
Denmark ^

U. S . A,

Australia

New Z e a l a n d ^

Canada

Norway

S, Africa K^^^^s^^^^s^^:^^

Netherlands b ^ ^ W ^

I I I I I I 'I I I I I t I I • I I I I II I I I I I I I I I ' 'I I ' I ' I I I I I' I I I I I

0 10 20 30 40 50
DEATHS PER 1,000 O F P O P U L A T I O N
¥. 1945 RATE

Crude Death Rates for Specified Countries, 1946 (Per 1,000 of the Population)

64
births by age of mother ". Accordingly, he devised a new " yardstick ". Classifying the population
of potentially fertile females by single years of age, he ascertained the ages of the females who actually
bore children in a given year, and calculated the fertility rates for each year of age per every 1,000 females.
Adding their separate fertility rates, he obtained a total fertility rate which would give the total number
of children who would be born to 1,000 females who, having been born alive, passed through the child-
bearing ages without any of them dying, assuming that at each year of age they exhibited the fertility
observed in the particular year for which the rates were calculated. Applying the sex ratio at birth,
he obtained a result which showed the number of females who would replace the 1,000 females passing
through the child-bearing period without any loss by death. This result, stated per female, he called
the ' gross reproduction rate'. Demographers accept this today as the best index of pure fertility,
unaffected by mortality. Obviously, however, death would take some toll of the original group of
1,000 females as they pass through the child-bearing period. Some would have died before reaching
the reproductive age, and some before the reproductive period is completed. Taking this fact of
mortality into consideration, Kuczynski obtained a figure called ' the net reproduction rate', which
gives the extent to which each newly-born female will replace herself on the given conditions of fertility
and mortality. " A net reproduction rate of less than 10 means that the population will ultimately
fall, while a rate above one means that the population will grow, and the rapidity of decline or growth
is shown by the extent to which the rate differs from I'O. A rate o f 1*5 means that the population will
ultimately grow by 50 per cent, every generation, while one of 0 75 means an eventual fall of 25 per
cent, every generation. " ^

S I G N I F I C A N C E OF T H E C E Y L O N RATES
This detailed explanation of fertihty rates has been given here, as for the first time in the history
of census-taking in Ceylon fertility statistics were asked for on the schedules and have been compiled.
In another chapter (Ch. ^ ) these will be considered more fully. SufUce it to state here that the
estimated reproduction rates 2 for Ceylon are :—Cro^i'2*302 per woman, and Net 1-588 per woman,
which almost correspond with the estimated reproduction rates for England and Wales in 1880-2,
when the gross reproduction rat^ was 2-279, and the net reproduction rate was 1-525. The population
of England and Wales at tJife Census of 1881 was 25-97 millions. Since the net reproduction rate
indicates the generation rate of growth, and assuming this to be 30 years, one might compute that
the population of England and Wales should have been in 1911 some 39-61 millions. Actually at the
census of 1911 only 36-07 million persons were enumerated. Similarly, in Ceylon in 1975 one may

' Glass, D. V. ; Population Policies and Movements in Europe, p. 9. B u t Cf. E e p o r t of R o y a l Conomission

on Population, 1949, (Cmd. 7695) p. 62 : " Reproduction rates are by no means reliable instruments
for indicating the fundamental trend underlying the crude figures of births and deaths
The two main defects of these indices both arise from the fact that they are constructed from the
fertility rates of women in different age-groups. These rates take no account of the proportion of the
women who are married, and thus in effect ignore the distinction between an increase in births which
is due to a lowering of the age of marriage and one which arises from larger families. Secondly,
they take no account of any special influences affecting the rate at which married couples were building
up their families in the particular period ; and thus in effect ignore the distinction between an increase
in births which is due to a temporary fluctuation in '' family building '' and one which carries an increase in
the size of the completed family . . . It is to the size of the family rather than to fertility rates
that the notion of a replacement percentage can most appropriately be attached ".

2 The estimate has been made by using a " substitute reproduction rate ", that is, by applying the specific
fertility rates of another coimtry (in this case, Sweden) to the female population in Ceylon, calculating
the number of births which would have resulted from such rates, obtaining a factor which expresses
the ratio between the estimated and actual births, and using this factor for adjusting the total fertility
rate derived from the separate rates which were used. T h e method is often used by demographers for
purposes of quick, though approximate, computation. " It has been found that in practice the margin
of error is not more than 6 per cent, and that in most cases it is less than 3 per cent. " Glass, D. V. :
Population Policies and Movements in Europe, \:>. \2

65
expect a population of 10-54 millions on the basis of the estimated net reproduction rate, and assuming
that there is no migration and that fertility and mortality remain unchanged. This estimate
may be compared, as of interest, with that given earlier in this chapter at page 57.

It thus seems almost inevitable that the population of Ceylon a ' generation ' or three decades
hence will approximate ten million persons, and the question is raised whether such a population might
be adequately sustained by the means of subsistence available at that point of time. Pressure of popu-
lation on the land is usually measured by what is termed its ' Density ', but this is obtained by simply
dividing the population estimated or enumerated in a given area by the number of square miles or acres
in that area. Obviously the method is a crude and inaccurate measure of the relationship between
population and area, for it assumes in the first place an even distribution of the population throughout
the area, which is never the case, and in the next place it compares heterogeneous totals, the items
of one of which have a varying relation with the items of the other. For as Bowleyi expressed it :
" The difficulty is to attach a meaning to the quotient The population total includes male
and female, old and young, workers, owners and dependents. The area total includes fertile and barren
areas, mountainous and plain, metalhferous and valueless, urban and rural. The relationship may be
one of accidental residence or of complete dependence on the products of the land. " Nevertheless,
deficient as it is, the method is often used as an index of " population pressure " in a given area.

The total area of Ceylon is 25,332 square miles. If the extent covered by its inland waters,
which is 296 square miles, is excluded, the land area alone is 25,036 square miles. Since the de jure
population as ascertained at the census of 1946 was 6,657,339, the density of the population in Ceylon
was 262^, or 265 persons per square mile, according as the total area or the land area only was con-
sidered. Should the population rise to 10,000,000 persons, the density would be 395 or 399.

The following Table gives, for purposes of comparison, the Area, Population, and the Crude
Density of twelve selected countries :— •

T A B L E 8 — A R E A , POPULATION A N D CRUDE DENSITY OF SELECTED COUNTRIES

Country Area Population Density

Square Miles Persons per .
Mile
England and Wales 58,343 41,690,000 715
Belgium 11,775 8,388,526 712
Netherlands 15,764 9,636,000 611
Japan ... 147,690 79,340,000 537
Italy ... 119,800 45,943,000 383
Switzerland 15,737 4,547,000 289
Pakistan 299,410 84,997,955 284
Denmark 16,575 4,146,000 250
India ... 1,282,000 304,000,000 237
Portugal 35,466 8,312,000 234
France ... 212,659 41,500,000 195
Hungary 35,875 3,333,000 93
' Bowley, A. L. : T h e Measurement of Social Phenomena, p. 40.
^ It has also been computed that the average distance which separates each individual from his next
neighbour is 117 yards.

66
 CEYLON
SHOWING
THE DENSITY OF POPULATION
BY REVENUE DISTRICTS
femni ger Sg. Ujlg

JAFFNA
Under 50

SO • 100

V'-'^'"^ 100-too
200 - 300

VAYUNirA 400 - iOO

500 - 600
UANNAR. . -i- _ • V
flOO - 700

700 - SOO

Ofar 1,000

TRINCOMALU
72

ANURADHAPURA
35

PUTTALAU

KURUNEGALA
MAtALl

BATTICALOA
CHILAW
73'

KANOr

KIGALLA
m
COLOMBO

KALUTARA RATNAPURA
732 ^275

GALU
705
MATARA

PrinM 6; Sum/ Oal; Cw'on • ' • V 'WO-

QUESTION OF OVER-POPULATION
It is apparent f r o m this Table that some countries have an estimated density above that of
Ceylon. Belgium, England and Wales and the Netherlands for instance, carry about two and a half
times as many people per square mile as Ceylon. Prima facie it may appear that Ceylon by
comparison cannot be set down as an overpopulated country, and that within its spatial limits it may
be able to support, as it is believed it did in ancient times, a much larger population than it carries at
present or will carry three decades hence. The prospect of the increase in population has, however,
given rise to some alarm. Already in many minds there was an impression which had been formed
on the basis of certain economic surveys' conducted in certain areas that the villager in Ceylon would
be brought very near to starvation point by any small disturbance in his normal equilibrium.

L I M I T S O F EXPANSION
Like Malthus^ in England a century and a half ago, there are many who fear that population in
Ceylon will outstrip the means o f subsistence. I t is interesting to recall the words o f Malthus himself :
" A thousand millions are just as easily doubled every twenty-five years by the power of population as a
thousand. But the food to support the increase from the greater number will by no means be obtained
with the same facility. Man is necessarily confined in room. When acre has been added to acre
till all the fertile land is occupied the yearly increase of food must depend upon the melioration o f
land already in possession. This is a f u n d which f r o m the nature of all soils, instead of increasing,
must be gradually diminishing. " The critics of Malthus, however, with the era of prosperity heralded
by the Industrial Revolution behind them, have pointed out that " with every mouth God gives two
hands, " and that he had underestimated both man's ingenuity at invention and his almost unlimited
capacity to move both himself and goods. In Ceylon, it may be noted that " all the fertile land "
is not yet f u l l y occupied, nor is all the cultivable land put to the best possible use. At the census of
agriculture which was conducted concurrently with the population census in 1946 it was ascertained
that, apart f r o m uncultivated Crown lands, over a million acres (1,057,297) which had had
at some time raised a crop, and which was still cultivable with crops, had lain uncultivated at
the time of the census. N o r can it be said that the arts of cultivation in Ceylon have been so fully
developed and practised that yields f r o m land generally had reached their peak in the past and have
now begun to draw upon a " diminishing fund. " It may therefore be possible to aver that Ceylon's
natural resources can be utilized to a greater extent, so as to sustain a larger population than it holds
at present. A n d the very fact that the " positive " checks,—for example, famine,—which Malthus
suggested would be applied by Nature as soon as population reached its limit, have not operated
in recent times in Ceylon may be cited as indicating'that not only is this country not overpopulated
but also that there exists a reasonable margin between living standards and the minimum necessary
for bare existence.
The picture of population tied firmly to the limits of sustenance that Nature can provide f r o m
the physical quantity of land on which it is settled has indeed the inaccuracy of a narrow and mis-
leading perspective. " The evidence marshalled by Carr Saunders^ leads one to doubt whether a
situation described by the arithmetical jingle of the gloomy parson has any basis in the recorded
experience of human societies ". The arid regions of North-Central Ceylon could scarcely have
produced through Nature anything more than a scanty subsistence for man, but the ingenuity of the

' Conducted under the direction of the E x e c u t i v e Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce. T h e
size of the sample and its representative character would seera to be inadequate on which to base any
general conclusions.
* ' T h e phlogistonist of demography '—Hogben.
» Cf. C a r r Saunders : T h e Population Problem, pp. 202 ff.
67
ancient Sinhalese was able to convert by irrigation what might have been a barren and fruitless desert
into a densely peopled and prosperous area. Advancement in knowledge and skill can not only
increase yields of food crops grown on land, but can even make of land a secondary asset of food
production by the use of biotechnology. Development of transport can make men move food f r o m
surplus areas into regions of scarcity or move themselves into lands where food can more easily be
procured.

Of the effects observed in history of an increase in population, Radhakamal Mukerjee'

writes : " In the course of history an increase of population has had different consequences. Some-
times it has led to misery and destitution of the masses, which are bowed down by the weight of a
rigid social system. Such misery has had no direct relation to the density of population. Sometimes
it has encouraged adventure, migration and commerce of whole peoples, led by their able and
vigorous upper social strata. Often it has also fostered new technical invention and novel utilization
of limited resources. Whether the Malthusian blight settles upon an increasing population or not
depends on an entire range of social and cultural factors—physical and social mobiUty, intellectual
tradition and diffusion of knowledge and skill, and cultural contact and intercourse among different
sections of mankind."

Q U A L I T Y OF POPULATION

It would seem that an increasing population need not in itself be a ground for alarm, ^ but
modern thought lays stress on the quality of a population, and not merely on its quantity. Quality
is a matter of heredity, environment, and tradition, and the history of the peoples of Ceylon summarized
in the first chapter suggests that the standard of quality is not much below that of other peoples who
are now in the forefront of civilization. There is, however, no room for complacency, since improve-
ment is still possible, and a search must be made for an optimum population. Among primitive
peoples the principle of the optimum number appears to have operated by natural selection of
customs and practices which were restrictive of increase, or by semi-conscious adjustment in a
later stage of development. But in the complexity of modern civilization, the task of ascertaining
the optimum is not easy, for an optimum population must not only not be too excessive or too
deficient in numbers, but must also possess an equihbrium, so to speak, of ecological and cultural
values, political security, and economic efficiency. The ecological criterion may be regarded as the
highest average expectation of life in the individual combined with the maintenance in the community
of a consistent excess of the birth-rate over mortality, but all this without a misuse or exhaustion of
the soil, water, forest, mineral and other resources of the country. Economic efficiency may be
measured by the highest average real income per individual, with the maximum utilization of
resources in manpower, materials, and capital. The maximum political security may need a
population which will not be too reduced in numbers so as to tempt powerful neighbours to seek to
absorb i t by invasion and conquest, and which at the same time will display the highest physical
vigour and the maximum capacity to use the best available means of defending itself against aggression.
But cultural values are less easily assessed, for they include, a host of imponderables such as
individual tastes, the pursuit of individual happiness, the use of leisure, standards of family and social

' Mukerjee, R a d h a k a m a l : Political E c o n o m y of Population, p. G.

' B u t for a worker's point of view, Cf. " T h e Song of the L a n d " by Bill Hood :
" If your wages you would raise
J u s t start a laugh at brother Hodge
W h e n the parson gives him praise
F o r rearing children ten?
T h a t he finds it hard to keep ;
F o r when there's many to work you know—
Y o u must sell your labour cheap."

68
solidarity, and so on. Indeed, the difliculty of combining these various factors in an integral optimum
has been recognized by those who, like Radhakamal Mukerjee, have endeavoured " to effect a
working compromise between the values at different levels ", but have been constrained to be satisfied
with the mere statement that " the integral optimum population concept . . . . will serve as a
valuable guide to rational population policy, although there is no possibility of establishing the
optimum points in a precise and accurate manner, nor of exactly measuring the approach or divergence
of a given population f r o m the optimum." ^

Difficult though it is, a population-conscious State cannot ignore or shirk the task of setting
up its ideal of the optimum, and planning its population with reference to it. But a national popula-
tion policy must " fit in with an international demographic planning based on an equalisation of
resources and standards of Hving of different peoples." This, it would appear, is an appropriate
undertaking for an organization like that of the United Nations.

TOWARDS A POPULATION POLICY

Adjustments in population may be effected by long-term planning. It is unlikely that in

Ceylon, with the level o f fertility somewhere around 1-525 a rational population policy will be directed
at further raising it. There appears to be no need then for propaganda to encourage parenthood,
or for the grant of cash or other allowances or for a tax on bachelors as in certain European countries
to induce family-rearing, or for the estabHshment of a professional child-bearing class as suggested
by a writer in the Sociological Review. - The natural desire for children has not yet generally been
stifled by economic want, the pursuit of selfish pleasure, or an understandable reluctance to provide
"cannon-fodder". The decline in the last intercensal period of 15 years in the mean birth-rate
may suggest that a trend towards smaller families has begun, caused by a change in the cultural and
economic pattern of the community, a change which is -'self reacting on the pattern by fostering new
standards of life and new personal and social values, ii it is desired to promote this trend, the gospel
to be preached is that of the empty cradle. Abortion and infanticide are rightly frowned upon by law.
Abstention f r o m sexual intercourse is a doctrine for the high-minded who can practise self-restraint.
Postponement of marriage is ineffective unless the average age at marriage is raised to such a late
age that the remedy may be worse than the disease. It seems then that the most effective means
to be applied for the control of population is a diffusion of birth-control information. Not that such
knowledge has been altogether lacking in Ceylon. As far back as the 17th century, Robert Knox,
who dwelt among the Sinhalese, a prisoner on parole of Raja Sinha I I , observed that " for the matter
of being with child, which many of them do not desire, they very exquisitely can prevent the same." *

Nor, if a qualitative improvement of the population is desired, can the eugenic approach be
lightly regarded or ridiculed. By "eugenics" is not meant, the mere sterilization of defectives or
so-called selective breeding by artificial insemination, practices which have received the sanction
of law and society in countries claiming to be " advanced." The one may attempt, not too success-
fully as has been proved, to ehminate unfit strains, and the other may achieve the mass production
of man power. But " human biology is different from genetics . . . . Love, courtship and the
reciprocal attachment and scarifice of a couple, in which their bodies, minds and hearts are all involved
have larger psychogenetic functions. In the creation of superior types of offspring the fuU preliminary
activation of man's and woman's higher secondary sex qualities is implicated. The freedom of

1 Mukerjee, R. : op. cit. p. 304.

2 Davis, K . , in Sociological Review, .July 1937, pp. 289-306.
' K n o x , R o h e r t : Historical Relalion, ch. v i i .
69
individuals to mating and parenthood according to their own hearts and souls and the sanction of
the home are essential for the reproduction of superior stocks." A social and economic system,
which places obstacles in the way of the beneficial use of that
" gift which God hath given
To M a n alone beneath the heaven,"

may need to be reformed, and an active eugenicconscience may have to be developed in the community
by the spread of information as to the factors that should enter into wise sexual selection which has
as its object the attainment of superior quality.
There is also the question of migration. The remarkable fall in the number of immigrants
which was noticed as occurring in the last intercensal period has not been maintained. Indeed in the
years 1944 till 1948 the balance inward of the flow has been very greatly in excess of the aggregate
figure shown for the whole of the 15-year period preceding. The need for a selective immigration
policy to ensure quality in population is apparent.
The directions in which a demographic policy for Ceylon may be planned have been very
broadly indicated above. The planning itself must, of course, be a matter for the Government in
power, and must be undertaken on the basis of detailed investigations of the various aspects of the
population problem. The consciousness that it is undesirable to continue to permit population to
grow haphazardly is itself a step towards progress.

70
 CHAPTER V

T H E DISTRIBUTION OF T H E POPULATION
..1
LT appears to be the evidence of history that in all the great civilizations of the past, even where
the vast majority of the people were peasants, the greatest populousness was to be found in and around
the dominant city which through its prestige and influence gave its name to the prevalent pattern
o f civilization. Thus it was to be expected that up till about the close of the first millenium o f the
Christian era, Anuradhapura and the territory around it would have had the greatest density of popula-
tion. For three centuries thereafter, the centre of populousness would have shifted somewhat
towards the South-East, and Polonnaruwa and its environs would have had the greatest concentration
of people in the Sinhalese Kingdom, although towards the end of the 13th century A . D . the largest
number of villages seems to have been found in the Rohana-Rata, the vast tracts of land to the South
and South-East of the Mahaweli Ganga, and the Kalu Ganga, comprising the Sabaragamuwa, Uva,
and Southern Provinces and the Kandy, Nuwara Eliya, and Batticaloa Revenue Districts of today.
With the rise of the capital cities of Kotte and Sitawaka, and the relative stability of government which
was assured to the inhabitants of the area in the occupation of the European Powers, the population
of the Western Littoral and its immediate hinterland seems to have increased, so that when the British
enumerations began early in the 19th century A . D . the Maritime Provinces were found to contain more
than double the population that was to be found in the territory over which Sri Vikrama Raja Sinha
had ruled. That superiority in numbers the maritime provinces still hold, notwithstanding a large
influx of new immigrants into the plantations of the H i l l Country.

The following Table gives the distribution of the population as at the census of 1827 :—
T A B L E 9—POPULATION AT THE CENSUS OF CEYLON, 1827,
(EXCLUSIVE OF THE M I L I T A R Y )

Maritime Provinces 595,105

Colombo ... 215,360
Galle 74,552
Tangalla ... 79,656
Chilaw ... 29,840
Batticaloa 27,483
Trincomalee 19,158
Jaffnapatam 123,188
Mannar ... 22,436
Delft 3,432
Kandyan Provinces 290,469
Udaratta 62,906
Four Korales 29,799
Three Korales 8,351
Seven Korales 102,598
Uva 24,802
Matale 14,459
Saffragam 44,657
Tammankadewe 2,897
CEYLON 885,574
71
DENSITY AND RATES OF GROWTH

The distribution of the population of the Provinces of Ceylon at the censuses of 1931 and 1946
respectively is given in the following Table, which also shows the crude density, and the intercensal
increase per cent. :—

T A B L E 10.—THE POPULATION OF CEYLON BY PROVINCES AT THE CENSUSES OF 1931 A N D

1946, W I T H THEIR AREA A N D CRUDE DENSITY, A N D SHOWING THE INTERCENSAL
INCREASE PER CENT.

Total Area Total Population Crude Density { Increase

Province {inclusive of {exclusive of Shipping and {Persons per Square Mile) Per Cent.
Inland Water) Services)
A

1931 1946 1931 1946

North-Central ... 4,009 .. 97,365 ... 139,534 24 ... 35 . 43-3
Eastern 3,840 .. 212,421 ... 279,112 55 ... 73 . 31-4
Western 1,432 .. . 1,445,034 ... 1,876,904 1,009 ... 1,310 . 29-9
Sabaragamuwa 1,893 .. 578,368 ... 745,382 306 ... 394 . 28-9
Southern 2,146 .. 771,204 ... 961,418 359 ... 448 . 24-7
Uva 3,278 .. 303,243 ... 372,238 93 ... 114 . 22-8
North-Western 3,016 .. 546,966 ... 667,889 181 ... 221 . 22-1
Northern 3,429 .. 398,874 ... 479,572 116 ... 140 . 20-2
Central 2,290 . 953,388 ... 1,135,290 416 ... 496 . 19-1

The following Table gives the rates of growth of the various Provinces from 1891, the year
o f the first census taken after the full complement of nine Provinces had been established, till 1931:—

TABLE 11.—RATES OF G R O W T H OF POPULATION I N THE PROVINCES, 1891-1931

Province 1891-1901 1901-1911 1911-1921 1921-1931

Central 31-3 7-9 6-8 32-8
Uva 17-3 16-1 7-9 29-7
Sabaragamuwa 24-4 26-9 15-5 22-6
Western 20-7 20-1 12-7 15-9
Southern ... 15-7 10-9 6-8 14-9
Northern-Western 10-5 22-7 13-4 11-1
Eastern 16-9 5-8 5-0 10-2
Northern 6-8 8'4 1-3 6-4
North-Central 5-0 9-1 11-9 0-9

It is apparent f r o m the above Tables that there has been a phenomenal increase in the growth
of the population in the North-Central Province during the last intercensal period of fifteen years.
The period coincided with that in which the transfer of political power to the people of the country
had been effected, and there is no question that the rate of growth in this Province reflects the success
which has attended the efforts of the Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, to reclaim to economic and
general prosperity the jungles of the ancient Raja Rata. The Eastern Province also registered a high
rate of growth, but this was mainly due to the very great increase of population in the Trincomalee
District attributable to activities in connexion v/ith the war. On the other hand, the Central and Uva
Provinces reflected the decline in immigrant additions to their population in the intercensal period
1931-1946 by the fall in their respective rates o f increase,—the Central Province which registered a

72
 CEYLON
SHOWING
THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
BY REVENUE DISTRICTS

JAFFHA Under 100,000

100.000 • 1.000 v - • •
200.1

200,000 • 300.000 R^S^

300.000 - 400.000

VUNIYA
400,000 • 500,000

700,000 - 800.000

Oter 1.000.000

tHINCOUALU

ANURADHAPURA

PUTTALAM

UATALE •
KURUNEGALA • 155.720

BATTICALOA
203,186
CHILAW
139.784

KAHD
711,

KEGALLA\
COLOMBO \\\\
\NUWARA ELIYASy
1,420,332

BADUUA
372,238

KALUTARA RATHAPURA
343,820

e . HAUBANTOTA .

GALLE 149.888

^ ^ ^ • ^ ^ . ^ ^ f V u A J A R A M -

351.947

Ptinled bt Sum/ Owl-- e«y/on,*>l|r « * » -

rate of 32-8 in 1921-1931, showing only 19.1 in the 15-year period 1931-1946. A detailed examina-
tion of the reasons for changes in the distribution of population in the several administrative Districts
of Government will be made in the sections that follow.

REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION
It is, however, interesting to observe the distribution of the Island's population f r o m a different
angle,—viewing it broadly in regard to the pattern of life prevalent in various regions of the country.
Four such areas may be roughly demai^jated—
(1) Region A : Extending from the Chiiaw District in the middle North-West, along the
Western and Southern coasts, up to and including the Matara District. Here one may see a pattern
of life woven mainly around the coconut plantations, and which is, to some extent, influenced by
commercial activities owing to the situation of the ports of Colombo and Galle within the area ;
(2) Region B : Consisting of the Northern and Eastern Provinces, where life proceeds
on a pattern determined largely by racial homogeneity ;
(3) Region C: Comprising the dry zone, namely, the North-Central Province, the Puttalam
District, the Matale N o r t h Division, Lower Uva, and Hambantota District, where the arid conditions
of climate and soil determine a similar mode of living ; and
(4) Region D : The Kandyan Hill Country, where the pattern of life has been shaped by
the existence of large plantations or estates, mainly of tea and rubber.
The following Table gives the distribution of population in these regions in the census years
1921, 1931, and 1946 :—

T A B L E 12.—DISTRIBUTION O F POPULATION I N REGIONS I N C E Y L O N DEMARCATED O N

BASIS OF PATTERN OF LIFE, A N D SHOWING THE PROPORTION PER CENT, IN EACH
REGION TO THE T O T A L POPULATION

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.

Region Population of Total Population of Total Population of Total
1921 Population -1931 Population 1946 Population
1921 1931 1946
A ... 1,900,848 ... 42-0 ... 2,206,527 ... 41-6 ... 2,828,400 ... 42-5
B ... 567,650 ... 12-4 ... 611,295 ... 11-5 ... 758,684 ... 11-4
C ... 356,981 ... 7-9 ... 365,848 ... 7-0 ... 461,207 ... 6-9
D ... 1,672,375 ... 37-2 ... 2,124,201 ... 40-0 ... 2,609,048 ... 39-2
As is to be expected, the Table reveals that Region ' C ', where the conditions of living are
hardest, carries proportionately the least population, while there seems to be taking place a gradual,
almost imperceptible, " slipping-away " of the population from the Tamil districts. The figures
generally are remarkable in that they show very little variation in the proportionate distribution over
a period of twenty-five years. Ex facie the suggestion may be made that the fact that the relative
distribution has remained almost identical is an index to the innate conservatism and habitual
immobility of the people of Ceylon, and their reluctance to alter their pattern of life.
This conservatism is apparent also in the slow pace at which " urbanization ", despite an
impression to the contrary, seems to be taking place, if by this term is meant a break-away f r o m the
traditional and historical distribution of the population in " villages " with one dominant city
only, the seat of the K i n g . It is, of course, acknowledged to be notoriously difficult, especially in
a country like Ceylon, where the traditional economic heritage is agriculture, to distinguish, for
73
purposes of statistical comparison, an " urban area" from a " rural area". The great city
of Anuradhapura in ancient times, notwithstanding its size and architectural features, was not
altogether " u r b a n " , for it contained within its limits irrigation tanks, paddy fields, and even forests.
W i t h i n the Municipal limits of Kandy today, there are situated estates of appreciable acreage, while
within the area under the administrative jurisdiction of the Badulla Urban Council there are large
extents of paddy fields. Some of the larger "villages" are more densely populated than some
" t o w n s " which had been brought under the operation of the "Small Towns Sanitary Ordinance".
" T o w n " and " v i l l a g e " are ordinarily words of somewhat vague application and are not easily defined
and distinguished. " Size, compactness, and certain architectural or industrial features enter into the
definition of a town. There are also certain social characteristics to be considered. A most marked
feature of a village is the close bond uniting all its inhabitants. The relations subsisting between them
subsisted between their fathers, grandfathers, and remoter ancestors. The farmer holds the land
his father held and his ploughmen are the descendants of his father's. The simple wants of the village
are supplied by the village artisans. The inhabitants are washed for by the village dhoby and shaved
by the village barber. As the village increases in size, the hereditary artisans are no longer capable of
supplying all its requirements. Strangers enter and settle in the village. New influences arise, and the
social constitution, of the community is radically changed. The village headman is overshadowed
by the comparatively wealthy shopkeeper and the sharp lawyer. The authority of the old heads of
the community is weakened, the depressed classes assert their independence, their old masters no longer
take a paternal interest in them. The transition is sometimes slow and sometimes rapid. The cons-
truction of a new public work or the opening of a new railway station may bring about the change in a
year or two, while at times a village may go on increasing in size without ceasing to be an aggregation
of hamlets and acquiring an urban character." ^

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION

Nevertheless, it is conventional to regard as " urban areas" :—(1) Municipalities ; (2) Urban
Council areas ; (3) Local Board areas ; and (4) Towns proclaimed under the Births and Deaths
Registration Ordinance f o r the application of special regulations regarding the registration of deaths.
On this basis, the following Table has been prepared giving the " Urban Population " in Ceylon by
Provinces in 1901 and 1946 respectively :—

T A B L E 13—THE U R B A N POPULATION I N CEYLON B Y PROVINCES I N 1901 A N D 1946,

SHOWING THE PROPORTION PER CENT. TO THE T O T A L POPULATION

1901 1946

Per Cent, of Per Cent, of

Population Total Population Total
Population Population
CEYLON ... 418,969 ... 11-8 ... 1,032,793 ... 15-5
Province
Western ... .... 219,455 ... 6-2 ... 629,009 ... 9-6
Central ... ... 43,608 ... 1-2 ... 100,751 ... 1-5
Southern ... 61,771 ... 1-7 ... 104,619 ... 1-6
Northern... ... 41,085 ... •1-2 ... 72,294 ... M
Eastern ... ... 21,264 ... 0-6 ... 45,544 ... 0-6
North-Western ... 15,766 ... 0-4 ... 32,445 ... 0-5
North-Central ... 3,672 ... 0-1 ... 12,314 ... 0-2
Uva ... ... 5,924 ... 0-2 ... 16,333 ... 02
Sabaragamuwa ... 6,424 ... 0-2 ... 19,484 ... 0-3
' ."Vrunachalam, P. : Census of Ceylon, 1901, p. 45.

74
 The Table shows that, in four decades and a half, only about 3-7 per cent, of the total population
have tended to become " urbanized " and that this tendency is to be observed almost exclusively
in the Western Province.
The picture, however, is misleading unless we bear in mind that, in Ceylon as elsewhere, with
improved means of communication the countryside itself is becoming " urbanized ". The isolation
of the country is being eliminated by the motor bus and cars, the telegraph, the telephone, and the
radio. The rustic finds his way more often into the town, and acquires by contact some measure of
the worldly wisdom of his more sophisticated brother in the town. The worker in the town finds it
possible to live in the country and go daily to town for his work, and to carry back to his home in the
country something of the urban scheme of life. Where a Village Community Centre is provided with
a radio, it is the radio station o f the city o f Colombo that will speak and sing and play to the village,
and i t is the newspapers printed in that city from which the villager will receive his news, and a great part
of his political education. " The city and the country can no longer be viewed as standing apart,
in relative isolation and perhaps in antagonism. The two great types of human environment are
tending to coalesce. The country is becoming, in important respects, urbanized, and a new environ-
ment is being shaped f o r large numbers of city-dwellers which includes an element of the country.
The city throws its suburbs further into the country The city is creating a great hinterland
which is gradually forming one community with the urban nucleus. Just as the dwellers in city and
in country are being brought nearer to one another in the process of interaction and dominance, so,
if in lesser degree, are the environments of city and country tending to become the common possession
o f men. " i
The area, population, and density per square mile of the towns in Ceylon at the census of 1946
is given in the following Table :—
T A B L E 14—^AREA, POPULATION, A N D DENSITY OF POPULATION OF THE T O W N S
IN CEYLON, 1946
Town Area in Population Density
Square (Persons per
Miles Square Mile)
Western Province
Municipality of Colombo 13 ... 362,074 ... 27,852
Urban Council Areas :
Colombo District :—
Avissawella ... ... 1 1/4 ... 2,632 ... 2,106
Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia ... ... 5 7/8 ... 56,881 ... 9,682
Gampaha ... ... 0 1/4 ... 2,913 ... 11,652
Ja-ela ... ... ... 0 1/2 ... 3,129 ... 6,258
Kolonnawa ... ... 19/10 ... 13,815 ... 7,271
Kotte ... ... 6 5/8 ... 40,218 ... 6,071
Moratuwa ... ... ... 5 1/7 ... 50,698 ... 9,858
Negombo ... ... ... 4 ... 32,479 ... 8,120
Wattala-Mabole-Peliyagoda ... 13/4 ... 12,418 ... 7,096
Local Board Area :
Minuwangoda ... ... 0 1/5 ... 1,199 ... 5,995
Kalutara District :—
Beruwala ... ... ... 1 11/16... 11,495 ... 6,812
Horana ... ... ... 1 1/2 ... 3,580 ... 2,387
Kalutara ... ... ... 2 1/2 ... 18,965 ... 7,586
Panadura ... ... ... 2 1/15 ... 16,513 ... 7,990
•• Mac I v e r , R . M . ; Society, p. 139.
75
 Town Area in Density
Central Province Square Population {Persons per
Miles Square Mile)
Municipality of Kandy 8 1/4 ... 51,266 6,214
Urban Council Areas :
Kandy District—
Gampola
I 9,163 9,163
Hatton-Dickoya
0 1/2 ... 5,379 10,758
Kadugannawa
0 1/12 ... 1,335 16,020
Nawalapitiya 1 7,623 7,623
Wattegama 0 1/12 ... 1,067 12,804
Matale District— •
Matale 2 14,090 7,045
Nuwara Eliya District—
Nuwara Eliya 5 3/4 ... 10,828 1,883
Southern Province
Municipality of Galle
6 1/2 ... 49,009 7,540
Urban Council Areas :
Galle District :—
Ambalangoda 1 1/10 ... 9,952 9,047
Matara District—
Matara
2 3/4 ... 22,908 8,330
Weligama ... 2 1/64 ... 11,923 5,915
Hambantota District—
Hambantota
2 1/10 ... 3,970 1,890
Tangalla-Beliatta 1 1/2 ... 6,857 4,571
Northern Province
Urban Council Area :
Jaffna District—
Jaffna 7 3/4 ... 62,543 8,070
Eastern Province
Urban Council Areas :
Batticaloa District—
Batticaloa ... 3 1/7 ... 13,037 4,148
Trincomalee District—
Trincomalee 3 32,507 10,836
North-Western Province
Urban Council Areas :
Kurunegala District—
Kuliyapitiya
0 7/8 ... 2,173 2,483
Kurunegala 4 3/8 ... 13,372 3,056
Puttalam and Chilaw Districts-
Chilaw
2 1/8 ... 9,108 4,286
Puttalam 9 7,792 866
76
 Town Area in Density
Square Population (Persons per
North-Central Province Miles Square Mile)
Urban Council Area :
Anuradhapura District
Anuradhapura 9 1/4 12,314 1,331

Uva Province
Urban Council Areas :
Badulla District—
Badulla 3 7/16 13,387 3,894
Bandarawela 0 7/8 2,946 3,367

Sabaragamuwa Province
Urban Council Areas :
Ratnapura District—
Balangoda ... 0 2/5 2,140 5,350
Ratnapura ... 4 1/8 12,441 3,016
Kegalla District—
Kegalla 1 3/10 4,903 3,772

In size next to Colombo are the towns of Anuradhapura, Puttalam, Kandy, JaflFna, Kotte
and Galle in that order, while Jaffna, Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia, Kandy, Moratuwa, Galle and Kotte
come next to Colombo in that order in population. Trincomalee registered a very large increase in
1946 over its population in 1931, showing 32,507 persons within the limits of the Urban Council as
against only 10,160 persons at the previous census, while other towns that showed a high rate of
increase were (1) Horana (1946 : 3,580 ; 1931 : 1,410) ; (2) Kotte (1946 : 40,218 ; 1931 : 19,402)
Kolonnawa (1946 : 13,815 ; 1931 : 7,826) ; (4) Wattala-Mabole-Peliyagoda (1946 : 12,418
1931 : 7,357) ; (5) Bandarawela (1946 : 2,946 ; 1931 : 1,792) ; (6) Avissawella (1946 : 2,632
1931 : 1,580). Numerical increases were greatest in Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia, Trincomalee,
Kotte, Moratuwa and Jaffna, apart from Colombo. The growth of population in Wattala-Mabole-
Peliyagoda, Kolonnawa, Kotte, Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia, and Moratuwa seems to indicate that
Colombo follows the trend of all great modern cities in creating " satellite towns " at its outer
fringes. A detailed examination of the distribution of population in each administrative Province
is given in the sections that follow.

T H E WESTERN PROVINCE

This Province was constituted in its present form by Proclamation dated January 1, 1889.
It is bounded on the North by the Maha-Oya, West by the sea. South by the Bentota river, and East by
the Province of Sabaragamuwa. Its total area is 1,43If square miles, of which 20 square miles com-
prise inland water consisting of a number of lagoons or lakes, at Negombo, Moratuwa, Panadura, and
Kalutara. It is watered by four principal rivers with their tributaries : (1) Maha-Oya in the
North, which forms the boundary of the Alutkuru Korale ; (2) the Kelani-Ganga forming the
boundary between the Hewagam and Siyane Korales ; (3) the Kalu Ganga forming the boundary bet-
ween the Rayigam and Pasdun Korales, and (4) the Bentota river forming the Southern boundary
of the Province. Along the Eastern boundary of the Province there is a range of hills varying in
height from 1,000 to 1,200 feet.
77
 It contained at the census of 1946 a population of 1,876,904 persons and a crude density of
about 1,310 persons to the square mile. In size it approximates the county of Hampshire in England,
but its population is twice as much as that of that county, and is only a little less than the population
of the county of Middlesex in England or the State of South Carolina in the United States. It had
about four-fifths the density of the Province of Delhi in India.
The coconut palm occupied 233,391 acres, excluding town and village gardens of one acre
and below in extent which aggregated 79,464 acres most of which doubtless carried some palms.
An extent of 86,153 acres was sown with paddy at the Maha season of 1945-46, and yielded approxi-
mately 851,000 bushels an average yield of only ten bushels for an acre. Tea occupied 10,946 acres,
and rubber 159,334 acres.
The Province consisted of two Revenue Districts :—
(1) Colombo, which was itself divided into one Municipality, nine Urban Councils, one
Local Board, and ten Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions ; and
(2) Kalutara, which contained four Urban Councils, and was divided into five Chief
Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions.

Colombo District
This is the Northern portion of the Western Province. It formerly consisted of two
districts, Colombo and Negombo, but Negombo ceased to be a separate district f r o m 1896.
The principal crop is coconut ; paddy and rubber come next in importance.
It has an area of 808 square miles, which places it fourteenth of the Districts in order of size.
It is, however, the first in order of population, and at the census of 1946 its population was 1,420,332
inclusive of the Municipality of Colombo and Urban Council areas. There were 779,800 male
persons, and 640,532 females.
The distribution between Urban and Rural population was as follows ;—Urban 578,456
persons ; Rural 841,876 persons. The urban population constituted 40-7 per cent, of the total
population of the district, and the rural 59 3 per cent.
Exclusive of Colombo Municipality, which will be dealt with separately, the population o f
Colombo District since 1871 (exclusive of Services and Shipping) is shown in the following tabular
statement :—
TABLE 15—THE POPULATION (EXCLUSIVE OF SERVICES A N D SHIPPING) OF COLOMBO
DISTRICT (EXCLUSIVE OF M U N I C I P A L I T Y OF COLOMBO) FROM 1871
us Year Population Intercensal Intercensal
Numerical Percentage
Increase Increase
1871 334,137 — —
1881 395,977 61,840 18-5
1891 452,076 56,099 14-2
1901 536,135 84,059 18-6
1911 615,554 79,419 14-8
1921 678,980 63,426 10-3
1931 797,094 118,114 17-4
1946 1,058,258 261,164 32-8

Decennial Mean ... 16-9

The numerical increase of 261,164 in the intercensal period 1931-1946 is not wholly accounted
for by a natural increase, for births in the District during the period numbered 376,302, and deaths
225,820 giving an excess of births over deaths of only 150,482. The difference must, therefore, be

78
attributed to an influx of immigrants into the district numbering 110,682 persons, who probably came
in search of lucrative employment near Colombo during the war years. This was in marked contrast
to the exodus f r o m the district in 1911-1921 when the census of the latter year showed an emigration
of 23,377 persons which was explained in the Census Report of 1921 as occasioned by work in the
North-Western and North-Central Provinces in connexion with the construction of the Trincomalee
Railway and the paddy boom in the Anuradhapura District.* In the intercensal period 1921-1931
the district showed a migration surplus of 5,775 persons which need not be assigned to any special
movement.
Colombo District is not a large planting district, containing only 124 estates with a total estate
population of 12,257. Hewagam Korale which is the chief rubber-producing area in the district had,
of course, the largest number of estates, and the highest estate population. The following Table
gives the Estate Population of each of the Chief Headman's or D.R.O's Divisions in the District :—
T A B L E 16—THE NUMBER OF ESTATES A N D THE ESTATE POPULATION OF COLOMBO
DISTRICT, 1946, IN EACH CHIEF HEADMAN'S OR D . R . O ' S DIVISION
Division Number Estate Per Cent, of
of Population District Estate
Estates Population
C O L O M B O DISTRICT 124 .. . 12,257 ... 100-0
Hapitigam Korale 12 .. 727 ... 5-9
Alut K u r u Korale North ' A ' ... 22 .. 1,104 ... 9-0
Alut K u r u Korale North ' B ' ... 21 .. 1,260 ... 10-3
A l u t K u r u Korale South 2 .. 123 ... 10
Siyane Korale West (Meda Pattuwa) 4 .. 157 ... 1-3
Siyane Korale West (Adikari Pattuwa) 1 .. 17 ... 0-1
Siyane Korale East 2 .. 88 ... 0-7
Hewagam Korale 50 .. 7,889 ... 64-4
Colombo Mudaliyar's Division 2 .. 308 ... 2-5
Salpiti Korale 8 .. 584 ... 4-8

The distribution of the population of the District in each Chief Headman's or D.R.O's Division
is shown in the following Table, which also gives the population in 1931, and the intercensal increases.
The population of the towns (excluding that of the Municipality of Colombo) is included in the Chief
Headman's or D.R.O's Division in which they are situated.

TABLE 17—THE POPULATION OF THE CHIEF HEADMAN'S OR D.R.O's DIVISIONS OF

COLOMBO DISTRICT (EXCLUDING COLOMBO M U N I C I P A L I T Y ) IN 1946 A N D 1931,
SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Population
Division ^ —^ Numerical Per Cent.
1931 Increase Increase
iCOLOMBO D I S T R I C T ... 1,058,258 797,094 261,164 .
Hapitigam Korale ... 55,454 46,749 8,705 . ' 18-6
A l u t K u r u Korale North ' A ' ... 98,198
159,012! 27,788 . . 17-5
A l u t K u r u Korale North ' B ' ... 88,602
A l u t K u r u Korale South ... 124,953 86,794 38,159 . . 44-0
Siyane Korale West, Meda Pattuwa... 87,655 39,814 .. . 29-2
136,289j
Siyane Korale West, Adikari Pattuwa 88,448
Siyane Korale East ... 92,184 76,759 15,425 . . 20-1
Hewagam Korale ... 150,076 111,859 38,217 . . 34-2
Colombo Mudaliyar's Division ... 170,138 98,367 71,771 .. . 73-0
Salpiti Korale ... 102,550 81,265 21,285 . . 26-2

> Report of the Census of Ceylon, p. 46.

79
 It may be noted that a large section of the population of the Colombo Mudaliyar's Division
(65 per cent.), Salpiti Korale (50 per cent.) and A l u t K u r u Korale North ' A ' (33 per cent.) was aggre-
gated in urban areas, while Hapitigam Korale and Siyane Korale West and East were almost wholly
rural in character.
The population of Colombo District (excluding the Municipality) in 1946 was almost wholly
composed of Low-Country Sinhalese who formed about 90 per cent. There were about 2 per cent.
Ceylon Tamils, and 1 per cent, more or less of Kandyan Sinhalese, Indian Tamils, and Ceylon Moors in
that order. About 74 per cent, of the population were Buddhists by religion, the next predominant
religion being Christian, adherents of which were about 20 per cent. This was to be expected in
a district which had been under Christian influences for nearly five centuries.

The Municipality of Colombo

Colombo is the chief City in Ceylon, and owes its importance, development and prosperity
mainly to its harbour, one of the largest artificial harbours in the world. It is a great port of call
as it is on the direct route, via the Suez Canal, to Austraha and the Far East. It is generally a clean
and healthy city, free f r o m plague and other infectious virulent diseases, and is administered by a
Municipal Council with an elected Mayor and 29 other elected members together representing
30 Wards into which it has been divided. The Japanese bombed the city on Easter Day, 1942, and war
conditions caused a considerable exodus of its inhabitants. But the evacuation was only temporary
and the city had resumed its normal life at the census of 1946 and showed a population of 362,074
persons, a numerical increase of 77,919 persons and a percentage increase of 27-4 over the population
enumerated at the census of 1931. Its area is reckoned as 13 square miles, and it therefore showed at
the census a crude density of population of 27,852 persons per square mile, or about 45 persons to an
acre. Its population was only less by about one-eighth than that of the EngUsh cities of Bristol, Leeds,
or Sheffield,—indeed, only six Enghsh cities, besides London, showed a larger population in 1946
than Colombo. Of American cities, Seattle, Rochester and Denver approximated it in the number
of inhabitants, while Lucknow in India and Karachi in Pakistan also had very nearly the same
population.

The history of the city goes back traditionally to the ninth century A . D . , when Arab traders
discovered its usefulness as a port which aff'orded their boats some protection from the weather
during certain seasons of the year. It was described by the Arab traveller, Ibn Batuta, as " the finest
town in Serendib ", and appears then to have been under the control of a Muslim "Vizier " named
Jalestie. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese found on their first arrival in the anchorage of
Colombo " several ships f r o m Bengal, Persia, the Red Sea, and other places, which had come there to
barter cinnamon and elephants ". It is to the Portuguese that Colombo owed its conversion f r o m "a
small stockade of wood ", to " a gallant city fortified with a dozen bastions",^ and the vicissitudes of
its chequered history have been referred to in the first chapter. A l l the three European Powers who
successfully used Colombo as the seat of their administration have left traces of their occupation in
place-names within the city. Milagiriya derives its name from the Church of "Nossa Senhora de
Milacre "—Our Lady of Miracles,—erected by the Portuguese. ' A ward of the Municipality, San
Sebastian Ward, was the site of the Portuguese bastion of San Sebastiao. The grand old Dutch Church
of Wolfendahl-Wolvendaal—or " the Wolves' dale "—at which today United Christian Services are
so often held on special occasions is situated on a hill which in Portuguese was known as the Agoa
de Lupo or " the Wolf's Pond ". Bloemendahl was perhaps in Dutch times " a vale of flowers ".
Hulftsdorp, as already noted,commemorates the Dutch hero who besieged Colombo but fell before

' Ribeiro's Ceilao : translated by P. E. Pieris, p. 127.

2 Vide Chapter I.

80
 NORTH WESTERN PROVINCE

WESTERN PROVINCE
Showing
D. R. O s ' Divisions & C h i e f T o w n s

REFERENCE

Negombo PROVINCE BbY. + --+—

\ALUTKURU KORALE N O R T H -BV
DISTRICT BDY-
A L U T K U R U KdHAL
Minuwangoda
NORTH - A J5 Pasyala D. R 0 * 8 D I V I S I O N

Veyangdaa ROADS

RAILWAYS I nut

ampaha
LOTKURU KORALE rj^" j/ /SIYANE KORALET
j J ^ M E D « PATTUWA l
UTH

PATTUWA
/ - ^ . t —K,
elaniya Avissawella
eliyagoda
COLOM
Ko ionnawa

r - Kotte
,v,OL0MB0
M0DALIY\R'S

PROVINCE OF SABARAGAIUiaWA

HEWAGAM
Oehiwala S"~s,_^ Vu^'.

Mount L a v i n i a SL-- >r"" "^--'

SALPITI KORALE
SEA
Moratuwa

Panadura Hcrana
ANADU

O T A M U N E ••.

Wadduwa

Kalutara
LUTARA-^.'

R 1 C/T
Agalawatta

Matucame ASDUN KORALE E A S T

TdjlAMUNEN
\PASOUN K0RALE\WES1p

AlutRama

SOUTHERN PROVINCE

PriKM Hf SuntJ Dept., Bw*" J"!!-"*"

 it surrendered, while Torrington Place, strangely enough, commemorates a British Governor whose
administration, " unfortunate and incompetent contributed to the fall of a British Cabinet and led
to his being relieved of the government of Ceylon. ^ The growth of the population of the town since
1871 is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 18—POPULATION (EXCLUSIVE OF SERVICES A N D SHIPPING) OF T H E C I T Y OF COLOMBO

FROM 1871, SHOWING INTERCENSAL INCREASE, A N D PERCENTAGE INCREASE

Year Population Intercensal Per Cent.

Increase Increase.
1871 95,843 — —
1881 110,502 14,659 15-3
1891 126,825 16,323 14-8
1901 154,691 27,866 22-0
1911 211,274 . . 56,583 36-6
1921 244,163 32,889 15-6
1931 284,155 39,992 16-4
1946 362,074 77,919 27-4
The numerical increase in the population of Colombo as from the beginning of regular censuses
in 1871 is shown as being 266,231 persons, or 277-7 per cent. The population has nearly quadrupled
itself in 75 years, and if in 1832 it was only 31,519 as stated by an authority it has multiplied itself
by nearly twelve times in 114 years .

It is interesting to examine how far this increase has been due to natural increase of the popula-
tion, or to "migration" figures, in which latter category will be included also the additions to the popu-
lation by extension of the limits of the Municipality. The population of Colombo, as recorded at the
census of 1901-1911 was to be accounted for by the addition of a population of 10,915 for the " New
Extensions Ward ", and since deaths during this period exceeded births by 17,102, by an internal
movement into the city of 62,770 persons. This large increase by migration has been explained by
rapid expansion of trade during the period " as the population of the City of Colombo may be
expected to be sensitive to fluctuations in trade and industry". Between 1911 and 1912, a numerical
increase of 32,889 was registered. In this period too deaths in the city exceeded births by 12,859.
As a result of the formation of the new Wards of Wellawatte North and South and with due allowance
for the population of the " New Extensions Ward " shown at the census of 1911 an addition of 1,146
persons is estimated as having been made to the city's population during this period. Thus apparently
an influx of 37,602 persons into the city had occurred in 19I1-I921, the rate of increase of this factor
being considerably slowed down in the latter years of the decade when the effects of the dislocation
of trade caused by W o r l d War I were being felt. For the first time in this century, the city showed a
natural increase by births exceeding deaths in the intercensal period 1921-1931, and this has been
maintained in 1931-1946. The births in the former period numbered 81,143 and deaths 77,867,
giving a natural increase of 3,276 persons. This is, of course, a small proportion of the intercensal
increase of 39,992 persons which must therefore be accounted for by a movement and addition conse-
quent on trade fluctuation and the development and expansion of the Southern Wards. The rate of
increase has improved somewhat in 1931-1946 over that in 1921-1931, and the numerical increase
of 77,919 persons is to a large extent attributable to a natural increase by births in the city exceeding
deaths—the registered figures being : Births, 183,755 ; Deaths, 122,442. The "migration " factor

' Viscount Torrington, Governor of Ceylon, 1847-50, was a cousin of L o r d J o h n Russell, P r i m e Minister,
and attempts at impeaching him for inept handling of the so-called' 'Rebellion of 1848" in Ceylon, or
for the appointment of a R o y a l Commission of Inquiry, though defeated in the House of Commons,
contributed to i n c r e a O jhe unpopularity of the Cabinet which eventually fell on the question of the
revival of the local militia.
' Cf. Casiechitty's " Gazetteer ", pp. 76-7.

81
thus accounted for only 16,606 persons. I t may be noted that the rate of natural increase of the popu-
lation of Colombo in the five years preceding the census were : — 1 9 4 1 21-2 per 1,000 persons;
1942 12-6 ; 1943 25-0 ; 1944 18-2 ; and 1945 14-7. In fact in the war years (except
1 9 4 2 , when Colombo sulfered from mass evacuation for a short period) the crude birth-rate per
1,000 persons showed a phenomenal rise, reaching as high as 46-2 in 1943. This may, perhaps, be
partly explained by the great disturbance in domestic life among an exceedingly migratory population,
which is the usual concomitant of war conditions.

The following Table shows the area, the population, and the density per acre of the city by its
several Wards at the census of 1946 :—

TABLE 19—AREA, POPULATION, A N D DENSITY BY W A R D S OF THE C I T Y OF

COLOMBO

Ward Total Area Population Crude Density

in Acres per Acre
OF C O L O M B O 8,320 362,074 43-5
Modera 465 11,895 25-6
Mutwal 270 13,644 50-5
Madampitiya 574 13,948 24-3
Kotahena East 153 9,946 65-0
Kotahena West 204 14,726 72-2
Kochchikade 65 11,333 174-4
St. Paul's ... 71 17,461 245-9
Grandpass ... 104 12,806 123-1
New Bazaar... 115 8,862 77-1
Aluthkade ... 88 13,650 155-1
San Sebastian 120 15,445 128-7
Pettah 145 10,083 69-5
Fort 242 2,197 9-1
Slave Island 250 10,054 40-2
Wekande 95 9,171 96-5
Hunupitiya 201 8,967 44-6
Maliga watte 305 7,787 25-5
Maradana ... 177 13,396 75-7
Suduwella ... 328 16,526 50-4
Maligakande 85 14,318 168-4
Dematagoda 180 10,982 61-0
Kuppiawatte 178 10,789 60-6
Borella 390 13,538 34-7
Cinnamon Gardens 960 16,747 17-4
Timbirigasyaya 935 15,564 16-6
Kollupitiya 272 12,117 44-5
Bambalapitiya 400 10,436 26-1
Havelock Town 353 10,481 29-7
Wellawatte N o r t h 328 12,838 39-1
Wellawatte South 267 . 12,367 46-3

The most congested areas of the city are seen to be St. Paul's, Kochchikade, Maligakande,
Aluthkade, San Sebastian and Grandpass. The least density is in the Fort area, the Cinnamon Gardens
and Timbirigasyaya.
82
 The number of males enumerated at the census within the city was 229,493, and the number
o f females 132,581, a proportion o f 173 males to 100 females in 1946 and 158 to 100 in 1 9 2 1 . The
following Table gives the population in 1946 by age groups, and sex :—

TABLE 2 0 — P O P U L A T I O N OF COLOMBO, 1946, BY A G E GROUPS A N D SEX

Age Groups Males Females

A L L AGES 229,493 132,581
0-4 17,125 17,355
5-9 14,218 13,943
10-14 16,518 13,986
15-19 24,198 • 14,189
20-24 36,309 15,180
25-29 31,030 12,913
30-34 23,081 9,530
35-39 21,193 9,394
4 0 ^ 13,757 6,373
45-49 12,323 5,982
50-54 7,079 4,252
55-59 4,906 2,809
60-64 3,231 2,534
65 and over 4,525 4,141

It may be noted as of some significance that the proportion of males to females in the city in
the " prime of life ", or reproductive ages, 15 to 49 is 2 2 1 to 100, and that 70 per cent, of the male
population and 55 per cent, of the female population belong to this age group.
Though Colombo has " in a sense been forced upon the Sinhalese in spite of themselves ", and
" was never a city of their own choice or making ", the Low-Country Sinhalese comprised 44-3
per cent, of its population, and the Kandyan Sinhalese 2-4 per cent. Indian Tamils formed 12-5 per
cent, and Ceylon Moors 1 2 - 4 per cent. Burghers and Eurasians formed 4 8 per cent, and Indian
Moors 4 - 4 per cent. Malays were represented by 3 per cent, and Europeans by 0 7 per cent. The
Ceylon Tamils have shown a high percentage increase since 1 9 2 1 . They formed then only 6 0 per
cent, of the population of Colombo ; in 1 9 3 1 they increased this to 6"8 per cent. ; and in 1946 they
comprised 9 • 8 per cent. The following Table gives the relative percentage distribution of the races
in Colombo since 1921 :—
T A B L E 21—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION OF COLOMBO BY RACE,
1 9 2 1 , 1 9 3 1 , and 1946

Race 1921 1931 1946

A L L RACES 1000 100-0 1000

Low-country Sinhalese 45'2 43-0 44-3

Kandyan Sinhalese 1-7 2-0 2-4
Ceylon Tamils ... 6-0 6-8 9-8
Indian Tamils ... 16-2 16-4 12-5
Ceylon Moors ... 10-4 10-3 12-4
Indian Moors 5-8 5-3 4-4
Burghers and Eurasians 6 1 5-6 4-8
Europeans 1-2 1-2 0-7
Malays 2-4 2-5 3-0
Others 5 0 7-1 5-7

" Others " included Malayalees, Bengalis, Borahs, Parsees, Afghans, and Chinese. Whether
the increased proportion of Ceylon Tamils and Ceylon Moors was due to greater fertility, or to a
larger influx into Colombo of these races f r o m elsewhere in the island, or to a great number of Indian
83
Tamils and Moors calling themselves Ceylon Tamils and Moors, or to a combination of these causes,
cannot, of course, be decided without a more detailed examination of the data than is possible in this
summary.

There were 139,536 Buddhists in Colombo City at the census of 1946, 82,223 Christians,
74,326 Muslims, and 65,469 Hindus respectively representing 38-5 per cent., 22.7 per cent., 20 5 per
cent., and 18-1 per cent., of the population. Of the Christians, 61,489 were Roman Catholics, and
12,815 Anglicans, 2,947 Methodists, 2,331 Presbyterians and only 731 Baptists.

The percentage of persons in Colombo who could read and write was returned as 73 4 per cent,
of the population aged five years and over. 80 2 per cent, of the males on this basis, and 60-8 per
cent, of the females were " literates ", as against 70-9 per cent, of the males and 46 9 per cent, of
the females at the census of 1931.

The total number of "habitable buildings" in Colombo increased f r o m 56,226 in 1931 to

58,730 in 1946, an increase of 4 45 per cent. They housed 362,074 persons, an average of 6-17 per
building.

Other Principal Towns

Next to Colombo, in respect of population, rank the towns of Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia,
Moratuwa, Kotte, and Negombo in that order.

Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia, where Governor Brownrigg had his residence and had received
Ehelapola, was a Sanitary Board town in 1921 and was constituted an Urban Council area in 1929.
Its population at the census was 56,881, consisting of 30,406 males and 26,475 fernales, a proportion
of 115 males to 100 females. Its numerical increase over the population at the census of 1931 was
22,593 or 65-9 per cent. Its area was computed at 5| square miles, and its crude density at 9,682
persons per square mile. Of its population, 45,627 were Low-Country Sinhalese or 80*2 per cent.,
the next predominant race in the area being the racial group of Burghers and Eurasians who numbered
4,390 persons of 7-7 per cent, of the population. It is interesting to note that it is in this town that
there is the greatest aggregation of this racial group in any town in the Island bar Colombo. The great
majority of the population professed Buddhism, adherents of which numbered 41,325 persons.
Christians numbered 12,013.

Moratuwa, the home in the early 19th century of " carpenters of the fisher caste ", but " the
stately mansions " of which struck Spence Hardy with surprise in 1864,* was converted in 1930 into
an Urban Council area f r o m being a Local Board town. Its population at the census of 1946 number-
ed 50,698 persons, of whom 26,098 were males and 24,600 females, a proportion of 106 males to 100
females. It may be noted that at the two censuses of 1911 and 1921 the number of males to females
was 91 and 99 respectively to every 100 females, indicating an exodus of a good proportion of the
male population to other parts of the country for employment. This movement seems now to have
declined. Its area has been reckoned at 5 1 /7 square miles, giving a density of 9,858 per square mile.
The population was almost exclusively Low-Country Sinhalese, numbering 47,374 persons,—the
next largest racial group being Indian Tamils who numbered 705 persons only. Of the population,
28,730 were Buddhists by religion, and 20,468 were Christians, of whom 13,446 were Roman Catholics,
3,788 were Anglicans, and 2,772 were Methodists.

Kotte, which includes the historic city of Jayawardhana-pura founded by Alagakkonara in

the 14th century A . D . but which had at recent censuses been regarded as no more than a village,^ was
constituted an Urban Council area during the last intercensal period in 1933. Its population at the
^ Spence H a r d y : "Jubilee Memorials", p. 191-192.
' Kirillapone-Nugegoda was a Sanitary Board Town till 1932.

84
 census of 1946 was 40,218 consisting of 22,046 males and 18,172 females. The distribution of the
population among races showed 32,468 Low-Country Sinhalese, 1,968 Ceylon Tamils, 1,669 Burghers
and Eurasians, 1,510 Indian Tamils, and 1,161 Kandyan Sinhalese. In religion 31,186 were Buddhists,
5,979 were Christians, and 2,163 were Hindus. The area under the Urban Council jurisdiction was
6 5/8 square miles.

Negombo, a country " extraordinarily rich in fish and at one time " called the capital of
the Seven Corles," had the distinction of being the first town in the Colombo District to be made
an Urban Council area.^ Its population at the census of 1921 was 21,262, and this had increased
to 32,479 at the census of 1946. Its population in 1871 was 6,006, thus showing in 1946, seventy-five
years after, a numerical increase of 26,473 persons. The number of males in 1946 was 17,194, and
of females 15,285, a proportion of 112 males to 100 females. There were 25,211 Low-Country
Sinhalese, 2,269 Ceylon Moors, 2,165 Ceylon Tamils and 1,163 Indian Tamils. The great majority
of the population professed the Christian religion, the number of Christians being 22,276, of whom
21,758 were Roman Catholics. There were 5,448 Buddhists, 2,774 Muslims, and 1,967 Hindus.

Kalutara District
The District of Kalutara has an area of 623 3/4 square miles and forms the Southern part
of the Western Province. Its population was enumerated at 456,572 persons at the census of 1946,
with a density of 732 persons to the square mile. Its population exceeds that of the three Pro-
vinces,—the Eastern, North-Central and Uva, and approximates that of the county of Devonshire
in the United Kingdom, and of the State of New Hampshire in the United States.

The district is reputed to be rich and prosperous, but is now mainly dependent on the rubber
industry. Its climate is especially suited to the growth of rubber, and at the Census of Agriculture,
1946, it showed 108,176 acres (exclusive of Town and Village Gardens) cultivated with this crop. It
also showed extents of 37,998 acres under paddy, of 31,529 acres under coconut, and of 10,217 acres
under tea.

The growth of the population since 1871 is shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 2 2 — T H E POPULATION OF K A L U T A R A DISTRICT, SINCE 1871, snowaNC
N U M E R I C A L INCREASE, A N D PER CENT. INCREASE
Year Population Numerical Per Cent.
Increase Increase
1871 145,741 —
1881 165,021 19,280 13-2
1891 183,632 18,611 11-3
1901 229,857 46,225 25-2
1911 279,493 49,636 21-6
1921 323,704 44,211 15-8
1931 363,785 40,081 12-4
1946 456,572 92,787 25-5
The decennial mean rate of increase was 16 - 7 per cent. Since the natural increase during the
intercensal period showed 101,834 persons,—births being 198,328 and deaths 96,494,—the shortfall
in the numerical increase during the intercensal period must be accounted for by emigration of 9,047
persons f r o m the District. This probably occurred in the early years of the intercensal period when
the effects of the world-wide economic depression were being experienced, and many estates were
> Valentyn, pp. 166-7.
» I n 1922.

85
closed down. This is confirmed by the fact that the estate population actually decreased in 1931,
and in the 15-year period, 1931-1946, showed only a percentage increase of 8 '5 per cent, over the
estate population recorded at the census of 1931. This may be compared with the remarkable growth
of the estate population in the two decades 1881-1891, and 1891-1901 by 318 2 per cent, and 304-9
per cent, respectively when estates began to be opened up with Indian immigrant labour.

The district had an average birth rate during the twenty-five years 1921-1946, of 35-8 and
an average death rate of 18 - 3 per 1,000 persons. The relatively low death rate may be taken as an
index to the general healthiness of the district.

The District was divided into' five Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions :—Kalutara
Totamune, Panadura Totamune, Pasdun Korale East, Pasdun Korale West, and Rayigam Korale.
It contained four towns of Urban Council status,—Kalutara, Panadura, Beruwala and Horana. Its
aggregate urban population was 50,553 persons, or about 11 • 1 per cent, of the toal population of the
district. The estate population of the district comprised 39,692 persons or 8-7 per cent, of the
total population.

The distribution of the population among the Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions (inclusive
of towns) is shown in the following table :—

TABLE 2 3 — P O P U L A T I O N OF K A L U T A R A DISTRICT, 1931 AND 1946, BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S

OR D. R. O's DIVISIONS (INCLUSIVE OF U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS), SHOWING
POPULATION, INTERCENSAL N U M E R I C A L INCREASE, A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Population
Division , n Numerical Per Cent.
1946 1931 Increase Increase
Kalutara Totamune ... 102,330 ... 160,319^*... 32,528 ... 20-3
Panadura Totamune ... 90,517
Pasdun Korale East ... 83,384 ... 57,084 ... 26,300 ... 46-1
Pasdun Korale West ... 70,657 ... 55,195 ... 15,462 ... 28 0
Rayigam Korale ... 109,684 ... 91,187 ... 18,497 ... 20 3
* T h e population of the two Totamunes were shown together in 1931.

The classification of the population of the divisions of the district by sex showed that in Panadura
Totamune the sexes were distributed almost equally,—45,502 males and 45,015 females. The
numerical preponderance of males was greatest in Pasdun Korale East, where there were 44,165
males enumerated and 39,219 females.

The bulk of the population of the District consisted of Low-Country Sinhalese who numbered
391,580 persons, comprising 85-8 per cent, of the total population. Indian Tamils came next in
numerical strength, with 29,410 persons (6-4 per cent.) and Ceylon Moors numbered 24,736 persons
(5 • 4 per cent.). Most of the Indian Tamils were to be found in the two Divisions of the Pasdun
Korale where the largest number of estates was situated. Ceylon Moors were most numerous in
the two Totamunes.

There were 380,431 Buddhists, 28,930 Hindus, 25,576 Muslims, and 21,472 Christians enumera-
ted in the District at the census. Of the Christians, 18,635 belonged to the Roman Catholic denomi-
nation, and 1,309 were Anglicans.

86
 The numerical distribution of the population classified by age groups and sex for the district
is shown in the following table :—

T A B L E 24 — P O P U L A T I O N OF K A L U T A R A DISTRICT BY A G E GROUPS
A N D SEX, 1946, A N D 1921

1946 1921
Age Groups A

Males Females Males Females

A L L AGES 234,630 221,942 167,759 155,945
0-4 29,448 28,394 24,638 23,256
5-9 28,037 26,945 22,007 20,873
10-14 29,084 27,112 21,249 18,776
15-19 24,628 22,224 14,963 14,479
20-24 19,320 22,703 15,399 16,253
25-29 17,953 18,795 13,666 13,795
30-34 15,628 14,471 11,020 10,399
35-39 16,008 14,715 10,762 8,535
40-44 11,809 10,252 7,606 7,216
45-49 12,181 10,121 6,812 5,490
50-54 7,809 7,064 4,969 5,890
55-59 6,765 5,290 5,446 3,246
60-64 5,390 4,680 3,756 3,273
65 and over 10,570 9,176 5,466 4,464

It is observed f r o m the above Table that the age groups of 15 to 49, the working ages, have some-
what increased in proportion to the rest of the population and that children and old people have
proportionately declined since 1921. In 1946 there were more females than males in the age groups
of 20 to 29 years. In hteracy the census showed that 254,613 persons in the District could read and
write at least one language. This represents 63 • 8 per cent, of the population, 5 years of age and
over. Only 53-4 per cent, of the females were hterate, as against 73 '7 per cent, returned for males.

Principal Towns
Kalutara, with a population of 18,965 persons,—10,069 males and 8,896 females,—showed a
numerical increase of 4,685 persons or 32 8 per cent, increase over the population recorded at the
census of 1931. The racial composition was 74 9 per cent. Low-Country Sinhalese, and 16'0
per cent. Ceylon Moors. Exactly 12,500 persons returned themselves as Buddhists by religion.
There were 3,233 Mushms and 2,765 Christians, of whom 2,415 were Roman Catholics. The town
is situated " in a most delightful country near the entrance of a large and broad river," as Baldeus
expressed it. Percival writing in 1803 called it "a delightful village about thirty miles South of
Colombo."

Panadura is stated to have received its name " from a contraction (or permutation) of
Sinhalese words ' Pan bun ratte ', or ' the country where lamps were broken ', and is conjectured to
have been so called f r o m the story of devils having broken in one night the 1,000 lamps which had
been placed there by the K i n g Wijeya Bahu in honour of Buddha."^ It was a Local Board town at
the census of 1921, but was an Urban Council Area at the census of 1931, at which its population was
reckoned at 12,946 persons. At the census of 1946, a population of 16,513 was enumerated,
comprising 8,676 males and 7,837 females. Covering an area of 2 1/15 square miles, it showed a
density of 7,990 persons to the square mile. The population was almost exclusively Low-Country
Sinhalese by race (90 5 per cent.), and Buddhist by religion (90-6 per cent.), but Christians numbered
1,138 persons.

1 Casie Chitty's " Gazetteer ", p. 202.

87
 Beruwala was constituted an Urban Council Area since the census of 1931. It returned at
the census of 1946 a population of 11,495 persons. It is one of the three towns in the Island which
had an excess of females over males,—the other two being Ambalangoda and Weligama,—there
being only 95 males to every 100 females in Beruwala. It is believed to be the first historic settlement
of the Moors in Ceylon, who, in fact, formed the majority of the population of the town,—their
number at the census being 6,461 persons, or 56 '2 per cent. The Low-Country Sinhalese numbered

I
4,763 persons or 41.5 per cent, of the population. Curiously enough, both Moors and Sinhalese
showed a numerical predominance of females over males at Beruwala. Literacy figures for Beruwala
were the worst for any town in the Island, only 53 • 3 of the population, 5 years of age and over being
shown as able to read and write. Of the sexes, 69 "2 per cent, of the males and only 38 3 of the
females were found to be able to read and write,—figures a little better than BaduUa and a httle worse
than Hambantota in respect of males, and somewhat better than Puttalam which was the worst town
in respect of the literacy of its female population.

THE CENTRAL PROVINCE

The Province owes its constitution to the recommendations of the Colebrook Commission
appointed by King George IV in 1829 to investigate the administration of the civil government in
Ceylon. Colebrook had recommended the amalgamation of the Kandyan and Maritime Provinces
into one government with one uniform administration, and in pursuance of this recommendation a
Proclamation was issued on October 1, 1833, estabUshing five Provinces, one of which was designated
" the Central Province ". This was to consist of the districts which under the Kings of Kandy had
been known as Rata Hata, namely, Udunuwara, Yatinuwara, Harispattu, Tumpane, Dumbara,
Hewaheta, and Walapane (including Wiyaluwa), and the rata of Upper Bulatgama. Various changes
which were effected since that year, and especially the formation of the separate Province of Uva,
have resulted in the present limits of the Central Province which now consists of

(1) the District of Kandy, comprising nine Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions, namely,
Udunuwara and Yatinuwara ; Kandy Gravets ; Tumpane ; Harispattuwa ; Pata Dumbara ;
Uda Dumbara ; Pata Hewaheta ; Uda Palata ; and Uda Bulatgama ;

(2) the District of Matale, consisting of three Divisions : Matale South ; Matale North ;
and Matale East ; and

(3) the District of Nuwara Eliya, consisting of four Divisions :—Uda Hewaheta ;
Walapane ; Kotmale ; and Four Gravets.

Historically, it may be noted that the territory covered by the Province was not of much
importance until about the middle of the 14th century A.D. when Bhuwenaka Bahu IV " dwelt in the
deUghtful city of Gangasiripura, near the Mahavaluka river."^ It was not, however, until two centuries
later, when Vira Vikrama " became King in the city of Senkhandasela Sirivardhana, a city that was
surrounded by the river Mahavaluka as if by a trench that the Province achieved prominence in
the Island's history. Its hey-day was reached with the reigns of Senerat and Raja Sinha II which
together covered over eight decades of the 17th century A.D. It declined thereafter, and in 1815 it
came under British suzerainty.

> Mahawamsa, Ch. X C .

a Mahawamsa, Ch. X C I I .
 KORTH CCMTIIAl PROVmCi
CENTR/IL PROVINCE
Showing
D. R, O s ' Divisions & Chief T o w n s

REFERENCE

PROVINCE BDY. *

DISTRICT BOY. •

Dambulla D. R. OS DIVISION

ROADS / —
i ~
RAILWAYS ^
M A T A I B NORTH

NORTH WCSTCRH PROVINCC \

MATALE EAST

'^AT<(LE soiirit.^
Rattota

Halale

Galagedara

VDA OUMBARA
TUtlPAN" HXRIS PATTUW
Weragantota
lugaslota

Kadiiga^n

;abuKuwAHA
VV RATA HEWAHE
Galah

pmvmee OF UVA
ampola

PALATA -t'^OA HEWAIIETA .1

Tfl R I C VWIVLAPANE DIVISION ,

ilVW^A \ A E »V I '
S DIVISION
U _/ •Tmawalapili
r'

Ragala i

Nuwara EIrya

^fOU« QRAVETS
TalawaRelle

RROYWCi OF SABMAMUUWA PnnM bj Samt 0«f.. teflon iul/tSSO

 Its area is reckoned at 2,290 square miles, and its population, as enumerated at the census of
1946, was recorded as 1,135,290 persons. Situated approximately in the middle of the Island, it is
for the most part mountainous,—Pidurutalagala, Kirigalpota, and Totapola being the highest peaks,
while Adam's Peak forms the boundary between it and Sabaragamuwa. The Province is well-watered
by the Mahaweh-Ganga and its tributaries, the Kehelgamuwa-Oya and Maskeliya-Ganga, and
paddy cultivation is carried on almost right through the year in the mountainous regions of the
Province. During maha, 1945-46, 68,570 acres were under cultivation with paddy in the Province and
yielded 14-9 bushels per acre on the average. Forests still exist in the Nuwara Eliya District, in
Matale North and East, and in the Uda Dumbara division of the Kandy District, but much of the
area has been cleared and planted with tea and rubber. At the Census of Agriculture, it was ascertain-
ed that there were 310,072 acres under tea, and 68,338 acres under rubber in the Province. Among
other crops are cacao, tobacco, kurakkan, amu, cinchona, and cardamoms. 566,744 acres were
under cultivation in the Province at the census, forming 76' 5 per cent, of the " cultivable " land
in the Province.

Of the population of 1,135,290 persons in the Province, the sex distribution was 600,776 males
and 534,514 females, a ratio of 112 males to 100 females. The density of the population per square
mile was 496. The growth of the population since the Census of 1891, the first census after the
present limits of the Province were settled,—has been as follows :—

T A B L E 25—PopuLAnoN OF T H E C E N T R A L PROVINCE FROM 1891, SHOWING N U M E R I C A L

INCREASE, AND P E R C E N T . INCREASE

Population Numerical Per Cent.

Year
Increase Increase
474,487 — —
1891
622,832 148,345 31-3
1901
1911 672,258 49,426 7-9
1921 717,739 45,481 6-8
1931 953,388 235,649 32-8
1946 1,135,290 181,902 19-1

When the numerical increase is related to registered births and deaths, the following ' balancing
equation ' is obtained :—

Population Difference Births Deaths Migration

Difference
1,135,290 — 953,388 = 620,974 — 331,960— 107,112

Since an important element in the population of the Province has always been the estate population,
the negative migration difference which is observed may be attributed to an exodus from estates
within the Province during the early years of the intercensal period on account of the economic
depression, and to the difficulty of replacement occasioned by the ban on emigration of unskilled
workers imposed by India in the latter years. This explanation appears to receive support from the
fact that the estate population of the Province whose percentage increase in the decennial period
1921-1931 was as high as 46-8 per cent, showed a percentage increase of only 4-8 for the 15-year
period 1931-1946.
89
 The ' u r b a n ' population of the Province was composed of 100,751 persons, forming 8 ' 9
per cent, of the total population. The ' rural' population numbered 1,034,539 persons, of whom,
however, the estates claimed 446,139 persons, or 43-1 per cent, of the rural population. The Province
had one Municipality, Kandy, and seven towns of Urban Council status at the census of 1946.

Kandy District

Kandy District consists, for the major part, of land between 1,000 and 3,000 feet in elevation.
It owes its eminence to the fact that it contains the town of Kandy which was, as is well known, the
capital city of the Sinhalese Kingdom in the last phase of its independent existence. The area of the
District has been computed to be 9 1 3 3 3 / 4 0 square miles, and the population (inclusive of the
Municipality of Kandy and Urban Council Areas within the District) was ascertained at the census
of 1946 to be 7 1 1 , 4 4 9 persons, with a density of 779 persons to the square mile. The most sparsely
populated areas were found to be Uda Dumbara which had a density of 168 persons per square mile.
The most thickly populated division was the Gravets (which included the Municipahty of Kandy).
Yatinuwara and Udunuwara which at the time of the census formed one administrative unit, and
Harispattu had each a density of over 1,000 persons per square mile. The estate population of the
district numbered 2 4 2 , 2 2 2 representing 34 percent, of the total population. Nearly 50 per cent, of the
estate population was found in Uda Bulatgama, a high plateau (3,000-5,000 feet in elevation) that is
half enclosed by the Adam's Peak, and the Horton Plains—Pidurutalagala ranges. The Sinhalese
do not seem to have made any settlement in the course of their independent history above the 2,500
feet contour line.

The growth of the population in the District since 1871 is shown in the following tabular
statement :—

T A B L E 2 6 — P O P U L A T I O N O F K A N D Y D I S T R I C T (INCLUSIVE O F K A N D Y M U N I C I P A L I T Y )
SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE AND INCREASE P E R C E N T .

Year Population • Numerical Increase

Increase Per Cent.
1871 232,156 —
1881 288,332 56,176 24-2
1891 288,353 21 •007
1901 377,591 89,238 30-9
1911 408,429 30,838 8-2
1921
433,993 25,564 6-3
1931 587,916 153,923 35-5
1946
711,449 123,533 21-0

The growth of the population of the District appears generally to correspond with the growth
of its estate population. Thus, the high rates of increase in 1921-1931, 1891-1901, and 1871-1881 in
the general population are observed to correspond with a high rate of growth in the estate population
during these periods,—the figures respectively being 53 • 5 psr cent., 54 "4 and 34 • 7 per cent. In the
intercensal period, 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 4 6 , however, the growth of the estate population has been considerably
slowed down,—the percentage rate of increase being 4 • 9. The probable reasons for this have been
set out in the observations made in reference to the population of the Central Province as a whole.
In Kandy District too, there has been a loss of population during the period by emigration.
90
 The distribution of the population of the District by its divisions in 1946, and at the two
previous censuses of 1931, and 1921 is given in the following Table :—

TABLE NO. 2 7 — I N C R E A S E OF POPULATION BY C H I E F HEADMEN'S OR D. R. O'S DIVISIONS,

(INCLUSIVE OF THE KANDY MUNICIPALITY AND URBAN COLINCIL AREAS)
K A N D Y DISTRICT

Division Persons Numerical Increase Per Cent. Increase

*
A
1946 1931 1921 1931-1946 1921-1931 1931-1946 1921-1931

Udunuwara 30,317 ... 21,876 .. «,441 .... 38 6

83,780*1 34,2581, 11,369 .... J 30 35 0
Yatinuwara 43,896t... 32,527t., r
Kandy Gravets.
Tumpane
^61,838
27,295
37,147t...
21,403 ...
32,562t.,
18,382 .
4,585 ...
3,021 ...
\ 27--5J. . 14 •1
16 4
Harispattuwa . 76,446 58,748 ... 45,838 . 17,698 12,910 ... 30 1 . . 28 2
Pata Dumbara . 107,795 86,643 ... 66,190 . 21,152 20,453 ... 24 4 . . 30 9
Uda Dumbara . 40,743 37,437 ... 29,574 . 3,306 7,863 ... 8 8 . . 26 6
Pata Hewaheta . 55,445 43,797 ... 32,826 . 11,648 10,971 ... 26 6 . . 33 4
Uda Palata 104,347 89,650 ... 62,428 . 14,697 27,222 ... 16 4 . . 43 6
UdaBulatgama. 153,760 138,878 ... 91,790 . 14,882 47,088 ... 10 7 . . 51 •3

* Population of Gangawata Korale not includod.

t Includes population of Gangawata Korale, now Kandy Gravets.
t Population of Kandy Municipality only.

The largest of the divisions in size were Uda Dumbara (241 33/40 square miles) and Uda
Bulatgama (230 square miles). The greatest numerical increase in the population has occurred in
1931-1946 in Pata Dumbara, and the highest rate of increase has been registered in Harispattuwa.
In the intercensal period 1921-1931, the largest numerical increase was in Uda Bulatgama, which
also showed the most rapid rate of growth.
The distribution of the population in the District by sex was as follows :—Males : 376,990 ;
Females : 334,459, a proportion of 113 males to 100 females. There were 339,149 Kandyan Sinhalese
in the District.and 207,860 Indian Tamils,representing respectively 47'7 per cent.and 29'2 per cent,
of the total population. Low-Country Sinhalese numbered 72,070 persons (10-1 per cent.), Ceylon
Moors 48,328 (6-8 percent.) and Ceylon Tamils 29,903 (4-2 per cent.). The following Table shows the
increase of the population of the District by Race since 1921, the last census at which a classification
on this basis was made for the District :—

TABLE 28- - G R O W T H OF POPULATION, K A N D Y D I S T R I C T (INCLUSIVE OF K A N D Y

M U N I C I P A L I T Y ) B Y R A C E , 1921—1946

Race Persons Numerical Per Cent.

A Increase or Increase or
1946 1921 Decrease Decrease
Low-Country Sinhalese 72,070 35,992 + 36,078 . .. +100-2
Kandyan Sinhalese 339,149 205,223 + 133,926 . .. + 65-3
Ceylon Tamils ... 29,903 . 6,715 + 23,188 . .. +345-3
Indian Tamils 207,860 147,210 + 60,650 . .. + 41-2
Ceylon Moors ... 48,328 26,480 + 21,848 . .. + 82-5
Indian Moors 4,620 4,738 — 118 . .. — 2-5
Burghers and Eurasians 3,769 3,132 + 637 . .. + 20-3
2,512 2,002 + 510 . .. + 25-5
Malays
Veddahs 3 + 3 . —
Europeans 778 1,470 — 692 . .. — 47-1
Others 2,457 1,031 + 1,426 . .. +138-3
91
 It is seen f r o m the above Table that Ceylon Tamils have almost quadrupled their population
in the District within the twenty-five years, 1921-46, while the Low-Country Sinhalese have more
than doubled their numbers. There is also a very large increase in the miscellaneous group of ' other
races '. Europeans in the District have been reduced almost to half their number, while Indian Moors
too show a diminution in numerical strength.

Buddhists still maintained their numerical superiority over the adherents of other religions in
the District. They numbered 409,559 as against 212,848 Hindus, 55,482 Muslims, and 33,365 Chris-
tians. It may be noted that the highest percentage of Hindus in any District, bar Jaffna, in relation
to the total Hindu population of the.Island, was to be found in this District. Of the Christians,
23,934 were Roman Catholics, 5,693 Anglicans, and 1,195 Methodists.

Only 47-5 per cent, of the population of the District, aged five years and over, were found by the
Census to be able to read and write at least one language. The percentage at the Census of 1921,
was 31*8. The Census of 1946 showed an improvement in twenty-five years of 15*7 per cent.

The age distribution of the population for the District is given in the following Table :—
TABLE NO. 29—POPULATION O F K A N D Y D I S T R I C T (INCLUSIVE O F M U N I C I P A L I T Y )
BY A G E G R O U P S , 1946
Age Groups Males Females
A L L AGES 376,990 334,459
0—4 51,361 50,023
5- -9 47,924 46,772
10- -14 44,291 42,408
15- -19 38,608 34,490
20- -24 34,094 32,907
25- -29 31,823 29,423
30- •34 25,087 21,080
35- •39 27,788 22,033
40- •44 18,788 13,757
45- •49 19,474 13,719
50- •54 10,567 8,301
55- 59 9,766 6,313
60- 64 6,412 4,882
65 and over 11,007 8,351

The population of children, adults, and old people to the total population shows scarcely any change
f r o m the corresponding proportion at the census of 1921.

The principal towns in the District, besides the Kandy Municipality were Gampola (9,163),
Nawalapitiya (7,623) and Hatton-Dickoya (5,379) in order of their enumerated population at the
census. The towns of Kadugannawa and Wattegama, w i t h a population respectively of 1,335 and
1,067 persons, also had the status of Urban Councils.

The Kandy Municipality was originally constituted by Ordinance 17 of 1865. It includes

the capital of the last Sinhalese Kings, the city which towards the end of the 16th century A . D . Konappu
Bandara^ (known to the Portuguese as " D o n Juan of Austria " ) , throwing off the yoke of Raja Sinhal
fortified " with eighteen towers ", and " a high and thick rampart " to support his independent sove-
reignty as K i n g Vimala Dharma Suriya of Kandy. It was this K i n g who erected in Kandy the first
Dalada Maligawa to enshrine the sacred Tooth-Relic, which attracts Buddhist worshippers to the city
» Vide Oh. I p. U, and Mahawamsa : Ch. X C I V .

92
from all parts of the world. W i t h the waning power of the Sinhalese Kings, the city seems also to
have declined so much that Percival, writing in 1803, called it " a poor miserable looking place " '
It was estimated in 1821 to contain "three thousand souls", and at the census of 1871 there were
enumerated within the limits of its Municipality 16,881 persons. At the census of 1946 it contained
51,266 persons in an area of 8 1/4 square miles, showing a density of 6,214. Though generally
regarded as second only to Colombo in importance, it ranks fourth of the towns of Ceylon in popula-
tion. Its sex distribution showed 30,045 males to 21,221 females, or 142 males to every 100 females.
Its general population had increased by 14,119 persons (or 38 per cent.) over the population recorded
in 1931. Although it is the chief town in the Kandyan country, the Low-Country Sinhalese out-
numbered the Kandyan Sinhalese by 2,603 persons. In 1901, when the distinction was first drawn for
census purposes, this same numerical superiority of Low-Country Sinhalese in Kandy town was
observed. The Ceylon Moors were the next largest race-group numerically, returning 6,302
persons, while Indian and Ceylon Tamils were nearly equally divided, showing 3,993 and 3,991 persons
respectively. There were 1,921 Burghers and Eurasians in Kandy Town as against 1,865 persons
of this community enumerated in 1921. The Buddhists in Kandy town numbered 30,459, Muslims
8,170, Christians 6,995, and Hindus 5,581. Two males returned themselves as Agnostics, but one of
a dozen ' Freethinkers' in the town was a female. The number of Roman Catholics among the
Christians was about 66 per cent. The percentage of literacy in the town was 68-3 of the population,
five years and over. In 1921 it was shown as 54-7 per cent. Greater progress appears to have been
made in female literacy, where the percentage increase in the twenty-five years has been 17-5 as
against 10-8 among the males. In GampolaTown "the Gangasiripura" of the Mahawamsa, the
capital of Sinhalese Kings for some time about the 14th century A.D., Ceylon Moors constituted the
majority of the population,—there being 29"8per cent, of this race group as against 26"2 per cent. Low-
Country Sinhalese, and 19'8 per cent Kandyan Sinhalese. In Hatton-Dickoya, an urban area which
owes its rise to the planting industry, there were 31'4 per cent. Low-Country Sinhalese, and 22T per
cent. Indian Tamils. Only 11'2 per cent were Kandyan Sinhalese.

Matale District

Matale District, which occupies the Northern section of the Central Province, has an area
of 902 17/40 square miles. Carved into a principality for Vijaya Pala, brother of Raja Sinha I I , the
District was formed into a Maha Disawany after Vijaya Pala's flight to the Portuguese. It " embraces
all the three pecuharities of surface by which Ceylon is distinguished r its southern division occupies
the Northern portion of the mountain zone, its central a part of the hilly regions, and its northern
the low and heated plains. The surface of the country is therefore very diversified, but the greater
part of it is covered with a luxuriant vegetation ". ^ As noted previously, it consisted at the time of the
census of 1946, of three Chief Headmen's or D.R.O.'s Divisions—Matale North (338 square miles),
Matale East (469 square miles), and Matale South inclusive of MataleUrban Council (95 17/40square
miles). A large portion of the district was under tea and rubber, covering 20,801 acres and 32,098
acres respectively (excluding Town and Village Gardens). Most of the rubber was of poor yielding
quality. A fair amount of cacao was also grown in the District, and also of cardamoms. The District
produces tobacco too, but the industry was not as well organized as in Jaffna. Paddy cultivation was
mainly carried on in the south and east in fields that were rain-fed or watered by streams, but in the
north irrigation was provided from artificial tanks.

The population of the District at the Census of 1946 was found to be 155,720 persons—83,194
males and 72,526 females. Its distribution among the Divisions was as follows :—Matale South
1 Cf. Percival's " Ceylon " pp. 235-236.
^ Pridham: Ceylon, Vol. ii p, 652.

93
(inclusive of Urban Council Area) : 83,348 ; Matale East : 36,844 ; Matale North : 35,528. The
corresponding figures for 1931 and 1921 respectively were as follows :—
T A B L E 30—POPULATION OF MATALE D I S T R I C T B Y C H I E F HEADMEN'S O R D . R . O'S DIVISIONS
1946, 1931, AND 1921, SHOWING INTERCENSAL INCREASE AND INCREASE P E R C E N T .
Persons Intercensal Increase Per Cent. Increase
A
( 1931-1946 1921- 1931-
1946 1931 1921 1921-1931
1931 1946
MATALE
DISTRICT 155,720 .. . 129,697 ... 116,584 .. . 13,113 .. 26,023 . . 11-2 .. 20-1
Matale South 83,348 .. . 71,142 ... 64,229 .. 6,913 ... 12,206 . . 10-8 .. 17-2
Matale North 35,528 .. . 26,051 ... 25,093 .. 958 ... 9,477 . . 3-8 .. 36-4
Matale East 36,844 .. . 32,504 ... 27,262 .. 5,242 ... 4,340 . . 19-2 .. 13-4

As in all other districts of the Island with an appreciable estate population, the period 1931—1946
showed a loss by migration of the population in the Matale District. The ' balancing equation ' for
the period may be expressed thus :—
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration Difference
1931-1946 ... 155,720—129,697 = 88,985 — 57,778 — 5,184

It may be observed that, while the District has always registered a high birth-rate, averaging about
43-1 per 1,000 persons since 1901, the death rate, which had averaged 33-7 per 1,000 persons in 1921—
1931, 41-1 in 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 1 , and 37-7 in 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 1 1 , never rose above 28-6 throughout the intercensal
period 1931-1946, except in the fatal year of the malarial epidemic (1935) when it reached the high
peak of 63-9. This fact may be regarded as a general indication of the improvement in health conditions
in the District, which has apparently been eflfected in the last fifteen years.

There was an actual decrease recorded in the total estate population of Matale District,—
the figures being 1946 : 38,053 persons, and 1931 : 38,472. The largest estate population was to
be found in Matale South, which recorded 21,993 persons. Matale East enumerated 12,960 persons
on estates within the division, and Matale North 3,100.
Kandyan Sinhalese and Indian Tamils formed the major part of the population of the District.
The former numbered 91,466 persons or 58*7 per cent, of the total population, and the latter 34,174
persons or 21 9 per cent. Low-Country Sinhalese aggregated 14,610, Ceylon Moors 8,263, Ceylon
Tamils 4,883 and Indian Moors 1,034. The increase or decrease of each race in the District between
the census of 1921 and the census of 1946, is shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 3 1 — P O P U L A T I O N BY R A C E , M A T A L E DI ST RI CT , 1946-1921
Population Increase or Decrease
Race Per Cent.
1946 1921
A L L RACES 155,720 116,584 .. + 33
Low-country Sinhalese 14,610 8,985 ... + 62
Kandyan Sinhalese... 91,466 63,333 ... + 44
Ceylon Tamils 4,883 1,417 ... + 244
Indian Tamils 34,174 34,963 ... — 2
Ceylon Moors 8,263 5,453 -r 51
Indian Moors 1,034 1,473 ... — 29
Burghers and Eurasians 464 312 ... + 48
Malays 321 342 ... — 6
Veddahs 1 — —
Europeans 88 207 ... — 57
Others 416 99 ... + 320

94
 It is observed from the Table that while Europeans, Indian Moors, Malays, and Indian Tamils
in the District have been reduced in numbers, the Ceylon Tamils and the miscellaneous category of
' other races ' have more than trebled their numbers within the last twenty-five years. The rate of
growth of the Low-Country Sinhalese, the Ceylon Moors, and the Burghers and Eurasians in the
District is also seen to be higher than that of the Kandyan Sinhalese.

Buddhists and Hindus by religioH predominate in the District,—the former constituting 67-1
per cent., and the latter about 23T per cent, of the total population. Muslims numbered 9,681, and
of the 5,528 Christians, 3,940 were Roman Catholics, 594 Anglicans, and 174 Baptists,—there being
more female adherents of the last-named denomination than males.

There were 67,363 persons returned at the 1946 census as able to read and write in the District.
Of these, 47,833 were males, and 19,530 females. The number of literate persons of both sexes formed
50-3 per cent, of the population, aged five years and over. 66'2 per cent, of the male population but only
31-6 per cent, of the females were returned as literate. There has, however, been a very great improve-
ment in literacy in the District since 1921. The percentage of literates in 1921 in proportion to the
population aged 5 years and over was as follows -.—Persons : 30-3 ; Males : 49*3 ; Females : 7*8.
The stride made in female education in the District within the last twenty-five years is remarkable.

Matale Town is the only one within the District which had the status of an Urban Council
Area. It registered at the census of 1946 a population of 14,090 persons over a surface area of two
squaremiles. The population in 1931 was 10,415. Thecensusof 1946 thus showed a numerical increase
of 3,675 persons or 35-3 per cent, over the population recorded in 1931. The Kandyan Sinhalese were
the largest race-group in the town, counting 4,322 persons against 3,693 Low-Country Sinhalese,
2,608 Ceylon Moors, and 1,843 Ceylon Tamils. There were also 818 Indian Tamils, 293 Indian Moors,
275 Burghers and Eurasians and 197 Malays enumerated in the town. 8,664 persons were found in
the Town who were able to read and write at least one language. This number constituted
69'4 per cent, of the population, aged five years and over.

Nuwara Eliya District

Nuwara Eliya District, forming the Southern portion of the Central Province, is 473 7/8
square miles in area, and consisted of four D.R.O.'s Divisions at the time of the census of 1946—
Kotmale, Uda Hewaheta, Walapane, and Nuwara Eliya Gravets. Its population at the census of
1946 aggregated 268,121 persons (140,592 males and 127,529 females). Kotmale claimed 67,124,
Uda Hewaheta 53,071, Walapane 41,893, and the Four Gravets, to which Division the populous
estate area of Dimbula Korale had been transferred f r o m Kotmale since 1931, recorded a population
of 106,033 persons.

The cultivation of tea was the predominant economic feature of the Nuwara Eliya District.
The acreage under the cultivation of this crop in the District was shown at the census as 105,686
(exclusive of Village and Town Gardens). The cUmatic conditions are ideal for the production of the
finest tea. Kotmale had in addition to tea estates a number of paddy fields and gardens of tea and mixed
cultivation. Cardamoms were also grown in this division. In the low-lying portions of Uda Hewa-
hata and Walapane paddy was grown, and a certain amount of chena Qultivation was carried on,—
the chief products being kurakkan, maize, ma, meneri, vegetables, and turmeric. The cultivation of
vegetables of the varieties to be seen in the temperate climates now forms an important part of the
village economy of the District. Some cotton is grown in Walapane. Tobacco was observed in
portions of Gangapalata, Diyatilleke, and Gannewa Korales in Uda Hewaheta.

At the census of 1931, the population of the Nuwara Ehya District was 235,775. Hence,
the 1946 census showed a numerical increase of 32,346 persons, or 13-7 per cent, over that

95
enumerated in 1931. This was the lowest rate of growth during the period 1931-1946 in any District
in the Island. This is to be explained by a very heavy emigration from the District which is observed in
the f o l l o w i n g ' balancing equation '.
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration Difference
1931-1946 ... 268,121 - 235,775 = 156,617 — 73,677 — 50,594
The malaria epidemic of 1935-1936 affected the district with some severity, though the death
toll was not as heavy as i n some other districts, because a large section o f the population was composed
of estate labourers living above 3,200 feet who were not afflicted with this disease. The
epidemic, however, affected a number of villages in Kotmale and Uda Hewaheta where malaria had
not been prevalent before.
Nuwara Eliya District is the only district in the Island where Indian Tamils outnumber the
indigenous races. 153,694 Indian Tamils were enumerated at the census, comprising 57*3 per cent,
of the total population of the District. Kandyan Sinhalese formed 30-6 per cent, aggregating 81,908
persons. Low-Country Sinhalese numbered 19,362 persons, while Ceylon Tamils showed a numerical
strength of 5,277 persons. There were 3,864 Ceylon Moors, 1,233 Indian Moors, 928 Burghers and
Eurasians, 643 Malays, 510 Europeans, and 702 " Others ". The rate of increase of these racial groups
since 1921 is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 32- -POPULATION BY R A C E , NUWARA E L I Y A DISTRICT, SHOWING R A T E S OF

INCREASE, 1921-1946
Population Percentage Increase or
Race Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946
A L L RACES 268,121 167,162 + 60 •4
Low-Country Sinhalese 19,362 10,993 + 76 •1
Kandyan Sinhalese... 81,908 47,586 + 72 •1
Ceylon Tamils 5,277 1,610 + 227 •8
Indian Tamils 153,694 101,598 + 51 •3
Ceylon Moors 3,864 1,699 + 127 -4
Indian Moors 1,233 1,070 + 15 -2
Burghers and Eurasians 928 706 + 31 -4
Malays 643 502 + 28 -1
Europeans 510 1,115 54 -3
Others 702 283 + 148 •1
.Only Europeans in the Nuwara Eliya District showed a decrease in numbers in the 25-year
period 1921-1946. The Ceylon Tamils more than trebled their population, and the Ceylon Moors
and " O t h e r s " more than doubled it during this period. The rate of growth of both sections of the
Sinhalese was also very high.
Corresponding to the numerical majority of Indian Tamils in the District, Hinduism was shown
to be the predominant religion in the District. Hindus numbered 147,622 as against 100,217 Buddhists
and 14,353 Christians, of whom 10,957 were Roman Catholics.
40 - 4 per cent, of the population 5 years of age and over were ascertained to be able to read and
write at least one language. The percentage of hteracy in the District in 1921 was 25-3. An i m -
provement has been effected in the literacy of the female population the percentage having risen
f r o m 9 - 2 to 21 -4 but the District is next to Badulla the worst in respect of female illiteracy.
Apart f r o m Kotmale, the District, as a habitable region, is really a discovery of the British.
The " Neura ElUya-pattan ", as Davy ^ spelt it, " was never inhabited ", and its development was due
to Governor Barnes who saw its potentiaHties. It possesses today perhaps the most popular holiday
resort of the Island, the town of Nuwara Eliya.
Davy: "Interior of Ceylon" pp. 457ff.
96
 {AM nun

mSTERM PROflMCt pmviKa o r u h

PftOVIHCE

BENTOTA

SOuTHEm P80VIH6E
Showing O. B. 0 « ' Division* & Chief T o w n .
PATTU

BtriRcnci
POOVmOI BOY.
OlSTRIOT BDT.
a R . » « o i v m o N Bov. -
ROAOS

RAILWAYS
 At the date of the census Nuwara Eliya Town was of the status of an Urban Council
and contained a population of 10,828 persons (6,298 males and 4,530 females), of
whom the Low-Country Sinhalese were the most numerous, enumerated at 3,127 persons. Indian
Tamils numbered 2,690, Kandyan Sinhalese 2,141, and Ceylon Tamils 1,211. There were also 495
Ceylon Moors, 399 Burghers and Eurasians, 251 Indian Moors, 236 Malays, and 170 Europeans,
besides 108 " Others". The percentage of literacy in the town was 64 2 of the population, aged
five years and over, —males showing 75 • 1 per cent, literate, and females 48 -5 per cent, literate.

THE SOUTHERN PROVINCE

The Southern Province as originally constituted in 1833, included besides its present area the
Ratnapura District of Sabaragamuwa and Wellassa and Kandukara Pattu of Uva. Today it is
divided into three districts,—Galle, Matara, and Hambantota. The Proviace extends f r o m the Ben-
tota River and the Rajasinha-adawiya range at the South-West of the Island to the Kumbukkan-Oya
at the South-East, and occupies the whole of the Southern coast of the Island. It has a total area of
2,146i square miles and contained a population at the census of 1946 of 961,418 persons, showing
an average density of 448 persons per square mile. It showed a numerical increase of 190,2 [4 persons,
or 24-7 per cent, over the population recorded fifteen years earlier, at the census of 1931. The
Province had an acreage of 403,817 (excluding Town and Village Gardens of one acre and less) under
crops at the Census of Agriculture, 1946, of which 102,921 acres were under coconut, 100,649 under
paddy, 82,922 under rubber, and 36,338 under tea. Chena crops were grown on 5,135 acres, and other
cultivation was carried on 75,852 acres.

The growth of the population of the Province since 1891 is shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 33—POPULATION OF T H E SOUTHERN PROVINCE FROM 1891
Year Population Intercensal Numerical Per Cent. Increase
Increase
isqi ... 489,799 ... — • • ^ rz
90 ..- 566736 ... 76.937 ... 5-7
91 ... 628,817 ... 62,081 ... 10-9
92 .. 671234 ... 42,417 ... 6-8
93 - ... 771204 ... 99,970 ... 14-9
946 ... 961,418 ... 190,214 ... 24-7
The increase in 1946 over the population in 1931 can almost wholly be explained as a natural
increase. The number of births during the period exceeded the number of deaths by 198,511, and the
figures suggest a very slight emigration f r o m the Province. The population was predominantly
Low-Country Sinhalese by race, and Buddhist by religion. Ceylon Moors ranked next in the Province
in numerical strength. Its urban population was centred in one Municipality and five Urban Council
Areas, and consisted of about 10-9 per cent, of the total population of the Province. Of the rural
population, only about 3 -2 per cent, were found on estates.

Galle District
Galle District is watered principally by the Gin Ganga, which runs right through its middle.
There are three lakes,—the Balapitiya, the Ratgama, and Koggala lakes. The most prominent moun-
tain is Hinidum Kanda (Mount Haycock, as it is called on account of its appearance). Throughout
the district there are ridges and hills, covered with a forest growth. The climate is generally not un-
healthy, and the rainfall is evenly distributed throughout its area of 652J square miles. The chief
97
Crops recorded at the census were paddy, coconuts, rubber, tea, cinnamon and citronella. The aggre-
gate population enumerated at the census of 1946 was 459,785. The sex distribution showed that
there were more females than males,—the number of females enumerated being 232,730 and the number
of males 227,055, or a ratio of only 98 males to every 100 females. This, however, was not a new
feature, for the District had shown an excess of females over males at the censuses of 1911 and 1921
also,—the excess being assigned to emigration of males in search of employment elsewhere. The
density of the population of the district was 705 persons to the square mile, less than that of Matara
District.

The growth of the population of the District is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 34—POPULATION OF G A L L E D I S T R I C T , 1871-1946, (INCLUDING M U N I C I P A L I T Y

OF G A L L E ) SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE, AND INCREASE P E R C E N T .

Year Population Numerical Increase Increase Per Cent

1871 194,417
1881 209,680 15,263 '. 7-9
1891 222,895 13,215 6-3
1901 258,116 35,221 15-8
1911 291,001 32,885 12-7
1921 313,118 22,117 7-6
1931 363,553 50,435 16-1
1946 459,785 96,232 26-5

The f a l l in the rate of increase f r o m 7 9 per cent, in 1871-1881 to 6-3 per cent, in 1881-1891
was assigned to the replacement of Galle as the chief port by Colombo. The rise of the rate of growth
in 1891-1901 was attributed to a boom in plumbago and to the extended cultivation of tea, coconut,
and cinnamon. The fall in the next two decades was explained by increased emigration, and adverse
birth and death rates. The rise in the rate of increase in 1921-1931 was stated in the last Census
Report to be due mainly to a fall in the death rate. The aggregate number of births registered in
the District in 1931-1946 was 222,813, while deaths numbered 119,200, giving an excess of 103,613
births over deaths. Since the numerical increase in the total population was only 96,232, there has
been a loss by the emigration of 7,381 persons f r o m the District in the intercensal period 1931-1946.

For administrative purposes the District had been divided into six divisions at the date of the
census of 1946 :—Bentota-Walallawiti Korale, Wellaboda Pattuwa, Four Gravets, Talpe Pattuwa,
Gangaboda Pattuwa and Hinidum Pattuwa. The distribution of the population in these Divisions
is given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 35—POPULATION OF G A L L E D I S T R I C T , SHOWING POPULATION IN 1931

AND 1946, NUMERICAL INCREASE, AND PER C E N T . INCREASE, BY
DIVISIONS (INCLUSIVE OF MUNICIPALITY OF G A L L E AND U R B A N C O U N C I L
OF AMBALANGODA)

Population Numerical Per Cent.

A
Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Bentota-Walallawiti Korale ... 94,520 68,300 26,220 38
Wellaboda Pattuwa 112,624 96,309 16,315 16
Four Gravets 86,534 68,464 18,070 26
Talpe Pattuwa 81,137' - .. 68,728 12,409 18
Gangaboda Pattuwa 73,024 53,292 19,732 370
Hinidum Pattuwa 11,946 8,460 3,486 41-2

98
The population of Hinidum Pattuwa shows the highest percentage increase, reflecting the development
of this hitherto inaccessible region. The most densely populated divisions were the Four Gravets,
and Wellaboda Pattuwa.

The only towns within the District were the Municipality of Galle, and the Urban Council
area of Ambaiangoda. The population of Galle Town, which was 38,424 in 1931, rose to 49,009 in
1946, showing a numerical increase of 10,585 persons, and a percentage increase of 27-5 per cent.
It is interesting to note that the Municipality of Galle is recorded in the Census Report of 1871 to
have had a population almost as large,—the enumeration in that year counting 47,059 persons. A
very large decrease of the population occurred in the next decade which has only just been arrested.
Ambaiangoda, a Sanitary Board Town at the census of 1931, received Urban Council status in the
last intercensal period, and returned a population of 9,952 persons against 3,745 in 1931. The sex
distribution in Ambaiangoda Town showed only 96 males to 100 females,'but Galle Town which in
1921 had a minority of males showed in 1946 an excess of males over females,—the distribution being
25,129 males and 23,880 females.
94 • 0 per cent, of the population of the District were found to be Low-Country Sinhalese,—the
only other two racial groups showing a percentage above one being Ceylon Moors (3 • 0 per cent.)
and Indian Tamils (1-5 per cent.). Within the limits of Galle Municipality, however, there were only
75 3 per cent. Low-Country Sinhalese. Ceylon Moors constituted 19-3 per cent, of the municipal
population, while Ceylon Tamils showed I • 5 per cent. Indian Tamils 1 • 3 per cent, and Burghers and
Eurasians 1-1 per cent. In Ambaiangoda Town, the Low-Country Sinhalese formed 94 1 per
cent., Kandyan Sinhalese 1- 8 per cent., Indian Tamils 1 • 6 per cent., and Ceylon Tamils 1 • 1 per cent.
The racial distribution of the population of Galle District (inclusive of Galle Municipality)
is given in the following Table. For purposes of comparison, the Table gives the corresponding
figures for 1921 also :—

TABLE 36—POPULATION O F G A L L E D I S T R I C T (INCLUSIVE O F G A L L E M U N I C I P A L I T Y )

BY R A C E , 1946 AND 1921, SHOWING P E R C E N T . INCREASE OR D E C R E A S E

Numerical Per Cent.

Race Population Increase or Increase or
Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
A L L RACES 459,785 ... 313,118 . .. + 146,667 . . + 46-8
Low-Country Sinhalese 432,396 ... 290,801 • . .. + 141,595 . . + 48-7
Kandyan Sinhalese 2,082 ... 1,063 . .. + 1,019 . . + 95-9
Ceylon Tamils ... 3,119 ... 770 . .. + 2,349 . . +305-1
Indian Tamils ... 6,845 ... 7,623 . . — 778 . . — 10-2
Ceylon Moors ... 13,679 ... 11,126 . .. + 2,553 . . + 22-9
Indian Moors 160 ... 169 . .. — 9 . . — 5-3
Burghers and Eurasians 757 ... 970 . .. — 213 . . — 22-0
Malays 231 ... 259 . .. — 28 . . — 10-8
Europeans 113 ... 192 . .. — 79 . . — 41-1
Others 403 ... 145 . .. + 258 . . +177-9

The very high rate of growth in the numbers of the Ceylon Tamils in the District is noteworthy,
" Others " and Kandyan Sinhalese have more than doubled their numbers. Europeans have
decreased by more than one-third, and Burghers and Eurasians by more than one-fourth within the
last twenty-five years. It is interesting to note that Galle Town, which retains perhaps more traces
of the Dutch occupation in Ceylon than any other town in Ceylon, and which has been reputed to be
a centre of the Burghers, is fast losing its Burgher population. There were only 535 persons of this

99
racial group,-—(incidentally more females than males as in the case of the Ceylon Moors of the town),
—who were enumerated in 1946 within the Municipal limits of Galle, as against 780 in 1921, 885 in
1911, and 1,043 in 1901.
There were 431,599 Buddhists enumerated in the District forming about 10 per cent, of the total
number of adherents of this rehgion in the Island. Muslims numbered 14,258 ; Hindus 8,263 ;
and Christians 5,593. Galle Municipality showed 36,090 Buddhists, 9,758 Muslims, 2,268 Christians,
and 883 Hindus. There were also nine Freethinkers and 1 Zoroastrian. Of the Christians in the
District, 3,464 were Roman Catholics, 1,241 were members of the Anglican Communion, and 480
were Methodists. Within the Galle Municipality, the distribution of the Christians among the
denominations was :—Roman Catholics, 1,467 ; Anglicans, 378 ; Methodists, 222; Presbyterians, 65;
Pentecostalists, 37 ; Baptists, 15 ; and " O t h e r s " , 84.
The District (inclusive of Galle Municipality) returned 240,341 persons as being able to read
and write at least one language. The percentage of literacy in the District in relation to the population
aged 5 years and over was thus 60 • 1, which is an improvement on the percentage of 42-6 recorded
at the census of 1921. Males in the District showed 71-6 per cent, literate, against 59-4 per cent,
literate in 1921. The majority of the females were still illiterate, only 49 -1 being returned as ' able
to read and write ', though this was an improvement on the 26-6 per cent, recorded for the District
in 1921. Within the Municipality the position was better than in the District as a whole,—the literate
percentage for both sexes being 67 • 9 against 49 1 in 1921. Males showed 75 4 percent, literate
against 63-1 in 1921, and females 59 9 per cent, literate against 35 3 in 1921.
The largest estate population in the District was to be found in Gangaboda Pattuwa and Bentota-
Walallawiti Korale, in which divisions were found the biggest concentration of the decreased Indian
Tamil population of the District. There were proportionately more Low-Country Sinhalese enumerat-
ed on estates in the District than in 1921.

Matara District
This comprises an area of 481^ square miles, and extends along the sea coast f r o m about the
86th to the 115th milestone on the Southern coast road, and inland runs a distance of about 31 miles
as the crow flies. Along the coast at the date of the census there existed a belt of coconut extending
for an average distance of about two miles. Behind it lay a large area of paddy interspersed with
hills of small size. Citronella grass was observed in the central part of the district, while behind it
were the hills of Morawak Korale where tea and rubber estates were found. Some of the paddy
fields were among the best in Ceylon. The district is drained by the Nilwala Ganga and its tributaries.
Its population at the census of 1946 was 351,947, showing a density of 732 persons to the
square mile, about the same density as Kaiutara District, and only below Colombo and Kandy
Districts. The growth of its population is shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 37—POPULATION OF M A T A R A D I S T R I C T , 1871-1946 SHOWING NUMERICAL
INCREASE AND P E R C E N T . INCREASE
Intercensal Intercensal
Year Population Numerical Per Cent.
Increase Increase
1871 143,336 — —
1881 151,923 '. 8,587 60
1891 177,586 25,663 16-9
1901 203,750 26,164 14-7
1911 227,308 23,558 11-6
1921 238,509 11,201 4-9
1931 283,292 44,783 18-8
1946 351,947 68,655 24-2
100
The intercensal increase in 1931-1946, when related to births and deaths statistics, gives the
following ' balancing equation ' ;—
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration
Difference
1931-1946 ... 351,947 — 283,292 = 184,023 98,168 — 17,200

This suggests that a fairly heavy movement of the population out of the district had taken
place during the period. Such a movement has been observed at every census f r o m 1901, and has
been ascribed to the enterprise of the people of the District in seeking more profitable employment
outside it. The proportion of the estate population to the total population of the District was only
about 4 per cent, and its fluctuations hardly affected the growth of the population as a whole.

At the date of the census, the District was being administered in five Chief Headmen's or
D . R . O ' s Divisions, viz., Morawak Korale, Kandaboda Pattuwa, Gangaboda Pattuwa, Weligam
Korale, and the Four Gravets and Wellaboda Pattuwa together. Their area, population, and density
appear in the following Table :—

T A B L E 3 8 — P O P U L A T I O N O F MATARA D I S T R I C T , B Y C H I E F HEADMEN'S O R D. R. O'S

DIVISIONS, 1946

Area Density
Square Population Persons Per Sq.
Miles Mile
Morawak Korale 175 51,553 295
Kandaboda Pattuwa 67 39,249 586
Gangaboda Pattuwa 76 3/8 .. 58,499 766
Weligam Korale 110 95,498 868
Four Gravets and Wellaboda Pattuwa 52 7/8 .. 107,148 2,026
(inc. Matara U. C.)

The greatest numerical increase since the census of 1931 has taken place in Morawak Korale,
and the lowest increase in Kandaboda Pattuwa.

The population of the District, classified by sex, showed a slight excess of females over males,—
the respective numbers being 176,106 (females), and 175,841 males. The racial composition was
predominantly Low-Country Sinhalese, their percentage to the total population being 9 4 ' 1 , while
Ceylon Moors formed 2 6 per cent, and Indian Tamils 21 per cent. The racial distribution is
given in the following Table :—
TABLE 39—POPULATION OF MATARA DISTIIICT BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921

Population Numerical Increase

Race A. Increase or or Decrease
1946 • 1921 Decrease Per Cent.
Low-Country Sinhalese .., 331,173 225,326 ... + 105,847 ... + 47-0
Kandyan Sinhalese 1,071 369 ... + 702 ... +190-2
Ceylon Tamils 2,343 . 383 ... + 1,960 ... -I-511-7
Indian Tamils 7,472 4,614 ... + 2,858 ... + 61-9
Ceylon Moors 8,964 6,976 ... + 1,988 ... 4- 28-5
Indian Moors 50 112 ... — 62 ... — 55-4
Burghers and Eurasians .. 387 482 ... — 95 ... — 19-7
Malays 114 91 ... + 23 ... + 25-3
Europeans 30 89 ... — 59 ... — 66-3
Others 343 67 ... + 276 ... +412-1

101
 The Table shows that the number of Ceylon Tamils has increased to more than six times their
number found in the District in 1921, and that the rate of growth of the Low-Country Sinhalese is
appreciably less than that of the Kandyan Sinhalese and Indian Tamils in the District. Europeans,
Indian Moors, and Burghers and Eurasians in the District have had their numbers considerably
reduced.
The literates in the District numbered 165,193 persons, constituting 54-7 per cent, of the
population aged five years and over. The number of males who could read and write was found to
be 100,285, while 64,908 females came within this category. The percentages were 66-8 males and
42'7 females. The corresponding percentages twenty-five years ago were 55'9 for males, and only
18'3 for females. Remarkable progress appears to have been made in female education, although
the illiterates among the sex were still in the majority.
Children aged 0 to 14 years in the District numbered 144,909, adults f r o m 15 to 49 numbered
163,188. The distribution showed fewer children and more adults and old people in the district than
at the census of 1921.
Buddhists in the district numbered 331,237, while MusHms and Hindus came next with 9,217,
and 8,566 respectively. Christians numbered 2,858, of whom 1,466 were Roman Catholics, 680 were
Anglicans and 462 were Methodists.
The two towns in the District, both of which have Urban Council status, are Matara (popula-
tion 22,908) and Weligama (population 11,923). The population of the District was nearly 10 per cent,
urban. Matara Town had a population which showed 86 •! per cent, as Low-Country Sinhalese,
and 9'2 per cent. Ceylon Moors. Other races above one per cent, were Ceylon Tamils (1 -3 per cent.),
Indian Tamils (1 • 1 per cent.), and Burghers (1 • 1 per cent.). In Weligama the percentage of Ceylon
Moors to the population of the town was higher, being 16-1, against 82 4 per cent. Low-Country
Sinhalese. None of the other races in Weligama counted more than 77 persons, which was achieved
by the Kandyan Sinhalese.

Hambantota District

Hambantota District, which occupies the Eastern section of the Southern Province, has an
area of 1,012 3/4 square miles, and at the census of 1946 returned a population of 149,686, showing
a density of 148 persons to the square mile. The District is generally flat and low, about half the
area being scrub or jungle. The majority of the people live in the narrow strip of about 300 square
miles along the Western border of the district where the wet zone merges into the dry. This area
contains also the comparatively populous towns of Tangalla, Beliatta, and Walasmulla. Tangalla-
Beliatta is now an Urban Council area, the same status being enjoyed by Hambantota. The aggregate
urban population numbered 10,827, or 7-2 percent, of the total for the District. The cUmate is hot
and dry, and the two principal rivers are the Walawe Ganga and the Kirinde Ganga which flow to
the sea at Ambalantota and Magama respectively. The latter is believed to have been a city as old as
Anuradhapura, where Kakavanna Tissa, the father of Dutugemunu, ruled, holding his own against
the Tamil conquerors of Anuradhapura. Numerous ruins of dagobas, temples and irrigation works
are to be found scattered all over Magam Pattuwa, which is one of the three administrative divisions
into which the district is divided. The other two divisions are West Giruwa Pattu, and East Giruwa
Pattu. The people of the former division were observed to enjoy a more stable agricultural economy
than those in East Giruwa Pattu,—cultivating crops of the wet zone such as coconut, citronella, jak,
bread-fruit and citrus, while paddy was grown with water from the Kirama-Oya or the Urubokka-
Oya. The East Giruwa and Magam Pattus fall entirely within the dry zone, and the inhabitants
are compelled to eke out a bare subsistence, except on the banks of the Walawe and the K i r i n d i where
major irrigation works have succeeded in bringing under paddy cultivation about 20,000 acres of land

102
around Ambalantota and Tissamaharama. Colonization schemes exist at Beragama, Debarawewa,
Kinchigune, Medagama and Pannagamuwa. Cotton was seen cultivated in East Giruwa Pattu and
Magam Pattuwa.

The growth of the population in the District is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 4 0 — P O P U L A T I O N OF HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT, 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6 , SHOWING NUMERICAL

INCREASE, A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Year Population Numerical Increase Per Cent. Increase

1871 ... 60,851 — —
1881 ... 71,917 11,066 18-2
1891 ... 89,318 17,401 24-2
1901 ... 104,870 15,552 17-4
1911 ... 110,508 ... • 5,638 5-4
1921 ... 119,607 9,099 8-2
1931 ... 124,359 4,752 3-9
1946 ... 149,686 25,327 20-4

The highest rate of growth of population in the District is seen f r o m this Table to have occurred
in 1881-1891, and was ascribed to an improved food supply as well as immigration consequent on the
development of irrigation. The rate of increase was meagre in the first three decades of this century,
but since 1931, with the increased activity of Government in the construction of irrigation works and
the establishment of colonies of peasant cultivation in pursuance of its general plan to reconquer
the Dry Zone, the population has tended to grow with great rapidity. The intercensal increase of
25,327 in 1931-1946 is explained by a large inflow of immigrants into the District within this period,
for the excess of births (83,627) over deaths (75,133) accounted for a natural increase of only 8,494
persons. The balance 16,833 represents the migration difference, indicating a gain by immigration.
It may be noted, however, that the death rate for the district scarcely shows any diminution, the mean
for thel5-year period 1931-1946 being 38 • 7 while the mean for the 10-year period 1921-1931 was 39-0.

The population of the respective divisions of the district at the censuses of 1931, and 1946 is
given in the following Table :—

TABLE 41—POPULATION OF HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S

OR D. R. O's DIVISIONS (INCLUSIVE O F U. C. AREAS) 1946 AND 1931

Population Numerical Per Cent.

Division Increase Increase
1946 1931 or Decrease or Decrease
Giruwa Pattu West 97,108 97,638 — 530 — 0-5
Giruwa Pattu East 25,316 13,466 + 11,850 + 88-0
Magam Pattuwa 27,262 13,255 -h 14,007 + 105-7

The very large increase of population in the divisions of the dry zone and the decrease in Giruwa
Pattu West, suggest migration f r o m the congested wet zones of the Island, and seems to provide
further evidence pointing to the success achieved in the execution of the policy of reclaiming the D r y
Zone adopted by the Executive Committee of Agriculture and Lands functioning under the
Donoughmore Constitution from 1931.
103
 The predominant race-group in the District was seen at the census to be the Low-Country
Sinhalese who numbered 143,699 persons or 9 6 - 0 per cent, of the total population. Ceylon Moors
numbered 2,382, while there were 1,401 Malays enumerated at the census. The population by races
and their rates o f increase from 1921-1946 are given in the following Table :—
T A B L E 4 2 — P O P U L A T I O N OF HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT BY RACE, 1946 A N D 1921

Race Persons Numerical Per Cent.

1 » ^ Increase or Increase or
1946 1921 Decrease Decrease
L RACES 149,686 119,607 ... 4- 30,079 + 25-1
Low-Country Sinhalese ... 143,699 114,724 ... + 28,975 ' .. + 25-2
Kandyan Sinhalese 833 322 ... + 511 .. +158-7
Ceylon Tamils 787 614 ... - f 173 .. + 28-2
Indian Tamils 261 419 ... — 158 .. — 37-7
Ceylon Moors 2,382 2,495 ... — 113 .. — 4-5
Indian Moors 10 24 ... — 14 .. — 58-3
Burghers and Eurasians .,. 106 .110 ... — 4 .. — 3-6
Malays 1,401 791 ... + 610 .. + 77-1
Veddahs ... 1 0 ... + 1 —
Europeans 4 13 ... — 9 .. — 69-2
Others ... 202 95 ... + 107 .. +112-6
The decrease in the number of Ceylon Moors in the District and the increase in the number
of Malays are noteworthy features appearing in the Table. The latter is partly due to the establish-
ment of a Malay Colony of agriculturists.
The chief religion of the District was Buddhism, which claimed 144,243 adherents. Muslims
came next with 3 , 9 7 1 . There were 9 2 4 Hindus and 5 3 1 Christians of whom 343 were Roman
CathoUcs.
The classification o f the population by sex showed 79,862 males and 69,824 females, a popula-
tion of 1 1 4 males to 1 0 0 females.
The distribution of the population by age is seen in the following Table :—
T A B L E 4 3 — P O P U L A T I O N OF HAMBANTOTA DISTRICT, BY A G E GROUPS, 1946

Age Groups Total Males Females

A L L AGES 149,686 79,862 69,824
0-4 18,954 9,857 9,097
5-9 17,183 8,998 8,185
10-14 21,827 11,842 9,985
15-19 15,709 8,776 6,933
20-24 14,771 7,541 7,230
25-29 13,543 . 7;252 6,291
30-34 9,917 5,299 4,618
35-39 9,885 5,333 4,552
40-44 7,005 3,765 3,240
45^9 6,491 3,504 2,987
50-54 3,902 1,877 2,025
55-59 3,165 1,767 1,398
60-64 3,009 1,685 1,324
65 and over 4,325 2,366 1,959

104
 Kankesanlurai

AMAM DCHI NORTHERN PROVINCE

VALIKAMA
NORTH A U S »MAMS Showing D. R. Os' Divisions & Chief T o w n s
addilkKodOai

Kayls

Kopat REFERENCIE
ISLANDS OIVISIQ qNMARA
Itfivakachcfi
JiA.Jaffna ^^^g^VISI OIVISI
PROVINCE BDY.

DISTRICT BDY-

Pallai O.R. O S DIVISION

ROADS

RAILW^AYS
pifCt«!HILAIPPAt(

LAGOON

KARJlCHLI

fUNA^ARITUNUKKA,
I
^IVlSIONj
f / ' »
.'v D/ I S -J R I

I M A R I T I M E

DIVISION

WAVUNIYA NORTH

Tunukkai /- t-
J 'I
Uankulam f
PATTUS
I

DIViaiONI
MANTAI DIVISION

CASTEHU PHOVince

nkan

VAVUNIYA S O U T | ^ OIVIsVo/l "'"^Vy.

TAMIL
MUSALI DIVISION
avunty
SINHALES

Iratpenyakulamaj

NORTH CENTRAL PROVINCE

NORTH

WESTERN PROVINCE \
 Compared with 1921, the proportion of the age group of children 0-14 has decreased f r o m 41
per, cent, in 1921 to 38 • 7 per cent, i t i 1946 ; the working age group of adults (ages 15 to 49) remained
nearly stationary ; but the elders (aged 50 and above) have correspondingly increased.

56,253 persons were found to be literate in the District, a percentage of 43 0 of the population
aged five years and over. Of the males 58 7 per cent, were able to read and write, but only 24*9
per cent, of the females were Hterate. The district is not, however, the worst in respect of female
illiteracy, for BaduUa and Nuwara EUya Districts were found to show a lower percentage. The
percentage of Uterates in Hambantota District in 1921 was 31 • 4—males 52 • 6, and females 7-6. The
progress made in female education in the District within the twenty-five years 1921-1946 is noteworthy,
although more than three-fourths of the female educable population were still ilUterate.

Of the two towns in the District, Hambantota and Tangalla-Beliatta, the larger population was
to be found in the latter, although the former was the headquarters of the Assistant Government Agent.
The population of Hambantota was 3,970, mainly composed of Low-Country Sinhalese (1,752),
Malays (1,049), and Ceylon Moors (845). There has been a decline in the population of the Ceylon
Moors since 1921. The population of Tangalla-Beliatta was 6,857, and was predominantly Low-
Country Sinhalese (86-5 per cent.).

T H E N O R T H E R N PROVINCE
This Province falls naturally into two parts, of which one is formed by the peninsula
of Jaffna with the group of Islands lying off the West coast, and the other is that portion
of the mainland consisting of the Karachchi and Punnakari-Tunnukai divisions of the Jaffna District
and the two Districts of Mannar and Vauvniya. The Jaffna peninsula and the islands are flat and
level, never rising into anything approaching even a hill. There are no rivers even in the wet season.
In many places the sea runs in and forms the large lagoons which cut through the centre and eastern
portions of the peninsula. In the South of the peninsula the land is covered with scrub jungle, while
on the Eastern coast is observed the palmyrah palm which grows almost everywhere. The Northern
portion is almost all under cultivation,—garden lands, in which tobacco, grains, etc., are grown,
alternating with paddy fields and small palmyrah or coconut gardens. On the other hand, that
portion of the Province which lies on the mainland is covered with thick jungle and forest which is
only broken here and there by habitation. A colonization scheme has been promoted in the Paranthan
area, and in Pooneryn there is a gradually growing population. In the South of Mannar District
there is open scrub, while along the North-Eastern coast about Mullaitivu plains, lagoons and salt
marshes alternate w i t h forest. In Vavuniya which is a tableland rising to about 300 feet above sea
level, there are rivers which flow only in the wet season, being generally dry continuously f r o m
February to October. The total area of the Province has been computed to be 3,429J square miles, of
which 75 square miles are covered by water, leaving a land area of 3,354 square miles. The aggregate
population enumerated at the census of 1946 was 479,572 persons, of whom Jaffna District alone
claimed 424,788 or about 88 per cent, of the population of the Province. Of its total acreage, only
about 6 per cent, was found under cultivation at the census,—the major crop being paddy which occupi-.
ed 69,813 acres cultivated f o r the maha season 1945-46. The yield harvested was found to be at
the rate of 12-6 bushels per acre. The area under coconuts in the Province was 24,232 acres.
Originally the Northern Province, when constituted in 1833, included Nuwara Kalawiya, which was,
however, severed f r o m it to f o r m part of the North-CentraLProvince established in 1873.

105
Jaffna District

Jaffna District, which, inclusive of the area of the Jaffna Urban Council, was reckoned as
being 998f square miles in extent, was composed of ten separate Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's
administrative divisions,—Delft, Islands, Jaffna Division, Valikamam West, VaUkamam North,
Valikamam East, Tenmaradchi, Vadamaradchi, Pachchilappalai-Karachchi, and Punakari-Tunukkai.
As already noted, it contained a total population of 424,788 persons,—212,194 males and 212,594
females, showing a slight excess of females over males. The balance of the sexes in the district was
more nearly even in 1946, than at any of the previous censuses f r o m 1871 which regularly recorded
an excess of females over males in the district. The growth of the population f r o m 1881 is shown in
the following Table :—

T A B L E 44—POPULATION OF JAFFNA DISTRICT, 1881-1946, SHOWING NUMERICAL

INCREASE, A N D PER CENT. INCREASE.
Per Cent.
Year Population Numerical Increase
Increase.
1881 265,583
1891 279,284 13,701 5-1
1901 300,851 21,567 7- 7
1911 326,712 25,861 8- 6
1921 330,541 3,829 1-2
1931 355,425 24,884 7-5
1946 424,788 69,363 19-5

When the intercensal increase is related to births and deaths, the following " balancing
equation " is obtained :—

Population Difference Births Deaths Migration Difference

1931-1946 .. 424,788 — 355,425 = 190,415 — 133,157 + 12,105

The figures suggest that there has been, for the first time in this century, an inflow of population
into the District, and as this is an extraordinary occurrence, an examination of the distribution of the
population in the various divisions may reveal the locality in which this influx has mainly taken place.
The growth of the population of the Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions is shown in the
following Table :—

T A B L E 45—POPULATION OF JAFFNA DISTRICT BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D. R. O.'S DIVISIONS,

1946 A N D 1931, SHOWING N U M E R I C A L INCREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Numerical Per Cent.

Divisions 1946 1931 Increase or Increase or
Decrease Decrease
Delft 6,338 ... 5,147 . .. + 1,191 . .. + 23-1
Islands 47,018 ... 39,106 . .. + 7,912 . • • + 20-2
Jaffna Division* 82,427 ... 61,815 . .. + 20,612 . •• + 33-3
Valikamam West 62,161 ... 52,938 . •• + 9,223 . •• + 17-4
Valikamam N o r t h 67,127^
86,216 . .. + 18,334 . .. + 21-3
Valikamam East 37,423J •••
Tenmaradchi 38,280 ... 34,520 . •• + 3,760 . .. + 10-9
Vadamaradchi 71,268 ... 61,582 . •• + 9,686 .• • + 15-7
Pachchilappalai-Karachchi 8,064 ... 9,005 . 941 . 10-4
Punakari-Tunukkai 4,682 ... 5,096 . .. — 414 . .. — 81
* Includes Jaifna Urban Co incil.

106
 When these figures are compared w i t h those for the decennial period 1921-1931, it is observed
that the population of Jaffna Division, Vahkaman, Tenmaradchi, and VadamaTadchi had grown
rapidly within the last intercensal period.

The racial composition of the population is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 46—POPULATION OF JAFFNA DISTRICT BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921,
SHOWING N U M E R I C A L A N D PER CENT. INCREASE
Persons Numerical Per Cent.
Race r Increase or Increase or
1946 1921 Decrease Decrease
A L L RACES 424,788 ... 330,541 .. . + 94,247 . .. + 28-5
Low-Country Sinhalese 3,215 ... 826 .. + 2,389 . .. + 289-2
Kandyan Sinhalese ... 1,331 ... 216 .. + 1,115 . .. + 516-2
Ceylon Tamils 409,070 ... 323,077 .. + 85,993 . .. + 26-6
Indian Tamils 4,194 ... 1,797 .. + 2,397 . .. + 133-4
Ceylon Moors 5,159 ... 3,518 .. + 1,641 . .. + 46-6
Indian Moors 461 ... 230 .. + 231 . .. + 100-4
Burghers and Eurasians 384 ... 489 .. — 105 . .. — 21-5
Malays 113 ... 97 .. + 16 . .. + 16-5
Veddahs 1 ... — .. + 1 . —
Europeans 45 ... 114 .. — 69 . .. — 60-5
Others 815 ... 177 .. + 639 . .. + 361-0

The remarkable increase in the number of Sinhalese, particularly Kandyan Sinhalese, in the
Jaffna District within the 25-year period 1921-1946 is the most striking feature in the Table. There
has also been a large increase in the number of Indian Tamils and Indian Moors, and of " Others "
in the District. The Burghers and Eurasians registered a decrease.

It was to be expected that the predominant religion in the District would be Hinduism, and the
census returned 363,227 persons as its adherents. Christians were the next numerous religious
group and claimed 51,265 (or about 12-1 per cent, of the total population). Muslims numbered
5,786, and Buddhists 4,434. There were four Agnostics in the District.

The number of persons able to read and write in the District, as reckoned at the census, was
268,322 persons, representing 70-6 percent, of the population, 5 years and over, in the District. This
shows an increase of 27 4 per cent, since 1921. The number of males who were returned as literate
was 151,145 or 79 - 7 per cent, of the male population in the District of five years and above. This is
an increase of 16-7 per cent, over the corresponding figure f o r 1921. Of the female population, aged
five years and above, 117,177 were found to be capable of reading and writing at least one language.
This showed a great improvement on the corresponding percentage in 1921—the figure for 1946 being
61-6 per cent, against 24-5 per cent, females shown as literate in 1921.

The following Table shows the population distributed by age groups :—

TABLE 47—POPULATION OF JAFFNA DISTRICT, 1946, BY A G E GROUPS

Age Groups Total Males Females

A L L AGES ... 424,788 ... 212,194 ... 212,594
0-4 44,873 ... 22,634 22,239
5-9 47,733 ... 24,051 23,682
10-14 50,274 ... 25,015 25,259
15-19 43,446 ... 21,936 21,510
20-24 36,636 ... 17,215 19,421

107
 Age Groups Total Males Females
25-29 32,456 ... 15,659 ... 16,797
30-34 28,184 ... 14,150 ... 14,034
35-39 29,566 ... 15,008 ... 14,558
40-44 23,085 ... 11,714 ... 11,371
45-49 22,429 ... 1 1,396 ... 11,033
50-54 17,022 ... 8,389 ... 8,633
55-59 13,760 ... 7,031 ... 6,729
60-64 13,159 ... 6,549 ... 6,610
65 and over 22,165 ... 11,447 ... 10,718
No material alteration in the age composition of the population f r o m that reported in 1921 is
noticeable, although the group aged fifty years and above has increased somewhat. The females i n
the reproductive years 15-49 are seen in the above Table to outnumber the males in the same age
group,—a fact which may be explained by the emigration of males of the working ages, especially
those aged between 20 and 29 years, in search of employment.

The urban population of the District was concentrated in Jaff"na Town which, in fact, contained
14-7 percent, of the entire population of the district. Historically, JaS"na seems to have enjoyed its
highest prestige f r o m about the 13th century A . D . when its Kings had thrown aside whatever fealty
they had owed to the Sinhalese sovereign, and not only maintained their independence of him but
even exacted tribute f r o m Sinhalese territory. It was once again reconquered in the second half
of the fifteenth century by Sapumalkumaraya, son of Parakrama Bahu V I . Traditionally, it was
founded by a blind minstrel Yalpana Nayanar, otherwise called Virarayaven, who had so pleased the
Sinhalese K i n g of the day by his music that the latter donated the land to him. The minstrel, however,
invited a Prince of the Chola country and installed him as K i n g under the title of Singariya Chakra-
varti. It was in 1624 A . D . that the Portuguese first commenced the building of the Jaffna Fort which
was surrendered to the Dutch in 1658 A . D . The British captured it in 1795 A . D . Jaffna, with its
high fences and palmyrah gates behind which the dwelling houses of the people generally lie, had a
population of 62,543 persons at the census of 1946. The population within the Urban Council
limits in 1931 was 45,708, an increase of 16,835 persons or 36-8 per cent, increase in fifteen years.
The sex distribution showed a majority of males over females,—33,483 men to 29,060 women. The
population was composed mainly of Ceylon-born Tamils who numbered 52,771, or 84 4 per cent,
against 87 • 2 per cent, in 1921. Ceylon Moors numbered 4,553, or 7 • 3 per cent, which was only slightly
less than their proportion in 1921. But the Low-Country Sinhalese who had represented only 1-3
per cent, of the population, had increased their percentage to 2 • 4, counting 1,504 of their race in Jaffna
Town, while Indian Tamils too numbered 2,096, representing 3 • 4 per cent, against 1 • 8 per cent, in
1921. Apart f r o m the Hindus who numbered 38,134, the Christians claimed a very large section of the
population. There were 17,737 adherents of the Christian religion of whom no fewer than 15,698
were Roman Catholics. 1,047 belonged to the Anglican Communion, and 481 were Methodists.
Except the small Urban Council area of Wattegama which had 85 • 2 per cent, of its popuktion literate,
Jaffna Town showed the highest percentage of literates of any urban area in the Island. There were
46,212 persons able to read and write at least one language, a percentage of 82-2 of the population,
aged five years and over. The percentage of males was 86 • 8, and the percentage of literate women
was as high as 76 • 8,—the highest percentage reached in any town in, the Island.

Mannar District
Mannar District, w i t h an area of 964 5/24 square miles, forms the South-Western part of the
Northern Province, and includes within it Mannar Island, and the mainland divisions of Mantai and

108
iViusaii. Its population, as enumerated at the census of 1946, was only 31,538,—the lowest population
recorded for any District in the Island, except Vavuniya. The growth of its population as recorded
at the several censuses from 1871 is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 4 8 — P O P U L A T I O N OF M A N N A R DISTRICT, 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6 , SHOWING NUMERICAL

INCREASE, A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Intercensal Per Cent,

Year Population Increase or Increase o
Decrease Decrease
1871 20,258 ... — —
1881 21,348 ... + 1,090 ... + 5-4
1891 24,511 ... +3,163 ... + 14-8
1901 24,926 .. + 415 ... + 1-7
1911 25,603 .. + 677 ... + 2-7
1921 25,582 .. — 21 ... — -08
1931 25,137 .. — 445 ... — 1-7
1946 31,538 .. +6,401 ... +25-5

The Table shows that in 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 4 6 not only has the decline in the population which was a
marked feature in the 20-year period 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 3 1 been arrested but a very high rate of increase has been
registered. That this has been due to a flow of immigrants into the districts is clear f r o m the fact
that the natural increase could account f o r only 6 8 5 persons, the births and deaths statistics showing
14,130 bu-ths in the District during the period and 13,445 deaths. I t may, however, be noted that,
for the first time in this century, an intercensal period has recorded a mean death-rate below the
mean birth-rate. This is observed in the following Table :—
TABLE 4 9 — C R U D E B I R T H A N D D E A T H RATES (MEAN) FOR INTERCENSAL PERIODS
FROM 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 4 6 , M A N N A R DISTRICT

Mean Mean
Birth-Rate Death-Rate
1901-1911 ... ... ... 38-6 ... 44-5
1911-1921 ... ... ... 35-4 ... 46-9
1921-1931 ... ... ... 35-5 ... 43-1
1931-1946 ... ... ... 37-3 ... 35-6

The population of the District was predominantly rural in character, not one town possessing
urban council status. The distribution of the population among the three administrative divisons
of Mantai, Mannar Island, and Musali was as follows :—

TABLE 50—POPULATION OF M A N N A R DISTRICT BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D . R . O ' S

DIVISIONS, 1946 A N D 1 9 3 1 , SHOWING NUMERICAL A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Persons
A Numerical Per Cent.
1946 1931 Increase Increase
Mantai 5,502 4,448* 54 1-2
Mannar Island 16,414 12,202t 4,212 34-5
Musali 9,622 8,487 1,135 13-4

•Exclusive of the population of Village Headmen's Divisions Nos. 187, 187A, and 188 which was included
in the Mannar Island Division at the census of 1946.
•f Inclusive of Village Headmen's Divisions 187, I 87a, and 188.

109
 The distribution of the population of the District by sex showed 18,787 males and 12,751
females, or 147 males to 100 females. This was to be expected in a district where the population
growth was affected more by immigration than by natural increase.

Ceylon-born Tamils formed a bare majority of the population numbering 16,076 (or 51-0
per cent.). Ceylon Moors were the next largest race-group, counting 9,504 persons (or 30-1 per cent,
of the population). Indian Tamils numbered 3,547. The racial composition in the population of the
District in 1946 and 1921 respectively appears in the following Table :—

T A B L E 51—POPULATION OF THE M A N N A R DISTRICT, BY RACE, 1946 A N D 1921

Numerical Per Cent.

Race Persons Increase or Increase or
Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
A L L RACES 31,538 ... 25,582 ... + 5,956 .. . + 23-3
Low-Country Sinhalese 963 ... 485 ... + 478 .. 98-6
Kandyan Sinhalese 223 ... 53 ... + 170 .. . + 320-8
Ceylon Tamils 16,076 ... 14,851 ... + 1,225 .. . + 8-2
Indian Tamils 3,547 ... 2,098 ... + 1,449 .. . + 69-1
Ceylon Moors 9,504 ... 7,760 ... + 1,744 .. . + 22-5
Indian Moors 906 ... 242 ... + 664 .. . + 274-4
Burghers and Eurasians ... 41 ... 67 ... — 26 .. — 38-8
Malays 14 ... 3 ... + 11 .. + 366-7
Veddahs 1 ... — + 1 ..
Europeans 12 ... 4 ... + 8 .. + 200 0
Others 251 ... 19 ... + 233 .. + 1,226-3

The Table shows that Ceylon-born Tamils in the District are growing very slowly. The i m m i -
grants into the district appear to be composed of the miscellaneous category of " Others ", of Indian
Moors, Kandyan and Low-Country Sinhalese, and Indian Tamils. The only race-group showing a
decrease is the Burghers.

Mannar was one of two Districts in the Island which showed a majority of Christians over the
adherents of any other religion. The Mannar district is historically associated w i t h St. Francis
Xavier, the " Apostle of the Indies ", who sent out a missionary about 1543 A . D . to Mannar, when
many Hindus were converted to Christianity, notwithstanding persecution by the then K i n g of
Jaffna. It is also noted for the famous shrine of Our Lady of Madhu, which now attracts a large
concourse of pilgrims every year about the 2nd of July. The first little church was built by the
Portuguese wife of a Customs officer in the service of Raja Sinha I I , whose piety earned for her the
name of St. Helena, or Santalena, as she is commonly known to posterity. The number of Christians
enumerated in Mannar District was 13,709, of whom 13,477 were Roman Catholics. Muslims came
next with 10,563 adherents while Hindus numbered 6,446.
110
 The distribution of the population by age groups showed a decease over 1921 in the propof-
tion of children aged 0 - 1 4 years ; an almost stationary proportion in the working age group 1 5 - 4 9 ;
and a larger proportion among persons aged 50 and above. The figures for these age groups f o r
1 9 2 1 and 1946 are given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 52—POPULATION OF M A N N A R DISTRICT, BY A G E GROUPS, 1946 A N D 1921

Total Persons Males Females

X
r \ f
1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921

A L L AGES ... 31,538 .. . 25,582 .. . 18,787 ... 14,844 ... 12,751 .. . 10,738
0-14 9,441 .. 8,356 .. 4,854 ... 4,334 4,587 .. . 4,022
15-49 ... 18,492 .. 15,006 .. . 11,782 ... 9,195 6,710 .. . 5,811
50 and above 3,605 .. 2,220 .. 2,151 ... 1,315 1,454 .. 905

There was an improvement shown in the literacy figures f o r 1 9 4 6 over those for 1 9 2 1 . The
percentage of persons able to read and write in the Mannar District (excluding children aged 0 - 4 )
was only 41 5 in 1 9 2 1 . This has been stepped up to 6 4 - 8 per cent, in 1946,—males showing 7 6 - 6
per cent. ' literate ' of the population aged five years and over, and females 46 • 8 per cent, against
the corresponding figures of 5 7 - 2 per cent, (males) and 18 -9 per cent, (females).

Vavuniya District
Vavuniya District was known at the census of 1 9 3 1 and previous censuses as MuUaitivu
District, and the headquarters of the Assistant Government Agent were then at Mullaitivu. The
transfer to Vavuniya was effected in the last intercensal period. It forms the South-Eastern part of
the Northern Province, and covers an area o f 1,466^ square miles. Along the coast lies a strip o f fiat,
sandy country, very similar to the Jaffna peninsula. The interior, or vanni, is a tract of forest with no
hills of any height, but with tanks or artificial reservoirs scattered here and there around which cluster
villages. There are remains of scores of tanks and channels constructed under the ancient Sinhalese,
which point to prosperity and population greater than is to be found in the District today. W i t h the
decline of the authority of Sinhalese Kings, semi-independent chieftains, the Vanniahs, appear to have
exercised power in the region, although making a tribute of elephants to the Sinhalese Kings. They
were a source of trouble to the European Powers, particularly to the Dutch, and in 1803 one of them,
Panadara Vanniah seems to have made a determined effort to expel the British, capturing Mullaitivu,
but finally being overthrown at Kachchilamadu.

The population of the District numbered only 2 3 , 2 4 6 at the census of 1946, but this was an
excess of 4,934 persons over the population enumerated i n 1 9 3 1 , which was 18,312. The relatively
large increase (26-9 per cent.) in the last intercensal period is to be accounted f o r almost exclusively
by an excess o f immigrants into the district, for the natural increase i n 1 9 3 1 - 1 9 4 6 showed an excess
of only 4 8 7 births over the deaths recorded during this period,—the figures being 11,127 births, and
1 0 , 6 4 0 deaths. Indeed, the period is the first intercensal period in this century to show an increase
o f births over deaths, f o r 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 1 1 showed the number o f deaths exceeding births by 4 1 5 ; 1 9 1 1 -
1921 showed deaths exceeding births by 5 2 6 ; and 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 3 1 showed an increase of 149 deaths over
births. The mean death-rate stiU remains very high, being 3 9 - 3 per 1,000 persons f o r 1931-1946,
against 4 0 0 per 1,000 for 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 3 1 .

Ill
 The District had four Chief Headmen's or D . R . O . ' s Divisions—Vavuniya South Tamil, Vavu-
niya South Sinhalese, Vavuniya North, and Maritime Pattus. The population of these Divisions in
1946 and 1931, is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 53—POPULATION OF V A V U N I Y A DISTRICT, BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D. R. O'S

DIVISIONS, 1946 A N D 1931 SHOWING N U M E R I C A L INCREASE A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Persons Numerical Per Cent.

-«• .—, Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Vavuniya South Tamil ... 8,263 ... 5,551 ... 2,712 ... 48 8
Vavuniya South Sinhalese ... 2,935 ... 2,261 ... 674 ... 29-8
Vavuniya North ... 2,930 ... 2,850 ... 80 ... 2-8
Maritime Pattus ... 9,118 ... 7,650 ... 1,468 ... 19-2

It may be noted that in 1921-1931, Vavuniya N o r t h and Vavuniya South showed a decrease
of population, while in 1931-1946 Vavuniya South shows the highest percentage increase, due partly
to the transfer of the seat of administration. The Maritime Pattus too showed a better percentage
increase in the 15-year period 1931-1946 than was to be expected, having regard to the increase of
only 3-4 per cent, registered in the decennial period 1921-1931.

Of the racial groups in the District, Ceylon Tamils are the most numerous, 16,104 being enu-
merated in 1946 against 14,394 in 1921. Their proportion to the total population of the District has,
however, fallen f r o m 77-0 per cent, in 1921 to 69*3 per cent, in 1946. Kandyan Sinhalese who were
only 9-8 per cent, of the population in 1921, have increased to 12-5 per cent.—2,909 persons of this
race-group being enumerated in 1946, against 1837 in 1921. Ceylon Moors numbered 2,028 in 1946
and constituted 8 • 7 per cent, of the total population, as against 7 • 1 per cent, in 1921. The other races
enumerated in the District were :—Indian Tamils 967 ; Low-Country Sinhalese 961 ; Indian Moors
125 ; Burghers and Eurasians 76 ; Malays 2 ; and " Others " 74.

Hinduism was the religion professed by 14,182 persons in the District. Buddhists numbered
3,507 ; Christians 3,378 (of whom 3,252 were Roman Catholics)—mainly Tamils in the Maritime
Pattus and Vavui^iya South ; Muslims 2,165 and " Others " 14.
There were 14,334 persons in the District who were able to read and write at least one language,—
9,712 males and 4,622 females. The percentage in relation to the population, five years of age and over,
was— Total : 6 9 - 2 ; males 80-1 ; and females 53• 9, a very good return for a reputedly backward
district, and a remarkable improvement on the figures twenty-five years back, which were —Total :
41*8; males 60 0 ; and females 15 • 8 per cent. It is possible that the improvement has been influenced
to some extent by literate immigrants into the district, both males and females.

THE EASTERN PROVINCE

The Eastern Province is in size the second largest Province in the Island, covering an extent
of 3,840 1/10 square miles. It is bounded on the N o r t h by Parayan-aar and Kokilai lagoon, and extends
right down to the Kumbukkan Oya. The Verugal-aar, a branch of the Mahaweli, divides it into the
two districts of Batticaloa and Trincomalee. A population of 279,112 was enumerated in the Province
at the census of 1946, showing a density of 73 persons to the square mile, but if the inland water which
has a surface area of 127 square miles is excluded, the density for the land area alone would be slightly
raised to 75 persons to the square mile. The Province abounds in traditions of interest, going back to
episodes connected with the Ramayana. Ravana is believed to have inveigled Sita into the wilds near

112
K A D D U K K U L A M PATTU
mm rmm
/ Showing D. R. Os' Divisions A Chief Towns

pnoviNoe BOY.
DISTRICT BOY-

D. R. in DIVISION

ROADS

RAILWAYS

AMPALAKAM P A T T U /

I I

AR PATTU

MOUTH CENTRAL PftOVmCE

MAKHUNAi ryfV KOOTH

BIHTENNA PATTU / x r '

EROVIL-pDRAmVU 4 f
Uaha oy

F>«ddtnfppv

Bkmanturai

TKKARAI

PROVIMCE or UYA Thottama^

PANAMA PATTU

iOUTH£HN -

pnoviHci
T i r r u k o v i l , and Rama rescued his devoted wife there. It is also stated that Ravana attempted to
remove the Tirikkonesar K o v i l f r o m Trincomalee but was prevented by the gods. The temple of
Siva at Tamblegam is said to have been restored by a Cholan Prince in the fifth century of the Christian
era, and placed in charge of some Vanniyas imported f r o m South India. In more historic times,
Trincomalee and Batticaloa have played an important part under the Sinhalese Kings and under the •
European Powers who obtained control of the Maritime Provinces. The Southern portion of the
Province has always had the reputation of being one of the most successful rice-growing districts in the
Island. Coconut is the other major crop in the Province. There is also some tobacco cultivation.

Batticaloa District
Batticaloa District is the Southern of the two districts of the Province, and forms a considerable
part of the Eastern coastline of the Island. It consists of undulating plains and alluvial flats which are
watered by rivers f r o m the mountain zone of the Uva and Central Provinces, such as the Mundeni-aar
and the Paddipolai-aar. A vigorous irrigation policy in the district begun by Governor Ward and
continued by successive Governors has resulted in the restoration of some of the ancient irrigation
tanks with which the district was shedded. Amparai, Irakkaman, Sakaman, Chadayantalawa, Rugam,
and more recently Vakaneri and Unichchai are among the tanks that provide the necessary irrigation
for the cultivation of paddy. The projected Gal Oya Reservoir Scheme is also largely in this district.
There are several profnontories on the coast, the most famous of which is the Cape of Komari, tradi-
tionally associated w i t h the shipwreck of a princess. The coast line is indented with marshes and
lagoons,—several Kalappus or cobbs being formed by river waters being shut in by raised fringes of the
coast. Batticaloa itself derives its name f r o m ' Mada Kalappuwa ',—or the muddy swamp.
The area of Batticaloa District is given as 2,792 I /lO square miles. Its population at the census
of 1946 was 203,186,—a crude density of 73 persons to the square mile. The population enumerated
in 1931 was 174,929,—an intercensal increase of 28,257 or 16-2 per cent in fifteen years. The
' balancing equation ' for the district shows that the intercensal increase is short by 3,249 of the natural
increase, and suggests a loss of population by emigration out of the district :—
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration
Difference
1931-1946 ... 203,186 - 174,929 = 117,196 - 85,690 — 3,249
The growth of the population of the district f r o m 1901 is given in the following Table :—
T A B L E 54—POPULATION OF BATTICALOA DISTRICT, 1901-1946, SHOWING N U M E R I C A L
INCREASE A N D PER CENT. INCREASE

Population Numerical Per Cent.

Year
Increase Increase
145,161 — —
1901
153,943 8,782 60
1911
158.709 4,766 31
1921
174,929 16,220 10-2
1931
203,186 28,257 16-2
1946
The rate of natural increase in intercensal periods f r o m 1901 was found, on a scrutiny of the
vital statistics for the District, to be :—1901-1911 : 10-1 per 1,000 ; 1911-1921 : 7-5 per 1,000 ;
1921-1931 : 10-5 per 1,000 ; 1931-1946 : 16 2 per 1,000. It may be observed that the mean birth-
rate f o r an intercensal period has never fallen below 42 - 2 per 1,000 in this century, though the mean
death-rate for the period 1931-1946 fell to 30 6 f r o m 34 0 in 1921-1931.
113
 The District had a pronouncedly mixed population, which consisted in 1946 of 101,061 Ceylon
Tamils, 85,375 Ceylon Moors, 9,062 Kandyan Sinhalese, 2,788 Low-Country Sinhalese, 1,866 Veddahs,
1,203 Indian Tamils, 1,160 Burghers, 430 Indian Moors, 70 Malays, 62 Europeans, and 109
" Others " . Ceylon Tamils, i t will be noted, are i n a minority i n the District, although the most nu-
merous,—representing only 49 7 per cent, of the population. In 1921 they amounted to 52-8 per cent,
of the total population, and in 1911 they formed 54-2 per cent. The proportion of Ceylon Moors to
the total population has increased—the percentage being 42 0 against 39-6 in 1921. The Kandyan
Sinhalese have raised their population f r o m 3-7per cent, in 1921 to 4-5 per cent, while Indian Moors,
Indian Tamils, and Low-Country Sinhalese have also increased their proportionate strength. It may
be remarked that practically all the Veddahs in the Island (barring a few hundreds in BaduUa and
Anuradhapura Districts) were enumerated in Batticaloa District, mostly in Koralai Pattu.

The population was distributed in the several Chief Headmen's or D.R.O.'s Divisions as
follows in 1946 and 1931 :—

T A B L E 55—POPULATION OF BATTICALOA DISTRICT, 1946 A N D 1931, BY

CHIEF HEADMAN'S OR D.R.O's DIVISIONS

Persons Numerical Per Cent.

Division , * Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Panama Pattu 6,421 ... 4,888 . 1,533 . 31-4
Akkaraipattu 21,852 ... 18,919 . 2,933 . 15-5
Nintavur and Karavaku Pattus ... 47,785 ... 40,345 . 7,440 . 18-4
Sammanturai Pattu 13,936 ... 11,164 . 2,772 . 24-8
Eruvil Porativu and Manmunai
Pattu South ... 24,382 ... 22,273 . 2,109 . 9-5
Bintenna Pattu ... 5,894 ... 3,637 . 2,257 . 62-1
Manmunai Pattu North"* 40,442 ... 37,261 . 3,181 . 8-5
Eravur Koralai Pattus 40,080 ... 34,429 5,651 . 16-4
Wewgam Pattu ... 2,394 ... 2,013 381 . 18-9
* Includes Batticaloa U. C. in 1946, and Batticaloa L. B. in 1931.

The high percentage increase of population in Bintenne Pattu is in marked contrast to the
decrease recorded in this division in 1921-1931. The increase in Panama Pattu and Sammanturai is
also noteworthy. The most congested rural division was the Nintavur and Karavaku Pattus.
The classification of the population by religion showed the following results :—Hindus
95,357 ; Muslims 85,958 ; Buddhists 11,132 ; Christians 10,696 ; Freethinkers 6 ; " O t h e r s " 37.
Hindus were most numerous in Manmunai Pattu South and Eravur and Koralai Pattus ; Muslims
in Nintavur and Karavaku Pattus ; Buddhists in Binteime and Wewgam Pattus ; and Christians in
the town of Batticaloa. Of the Christians, 7,627 were Roman Catholics and 2,313 were Methodists.
Next to Colombo, Batticaloa District had the largest number of Methodists in the Island.

76,010 persons were found by the census to be able to read and write in the District. This
constituted only 43 -1 per cent, of the population aged five years and above. This is an improvement
on the percentage recorded as ' Uterate ' i n 1921, which was 25-2 per cent, of the population (excluding
children aged 0-4 years). Male literates were 62-5 per cent, of the male population of five years and
over, and female literates only 23 • 7 per cent. The corresponding figures for 1921 were—Males
per cent. ; Females 7 -1 per cent. It is clear that female education has not progressed fast enough in
the last twenty-five years. The district was the worst in respect of female literacy,—excepting Nuwara
EUya and BaduUa districts.
114
 The age composition of the population of the District in 1946 seems to have altered somewhat
f r o m that of 1921. The following Table shows that children have decreased in proportion while adults
of working age and older people have increased. The following Table gives the age groups :—

T A B L E 56—POPULATION OF BATTICALOA DISTRICT, BY A G E GROUPS, 1946 A N D 1921

1946 1921
A
f A
r
Total Per Cent, of Total Total Per Cent, of Total
Population Population
A L L AGES 203,186 100 158,709 100
0-14 80,323 39-5 68,388 431
15-49 104,501 51-4 78,915 49-7
50 and above 18,362 90 11,406 7-2

Viewed in relation to the loss of population by emigration out of the District, this fact seems to
suggest that more and more persons are being brought to the more healthy ages by the continuously
high birth-rate prevalent in the past.
There was only one town of urban council status in the District, and that was Batticaloa, which
returned a population of 6,784 males and 6,253 females, a total population of 13,037 persons. In
1931 the population of the town was 11,585. There was thus an intercensal increase of 1,452 persons
in 1931-1946, or a percentage increase of 12-5. Unlike in the district, the town population was
predominantly Ceylon Tamil,—numbering 10,137 persons or 77*8 per cent. Other races in the town
were all below 1,000 in numerical strength,—Ceylon Moors numbering 857, Burghers and Eurasians
815, Low-Country Sinhalese 676, Indian Tamils 234, Kandyan Sinhalese 121, and the balance consisting
of Indian Moors, Malays, Europeans and " Others ".

Trincomalee District
Trincomalee District, which forms the Northern part of the Eastern Province, is separated
f r o m the Northern Province by the Parayan-aar and Kokkilai lake, f r o m the North-Central Province
to some extent by the Yan-oya, and f r o m Batticaloa District by the Verugal-aar. Its area has been
computed to be 1,048 square miles. The country is flat towards the north, hilly towards the middle,
and low and subject to floods f r o m the Mahaweli towards the South. It is traversed by several rivers
and streams, of which the principal ones are the Verugal-aar, the MahaweU, the Uppar, the Selappai-
aar, the Yan-oya, and the Parayan-aar. The harbour of Trincomalee is one of the finest natural
harbours in the world, is deep and accessible to every description of craft in both monsoons. At
Kanniyai, to the South-West of Trincomalee, are hot springs said to contain a natural water of extra-
ordinary purity. Paddy cultivation is carried on extensively in the district, and the Census of A g r i -
culture showed 7,618 acres cultivated for maha, 1945-46. Coconuts and tobacco were the other major
crops o f the district.
The population of the district at the census of 1946 was found to be 75,926,—a density of
72 persons to the square mile. The growth of the population of the District f r o m 1871 is as follows :—
TABLE 57—POPULA-HON OF TRINCOMALEE DISTRICT, 1871-1946 SHOWING
NUMERICAL INCREASE A N D PER CENT, INCREASE
Year Population Numerical Increase Per Cent. Increase
1871 ... ... 19,449 ... — ... —
1881 ... ... 22,197 ... 2,748 ... 14 1
1891 ... ... 25,745 ... 3,548 ... 16 0
115
 Numerical Per Cent.
Year Population
Increase Increase
1901 28,441 2,696 10-5
1911 29,755 1,314 4-6
1921 34,112 4,357 14-6
1931 37,492 3,380 9-9
1946 75,926 38,434 102-5
The phenomenal growth of the population observed in the intercensal period 1931-1946 is due
almost exclusively to a very large flow of immigrants into the District during the war years although the
opening of the Railway in 1933 may also to some extent have contributed to this growth. The
numbers of births registered in the District during the period 1931-1946 was 25,825 and the number
of deaths 20,031. The excess of births over deaths is thus seen to be only 5,794. As the numerical
increase in the population in the period was 38,434, there has been a gain of population by immigration
of 32,640 persons. That this inflow has been mainly to TrincomaleeTown is evident from the fact that
its population, which was only 10,160 in 1931, rose to 32,507 in 1946,—an intercensal increase of 220'0
per cent, in the 15-year period. It is interesting to note, as indicative of the close association of the
population of the District with that of the town of Trincomalee, that in the decade 1901-1911,
which registered the lowest rate of increase in the population in any decennial intercensal period, the
removal of the Naval Dockyard and the abandonment of Trincomalee Town as a naval station which
took place in that decade resulted in the population of the town faUing off by no less than 2r8per cent.
Indeed, the urban population of the District which was concentrated in the town of Trincomalee,—
there being no other town of urban council status in the District—comprised 42-8 percent, of the total
population.

For administrative purposes, the District had been divided into four Chief Headmen's or
D.R.O.'s divisions at the time of the census—Koddiyar Pattu, Tampalakam Pattu, Kaddukulam
Pattu, and Trincomalee Town Division. The population of these Divisions in 1946 and 1931 is
shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 58—POPULATION OF TRINCOMALEE^ DISTRICT, BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR

D. R. O's DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931

Persons Numerical Per Cent.

Division Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Koddiyar Pattu 13.637 10,855 2,782 25-6
Tampalakam Pattu 16,374 10,931 5,443 49-8
Kaddukulam Pattu 6,312 4,302 2,010 46-7
Trincomalee Town Division* 39,603 11,404 28,199 247-3
* Includes Trincomalee Urban Council in 1946 and Trincomaloe Local Board in 1931.

It will be observed that, apart from the Town Division, the highest numerical and percentage
increase has been registered in Tampalakam Pattu which follows the trend in 1921-1931. The rapid
rate of growth in the population of Kaddukulam Pattu is noteworthy.
The sex distribution of the District population showed that males were more than twice as
many as females,—there being 50,639 men to 25,287 women. In'Trincomalee town, they were more
than three times as many, the distribution of the town population by sex showing 24,442 men to only
8,065 women.
116
 Ceylon Tamils and Ceylon Moors formed the bulk of the population of Trincomalee District,
ftumbering 30,433 and 22,136 persons respectively. Low-Country Sinhalese came next with 11,191
persons. Kandyan Sinhalese numbered 4,515 and Indian Tamils 3,362. Compared with 1921, the
position in respect of race-groups in the district shows that Ceylon Tamils, though still the most
numerous, had lost their predominance in the District, amounting to only 40-1 per cent, as against
53 • 2 per cent, at the 1921 census. The same was true of Ceylon Moors as well, for from forming 37 • 1
per cent, of the district population in 1921 they had dwindled to 29-2 per cent. On the other hand,
the Low-Country Sinhalese who comprised only 2 • 3 per cent, in 1921, had now increased their propor-
tion to as much as 14-7percent. Kandyan Sinhalese were 6 • 0 per cent, against 2 • 1 percent.in 1921,
Indian Tamils 4 4 per cent, against 1 - 3 per cent. Of the others, the Burgher and Eurasian population
in the District had increased from 310 persons in 1921 to 1,174 persons, and Indian Moors from 184 per-
sons in 1921 to 1,083 in 1946. A very large number of Malays too had migrated into the District,
numbering483 in 1946 against only 35 in 1921. Europeans too showed an increase in numbers,—from
43 in 1921 to 70 in 1946. But the largest relative increase was in the miscellaneous category of ' other
races ',—1,479 of whom found their home in 1946 in the District against only 64 such persons in 1921.
The racial distribution in Trincomalee Town showed a different distribution. Ceylon Tamils
were indeed the most numerous and counted 44- 3 per cent, of the total population, but the next largest
race-group in the town was not Ceylon Moors, as in the District as a whole, but Low-Country Sinha-
lese, who composed 23 • 7 per cent, of the town's population, numbering 7,710 persons. Next in order,
came Indian Tamils (8*6 per cent.), Ceyloti Moors (6-7 per cent.), Kandyan Sinhalese (6 0 per cent.).
Burghers and Eurasians (2-8 per cent.), Indian Moors (2-7 per cent.), Malays (I per cent.), and
'Others'(4 0 percent.)
That the population of Trincomalee District in 1946 was mainly composed of immigrants who
had obtained employment under the conditions then obtaining is borne out further by the very
material change in the age composition of the population, from that shown at the census of 1921.
The following Table illustrates this :—
TABLE 59—POPULATION OF TRINCOMALEE DISTRICT BY AGE GROUPS 1946 AND 1921
1946 1921
.....A .. . , .

Persons Percent, of Total Persons Per Cent, of Total

Population Population
ALL AGES 75,926 100 34,112 100
0-14 20,851 27-4 12,887 37-8
15-49 49,776 65-6 18,172 53-3
50 and above 5,299 7-0 3,053 8-9
It will be observed that the working population of adults shows a very large proportion,
while children and old people have declined.
To this large influx into the District of the working age-groups may also be assigned the very
great increase in hteracy shown among males in the District, 76-0 per cent, of whom (excluding
children aged 0-4 years) were returned as able to read and write in 1946. The 1921 percentage for
males was only 54 • 8. Female literacy which was reckoned at 17 • 7 per cent, had increased to 34-7 per
cent.,—an improvement less pronounced than in the case of the males. In Trincomalee Town, the
percentage of literacy among males was as high as 85 • 2 per cent., and among females 61-0 per cent.
The distribution of population among religious groups in Trincomalee District was as follows :—
29,379 Hindus, 23,800 Muslims, 1-3,669 Buddhists, 9,056 Christians, and 22 ' Others' (including 6
Freethinkers-and 1 Agnostic). In the Town there were more Hindus and Christians than there were
Muslims. Roman Catholicism claimed the most adherents among the Christian denominations
both in the District and the Town.
117
 THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCE
The North-Western Province was first constituted in 1845 with its capital at Puttalam, and
consisted of Puttalam and Chilaw Districts, and the Seven Korales. In 1856 the capital of the Province
was shifted to Kurunegala. In 1873 the Demala Hatpattuwa division was transferred to the newly
created North-Central Province, but was reattached to the North-Western Province in 1875. The
Chilaw District was made a separate Assistant Agency in 1889 but was again amalgamated with the
Puttalam District from 1909. The composition of the Province has remained unaltered since that
year, and it now consists of the Kurunegala District, and the amalgamated Districts of Puttalam
and Chilaw.
The area of the Province is 3,016 square miles and it extends from the boundaries of the
Central and North-Central Provinces to the sea. Its population at the Census of 1946 was ascertained
to be 667,889 persons, 359,207 males and 308,682 females,—showing a density of 221 persons to the
square mile. Its population at the census of 1931 was 546,966. It had thus increased its population
in fifteen years by 120,923—a gain of 22- 1 per cent, in the intercensal period.

Kurunegala District
Kurunegala District is the larger of the two Districts into which the Province is divided, having
an area of 1,843 3/4 square miles. It corresponds roughly to the area which formed the Dissavany
of the Seven Korales under the Sinhalese Kings, and its population, which numbered 485,042 in 1946
is largely composed of Kandyan Sinhalese who, in fact, formed 75 per cent, of it. The variation of
the population of the District from 1881 is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 60—POPULATION OF KURUNEGALA DISTRICT, 1881-1946, SHOWING NUMERICAL

INCREASE, AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Year Population Numerical Per Cent.

Increase Increase
1881 215,173 —
1891 230,187 15,014 7-0
1901 249,429 19,242 8-4
1911 306,807 57,378 23-0
1921 354,197 47,390 15-4
1931 397,239 43,042 12-2
1946 485,042 87,803 22-1

It will be observed that there has been a rapid growth in the population of the district since 1901.
This must be attributed to the development of the district since the opening of the railway in 1894,
and the planting up of extensive acreages of land in coconuts and rubber. In fact, the trend has
been to attract immigrants into the district since the beginning of the century,—a fact which is confirm-
ed by the ' balancing equations ' for the several intercensal periods, as is seen in the following Table :—
TABLE 61—BALANCING EQUATIONS IN RESPECT OF THE POPULATION OF KURUNEGALA
DISTRICT, 1901-1946
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration
Difference
1901--1911 306,807 — 249,429 = 118,374 — 94,275 + 33,279
1911--1921 ... 354,197 — 306,807 = 125,555 — 120,895 +42,730
1921--1931 397,239 — 354,197 = 156,443 — 117,386 + 3,985
1931--1946 485,042 — 397,239 = 253,881 — 189,800 +23,722

118
 NOBTHUH PDOVmCl

NOimi WESTEBII PBOVmGE

Showing O. R. Os' Divisions & Chief Towns

REFERCNCE

PROVINCE BOY.
DISTRICT BOY
D.R.<yS DIVISION
ROADS
RAILWAYS

Kalpiliy

L P t T I V * DIVISKIN

mniH CCMTRAL PnVIHCC

'••v" Tabbowa

PuHalam OEMALA HATPATTUWA

PUTTALAM PATTU A

WANNI HATPATTUWA

SRAV T8 DIVISION

HIRIVALA HATPATTUWA

P I T f f l A L KCRALE

CWLAW 0 Hinpitiya

OEWAM^DI HATPATTUWA

Chilaw NORTH

1 BMadampe
KATUOAMPOUk H j A - P A T f U W A
.Ktfliyaptliya = '<"r"'«K;J5Ww6lJOAWIL. HATPATTUWA

Natlandiya \
H T t O A L KORALE t
* I M a u O E N I HATBlTTUWA

wareitii pmrma
MUM ^ tSMT OU, CVO J>a"9«>
 The decrease in the migration difference in 1921-1931 was doubtless due to the economic
depression in the last years of that decade from which the district seems to have recovered almost
completely in the last intercensal period.
The crop under the largest acreage in the District was coconut, which was found to be cultivated
on 300,351 acres, exclusive of town and village gardens. Paddy was grown for the maha season,
1945-46, in 106,767 acres in the district, while rubber plantations occupied 17,484 acres. Plumbago
mining is carried on extensively, especially in Hiriyala Hatpattuwa.
The district was divided into six Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's divisions,—Hiriyala Hatpattuwa,
Weudawili Hatpattuwa, Dambadeni Hatpattuwa, Dewamedi Hatpattuwa, Katugampola Hatpattuwa,
and the Wanni Hatpattuwa. Of these, the most densely populated division was the Dambadeni Hat-
pattuwa, which contained 89,759 persons in an area of 164| sq. miles, and the least was the Wanni
Hatpattuwa with a population of 49,848 over an area of 575f sq. miles. The population of the
respective divisions in 1946, and at the previous census of 1931, is given in the following Table :—

TABLE 62—POPULATION OF KURUNEGALA DISTRICT BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR

D. R. O's DIVISIONS (INCLUSIVE OF URBAN COUNCIL AREAS) 1946 AND
1931, SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE, AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Population Numerical Per Cent.

Division A
Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Hiriyala Hatpattuwa 51,559 ... 40,856 10,703 26-2
Weudawili Hatpattuwa* ... 100,958 ... 81,876 , 19,082 23'3
Dambadeni Hatpattuwa 89,759 ... 75,561 . 14,198 18- 8
Dewamedi Hatpattuwa 58,741 ... 47,481 . 11,260 23-7
Katugampola Hatpattuwa 134,177 ... 109,664 , 24,513 22-4
Wanni Hatpattuwa 49,848 ... 41,801 , 8,047 19- 3
* Includes Urban Council Area of Kurunegala.

It is observed from the above Table that the highest percentage increase in the intercensal
period, 1931-1946, has occurred in Hiriyala Hatpattuwa, and the least in the populous Dambadeni
Hatpattuwa. In the previous intercensal period, 1921-1931, the greatest percentage increase took
place in Katugampola Hatpattuwa, and the smallest in the Wanni Hatpattuwa, while in 1911-1921,
Dambadeni Hatpattuwa showed the highest percentage increase, and Hiriyala Hatpattuwa the
lowest. The following Table gives the position of the various Divisions in respect of the percentage
increase of population in the last three intercensal periods :—

TABLE 63—PER CENT. INCREASE OF POPULATION OF CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D. R. O's

DIVISIONS, KURUNEGALA DISTRICT, 1911-1921, 1921-1931, AND 1931-1946
Per Cent. Increase
Division , ••
1911-1921 1921-1931 1931-1946
Dambadeni Hatpattuwa 25-9 9-0 18- 8
Katugampola Hatpattuwa 21'•0 22- 22- 4
WeudawiU Hatpattuwa* 19-•9 3- 23- 3
Dewamedi Hatpattuwa 8-•9 19- 23-7
Wanni Hatpattuwa I-•6 1- 19- 3
Hiriyala Hatpattuwa 0-•6 16- 26-2
* Includes Urban Council Area of Kurunegala.

119
 The Table indicates that in the thirty-five years preceding the last census, Katugampola Hat-
pattuwa has maintained a slight increase throughout, while Dewamedi and Hiriyala Hatpattus show a
remarkable growth of population. A similar remarkable increase is noticeable within the last fifteen
years in the jWanni Hatpattuwa, while Dambadeni and Weudawili showed a decline in 1921-1931
which has been arrested in the intercensal period of 1931-1946.

The District had two Urban Council Areas at the census of 1946—Kurunegala and Kuliya-
pitiya. The former, which, it may be noted, had been the seat of government of the Sinhalese Kings
in the 4th century A.D., and had been known as Hastisailapura in ancient times, contained at the census
of 1946 a population of 13,372 persons, which was an increase of 2,905, or 27 8 percent, over the
population enumerated within the Urban Council Area at the census of 1931. Kuliyapitiya, which
had been a Sanitary Board Town in 1931, was raised to Urban Council status in January 1945.
Within its area were enumerated 2,173 persons at the census of 1946 against a population of 1,420
for the area covered by the Sanitary Board in 1931. The aggregate Urban population comprised
no more than about 3*2 percent, of the total population of the District. The estate population
numbered 16,947 which constituted about 3-6 per cent, of the total rural population.

The distribution of the population of the District by race in 1946 and 1921 is shown in the
following Table :— ,

TABLE 64—POPULATION OF KURUNEGALA DISTRICT, 1946 AND 1921 BY RACE

Race Population Numerical Per Cent.

Increase or Increase or
^ * Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
A L L RACES ... 485,042 ... 354,197 . .. +130,845 . . + 36-9
Low-Country Sinhalese ..; 83,428 ... 71,917 . .. + 11,511 . . + 160
Kandyan Sinhalese ... 363,840 ... 245,241 . .. -hll8,599 . . + 48-4
Ceylon Tamils ... 7,361 ... 3,117 . .. -h 4,244 . . +136-1
Indian Tamils 7,749 ... 16,605 . .. ^ — 8,856 . . — 53-3
Ceylon Moors, ... 18,668 ... 13,236 . .. + 5,432 . . + 41-0
Indian Moors 1,749 ... 2.449 . .. — 700 . . — 28-6
Burghers and Europeans 694 ... 496 . •• + 198 . . + 39-9
Malays 685 ... 644 . .. 41 . . + 6-4
Europeans 54 ... 125 . .. — 71 . . — 56-8
Veddahs 1 ... — •• + 1 . —
Others 813 ... 367 . •• + 446 . . +121-5

The very large numerical and percent, increase of Kandyan Sinhalese cannot be attributed
wholly to a natural increase, but suggests an influx of these from other Kandyan districts in the
Island during the period, 1921-1946, while the rate of increase of the Low-Country
Sinhalese which was as high as 53 5 per cent, in the 1911-1921 period had been considerably slowed
down in 1921-1946. Ceylon Tamils have more than doubled their numbers in twenty-five years,
while Ceylon Moors and Burghers in the District also show a high percentage increase. Indian
Tamils, Indian Moors, and Europeans have decreased in numerical strength, while the miscellaneous
category of " Other Races " in the District is now more than twice what it was in numbers twenty-five
years ago. Indian Tamils were most numerous in Weudawih Hatpattuwa which division contained
the largest number of rubber estates in the. district "
120
 Buddhism was the predominant religion in the district, claiming 430,407 adherents or 88*7
percent, of the population of the district. Christians a-nd Muslims were the next numerous,—being
22,304 and 21,159 respectively. Of the Christians Roman Catholics numbered 17,995, while the
district returned the largest number of Salvationists (701) in any district in the Island, Colombo not
excepted. Anglicans numbered 1,622 persons.
The percentage of literacy in the District was 57-5 of the population, five years and over.
In 1921 it was only 39 4 per cent. Female hteracy, which had been rated at 12-0 percent, only in
1921, had risen to 39-9 per cent, in 1946. In Kurunegala town, there were 56-7 percent, female
literates. Male literacy in the district was reckoned at 72-5 per cent, against 60 3 per cent, in 1921.
Kuliyapitiya with its smaller population showed a general literacy percentage of 76 0, against 71 - 3 in
Kv unegala, and 85-9 percent, male literates against 80-3 in Kurunegala. The percentage of female
literates, however, was only slightly better than in Kurunegala,-r-being 58 - 9 against 56 • 7 per cent, in
Kurunegala.
The age composition of the population of the District in 1946 and 1921 may be observed from
the following Table :—

TABLE 65—POPULATION OF KURUNEGALA DISTRICT, BY AGE GROUPS, 1946 AND 1921

1946 1921
r——• — s I >,
Males Females Males Females
A L L AGES ... 260,029 ... 225,013 ... 198,120 ... 156,077
0-14 ... 94,763 ... 90,941 ... 72,158 ... 65,443
15-49 ... 140,711 ... 116,262 ... 111,603 ... 81,407
50 and above ... 24,555 ... 17,810 ... 14,359 ... 9,227
It is apparent from the above Table that there were proportionately more children and aged
persons in the District in 1946 than in 1921,—the two groups together forming 47 per cent, in 1946
against 45 per cent, in 1921 of the total population. The higher proportion of females of the group
aged 15-49 to the males in that group in 1946 may also be noted. These circumstances may be
considered as indicating an improvement in health and general living conditions in the District.
The Puttalam and Chilaw Districts have formed one Assistant Agency since January 1, 1909,
with the headquarters at Puttalam. Originally part of the Western Province under the administra-
tion of the British, the two Districts were detached in January 1845 to form with the Seven Korales,
the newly constituted North-Western Province, with Puttalam as the capital. In 1856 the capital
of the North-Western Province was transferred from Puttalam to Kurunegala. The Chilaw District
was constituted an Assistant Agency from January 1, 1888, but was again amalgamated with the
Puttalam District from 1909.
The two Districts have been treated separately in previous Census Reports and are accordingly
dealt with similarly in this Report.

Puttalam District
Puttalam District has been reckoned to be in extent 909 7/8 square miles, the greater portion
of which is still covered with hardwood forest and is the haunt of elephants and other wild animals.
In fact, according to the Census of Agriculture, 1946, only 14-05 per cent, of the total land area had
ever carried any form of cultivation within recent memory. The land is generally flat, with rising
ground and undulations towards the East. The soil is sandy on the whole, and in the Western portion

121
of the district coconut is extensively cultivated,—45,173 acres (excluding town and village gardens)
being found by the census to be under this crop. As the average rainfall is scanty, the district is
counted as part of the Dry Zone of Ceylon. There are two major irrigation works,—Mahauswewa
and Tabbowa.
Traditionally, the District claims the honour of having been the landing place of Vijaya, and
the city of Tammana Nuwara has been identified by some authorities with ruins found in the district.^
The " Bettelar " described by Marco Polo^ as the place which pearl fishers used as a base for their
operations in the Gulf, and the " town of Battala " referred to by Ibn Batuta^ as " a pretty little
place surrounded by a timber wall and towers," are generally identified with Puttalam. Knox
called Puttalam " Portaloon " and has mentioned " Colpentine ", i.e., Kalpitiya, as a " strong
fortified place " in the time of Raja Sinha I I . In the Kalpitiya Division is the Pomparippu Pattu,—
*' the golden plains," which in spite of its traditional repute for richness of soil carries today only a
few thousand acres of coconut and a few hundred acres of paddy.
The population of the Puttalam District at the Census of 1946 was 43,083. The enumeration
of 1931 counted 35,087 persons,—an intercensal increase in the 15-year period of 7,996 persons, or a
22-8 per cent, increase. Looking back, one observes that only in the decade 1901-1911 had a census
recorded a higher increase of population in the District, but the population enumerated at the census
of 1911 included 6,467 pilgrims at St. Anne's Festival, which was then in progress, and, excluding these,
the percentage increase for that decade is reduced to 11-4. The variation of population in the
District from 1901 may be seen in the following Table :—

TABLE 66—POPULATION OF PUTTALAM DISTRICT FROM 1901, SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE

AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Numerical Per Cent,

Year Population Increase Increase
or Decrease or Decrease
1901 ... ... 29,779
1911* 33,198 ... +3,419 ... +11 5
1921 35,610 ... +2,412 ... + 7-3
1931 35,087 ... — 523 ... — 1-5
1946 43,083 ... +7,996 ... +22-8
* Excludas 6,467 pilgrims enumerated at St. Anne's.

The increase in the population in the decade 1901-1911 was ascribed by the Census Report of
1911 principally to immigration into the District from the South—settlers being attracted, it was said,
by the rich coconut land. It may be noted that in that decade as well as in the decades 1911-1921,
and 1921-1931 there had been a net natural decrease of population in the District,—registered deaths
always exceeding registered births in each decade. For the first time in an intercensal period, births
exceeded deaths in the district only in 1931-1946,-20,026 births and 19,221 deaths being registered,
showing an excess of births over deaths by 805. It should be remembered, however, that this slight
natural increase is the record of the entire period, some individual years within the period registering
more deaths than births. For instance, malaria took a heavy toll in 1935, when 520 more deaths
than live births were recorded, while the years 1937 and 1938, and 1944 and 1945 also showed an
excess of deaths over births.
> Cf. R. A. S. Journals (Ceylon Branch) Vol. V I I , p. 64 and Vol. V I I I . , p. 10.
» Marco Polo, Book U I , c. 16.
' Ibn Batuta, I V , 166.

122
 The population of the three Chief Headmen's or D . R . O ' s Divisions into which the District
was divided is shown in the following Table :—
TABLE 67—POPULATION OF PUTTALAM DISTRICT, BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D . R . O ' S
DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931, SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Population Numerical Per Cent.

Division , ^ Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Puttalam Pattu and Gravets... 21,476 18,675 2,801 15- 0
Kalpitiya 9,480 8,145 1,335 16- 4
Demala Hatpattuwa 12,127 8,267 3,860 46-7

The rapid increase of population in the Demala Hatpattuwa, reputed to be one of the most
backward and unhealthy divisions, is noteworthy. With an area of 430 square miles, its density in
1921 was only 17 persons per square mile ; in 1931 it showed a slight increase to 19 ; but in 1946 it
it had risen to 31. The Kandyan Sinhalese in the division have recently had a large number of
their cousins from the Low-Country settling down beside them. Tabbowa Colony and the Kottu
Kachchiya Scheme are in this Division.

The distribution of the population by race at the census of 1946, and at the next previous census
(1921) at which race particulars were obtained is shown in the following Table :—
TABLE 68—POPULATION OF PUTTALAM DISTRICT BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921, SHOWING
NUMERICAL INCREASE OR DECREASE, AND PER CENT. INCREASE OR DECREASE

Persons Numerical Per Cent.

> Increase Increase
Race r
1946 1921 or Decrease or Decrease
A L L RACES 43,083 ... 35,610 .. -f 7,473 . .. +21-0
Low-Country Sinhalese 12,262 ... 8,068 .. -f4,194 . .. +52-0
Kandyan Sinhalese 10,152 ... 6,994 .. 4-3,158 . .. - f 4 5 - l
Ceylon Tamils 5,514 ... 5,440 .. + 74 . .. + 1-4
Indian Tamils 917 ... 2,337 .. —1,420 . .. —60-8
Ceylon Moors 13,253 ... 11,537 .. -fl,716 . .. +14-9
Indian Moors 347 ... 615 .. — 268 . .. - 4 3 - 6
Burghers and Eurasians 99 ... 107 .. — 8 . .. — 7-5
Malays 276 ... 281 .. — 5 . .. — 1-8
Europeans 8 ... 8 .. 0 . 0
Others 255 ... 223 .. + 32 . .. +14-3

It is evident from the above Table that the predominant race in the District still continues to
be the Ceylon Moors, although the Low-Country Sinhalese who have increased their numbers rapidly
within the last twenty-five years run them very close. In fact, since 1921, the numerical strength of
the Ceylon Moors has declined from 32-4 percent, to 30-8 per cent, of the total population of the
district, while Low-Country Sinhalese now claim 28 5 percent, against only 22-7 per cent, in 1921,
and the Kandyan Sinhalese constitute 23-6 percent, against 19 6per cent, in 1921. The aggregate
Tamil population of the District has decreased considerably although Ceylon Tamils show a very
small increase. The Ceylon Moors inhabit mainly the coastline,—West of the Chilaw-Jaffna road,
that is, Puttalam Pattu and Town, and the Kalpitiya Division.
123
 The chief religion of the District, which used to be Islam, is now Buddhism, which claimed
14,090 adherents as against 13,914 MusHms. Christians numbered 12,303, and Hindus 2,764.

Of a population of 38,371 persons, aged five years and over, 22,395 were returned at the census
as able to read and write at least one language. This comprised 58-4 per cent. ' literates' as against
only 38 9 percent.in 1921. Male literacy had progressed in the last twenty-five years from 55-2
per cent, to 73 8 per cent, while a remarkable improvement has been effected in the percentage of
female Uterates who now form 36 3 percent, of the female population, aged five years and over,
against only 13 1 per cent, in 1921.

The age composition of the population has not varied materially from that shown in 1921.
About 32 per cent, of the population in 1921 and 1946 were children, aged 0-14 years, while adults of
the working age group of 15-49 years represented approximately 59 per cent, and 58 per cent, in the
respective census years.

The District had only one town of Urban Council status, namely, Puttalam. Its population
of 7,792 persons (4,299 males and 3,493 females) was composed mainly of Ceylon Moors who numbered
5,021 persons, representing 64-5 . per cent, of the total. Low-Country Sinhalese were the only other
race with a numerical strength above a thousand,—claiming 1,276 or 16-4 per cent. The percentage
of literacy in Puttalam Town, it may be observed, was below that of the District as a whole, only
55-8 per cent, of its population aged five years and over being ' literate ',—72-1 per cent, males, and
35-1 per cent, females.

The District attracts to Talawila (in Kalpitiya) in March and July each year Roman Catholic
pilgrims from all parts of the Island to its Church at St. Anne's,—the July festival being the more
important. Traditionally built by a poor Portuguese to whom St. Anna, the mother of the Holy
Virgin, had appeared in his distress, the church was constructed more substantially in 1839 by a priest
from Goa.

Chilaw District
Chilaw District, which forms the South-Western part of the North-Western Province,
consists of a narrow strip of country extending up to about 36 miles north of the Maha-Oya. The
land is flat and the rainfall low, but was described in a previous Census Report* as " a model District,
the richest perhaps amongst the purely native districts of the Island," owing its wealth " to the energy
of its own smaU farmers and labourers, who are among the most industrious and prosperous in the
Island." Exclusive of Town and Village Gardens, the District carried an acreage of 74,859 acres
under coconut cultivation—more than a third of its total land area which is only 262J square miles.
There were also 9.795 acres under paddy at the maha season, 1945-46. Its population at the census
was found to be 139,764, (74,206 males and 65,558 females), and its density of 533 persons to a square
mile makes it the eighth most populous district in the Island. It enjoyed a separate administration
by an Assistant Agent from 1888 to 1908, but was amalgamated with Puttalam once again from
January 1, 1909. It formed part of the ancient Maya Rata which the great Parakrama ruled before
he extended his victorious arms to secure the overlordship of Lanka.

• Census Report, 1901.

124
 The variations in the growth of the population of the Chilaw District are shown in the following
Table
TABLE 69—POPULATION OF CHILAW DISTRICT, 1891-1946, SHOWING NUMERICAL
INCREASE, AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Year Numerical Per Cent.

Population
Increase Increase
1891 63,231
1901 74,418 . 11,187 . 17-7
1911 87,644 . 13,226 . 17-8
1921 102,374 . 14,730 . 16-8
1931 114,640 . 12,266 . 11-9
1946 139,764 . 25,124 . 21-9
The Table shows a steady percentage increase in the population of the District. The intercensal
increase of 25,124 in 1931—1946 is almost wholly accounted for by a natural increase ofpopulation,—
births during the period numbering 59,536 and deaths aggregating 34,288, with a migration difference
of —124 only. A fairly high birth-rate and a low death-rate have been characteristic of this District,
as will be observed from the following Table :—
TABLE 70—MEAN BIRTH- AND DEATH-RATES, CHILAW DISTRICT, FOR INTERCENSAL
PERIODS SINCE 1901
Mean Mean
Year Birth-Rate Death-Rate
per 1,000 per 1,000
1901-1911 35-1 20- 6
1911-1921 33-6 22-8
1921-1931 35- 8 21- 2
1931-1946 36- 6 17-9
It may be remarked, however, that in one fatal year within the last intercensal period, namely,
in 1935, when the malaria epidemic was widespread throughout the Island, the number of deaths in
Chilaw District totalled as many as 4,123 against an aggreate of only 2,966 births.
The two Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions in the District are Pitigal Korale South and
North. The one town in the District of Urban Council status at the date of the census was Chilaw,
which contained a population of 9,108 persons. Pitigal Korale North (inclusive of the Urban Council
Area) had a population of 49,787 in 1946, against 39,230 in 1931, or an increase of 26 -9 per cent, over
that of 1931. Pitigal Korale South contained 89,977 persons in 1946, against 75,410 in 1931,—an
increase of 14,567, or 19-3 per cent. Of the sub-divisons, Kammal Pattu in Pitigal Korale South
had the largest population.
The great majority of the people were Low-Country Sinhalese by race, who numbered 118,095,
or 84-5 per cent, of the total population. Ceylon Tamils were 7,222 or 5-2 per cent. ; Indian Tamils
4,623 or 3-3 per cent, (a reduction from 1921) ; Ceylon Moors 4,081 or 2 • 9 per cent, (also a reduction
from 1921) ; and Kandyan Sinhalese 3,481, or 2 5 per cent. Of the others who all had percentages
of less than 1 per cent. Indian Moors numbered 447, Malays 261, Burghers and Eurasians 221, and
Europeans 38. In the miscellaneous category of " Others" were classified 1,295 persons. In
Chilaw Town, Low-Country Sinhalese comprised only 74 per cent, of the population, counting only
6,742 persons. Ceylon Moors and Ceylon Tamils were about equal in numbers, enumerating 589
and 570 persons, respectively, while other races claiming over one hundred persons were : Indian
Tamils 362, Indian Moors 238, Kandyan Sinhalese 171, and Malays 165.

125
 Chilaw District is one of the two Districts in the Island which claim Christianity as the
predominant religion,—the other District being Mannar. There were 67,626 adherents of the
Christian faith in the District, of whom 6,015 were found in Chilaw Town. No fewer than 65,857
Christians in the District belonged to the Roman Catholic denomination. Buddhism claimed 59,263
adherents, Hindus numbered 7,927, and Muslims 4,937. One individual in the district returned
himself as an Agnostic.
The highest percentage of literates in any District in the Island, Colombo not excepted, was
recorded in Chilaw District which claimed 73 • 5 per cent, of its population, aged five years and over,
as being able to read and write at least one language. Chilaw District, which, it was noted, depended
generally on a natural increase, and not on immigration for its population growth shared with Vavuniya
District the highest proportion of male literates, while it has the distinction of being the most
advanced District in respect of female literacy, returning 66 per cent, of its female population, five
years and above, as being able to read and write. It thus retains its pride of place among the districts
in the Island in respect of Literacy, which it had secured in 1921.
The age composition of the population in 1946 shows that proportionately more persons have
reached the middle and old age groups than were to be found in those groups in 1921. There were
over 54 per cent, of the population in the 15-49 age group in 1946, against approximately 51 per cent,
in that group in 1921, and 11 per cent, in the group aged 50 and above in 1946 against 10 per cent, in
that group in 1921.

THE NORTH-CENTRAL PROVINCE

The North-Central Province, consisting of the ancient dissavany of Nuwarakalawiya and the
district of Tamankaduwa, was constituted a Province under the British administration in 1873. Imme-
diately prior to that date, Nuwarakalawiya was administered as part of the Northern Province, and
Tamankaduwa was attached to the Eastern Province. Effective occupation by the British of the region
first took place after the rising of 1818, when it was taken over for administration by the Board of
Kandyan Commissioners until the Reforms of 1833 divided the Island into Provinces. Although it
formed part of the Sinhalese Kingdom till its fall in 1815, and although it may well be described as the
cradle of the Sinhalese nation as it was here that the early Aryans first settled some five hundred years
before the birth of Christ, the glory of its two great cities, Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa had long
since departed, and the region was no more than a wilderness at the beginning of the 19th century A.D.

The Province, as constituted, covers an area of 4,008 13/24 square miles and is thus the largest
Province in size. At the census of 1946, it returned a population of 139,534 as against a population of
97,365 in 1931. The numerical increase of42,169 which occurred in theintercensal period represents a
percentage increase of 43 • 3, the highest recorded for any Province in the Island. The increase may
be regarded as the measure of the success which has attended the effort made since 1931 to regain the
historic Raja Rata. An examination o f ' vital statistics ' reveals that the natural increase in the
population of the Province could account for only 4,733 persons, and that the balance gain of 37,436
persons must be assigned to an unusually great inflow of immigrants into the Province. This is
borne out by the ' balancing equations' for the Province since 1901 :—
Population Difference Migration
, * Births Deaths Difference
1901-1911 ... 86,276 — 79,110 ... = 33,103 — 32,922 ... + 6,985
1911-1921 ... 96,525 — 86,276 ... = 35,033 — 37,414 ... +12,630
1921-1931 ... 97,365 — 96,525 ... = 39,732 — 41,574 ... + 2,682
1931-1946 ... 139,534 — 97,365 ... = 66,295 — 61,562 ... +37,436
126
 NORTH BEHTim ffiOVIHCE
S h o w i n g D. B. O s ' Divisions & O h i e l T o w n s

mmm Pnvuct REFEReNCe

P R O V I N C E BDY

0. R. O'S DIVISION

ROADS

RAILWAYS

NUWAR
( r- MUWAAAOAM PALATA WEST
{ASrm PROVIHCE
MURULU PALATA

KORTH WaTlHH PftOVIIIC£

CiHTRAL PROYISCe

b Oorf, C«-.w - liSO

That this inflow of immigrants had been attracted by the colonization and irrigational schemes
completed or projected within the 15-year period 1931-1946 is evident from the fact that a numerical
increase of 12,902, representing a percentage increase of 163-2 within this period has taken place
in Tamankaduwa where most of these schemes were undertaken. Indeed, the prosperity of the region
under the ancient Kings, was due to the vast irrigation works constructed by them which ensured for the
population an adequate supply for the cultivation of their staple food, rice, and it seems that the
recapture of that prosperity may be achieved by the reconstruction of these life-giving reservoirs.

The population of the five Chief Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions into which the Anuradha-
pura District (which forms the North-Central Province) was divided at the date of the census is shown
for 1946 and 1931 in the following Table :—
TABLE 71—POPULATION OF ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D.R.O's
DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931, SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Population Numerical Per Cent'

Division A.
Increase Increase
1946 1931
Nuwaragam Palata West r 39,312^
Nuwaragam Palata East '• 24,859 64,171 45,327 .. 18,844 . 41-6
Hurulu Palata 26,420 23,923 .. 2,497 . 10-4
Kalagam Palata 28,134 20,208 . .. 7,926 . 39-2
Tamankaduwa 20,809 7,907 .. 12,902 . 163-2

It may be noted that in the preceding decade, 1921-1931, both Tamankaduwa (which now shows
a phenomenal increase) and Hurulu Palata registered a decline in population.
The inhabitants of the Province are for the most part Kandyan Sinhalese who, however, formed
only 67 0 per cent, of the total population in 1946, showing a decline from 1921 when they amounted
to 69-3 per cent. Low-Country Sinhalese who comprised only 6-2 per cent, in 1921 represented
12-7 per cent. in 1946. Ceylon Moors who had been 11 • 3 per cent. in 1921 were reduced to 10-1 per
cent, and the proportion of Indian Tamils 47 per cent, in 1921 had also dropped to 2- 2 per cent.
The Ceylon Tamils, however, retained their percentage, comprising 6-7 per cent, in 1946 against 6-4
per cent, in 1921. The numbers of the various races and their rates of increase in the 25-year period
1921-1946 are shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 72—POPULA-HON OF ANURADHAPURA DISTRICT BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921, SHOWING

NUMERICAL INCREASE OR DECREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE OR DECREASE
Numerical Per Cent.
Population Increase or Increase or
Pace A Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
ALL RACES 139,534 ... 96,525 .. . +43,009 .. + 44.6
Low-Country Sinhalese 17,696 ... 5,974 .. . +11,722 . .. +196-3
Kandyan Sinhalese ... 93,447 ... 66,912 .. . +26,535 .. + 39-7
Ceylon Tamils 9,304 ... 6,182 .. . + 3,122 .. + 50-5
Indian Tamils 3,097 ... 4,555 .. . — 1,458 .. — 32-0
Ceylon Moors 14,059 ... ' 10,933 .. . + 3,126 .. + 28-6
Indian Moors 905 ... 605 .. . + 300 .. + 49-6
Burghers and Eurasians 227 ... 172 .. • + 55 .. + 32-0
Malayas 160 ... 101 .. . + 59 .. + 58-4
Veddahs 127 ... 823 .. . — 696 .. — 84-6
Europeans 22 ... 58 .. . — 36 .. —62-1
Others 490 ... 210 .. . + 280 .. +133-3
127
 The decrease in the number of Veddahs in the Province is noteworthy. These appear to be
fast mingling with the Sinhalese and the Tamils in the extreme South of Tamankaduwa and in the East
of Hurulu Palata. Indian Tamils and Europeans also show a decrease, while all other race-groups have
increased, the highest rate of increase being that of the Low-Country Sinhalese who in fact form the
majority in Anuradhapura Town. It is interesting to observe that Kandyan Sinhalese in Anuradhapura
Town now outnumber the Ceylon Tamils who in 1921 formed the second most numerous race-group
in the Town. Egoda Pattuwa in Tamankaduwa was chiefly inhabited by Ceylon Tamils, and Meda
Pattuwa by Ceylon Moors.
The chief religion was Buddhism, which claimed 111,587 persons as its adherents. This amounts
to nearly 80-0 per cent, of the total population of the Province. Muslims were the next numerous
religious group, claiming 15,301 persons. Hindus numbered 9,774, and Christians 2,746 of whom
Roman CathoUcs numbered 2,232.
The percentage achieved in 1946 in the literacy of the population was 51-6 of the popu-
lation, aged five years and over. This was an improvement on the percentage in 1921, when general
literacy was only 33-8 per cent. Anuradhapura District was in 1921 the worst in respect of female
literary, and though this is no longer the case (BaduUa District returning in 1946 the smallest percen-
tage of female literates), female illiteracy in Anuradhapura District is still very great, no less than
73 • 6 per cent. of the female population, aged five years and over, being unable to read and write.
The percentage of male literates in 1946 was 68-4 against 55*2 per cent, in 1921.
There has been little change in the age composition of the population from that in 1921,—
only the working age-group of 15-49 showing a very slight increase in proportion to the total
population.
The Province had only one urban area, the town of Anuradhapura, which returned a population
of 12,314 at the census of 1946 against 8,975 in 1931,—a numerical increase of 3,339, and a percentage
increase of 37-2. Seventy-five years previously, the census of 1871 enumerated only 702 persons in
Anuradhapura Town.
The general surface of the Province is greatly undulating with isolated peaks or short ranges of
hills here and there. The South of the Province verges on the great central mountain zone of Ceylon
with Ritigala (2,536 feet) as "its most extreme sentinel ". Though the land area covers more than
two and a half million acres, only 170,032 acres have had at any time within recent memory some form
of cultivation, including chenas, and of this acreage only 78,795 acres were found cultivated at the
time of the 1946 census. Of these, 57,366 acres were under paddy in the maha season, 1945-46,
mainly cultivation under irrigation. With only 3 per cent, of the total land area opened up for
cultivation almost the whole face of the Province may stifl be said to be coveredby forest and jungle,
but it has been noted above that development is being satisfactorily undertaken.

THE PROVINCE OF UVA

The Province of Uva which in early historical times formed part of the Ruhuna Rata, or
Southern portion of the Sinhalese Kingdom, extends from the heights of the Kandyan hills to the
plains of the Eastern Low-Country. It falls naturally into two divisions, (i) a mountainous region,
which is called Upper Uva, running close to Nuwara Eliya and the Horton Plains, and undulating
with patches of forest and large stretches of patna or grassy downs, and (ii) Lower Uva, which lies
at the foot of the hills to the South and East towards Hambantota and Batticaloa, and is flat land with
small, scattered hiUs, hot and dry in climate. In the latter days of the Sinhalese Kings, a portion
of what is now the Province of Uva was constituted a dissavany, and for some time even a principality.
128
 PROVINCE OF UVi
Showing
D. R. O s ' Divisions & Chief T o w n s

REFER E,NCE

PROVINCE BOY.

0. R.O'S DIVISION

ROADS
E/ISTERN PROVIMCe
RAILWAYS

BINTENNA DIVISION

-^C Alutnuwarr

CENTRAL PROVINCE

Bibile

EASTERN PROVINCE

WELLASSA DIVISION
WIYALJVVt DIVISION

Taldena

I ABadull

UDUKft^DA DIVISI
Welimada
T \ R I
Monaragala

Bandarawela

putale

Koslanu.i

BUTTALA DIVISION

PROVINCE OF

WELLAWAYA DIVISION
SABARAGAUUWA 7

maat t, torn Mjrias'

Bintenna and Wellassa were also separate dissavonies. After the British occupation of the Kandyan
Provinces in 1815, Uva was administered under the Board of Commissioners, and formed the focus
of the formidable rising of Keppitipola in 1817.i Buttala, Bintenna, Wiyaluwa, and Wellassa suffered
most severely in the course of the war, and though the rising was repressed, petty garrisons had to be
maintained at various places within the region, such as Fort MacDonald, Ettampitiya, Passara,
Alupota, and Kotabowa, apart from Badulla, which were not finally altogether withdrawn till 1845.
When the Kandyan Board of Commissioners was abolished with the Reforms of 1833, Badulla District
was placed in charge of. an Assistant Agent under the Government Agent of the Central Province.
The Alupota division of Badulla, comprising Wellassa and Kandukara, was, however, administered
as part of the Southern Province, while Bintenna Division was in charge of the Government Agent of
the Eastern Province. In 1837, Bintenna was restored to Badulla District. Two years later Walapane,
which until then had been part of the Badulla District, was detached and added toNuwara Eliya District,
—an arrangement which continues up to the present day. The Province of Uva, comprising the present
Badulla District, was first established only by the Proclamation of Sir Arthur Gordon on February 1.
1886.

The area of the Province of Uva has been computed to be 3,277 13/20 square miles, and the
population at the census of 1946 was ascertained to be 372,238 persons (196,198 males and 176,040
females). In 1931 a total population of 303,243 had been enumerated within the Province. Of the
nine Provinces of Ceylon, it stands fourth in point of size, and seventh in point of population. The
variation in the growth of the population of the Province from 1891, the date of the first census
since its constitution, is given in the following Table :—

TABLE 73—POPULATION OF THE PROVLNCE OF UVA (OR BADULLA DISTRICT) FROM 1891,
SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE, AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Population Numerical Increase Per Cent. Increase

1891 159,201
1901 186,674 27,473 17-3
1911 216,692 30,018 161
1921 233,864 17,172 7-9
1931 303,243 69,379 29-7
1946 372,238 68,995 22-8

A consideration of the growth of the estate population will be interesting. The following Table
shows the relative growth of the Estate and non-Estate population in the Province of Uva :—

TABLE 74—ESTATE AND NON-ESTATE POPULATION OF THE PROVINCE OF UVA FROM 1891
SHOWING RELATIVE INCREASE

Estate Population Non-Estate Population

A ^
Persons Numerical Per Cent. Persons Numerical Per Cent
Increase Increase Increase Increase
1891 ... 32,092 . — — . 127,109 .. — —
1901 51,788 . 19,696 .. . 61-4 . 134,886 . 7,777 .. 6-1
1911 71,957 . 20,169 .. . 38-9 .. 144,735 . 9,849 .. 7-3
1921 83,493 . 11.536 .. . 160 .. 150,371 . 5,636 .. 3-9
1931 ... 130,345 . 46,852 .. . 56-1 .. 172,898 .. 22,527 .. 15-0
1946 ... 140,129 . 9,784 .. 7-5 .. 232,109 .. 59,211 .. 34-2

Vide Ch. I. p. 20.

129
 It will be observed from the above Table that the highest numerical and percentage increase in
the estate population of the Province took place in the decade 1921 -1931, and that the smallest numeri-
cal and percentage increase has occurred in the 15-year period 1931-1946. The decrease in the last
intercensal period may be attributed to the severe slump at the beginning of the period, and the ban
on emigration from India which that country imposed in 1939. Nevertheless, it may be noted that the
estate population comprises more than one-third of the total population of the Province, and that in
two of the seven Chief Headmen's or D.R.O.'s Divisions of which the Province is composed, that is,
in Yatikinda and Wellawaya Indian Tamils outnumber the indigenous Kandyan Sinhalese.
An examination of birth and death statistics also reveals that at previous censuses the principal
factor in the increase of the population of the Province has been immigration. The ' balancing
equations ' from 1901 have been as follows :—

TABLE 75- -' BALANCING EQUATIONS ' IN RESPECT OF THE POPULATION OF UVA
PROVINCE (BADULLA DISTRICT) 1901-1946

Population Difference Births Deaths Migration

A
Difference
1901-1911 216,692 186,674 81,302 — 74,410 +23,126
1911-1921 233,864 216,692 94,993 — 91,856 + 14,035
1921-1931 303,243 233,864 116,339 — 86,069 + 39,109
1931-1946 372,238 303.243 216,206 —116,649 —30,562

I t will be noted that for the first time an intercensal period has shown a loss of population by
emigration out of the Province, and that the increase in 1931-1946 may be attributed to a natural
increase in the population, and not to immigration. This has been mainly due to a remarkable decline
in the death-rate, which dropped to a mean of only 22- 5 per thousand from a mean of 32- 8 per thousand
in 1921-1931.
The Province, as indicated above, comprises seven Chief Headmen's or D.R.O.'s Divisions,
viz., Bintenna, Wiyaluwa, Udukinda, Yatikinda, Wellassa, Buttala and Wellawaya. Their population
in 1946 and 1931 is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 76—POPULATION OF UVA P R O v r N C E (BADULLA DISTRICT) BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S

OR D. R. O's DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931
Division Population Numerical Per Cent.
Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Bintenna ... 11,771 10,709 1,062 9-9
Wiyaluwa 34,444 29,852 4,592 15-4
Udukinda* 114,947 80,319 34,628 43 1
Yatikindaf 125,666 107,645 18,021 16-7
Wellassa ... 25,522 24,697 825 3-3
Buttala ... 21,639 16,728 4,911 29-4
Wellawaya 38,249 33,293 4,956 14-9
Area in 1946, und Bandarawela L o c a l Board Area in 1931.
in 1946, and Badulla Local Board Area in 19.31.

The Table shows that, while Udukinda retains a high rate of increase as in 1921-1931, Buttala
which actually returned a fall in its population in 1921-1931, has had its population increased in 1931-
1946 by 29-4 per cent., suggesting that this Division is being fast developed owing doubtless to the
establishment of rubber plantations in the Division. Wellassa, on the other hand, shows a decrease
intherateofgrowthofpopulation, from7-9percent. in 1921-1931 to only 3-3percent. in 1931-1946.
13.0
 There are only two towns in the Province of Urban Council status, namely, Badulla, the capital,
and Bandarawela. The population of Badulla was found to be 13,387 against 9,849 enumerated in
tlie Local Board Area in 1931, showing an increase of 3,538 persons or 35-9 percent. Bandarawela
counted 2,946 persons within its Urban Council Area against, 1,792 in the Local Board Area in 1931,
an increase of 1,154 persons or 64 4 per cent, indicating its growing popularity as a sanatorium.
The aggregate urban population of the Province may thus be reckoned at 4 3 per cent, of its total
population, but, as its estate population comprises about 39 percent, of its rural population, only 61
per cent, in the Province form the non-estate rural population. Badulla, of course, was an ancient
city, but Tennant writing in 1846 declared that " nothing remains except its gloomy temples
and vestiges of a ruined dagoba. The British have converted an ancient residence of the Prince of
Oovah into a fort defended by earthworks. "
Although a Kandyan Province, Uva contained a population in which the Kandyan Sinhalese
were in a minority against the aggregation of the other race-groups that have settled in it. They
numbered 185,193 persons or 49 ' 7 per cent, of the total population. Indian Tamils, mainly immigrants
employed on estates, numbered 127,164 or 3 4 ' 2 per cent, and were prominent, as already noted, in
Yatikinda and Wellawaya where they outnumbered the Kandyan Sinhalese. Actually in Wellawaya
they comprised about 60 per cent, of the population of that Division. They were also numerous
in Udukinda, though there the Kandyan Sinhalese still retained their predominance. The strength
of the other race-groups with a percentage above one per cent was as follows :—Low-Country
Sinhalese 7 6 per cent. ; Ceylon Tamils 4 2 percent. ; and Ceylon Moors 2 -7 per cent. The growth
of the population of the race-groups in the Province since 1921 is illustrated in the following Table :—

TABLE 67—POPULATION OF UVA (BADULLA DISTRICT) BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921

Numerical Per Cent.
Race Persons Increase or Increase or
Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
372,238 233,864 + 138,374 . 59- 2
ALL RACES ...
28,298 12,018 + 16,280 . . + 135- 5
Low-coumtry Sinhalese
185,193 124,983 + 60,210 . .. + 48- 2
Kandyan Sinhalese + 12,289 . .. 376 8
Ceylon Tamils 15,550 3,261 +
127,164 82,562 + 44,602 . .. -h 54 0
Indian Tamils 6,096 + 4,039 . .. + 66 2
Ceylon Moors 10,135
1,756 1,415 + 341 . .. -1- 24 1
Indian Moors ... 668 + 445 . .. 66 6
1,113 +
Burghers and Eurasians 670 + 516 . .. 77 0
Malays 1,186 +
351 448 — 97 . .. — 21 7
Veddahs 564 — 182 . — 32 3
Europeans 382
1,110 1,179 — 69 . .. — 5 9
Others
The very high rate of increase among the Ceylon Tamils in the Province is noteworthy, and
suggestsaninfluxof this race-group within the 25-year period 1921-1946. Similarly, the Low-Country
Sinhalese appear to have gained by a number of them coming into the Province for trade and em-
ployment during the period. The progressive decrease in the number of Veddahs suggests absorption
among the Sinhalese and Tamils—in 1911 they numbered 593, in 1921 there were 448 of them, and
in 1946 only 351 persons were enumerated as belonging to this race-group. Though the Province
contains the largest number of Europeans after the Western and Central Provinces, this is not saying
much, as the European population in Uva comprises only about 7 per cent, of the Europeans in the
Island, the Western and Central claiming about 53 per cent, and 26 per cent, respectively.
131
 The predominant religion of the Province was Buddhism, which claimed 213,799 adherents or
57-4 per cent, of the total population, which is a slightly lower percentage than was registered as
Buddhists at the census of 1921. Hindus numbered 134,576 or 36-1 percent. There were 13,085
Muslims enumerated in 1946 within the Province, and 10,689 Christians, of whom 7,515 were
Roman Catholics and 1,722 Anglicans. Methodists numbered 505 persons,—females being in the
majority. There were two persons who returned themselves as Agnostics.
The age distribution of the population in 1946 appeared to reflect the decline in immigration
and the growth of the population by natural increase which were noted as characteristic of the inter-
censal period 1931-1946. Compared with the distribution at the last full census of 1921, the census
of 1946 reveals that children aged 0 - 1 4 have increased relative to the total population, and that adults
of the working ages, 15-49, have declined in their proportionate percentage. The following Table
illustrates this :—
TABLE 78—POPULATION OF UVA PROVINCE (BADULLA) BY AGE GROUPS, 1946 AND 1921

Persons Males Females

1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921
A L L AGES 372,238 233,864 196,198 124,228 176,040 109,636
0 - 1 4 ... 158,853 93,311 80,031 48,620 78,822 44,691
15-49 181,085 122,532 97,313 65,081 83,772 57,451
50 and above 32,300 18,014 18,854 10,525 13,446 7,489
Unspecified 7 2 5

The relative percentages to the total population are seen to be : children aged 0 - 1 4 : 1946
4 2 - 7 ; 1921 39-9 ; adults, aged 15-49 : 1946 48-6 ; 1921 5 2 - 4 ; old people, aged 50 and above;
1946 8-7 ; 1921 7 7.

In point of hteracy, the Badulla District occupied in 1921 the last place among the Revenue
Districts of the Island only 23-2 per cent, of its population (excluding children aged 0 - 4 ) having
been found to be able to read and write a language. The census of 1946 reveals that it still occupies
that last place. The percentage of literacy has indeed risen to 36-5 per cent, within the last twenty-
five years, but the rate of progress is only a trifle better than Hambantota District. In the case of
females, in particular, literacy is very poor, no fewer than 8 2 - 4 per cent, of the female population
aged five years and above being found to be illiterate. In the towns, however, the percentage of
literacy is higher, 58-8 per cent, in Badulla and 78-9 per cent, in Bandarawela being found to be
' literate'.
Two places within the Province are noted for their holy shrines,—Mahiyangana and Katara-
gama. The dagoba at Mahiyangana, according to the Mahawamsa, was built " on the delightful
bank of a river on a spot three yojanas in length and one in breadth in the agreeable Mahanaga garden
in the assembling place of the Yakkas ". ^ Mahiyangana itself appears to have once been a great city
" with many wide streets, handsome buildings, and notable pagodas or heathen temples ". - At
Kataragama, which attracts pilgrims in July every year, is situated the Ruhunu Maha Kataragam
Dewale, the shrine of the god Kandaswamy. " The name and Power of the God striketh such terror
into the Chingulayes that those who otherwise are enemies of the King, and have served both Portu-
guese and Dutch against him, yet would never assist either to make invasions this way ". ^ Davy
wrote that " the Kataragam god is not loved but feared A merit was made of the hazard and
difficulty of the journey through a wilderness deserted by men and infested with wild animals ". ^
' Mahawamsa, C h . I.
» Valentyn, Ch. I I .
' K n o x : Historical Relation, p. 10.
' D a v y : Interior of Ceylon, p. 422.

132
 Showing D. R, Os' Divisions & Chief T o w n s
NORTH WCRTERN PROVWCE
» Rambukkana

GALBODA REFERENCE

Kegalle
f'^Warakapol PROVINCE BDY. 4- — +- -

KORALES r DISTRICT BDY.

D. R. O'S DIVISION
BEL GAL
ROADS

PARANKURU KORALE —1 RAILWAYS

DEHI

~y RuwanwBM

L O W E R B U L A T G A M A '>

KE'GALLA DISTRldT

ccHTKAL pRomce
ATULUGAM & PANAWAL

KORALES

KURUWITI KORALE

atngpura
RATNAPURA raSTRlCJ
Balangoda *
NAWADUNAKORALE Pelmadulla
KADAWATA^MEDA KORALES '
WESTERN PROVINCE

Kalawana
ATAKALAN KORALE '

PROVINCE OF UVA
Rakwana

„ KUKUL KORALE

Kolonne

KOLONNA KORALE

SOUTHERN PROVINCE

Pr/nled 6/ Simei Dept., Cerl'n.MyiaSO

A beneficent Government has lately constructed a motorable road to Kataragama which, though
detracting from " merit", has made the journey less hazardous and difficult, and has helped to attract
to the shrine for its festival a'larger number of pilgrims each year than had been the case before its
construction.

THE PROVINCE OF SABARAGAMUWA

The Province of Sabaragamuwa was constituted by Proclamation of the 1st of January, 1889,
when the Districts of Kegalla and Ratnapura were severed from the Western Province to form the new
Province. The name ' Sabaragamuwa' in ancient times was never applied to the Kegalla District
and the dissavony of Sabaragamuwa under the Sinhalese Kings consisted of what is now the Ratnapura
District. The term itself is stated to mean ' the land of the barbarian', and Sabaragamuwa is believed
to have been the original habitat of the Veddahs—a tradition which appears to be confirmed by the
many instances in Ratnapura District where the name of Veddah is retained in the names of fields,
villages, and families, e.g., Vedda-pangu, Vedda-kumbura, Vedda-watta, Vedda-ela, Vedda-gala,
Vedda-ge, etc. At the 1946 census, however, no more than three persons in Ratnapura District were
enumerated as ' Veddahs '. What is now the Kegalla District comprised in former times the Dissa-
vony of the Four Korales (Galboda, Kinigoda, Paranakuru and Beligal), the Dissavony of the Three
Korales (Dehigampal, Atulugam and Panawal), and the Rata of Pata (Lower) Bulatgama.
The Province is in area 1,892| square miles, and contained at the census of 1946 a population of
745,382 persons. It thus ranked fourth of the nine Provinces of the Island in population, although the
smallest in size next to the Western Province. The South-Eastern portion is hilly, rising to about 2,000
feet at Balangoda and much higher towards Bulutota and Adam's Peak. The low-lying areas are
intensely hot, and in Kegalla District the clearing of natural forests and the development of land has
had some bearing on rainfall and accentuated the effects of drought.

Ratnapura District
Ratnapura District which forms the Southern portion of the Province, had a population
of 343,620 in 1946 over an area of 1,250J square miles, showing a density of 275 persons to the square
mile. The growth of its population from 1891 is shown in the following Table :—
TABLE 79—POPUPATION OF RATNAPURA DISTRICT, FROM 1891,
SHOWING NUMERICAL INCREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE
Population Numerical Intercensal Per Cent. Intercensal
Increase Increase
1891 ... ... 107,999
1901 ... ... 132,964 24,965 ... 23-1
1911 ... ... 165,992 33,028 ... 24-8
1921 ... ... 202,975 36,983 ... 22-3
1931 ... ... 263,801 60,826 ... 30 0
1946 ... ... 343,620 79,819 ... 30-3
Examined in relation to the birth and death statistics of the Province for the period 1901-1946
the figures of population may be expressed in the following ' balancing equations' :—
TABLE 80—' BALANCING EQUATIONS ' IN RESPECT OF THE POPULATION OF
RATNAPURA DISTRICT, 1901-1946
Population Difference Births Deaths Migration
Difference
1901-1911 ... ... 165,992 — 132,964 58,901 — 55,180
1911-1921 ... ... 202,975 — 165,992 76,278 — 66,667
+ 29,307
27,372
1921-1931 ... ... 263,801 — 202,975 101,187 — 63,170
+ 22.809
1931-1946 ... ... 343,620 — 263,801 177,924 — 89,991
+ 8,114
133
 The loss of population by emigration in the last intercensal period is noteworthy. In the pre-
vious periods, the population had grown not only by a steady natural increase but also by a rapid
expansion of the estate population within the District. The opening of a large acreage of land in tea
and rubber had resulted in an inflow of immigrants into the District, particularly Indian Tamils as
estate labour. The economic depression in the early years of the last intercensal period, and the ban
on emigration imposed by theGovernment of India in 1939 affected the growth of the estate population
which remained nearly stable in the 15-year period. The following Table gives the relative growth
of the estate and non-estate population since 1901 :—
TABLE 81—POPULATION OF RATNAPURA DISTRICT, 1901-1946, SHOWING
RELATIVE GROWTH OF ESTATE AND NON-ESTATE POPULATION

Estate Non-Estate
A. _
A

Per Cent. f— Numerical Per Cent.

Numerical
Persons Intercensal Intercensal Persons Intercensal Intercensal
Year
Increase Increase Increase Increase
16,642 .. 116,322 — —
1901
30,455 13,813 '. 83 0 . .. 135,537 .. 19,215 . . 16-5
1911
48,597 18,142 . 59-6 . .. 154,378 ... 18,841 . . 13-9
1921
80,500 . 31,903 . 65-6 . .. 183,301 ... 28,923 . 18-7
1931
85,702 5,202 . 6-4 . .. 257,918 ... 74,617 . . 40-7
1946

It will be observed that the numerical increase in the estate population was almost equal to the
numerical increase in the non-estate population in 1911-1921, and was actually greater in 1921-1931,
but in 1931-1946 it had dwindled to a mere trickle while the growth of the non-estate population had
considerably expanded. Indeed, the mean rate of natural increase in 1931-1945 was as high as 19 1
per thousand" while in 1921-1930 it was 16 3, in 1911-1920 it was 14-7, and in 1901-1910 it was
13-0. The mean death-rate which was as high as 3 8 - 1 per thousand in 1901-1911 had been reduced
in 1931-1945 to only 19-7 per thousand. These figures are suggestive of an improvement in the
general health of the District, even the malaria epidemic of 1935 failing to cause as steep a rise in
the death-rate in that year as was experienced in other districts.

The District at the date of the Census contained six Chief Headmen's or D. R. O's
Divisions,—Kuruwiti, Nawadun, Kukul, Kolonna, Atakalan, and the Kadawata and Meda
Korales together. The variation in the population of these Divisions between 1931 and 1946 is
shown in the following Table :—
TABLE 82—POPULATION OF RATNAPURA DISTRICT
BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S OR D. R. O'S DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931

Division Population Numerical Per Cent.

Increase Increase
1946 . 1931 1931-1946 1.931^1946

Kuruwiti Korale* 90,727 ... 65,616 .. . 25,111 .. . 38-3

Nawadun Korale 90,526 ... 69,070 .. . 21,456 . 31-1
Kukul Korale 25,497 ... 17,733 .. 7,764 . . 43-8
Kolonna Korale 18,764 ... 15,517 .. 3,247 . . 20-9
Atakalan Korale 50,840 ... 40,613 .. . 10,227 . . 25-2
Kadawata and Meda Korales f 67,266 ... 55,252 .. , 12,014 . . 21-7

* Including E a t n a p u r a U r b a n Council area,

t Including Balangoda Urban Council area.

134
 The Table shows that every Division within the District has had its population augmented
during the 15-year period, the most notable being Kukul Korale and Kuruwiti Korale where the
increase in population has been ascribed, apart from improved health conditions, to greater activity in
gemming and plumbago mining, particularly the latter.

The District contained two towns of Urban Council status, Ratnapura, the capital, and Balan-
goda. The former had a population of 12,441 in 1946, against 8,497 in 1931—a numerical increase of
3,944, or a percentage increase of 46-4. Balangoda enumerated 2,140 inhabitants. The aggregate
urban population in the District was about 4 - 2 per cent of the total population, and as the estate popu-
lation comprised about one-fourth, the non-estate rural population maybe reckoned at about 70 per cent.

The distribution of the population by race-groups in the District is shown in the following Table.
For purposes of comparison, the 1921 figures are also given :—
TABLE 83—POPULATION OF RATNAPURA DISTRICT BY RACE, 1946 AND 1921
Numerical Per Cent.
Race Persons Increase or Increase or
r — ^ , Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946

A L L RACES 343,620 202,975 + 140,645 ,.. + 69-3

Low-country Sinhalese ... 52,386 22,560 4- 29,826 .. -1- 132-2
Kandyan Sinhalese 208,043 128,525 + 79,518 .. -t- 61-9
Ceylon Tamils 4,036 1,534 -H 2,502 .. + 163-1
Indian Tamils 70,829 43,774 -1- 27,055 .. -1- 61-8
Ceylon Moors 4,673 3,020 4- 1,653 .. + 54-7
Indian Moors 1,170 895 J- 275 .. -1- 30-7
Burghers and Eurasians... 539 419 + 120 .. + 28-8
Malays... 248 117 -1- 131 .. -}-?112-0
Veddahs 3 0 H- 3 . —
Europeans 147 241 — 94 .. — 39-0
Others ... 1,546 1,890 — 344 .. — 18-2

The Table shows that the predominant race-group in the District is the Kandyan Sinhalese,
who formed 60-5 per cent, of the total population. Dependent mainly on natural increase for their
numerical strength, they have declined in their proportion to the total population since 1921, for
then they formed 63-3 per cent. The adverse factors affecting the immigration of Indian Tamils
during 1931-1946 may be taken as accounting for the decline in their proportionate strength in the
District from 21 • 6 per cent, in 1921 to 20 • 6 per cent, in 1946. Ceylon Moors have retained practically
the same relative position as they had in 1921 and 1911,—forming 1 -4 per cent, against 1 - 5 per cent,
both in 1921 and 1911. On the other hand, the Low-Country Sinhalese seem to have had an addition
by immigration which has helped them to increase their percentage from IM in 1921 to 15-2 in
1946. In Balangoda Town they outnumbered the Kandyan Sinhalese in 1946. The Ceylon Tamils
are the only other race-group which had a percentage above one in 1946, and their rate of increase
in the 25-year period suggests much immigration.
Buddhists numbered 259,144, or 75 4 percent, of the population. Hinduism counted 68,646
adherents or nearly 20 per cent. Christians were the next numerous with 9,537 of whom 7,017 were
Roman Catholics. There were also 6,249 Muslims. In the Town of Ratnapura, however, Muslims
were slightly superior in numbers, counting 1,168 against 1,006 Christians,
135
 The age composition of the population shows more children, fewer adults of the working age-
groups, and slightly less old people in relation to the total population than in 1921. The following
Table gives the figures for the three principal groups :—
TABLE 84—POPULATION OF RATNAPURA DISTRICT BY SELECTED AGE-GROUPS, 1946 AND 1921

1946 1921
A A

Total Males s Total Males s

Females Females
A L L AGES .. 343,620 . .. 186,066 . .. 157,554 .-. . 202,975 . .. 112,025 ... 90,950
0-14 .. 138,213 . .. 70,507 . .. 67,706 .. . 78,133 . .. 40,577 ... 37,556
15-49 .. 173,043 . .. 95,959 . .. 77,084 .. . 106,514 . .. 60,423 ... 46,091
50 and above . .. 32,364 . .. 19,600 . .. 12,764 .. . 18,328 . .. 11,025 ... 7,303
The percentage of children, aged 0-14 years, will be seen to be 40'2 in 1946, against 38-5 in
1921, while the age-group comprising what may be described as the working category (15-49 years)
was 50-4 in 1946 against 52*3 in 1921. The balance of the sexes appears to have tilted somewhat
in favour of females in all the age-groups.
135,578 persons in Ratnapura District were found by the census of 1946 to be able to read and
write at least one language. There was an illiterate majority still in the District, particularly among
the females. The percentage of general literacy in the District was only 46-4 of the total population,
aged five years and above. Only 28 • 7 per cent, of the female population of five years and above
were found to be literate, but 61-0 per cent, males were able to read and write a language. There
has, of course, been some progress in literacy made since 1921, when the percentages were :—General
32-1 ; Males S ; and fewa/ej 10-9, but the improvement for the 25-year period is not very marked.
In the two towns of Balangoda and Ratnapura, the percentages were better. In Balangoda, with its
small population, 82 • 2 per cent, of the male population, aged five years and above, and 66 • 0 per cent,
of the females were found to be hterate. In Ratnapura, the corresponding percentages were 78 • 1
for the males, and 60 6 for the females.
In this District is situated the mountain named Adam's Peak, or Sri Pada, as the Buddhists
call it, which has been a famous place of pilgrimage from the earliest times, on account of the Foot-
print in the hollow of the lofty rock which crowns the summit of the mountain. Two routes to the
shrine by way of Kuruwita and Ratnapura lie in this District. Many Sinhalese Kings^ of old had
made pilgrimages to the Sacred Peak, and had liberally endowed the shirne. There were some pilgrims
making the ascent on the night of the census, but by special arrangement their enumeration and
assignment to their de Jure locality were successfully accompUshed.

Kegalla District
Kegalla District, which consists of the Four Korales, the Three Korales, and Lower Bulat-
gama, occupies the Northern portion of the Province of Sabaragamuwa. Historically, the Four
Korales had been an important dissavony of the Sinhalese Kingdom and took precedence over all
the other outlying divisions. The Three Korales took a lower rank owing to their isolation and
sparseness of population. The flag of the Four Korales (the Ira-handa-kodiya, sun, moon and stars
on a white ground) had the right of immediately following the fliags of the Gajanayake Nilame
and Maha Lekam at the grand Perahera, but in front of the flags of the rest of the districts, while
the flag of the Three Korales, the Bherunda, the double-headed eagle, followed sixth in order of
precedence among the districts, that is, after those of the Four Korales, the Seven Korales, Uva,
Matale, and Sabaragamuwa. MoUigoda Adigar remained loyal to the British at the Rising of 1817,
1 Vide Chapter I. P a r a k r a m a B a h u the Great, K i r t i Nissanka, and Parakr'ama B a h u I I I , apart from
those mentioned in that chapter, are recorded by the chronicles as having made this pilgrimage.

136
and the District, received some favour in recognition of this loyalty.' In 1833 the District was made
part of the Western Province with two Assistant Agencies, at Attampitiya and Ruwanwella in the
Four and Three Korales respectively, but in 1845 that at Ruwanwella was abolished, and in 1889
the Kegalla District, as the amalgamated Assistant Agency was called, was incorporated in the newly
constituted Province of Sabaragamuwa.
The District has developed rapidly within the last few decades, owing mainly to the expansion
of the tea, rubber, and plumbago industries. Its population has always been higher than that of the
Headquarters District of the Province (Ratnapura), and in 1946 was recorded as 401,762, over a
surface area of 642 square miles,—a density of about 626 persons to the square mile. The growth
of its population from 1891 is shown in the following Table :—
. TABLE 85—POPULATION OF KEGALLA DISTRICT FROM 1891, SHOWING
NUMERICAL INCREASE AND PER CENT. INCREASE

Year Population Numerical Intercensal Per Cent.

Increase Intercensal
Increase
1891 150,627
1901 188,791 38,164 25-3
1911 242,529 53,738 28-5
1921 268,839 26,310 10-8
1931 314,567 45,728 170
1946 401,762 87,195 27-7

An examination of birth and death statistics for the intercensal period 1931-1946 shows that
births (196,258) in the district during the period exceeded deaths (100,415) by 95,843, a figure which
is above the intercensal increase by 8,648, indicating a loss of population by migration out of the
district. Ahhough a planting district, Kegalla has shown a negative migration difference at the
censuses of 1921 and 1931, suggesting that the peak in the expansion of the planting industry in the
District had been reached sometime prior to 1921. Agriculturally, in fact, the District was found by
the census of 1946 to have had the highest percentage of cultivated land to its total land area attained
by any District except Colombo District to which it was a very close second. Of its 410,880 acres,
an extent of 335,488 acres or 81 "65 per cent, had at some time or other within recent memory carried
some form of cultivation, and at the time of the census of 1946, there were 292,079 acres or 71 0
per cent, of the total land area under cuhivation.

The relative growth of the estate and non-estate population in the District from 1891 is shown
in the following Table :—

TABLE 86—POPULATION OF KEGALLA DISTRICT SHOWING RELATIVE GROWTH OF

ESTATE AND NON-ESTATE POPULATION FROM 1891-1946

Estate Non-Estate
A

Numerical Increase Numerical Per Cent.

Year Persons Increase or Per Cent. Persons Increase or Increase or
Decrease Decrease Decrease
1891 ... 21,969 . — — . 128,658 .
1901 ... 41,499 . .. + 19,530 . .. + 88-9 .. . 147,292 . .. + 18,634 .' .' + 14-5
1911 ... 62,518 . .. + 21,019 . .. + 50-6 .. . 180,011 . .. + 32,719 . . + 22-2
1921 ... 56,411 . .. — 6,107 . .. — 9-8 .. . 212,428 . .. + 32,417 . . + 18-0
1931 ... 60,221 . .. + 3,810 . .. + 6-8 .. . 254,346 . .. + 41,918 . . + 19-7
1946 ... 64,616 . .. + 4,395 . .. + 7-3 .. . 337,146 . .. + 82,800 . . + 32-6
Vide C h . I. T h e rate of taxation was reduced to only l/14tli of the annual produce, while the
property of certain loyal chiefs was exempted in perpetuity.

137
 It will be observed from the above Table that the expansion of the Estate Population has been
rapid in the two decades 1891-1901, and 1901-1911, in the first of which the numerical increase of
the estate population even exceeded that of the non-estate population. Among the reasons assigned
for the very great decline in the estate population of the District in the decade 1911-1921 was the fact
that nearly all the rubber planted in the District had begun to bear in that decade, thus requiring less
labour, a good portion of which accordingly migrated into the neighbouring Ratnapura District
where the process of development in tea and rubber was still going on.

Kegalla District was at the census of 1946 divided for administrative purposes into five chief
Headmen's or D.R.O's Divisions, the population of each of which is shown in the following Table,
which also compares it with the population recorded in 1931 in respect of the Divisions then
existing :

TABLE 87—POPULATION OF KEGALLA DISTRICT, BY CHIEF HEADMEN'S

OR D. R. O's DIVISIONS, 1946 AND 1931.

Division Population Numerical Per Cent.

A Increase Increase
1946 1931 1931-1946 1931-1946
Galboda and Kinigoda Korales ... 81,557 65,650 15,907 24-2
Paranakuru Korale* 71,147 54,515 16,632 30-5
Beligal Korale 95,016 74,313 20,703 27-9
Dehigampal Korale and Lower
Bulatgama f 81,633 "] ... r 120,089 j ... 33,953 28-3
Atulugam and Panawal Korales ... I 72,409 J L
*Including K e g a l l a U r b a n Council Area for lOtO aad Kegalla Local B o a r d Area for 1!»3I.

At the census of 1931, the Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama together formed one Division.
The rate of growth in each Division tor the 15-year period 1931-1946 was higher than the rate in the
decade 1921-1931 and not excessive. The Three Korales and Lower Bulatgama actually registered
a decrease in the decade 1911-1921, but in 1921-1931 increased by 17-8 per cent. Their rate of
increase in the 15-year period 1931-1946 (28 • 3 per cent.) is only slightly greater than that in the decade
of 1921-1931. Of the Three Korales, the greatest density of population was in Dehigampal and
Lower Bulatgama. Paranakuru Korale (inclusive of the Kegalla Local Board) had shown in 1921-
1931 a percentage increase of 18-3. Its increase by 30-5 per cent, in the 15-year intercensal period
would not seem unduly high. Similarly, Beligal Korale had increased its rate from 16-3 per cent,
in the 10-year period 1921-1931, to 27-9 per cent, in the 15-year period 1931-1946, and Galboda
and Kinigoda Korales had risen from a 15-3 percent, increase in 1921-1931, to a 24-2 per cent, increase
in 1931-1946.

The racial composition of the population of the District, as revealed by the census of 1946,
shows that Kandyan Sinhalese, who comprised only 64-9 per cent, of the total population in 1921,
had strengthened their position and now formed 71-9 per cent. The only other race-group which
had increased its percentage in the 25-year period was the Low-Country Sinhalese who formed 10-2
per cent, against 9'6 pei cent, in 192i. The Indian Tamils have been greatly reduced in their propor-
tionate strength, comprising in 1946 only 13-0 per cent, against 20-2 per cent, in 1921. Ceylon Moors
retain almost the same percentage, 3 5 in 1946 against 3 6 per cent, in 1921. The Kandyan Sinhalese
were numerically superior to every other race-group in every sub-division (Pattu or Palata), although

138
in Uduwa Palata of Dehigampal and Lower Bulatgama the Indian Tamils were about two-thirds
of their number. The following Table shows the racial distribution of the District in 1946
and 1921 :—
TABLE 84—POPULATION OF KEGALLA DISTRICT, BY RACE-GROUPS, 1946 AND 1921
Numerical Per Cent.
Persons Increase or Increase or
Race Decrease
A - ^ Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
A L L RACES ... 401,762 268,839 ... + 132,923 ... + 49-5
Low-country Sinhalese 41,034 25,715 ... + 15,319 ... - f 59-6
Kandyan Sinhalese 288,655 174,375 ... + 114,280 ... 4- 65-5
Ceylon Tamils 3,230 1,486 ... + 1,744 ... 4-117-4
Indian Tamils 52,027 54,319 ... — 2,292 ... — 4-2
Ceylon Moors 14,087 9,556 ... + 4,531 ... + 47-4
Indian Moors ... 964 1,317 ... — 353 ... — 26-8
Burghers and Eurasians 434 479 ... — 45 ... — 9-4
Malays 270 382 ... — 112 ... — 29-3
Veddahs 1 ... + 1
Europeans 114 269 ... — 155 ... — 57-6
Others 946 941 ... + 5 ... + 0-5

The Table shows that, while Indian Tamils decreased in numbers, the Ceylon Tamils, although
still forming a very small percentage of the total population, had more than doubled their numbers in
the District within the last twenty-five years.
The predominant religion in the District was Buddhism which claimed 329,178 persons or 81 -9
per cent, of the population. Hindus numbered 46,334 ; Muslims 15,548 ; and Christians 10,676.
Of the Christians, Roman Catholics were the most numerous,—^there being 7,032, while those of the
Anglican Communion numbered 1,805. The next largest denominational group in the District
was the Salvationists,—614 of whom were enumerated, more females than males.

Scarcely any variation in the age composition of the population of the District has occurred
within the 25-year period 1921-1946. Children aged 0-14 years formed 40-7 per cent, of the total
population in 1946 against 41 • 5 per cent, in 1921. The middle group of working adults, 15-49 years,
comprised 49-2 per cent, in 1946, while in 1921 they formed 49-8per cent. The group aged 50 years
and above, numbered 40,395 persons in 1946 {or lO-Qper cent), and 23,282 persons in 1921 (or
8-7 per cent, of the total population). The following Table gives in greater detail the distribution of
the population of the District by age-groups :—

TABLE 89—POPULATION OF KEGALLA DISTRICT, 1946 AND 1921, BY SELECTED AGE-GROUPS

1946 1921

Total Males Females Total Males Females

A L L AGES ... 401,762 ... 213,092 188,670 .. 268,839 . . 145,199 .. 123,640
0-14 ... 163,742 ... 83,728 80,014 .. 111,661 . . 57,509 .. 54,152
15-49 ... 197,625 ... 105,586 92,039 .. 133,896 . . 73,746 .. 60,150
50 and above 16,617 .. 23,282 . .. 13,944 9,338
... 40,395 ... 23,778
In 1921, Kegalla District showed a percentage of 33-2 of its population, aged five years and
above, as being able to read and \vritea language. The percentage had risen to 52- 2 in 1946 ,—178,831
persons out of a population of 342,263 persons, aged five years and above, being found by the census
139
to be able to read and write at least one language. The majority of females in the District were still
illiterate, for only 57,459 of them (or 36 0 per cent.) were capable of reading and writing. This was,
however, a great improvement on the percentage of 1921, when only 10 4 per cent, of the females
(excluding children aged 0-4 years) were found to be literate. Male literacy had improved from
52-2 per cent, in 1921 to 66 4 per cent, in 1946.
There was only one town of Urban Council status in the District, namely, Kegalla itself, which
is situated in the Mawata Pattu' of the Paranakuru Korale. It was created a Local Board town in
1896, and at the census of 1931 was still of that status. Its population in 1931 was only 3,711, but
the Urban Council Area in 1946 enumerated 4,903 persons, of whom 2,184 (or 44-5 per cent.) were
Kandyan Sinhalese, and 1,803 (or 36 8 per cent.) were Low-Country Sinhalese. There were also
222 Indian Tamils, 217 Ceylon Moors, 210 Ceylon Tamils, and 120 Burghers and Eurasians. It
may be observed that in 1921 the predominant race-group in Kegalla Town was the Low-Country
Sinhalese, who have since been ousted from that position by the Kandyan Sinhalese.
The ancient city of Sitawaka, where Mayadunne and his brave son Raja Sinha 1 held court in
the 16th century A.D., lies in Atulugam Korale, but now is no more than a village.

VILLAGES AND TOWNS A N D BUILDINGS IN CEYLON (Exclusive of Estates)

The number of villages and towns in Ceylon in 1946 was found to be 20,508 and 1,408,566
habitable buildings were listed for the census exclusive of those on estates. In 1931 the number of
buildings was given in the Census Report that year in round figures as 1,021,400. Allowance being
made for variation in connotation in the terms ' village ' and ' habitable building ' the following
Table may be regarded as illustrating the progress within the seventy-five years, 1871-1946 :—

TABLE 90—DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN CEYLON BY VILLAGES AND TOWNS

(EXCLUSIVE OF ESTATES) 1871-1946

1871 1S81 1S91 1901 1911 1921 1931 1946

Number of Villages and
Towns .. 12,069.. 12,438.. 13,088.. 12,898.. 13,861.. 15,892.. 17,813.. 20,508
Number of Habitable
Buildings .. 389,000.. 477,900.. 535,600.. 598,100.. 691,900.. 825,500. . 1,021,400.. 1,408,600*
Number of Persons . .2,277,000. .2,553,000. .2,746,000 3,124,000 3,593,000 3,929,000 4,516,000 5,806,000*
Villages per Square mile -48.. -49.. -52.. -51.. -54.. -63.. -70.. 81
Persons per Village .. 189.. 205.. 210.. 242.. 259.. 247.. 254.. 283
Persons per Building . . 5-9.. 5-3.. 51.. 5 2.. 5-2.. 4-8.. 4-4.. 41

*Actual figures at the census were : habitable buildings—1,408,566 ; number of persons—5,806,980.

1 T h e Mawata P a t t u and the K a n d u h a P a t t u formed in Knox's day the Handapandum Korale, described
by him as " a sweet and pleasant country ".

140
 CHAPTER VI

SEX

At the Census of 1946 it was ascertained that the population of Ceylon was divided in terms
of sex into 3,532,218 males and 3,125,121 females, an excess of 407,097 males. Twenty-five years
previously, at the date of the Census of 1921, which was the next census preceding at which particulars
relating to sex were collected, the population of Ceylon was divided into 2,381,812 males and 2,116,793
females, an excess of 265,019 males in a total population of 4,498,605 persons. The ratio of the sexes,
expressed in terms of the number of males per 1,000 females, is observed to be 1,130 in 1946, and
1,125 in 1921. The ratio is ilso sometimes stated as indicating what is called the " masculinity "
of the population, that is, the number of males per 1,000 of the total population. The " masculinity "
of the population in 1946 vas 531, against 529 in 1921.

PREPONDERANCE OF MALES
This preponderance of males in Ceylon is no new feature of the Island's population. As far
back as 1821 Davy,i commenting on the figures of population collected by the British in 1814, observed
that " the excess " of males " appears to be in a large proportion : perhaps the Census is not quite
correct : perhaps the disproportion of the sexes is above the truth ; yet, from examining the particular
returns, and from considering the manner in which they were made out, T cannot help thinking that the
Census is not much below the truth, and that the number of males is greater than that of the females."
The existence in Ceylon of an excess number of males over females has, in fact, been confirmed by
the censuses taken from 1871, as is shown in the following Table :—

TABLE 91—POPULATION OF CEYLON, CLASSIFIED BY SEX, 1871-1946

Year Total Males Females Ratio of Males
per 1,000 Females
1871 2,400,380 1,280,129 1,120,251 1,143
1881 2,759,738 1,469,553 1,290,185 1,139
1891 3,007,789 1,593,376 1,414,413 1,127
1901 3,565,954 1,896,212 1,669,742 1,135
1911 4,106,350 2,175,030 1,931,320 1,126
1921 4,498,605 2,381,812 2,116,793 1,125
1946 6,657,339 3,532,218 3,125,121 1,130

It may be remarked that in India at the Census of 1941, in Canada at the Census of 1940,
and in the United States of America at the Census of 1940, there was an excess of males over females,
but not as great as in Ceylon. In India there were 1,069 males per 1,000 females ; in Canada
the proportion was 1,052 males per 1,000 females ; while in the United States it more nearly approached
a balance, with 1,011 males per 1,000 females. On the other hand, most countries in Western Europe
have in recent decades shown a greater number of females than males.
' D a v y : Interior of Ceylon, pp. 106-7.

141
 The balance of the sexes in a given locality is disturbed by one or more factors in nature or in
social experience. Thus, there may be a preponderance of births of one sex, or there may be a selective
death rate operating to cause a considerable disproportion. Or, again, the migration factor may be
selective, drawing an excessive number of one sex into the locality. Or, all these factors may act
together in varying degrees so that seldom, if ever, will there be a complete matching of pairs in any
particular area.

SEX RATIO AT BIRTH

In most countries, empirical observations have shown that the number of male births generally
exceeds that of female births every year. Ceylon is no exception. The following Table gives the
number of live births since 1937, and shows the ratio of males born per 1,000 females in each year :—
TABLE 92—NUMBER OF LIVE BIRTHS IN CEYLON, MALE AND FEMALE,
1937-1945, SHOWING RATIO OF MALES PER 1,000 FEMALES

Year Males Females Ratio of Males

per 1,000 Females
1937 110,228 105,844 1,041
1938 105,903 102,486 1,033
1939 107,908 104,203 1,036
1940 108,312 104,667 1,035
1941 112,055 107,809 1,039
1942 112,346 108,718 1,033
1943 126,343 122,477 1,032
1944 117,950 114,877 1,028
1945 121,378 117,116 1,036

The Table shows that there is a differential in the sex ratio at births of almost 4 per 100 excess
of males. In many countries, the difTerential of excess of males tends to be offset in part at least by
a higher infant death rate for males. The position in Ceylon may be observed in the following
Table :—
TABLE 93- -NUMBER OF DEATHS OF INFANTS IN CEYLON DURING
THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE, 1937-1945

Year Males Females Ratio of Males

per 1,000 Females
1937 18,398 15,782 ... 1,166
1938 17,947 15,683 ... 1,145
1939 18,551 16,623 ... 1,116
1940 16,893 14,826 ... 1,139
1941 15,265 13,196 ... 1,157
1942 14,253 12,383 ... 1,151
1943 17,516 15,326 ... 1,143
1944 16,782 14,675 ... 1,144
1945 17,713 15,596 ... 1,138

When this Table is compared with the preceding Table, the average number of males who died
in the first year of life is seen to be 17,037 out of an average of 113,602 males born, or 149 males per
1,000. Similarly, it is observed that 14,897 females out of 109,800 born, or 136 females per 1,000
die in the first year of life. Although these figures show an increase of mortality among male infants,
in the first year of life, as is experienced in many other countries,—an experience which some demo-
graphers seek to explain by assigning a hereditary basis for it,—Ceylon does not conform with what
142
seems to be the general trend in countries of the West in respect of the continuation throughout life
of a high male death rate. In most of these countries, differences in general hazards of the environ-
ment and of occupation of the male tend to maintain a higher death rate at most ages among males,
whilst the female death rate is depressed by better application of medical knowledge and better medical
care in maternity cases. In Ceylon, however, the female death rate is relatively higher than the male
death rate. The following Table gives the death rates for males and females in selected age groupings
for the years 1937-1945 :—

TABLE 94—DEATH RATE I N CEYLON PER 1,000 POPULATION, 1937-1945

FOR MALES AND FEMALES IN SELECTED AGE GROUPS

19-3T 1938 1939 1940 1941

Age Groups Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females

A L L AGES . . 20 •9. 22 •6. 20 • 2. 22 •0. 20 •9. 22 •8. . 19 •9. 21 •4. 18 •3. 19 •4

0-4 . 65 7. 64 •7. 65 • 2. 63 •4. 64 2. . 66 •9. 59 0. . 59 •6. 52 •6. 52 •8
5-9 7 •1. 8 •0. 6 •4. 7 •8. 6 •8. 7 •8. 6 4. 7 •7. 5 •9. 6 •7
10-14 . 3 •0. 4 -1. 3 •3. 3 8. 3 5. . 4 1. 3 5. . 4 1. 3 •4. 3 •8
1.5-19 5 •6. 7 •1. 5 1. 7 •1. 5 7. . 7 •0. 5 2. 6 •5. 4 •9. 6 •3
20-24 7 •1. 11 •7. 6 •9. 11 •3. 7 0. . 10 •9. 6 5. . 9 •9. 6 •7. 9 .9
25-34 . 9 •0. 14 •1. 8 •3. 13 •1. 8 3. . 12 •8. 8 1. . 11 •8. 7 •4. 11 •0
35-44 . 13 •6. 15 '5. 13 •0. 15 •1. 13 3. . 14 •7. 12 9. . 14 •7. U 7. 13 •0
4.5-54 . 21 •8. 18 -0. 20 •9. 16 •6. 21 3. . 17 0. 21 3. . 17 •1. 19 3. 15 .2
55 & over . . 05 • I . 76 •6. 05 •8. 75 •7. 70 7. . 82 •3. 70 1. . 82 3 . . 66 0. 70 4

1943 1941 Wis

Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females

. \ L L AGES . . 18 •5. 18 •8. 21 •3. 21 6. 21 0. 21 •7. 21 4. 22 •7

0-4 . 48 •7. 49 .2. 61 •1. 63 •0. 62 •5. 64 •3. 61 •5. 63 •0
;V9 5 •9. 7 •0. 7 •8. 9 •3. 8 • 2. 9 •4. 7 7. 9 •0
10-14 . 3 •3. 3 •7. 3 -.5. 4 .2 3 •7. 4 .2. 3 6. 4 •5
15-19 5 •0. 6 •0. 5 •7. 6 • 2, 5 •9. 6 •6. 0 •5. 7 •3
20-24 . 6 •4. 8 •9. 7 •1. 9 •4. 7 •0. 9 •3. 7 •5. 10 •8
25-34 7 8. 10 3. 8 3. 10 •3. 7 •8. 10 •4. 8 1. 11 •3
35-44 . 12 •9. 13 •3. 13 •o. 13 5. 12 7. 12 •8. 13 1. 14 •4
45—54 . 21 1. 15 6. 22 8. . 15 8. 21 5. 15 8. 23 4. 17 •2
5.5 & over . 72 1. 77 9. 76 5. . 82 7 . . 74 2. 81 9. 78 2. 90 0

MASCULINITY RATIO BY AGE GROUPS

It is manifest from the above Table that the experience of Ceylon is that the female death-rate
at most ages is higher than that of the male, with the result that the unbalance of the sexes in favour
of the male which occurs at birth is greatly enhanced throughout life. This is confirmed by the results
of the Census of 1946 which shows the ratio of masculinity greatest within the age group of the reproduc-
tive years, 15-49 :—
TABLE 95—DISTRIBUTION BY SEX PER 1,000 PERSONS FOR VARIOUS
AGE GROUPS IN CEYLON 1946

Per 1,000 Persons

Excess of Males
Age Groups Males Females over Females
0-4 508 492 16
5-9 507 493 14
10-14 514 486 28
15-19 535 465 70
20-24 511 489 22
25-29 532 468 64
143
 Per 1,000 Persons
-jy ^ Excess of Males
Age Groups Males Females over Females
30-34 548 452 96
35-39 558 442 116
40-44 597 403 194
45-49 574 426 148
50-54 534 466 68
55-59 580 420 160
60-64 545 455 90
65 and above 543 457 86

The female death-rate in the reproductive age-group has no doubt been affected adversely
by the large number of deaths caused by diseases of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium. The
maternal death-rate in Ceylon per 1,000 live births for the years 1937-1945 was as follows :—

1937: 1 9 - 9 ; 1938: 2 0 - 1 ; 1939: 1 8 - 2 ; 1940: 1 6 - 1 ; 1941: 15-2; 1942: 14 4 ;

1943: 1 3 - 3 ; 1944: 1 3 - 7 ; 1945: 16-5. The decline in the rate is noteworthy, but in 1938 it
was probably one of the highest in the civilized world. Diagram VI on page 145 illustrates the
maternal death-rates in 1938 in certain countries.

EFFECT O F M A T E R N A L D E A T H R A T E
The maternal death-rate is known to be highest in the North-Central Province where the condi-
tions of hfe for females appear to be the hardest. It has been suggested that the lack of proper dieting
affects many girls w i t h rickets, thus preventing normal pelvis development, and increasing the
possibility of death in childbirth. Apart f r o m the high maternal death-rate, other causes generally
regarded as operative in Eastern countries can have only a slight bearing on the high female death-
rate in Ceylon, for female infanticide is practically unknown, female children are not customarily
neglected, and infant marriage and premature sexual intercourse and child-bearing are not widespread.
Unskilful midwifery is no doubt still practised in the remote rural areas, but is gradually being reduced.

The high maternal death-rate in Ceylon may be regarded also as a concomitant of the
predominant male sex ratio which has been characteristic of its population for over a century at least.
The theory may be put forward that in the prevailing situation practically all females may expect
to marry, and that in point of fact many women who were not fitted to marry had married with the
result that a large proportion of such women had died in childbirth, causing the relatively high death-
rate among married women.

It seems evident that the great excess of males over females in the population of Ceylon is due
to a preponderance of males at birth and to a higher female death-rate throughout life, particularly
after the first year. There is also the factor of migration to be considered. The excess of 407,097'
males in the population enumerated in 1946 was found to be distributed between the race-groups
indigenous to Ceylon and the race-groups immigrant to Ceylon as follows :—Race-groups Indigenous :
274,500 ; Race-groups Immigrant: 132,597. The ratio of males to 1,000 females in the Indigenous
Race-Group was 1,099, while the ratio of males to 1,000 females in the Immigrant Race-Group was
1,363. The following Table gives the relative numbers of males and females in the two Race-Groups :

144
 Diagram V[

Ceylon

British G u i a n a

Chile

Jamaica

Northern Ireland

Austria

Scotland

Germany

Canada

Lithuania

Australia

U. S. A,

Finland
m
Rumania

S, A f r i c a
m
Eire

England & Wales

mm
Japan

Italy

i I I I I 1 I 1 I I I 1 I 1 I 1 1 I I I t I I L

n 5 10 15 20 25
Maternal Death Rates for Specified Countries, 1938 (per 1,000 Live Births)

145
 T A B L E 9 6 — P O P U L A T I O N BY SEX OF RACE-GROUPS INDIGENOUS TO CEYLON, A N D OF
RACE-GROUPS I M M I G R A N T TO CEYLON, SHOWING R A T I O OF M A L E S
T O 1,000 FEMALES I N EACH RACE-GROUP, 1 9 4 6

Races Indigenous to Ceylon Races Immigrant to Ceylon

^ f
Ratio of Ratio of
Males Females Males Males Females Males
to 1,000 to 1,000
Females Females
Low-country Indian Tamils 430,264... 350,325 . . . 1,228
Sinhalese ... 1 , 5 1 4 , 6 0 7 .. . 1,387,902 .. 1,091 Indian Moors 30,814 ... 4,810 . . . 6,406
Kandyan Sin- Europeans ... 3,017 ... 2,401 . . . 1,257
halese 905,108 .. 8 1 2 , 8 9 0 . . . 1,113 Others 33,577... 7,539 ... 4,452
Ceylon Tamils 382,817 .. 3 5 0 , 9 1 4 . . . 1,091
Ceylon Moors 197,910.. 1 7 5 , 6 4 9 .. 1,127
Burghers and
Eurasians... 20,978 .. 2 0 , 9 4 8 . . . 1,001
Malays 11,868 .. 1 0 , 6 4 0 . . . 1,115
Veddahs 1,258 .. 1,103 . . . 1,141

Total I n d i - Total Immi-

genous grant
Group 3,034,546 2,760,046 1,099 Group ... 497,672 365,075 1,363

It is apparent f r o m the above Table that the tendency of Indian Tamil and European immigrants
to have their famiUes with them has somewhat reduced the importance of the migration factor as a
determinant of an excess male ratio. On the other hand, it may be reasonably supposed that the
very great disproportion in the sex ratios among Indian Moors and the group of " Other Races "
(in which are included Cochinese and Malayali) has led to their taking wives outside their own groups
and f r o m among the indigenous race-groups, thus blending both blood and background.

A N A L Y S I S B Y R A C E GROUPS
It is sometimes urged on t' /idence of observations made in India and other countries that
a high degree of ' masculinity ' . transmissible racial characteristic, not necessarily, one may hasten
to add, a proof of greater physical vigour. In Ceylon, however, there is no evidence on which to
base such an assertion. In 1 9 1 1 , the indigenous race-groups arranged according to their degree of
masculinity were :—
1. Kandyan Sinhalese 1 , 1 1 0 males to 1,000 females
• 2. Malays
3. Veddahs^ 1,101 males to 1,000 females
4. Ceylon Moors ... 1,092 males to 1,000 females
5. Low-country Sinhalese 1,088 males to 1,000 females
6. Ceylon Tamils ... 1,037 males to 1,000 females
7. Burghers 1,000 males to 1,000 females

In 1 9 2 1 , the altered degree of ' masculinity ' placed the rade-groups in the following order :-
1. Kandyan Sinhalese 1 , 1 1 9 males to 1,000 females
2. Low-country Sinhalese 1,092 males to 1,000 females
3. Ceylon Moors ... 1,087 males to 1,000 females
4. Malays 1,083 males to 1,000 females
5. Veddahs 1,075 males to 1,000 females
6. Ceylon Tamils 1,032 males to 1,000 females
7. Burghers and Eurasians 9 7 0 males to 1,000 females
146
 In 1946, as already noted, the position of the various race-groups in respect of masculinity
was as follows :—
1. Veddahs 1,141 males to 1,000 females
2. Ceylon Moors ... 1,127 males to 1,000 females
3. Malays 1,115 males to 1,000 females
4. Kandyan Sinhalese ] , 1 1 3 males to 1,000 females
5. Low-country Sinhalese 1,091 males to 1,000 females
6. Ceylon Tamils ... 1,091 males to 1,000 females
7. Burghers and Eurasians 1,001 males to 1,000 females

The 1 9 4 6 Census showed an increase over 1 9 2 1 in the male ratio in respect of all race-groups,
other than the two Sinhalese race-groups, who in 1921 had been at the head of the Table.

REGIONAL VARIATIONS
The sex distribution of the population, in respect of the Revenue Districts of the Island, is
shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 9 7 . — T H E POPULATION BY SEX IN T H E REVENUE DISTRICTS OF
CEYLON, 1946 A N D 1 9 2 1 , SHOWING R A T I O OF M A L E S TO FEMALES.

1946 1921
A
r t
Ratio of Ratio of
District Males Females ^_jMales to Males Females Males to
1,000 ' 1,000
Females Females
Colombo ... 779,800 . .. 6 4 0 , 5 3 2 . 1,217 .. . 4 9 9 , 1 6 9 . .. 423,974 . .. 1,177
Kalutara ... 234,630 . .. 2 2 1 , 9 4 2 . 1,057 .. . 167,759 . .. 155,945 . .. 1,076
Kandy ... 376,990 . .. 3 3 4 , 4 5 9 . 1,127 .. . 2 2 9 , 0 1 6 . .. 204,977 . .. 1,117
Matale ... 83,194 . .. 72,526 . 1,147 .. . 62,643 . .. 53,941 . .. 1,161
Nuwara Eliya ... 140,592 . .. 127,529 . .. -1,102 .. . 87,939 . .. 79,223 . .. 1,110
Galle ... 227,055 . ., 2 3 2 , 7 3 0 . 976 .. . 1 5 4 , 7 2 6 . . 158,392 . .. 977
Matara ... 175,841 . .. 176,106 . 998 .. . 1 1 9 , 6 1 1 . . 118,898 . .. 1,006
Hambantota ... 79,862 . . 69,824 . 1,144 .. . 63,028 . . 56,579 . .. 1,114
Jaffna ... 212,194 . .. 2 1 2 , 5 9 4 . 998 .. . 1 6 1 , 5 5 3 . . 168,988 . .. 956
Mannar ... 18,787 . .. 12,751 . 1,473 .. 14,844 . . 10,738 . .. 1,382
Vavuniya ... 13,414 . 9,832 . 1,364 .. . 10,824 . 7,882 . .. 1,373
Batticaloa ... 102,307 . .. 100,879 . 1,014 .. . 79,168 . . 79,541 . .. 995
Trincomalee ... 50,639 . .. 25,287 . 2,003 .. . 18,616 . . 15,496 . .. 1,201
Kurunegala ... 260,029 . .. 2 2 5 , 0 1 3 . 1,156 .. . 1 9 8 , 1 2 0 . . 156,077 . .. 1,269
Puttalam ... 24,972 . .. 18,111 . 1,379 .. . 21,421 . . 14,189 . .. 1,509
Chilaw ... 74,206 . .. 65,558 . 1,132 .. . 56,333 . . 46,041 . .. 1,224
Anuradhapura ... 82,350 . .. 57,184 . 1,443 .. . 54,929 . . 41,596 . .. 1,321
BaduUa ... 196,198 . .. 176,040 . 1,115 .. . 1 2 4 , 2 2 8 . . 109,636 . .. 1,13-
Ratnapura • ... 186,066 . . 157,554 . 1,181 .. 112,025 . . 90,950 . .. 1,232^
Kegalla ... 213,092 . .. 188,670 . 1,129 .. . 1 4 5 , 1 9 9 . . 123,640 . .. 1,174

This Table shows that Trincomalee District had the highest proportion of males in 1946, and
that Mannar, Anuradhapura, Puttalam and Vavuniya Districts ranked next in order in this respect.
These Districts, as was noted in the last Chapter, were those that gained heavily in popuation by an
inflow of immigrants, and it is not, therefore, surprising that the male ratio, as shown by the census,
was high. In several Districts, there was a decline in ' masculinity' since 1 9 2 1 , the most marked
being in the districts of the North-Western Province, Kurunegala, Puttalam and Chilaw. Other
districts showing an appreciable decrease were Ratnapura, Kegalla, BaduUa and Kalutara.
147
 Of the Towns, it may be remarked that the greatest degree of ' masculinity' was observed
in 1 9 4 6 in Trincomalee, Wattegama, Hatton-Dickoya, and Kadugannawa. Next in order were
Colombo City, Bandarawela, Anuradhapura, Kuliyapitiya, and Balangoda. The employment
factor is the probable cause of this relatively high concentration of males in these towns.

On the other hand, the lowest ' masculinity ' was observed in WeHgama. Other towns
showing a higher female ratio were Beruwala and Ambalangoda. In Matara there was almost an
equal proportion of the two sexes, while only a very small majority of males was found in Galle,
Tangalla-Beliatta, Moratuwa, Batticaloa, and Hambantota. The explanation for the low 'masculinity'
seems to lie mainly in the emigration of males in search of employment.

The Districts with the highest ' masculinity' in 1921 are seen f r o m the Table to have been
Puttalam, Mannar, Vavuniya, and Anuradhapura, indicating but little variation f r o m the facts
observed twenty-five years later, Trincomalee being the notable exception. Of the Towns, in 1 9 2 1 ,
Wattegama, Kuliyapitiya, Hatton-Dickoya had each a male population more than double the female,
while others which showed a high mascuhnity (a ratio of more than 1,500 males to 1,000 females)
were Bandarawela, Anuradhapura, Kurunegala, Balangoda, Ratnapura, Gampaha, Nawalapitiya,
Kadugannawa, Avissawella, and Colombo City. Towns with more females than males in 1 9 2 1 were
Galle, Moratuwa, Beruwala, and Weligama.

SEX RATIO A N D MARRIAGE

Theorists assert that the sex ratio has rather subtle but profound elfects on the psychology
and general behaviour of the population. An abnormal proportion of males in a given locaUty is
said to attract demimondes and prostitutes, and to cause the establishment of gambling halls and
taverns. In the absence of women and children, carelessness with life is alleged to prevail. How
far these characteristics were to be seen in towns like Trincomalee in 1946 which showed a ratio of
3 , 0 3 1 males to 1,000 females may prove an interesting separate study.

An examination of the sex ratio in relation to the marriageable ages in various race-groups
may also yield useful information. It is generally acknowledged that men tend to marry women
considerably younger than themselves, and it is often observed that the older the man. the greater
the difference in age between him and the woman he marries. On the assumption that in Ceylon
the most marriageable age for women is 1 5 - 2 4 years, and for men is 2 0 - 2 9 years, comparisons o f
sex ratios for each race-group, as recorded in the census of 1946, are shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 9 8 — R A T I O OF M A L E S TO 100 FEMALES IN VARIOUS A G E A N D RACE-GROUPS, 1946

Ratio of Males Ratio of Males Ratio of Males
Race 2 0 - 2 9 years to 2 0 - 2 4 years to 2 5 - 2 9 years to
100 Females 100 Females 100 Females
1 5 - 2 4 years 1 5 - 1 9 years 20-24 years
A L L RACES... 100-8 103-7 97-9
Low-country Sinhalese 93-4 98-1 88-7
Kandyan Sinhalese 90-4 91-9 88-8
Ceylon Tamils 1011 102-2 99-9
Indian Tamils 131-2 130-8 131-6
Ceylon Moors 102-8 108-7 96-8
Indian Moors 1,246-9 1,239-2 1,255-6
Burghers and Eurasians 90-3 88-4 92-5
Malays 94-7 94-0 95-5
Veddahs 96-2 90-9 101-9
Europeans ... 137-4 185-0 107-5
Others 730-8 689-9 773-3

148
 The Table shows that males at the most marriageable ages are fewer than the females among
both sections of the Sinhalese race-group, among the Burghers and Eurasian race-group, and among
the Malays. A good proportion of them may therefore find their mates either outside the normal
age-group or outside their race-group by intermarriage. The sex ratio is more balanced among the
Ceylon Tamils and the Ceylon Moors, but the immigrant race-groups, as is to be expected, have a
very great disproportion between the sexes, particularly Indian Moors and ' Others,' the males
among whom must therefore either mate with females of the indigenous race-group or defer marriage
until they return to their homeland. Delayed marriage is recognized to be a consequence of a lack
of balance in the sex ratios and undoubtedly has an effect on the birth-rate of the group by retarding
i t . H o w far the Sinhalese, Burghers and Malays suffer from a decline in their natural rate of increase
may be ascertained by a more detailed study than is possible in this general report, but some trends
may be indicated in the next succeeding Chapter.

149
 CHAPTER V I I

(I) RACE
T T H E subject o f ' race ' has always been one on which particulars had been obtained at cen-
suses taken in Ceylon since 1871, ^ although in the earlier censuses the somewhat misleading terms
' nationality', which has a particular poUtical and legal connotation, had been used to denote the
several differentiated groups, which we now call ' races', among the inhabitants of Ceylon. The
historical background of these several ' races' has been described in some detail in the first chapter.
However one may wish to ignore it, the fact of ' race' is a phenomenon which no demographer
or sociologist can refrain f r o m investigating, for it is generally acknowledged that it has some bearing
upon sex ratios, birth rates, death rates, illness rates, and other vital statistics of a population. The
subject, in fact, has been the theme of many tomes, especially in the United States of America and on
the continent of Europe, and relative differences in physical development and skills, in innate ability,
in mental capacity, have been sought to be assessed and measured by anthropometric formulae, by
intelligence and aptitude tests, by tests of sensory activity, and various other ingenious devices. After
all these investigations, researchers hke Clark Wissler ^ have reached the conclusion that there is no
evidence to show that any particular race is in any general way physically or mentally inferior to the
others, and that while minor differences in specific abilities and in specific physical traits exist, there is
no wide difference observable in hereditary capacity. Such difference in achievement as has been
noticed is generally attributed to differences in historic experience, to lack of opportunity, and other
sociocultural factors.

R A C I A L SPIRIT
Nevertheless, in several countries, notoriously in Hitler's Germany, population policies have f r o m
time to time been formulated and carried out on the basis of the supposed superiority of particular
race types over others. Attempts have been made not only to segregate race groups, but even to
restrict the multiphcation of particular race groups in proportion to others. Even in Ceylon, notwith-
standing the intermingling of races which, as noted in the first chapter, had taken place throughout its
history, the Mahawamsa abounds in reference to the desire of many Kings and Chieftains " to preserve
the purity of the Aryan race One may, indeed, maintain with Arthur Keith ^ that race conscious-
ness is innate in man, that it is, in fact, part of nature's machinery in its great business of evolution.
" Those quahties which are manifested in every-day life as ' racial s p i r i t ' are in reality an ancient and
essential part of nature's creational machinery ". It is fortunate, however, that in Ceylon race
consciousness, hke caste consciousness, has manifested itself mainly in some degree of immobihty
in social relationships, and not in a bitter antagonism blinding men against a reasoned consideration
of common interest. This may be the result of the tolerant spirit of its predominant rehgion, Buddhism,
which taught that none was by birth an outcast or a Brahmin, but that deeds made the one or the other ^
—a spirit which seems to have inspired many of its Kings, Like Raja Sinha II in more modern times.
Whatever may be the cause of this tolerance, it is an undoubted advantage in the building-up of an

' Cf. Ch. I I I .

* Cf. Wissler's " Man and Culture ", and " Problems of Ageing."
' Cf. Keith, Sir Arthur: "Ethnos" ; "Racial Spirit as a Force in History."
* Na jacoa vasalo hoti na jacca hoti Brahmano,
Kammana vasalo hoti Kammana hoti Brahmano.

150
incipient' nation ', or a new race-type which may be called ' Ceylonese', that there exists between the
various ' races' of Ceylon a spirit of co-operation and comradeship. As Keith expressed it, " the
stronger the spirit of mutual service within a tribe, a people, or a race, the more able does that tribe,
people or race become to take a place in the sun ".

The numerical strength of the various race-groups in Ceylon in 1946 and 1921 is given in the
following Table :—

T A B L E 9 9 — P O P U L A T I O N OF CEYLON, BY R A C E GROUPS, 1946 A N D 1 9 2 1 , SHOWING

N U M E R I C A L INCREASE OR DECREASE A N D PER CENT. INCREASE OR DECREASE

Numerical Per Cent.

Persons Increase or Increase or
Race >•
Decrease Decrease
1946 1921 1921-1946 1921-1946
Low-Country Sinhalese ... 2,902,509 ... 1,927,057 .. +975,452 . +50-6
Kandyan Sinhalese ... ... 1,717,998 ... 1,089,097 .. +628,901 . + 57-7
Ceylon Tamils 733,731 ... 517,324 .. +216,407 . +41-8
Indian Tamils ... 780,589 ... 602,735 .. + 177,854 . +29-5
Ceylon Moors 373,559 ... 251,938 .. + 121,621 . +48-3
Indian Moors 35,624 ... 33,026 .. + 2,598 . + 7-9
Burghers and Eurasians 41,926 ... 29,439 .. + 12,487 . +42-4
Malays 22,508 ... 13,402 .. + 9,106 . +67-9
Veddhas 2,361 ... 4,510 .. — 2,149 . —47-6
Europeans 5,418 ... 8,118 .. — 2,700 . —33-3
Others 41,116 ... 21,959 .. + 19,157 . +87-2

W i t h reference to this Table, it should be noted that instructions to enumerators required that
the offspring of parents of different races should be assigned to the father's race. The largest numerical
increase has occurred in the 25-year period, 1921-1946, among the Low-Country Sinhalese, but the
greatest rate of increase has been in the miscellaneous category of * Others'. Of the races indigenous
to Ceylon, the highest rate of increase within the 25-year period has been among the Malays. There
has been a decrease in the numbers of the Veddahs and the Europeans. Of the' Others ', the Cochinese,
the Malayalee, and the Telegus, who together aggregated only 16,526 persons in 1921 had more than
doubled themselves within the 25-year period, and in 1946 no fewer than 33,617 out of 41,116 ' Others '
were enumerated in these ' race-groups'.

D I F F E R E N T I A T I O N OF T H E SINHALESE
The differentiation of the Sinhalese into Low-Country and Kandyan for the purposes of a
census was first made at the census of 1901, but is of no ethnic significance. Sinhalese who traced
their descent to a Low-Country district, i.e., any of those in the Western or Southern Provinces, or
to the Chilaw District, or the Western part of the Puttalam District, were classified as "Low-Country
Sinhalese ", while Sinhalese who traced their origin to the Central and North-Central Provinces, the
Provinces of Uva and Sabaragamuwa, the Kurunegala District and part of the Puttalam District, and
the Sinhalese Divisions of the Districts of Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Vavuniya, were enumerated
as " Kandyan Sinhalese " . Louis Liesching, an experienced Civil Servant, was quoted in the Census
Report of 1901 as expressing the view that " the Sinhalese may be sub-divided into three classes, the
maritime or low-country Sinhalese, the Kandians, and the Rodias or outcasts ". The following extracts
f r o m his description of the three classes may be read with interest :—

151
 " The Low-Country Sinhalese occupy the sea-coast of the Western and Southern Provinces.
They are a handsome and well-made race, and'their appearance and character are gentle, rather than
bold or hardy. Nature has been bountiful to them, and their wants are readily supplied. This very
bounty, however, has been unfavourable to the development of active habits and enterprise. The
cultivation of the soil is the favourite pursuit of the Sinhalese, and in landed property it is that they
best love to invest their money. They are by no means deficient in quickness or talents, and when
educated make good scholars. The turn of their minds is metaphysical and speculative.
They have naturally a great aptitude for figures, and readily acquire a knowledge of mathematics.
Their national religion is Buddhism, though there are many converts to Christianity among them
The Kandians are as a body hardier and more robust than their brethren of the Low-
Country, though of the same race. Breathing the bracing air of the hills, which they are constantly
ascending and descending, their limbs are wiry and their habits active The spirit of
independence is strongly developed in the Kandians, and their attachment to their hereditary lands
is extraordinary They are averse to servile employment, and though they might secure high
wages on Estates, they prefer earning a subsistence by cultivating their own patches of land.
They have very Uttle practical acquaintance with the arts and manufactures Education
has not made the same progress among the Kandians that it has in the maritime districts. The
villagers are consequently very superstitious and very credulous. Polygamy and polyandry were till
lately tolerated The Rodias are included amongst the Sinhalese for want of better information
about them. K n o x , i who was a captive among the Kandians for nearly twenty years, says that
they were persons whose duty it was to supply the K i n g with game, and that on one occasion they
produced human flesh, which His Majesty enjoyed so much that he directed them to procure more of
what he supposed was part of a wild animal. The deception became known, however, to the royal
barber, who acquainted the K i n g with i t . The rage of the King may be imagined ; and as the direst
punishment he could inflict on the offenders, he decreed that henceforth they, as well as all their tribe,
should be outcasts f r o m other society, that they should not be allowed to pursue any calUng, but beg
their bread f r o m door to door, and be shunned by all others. This order of things being once established
it became no unusual practice for the K i n g to punish noblemen and women who incurred his displeasure
by condemning them to j o i n the Rodias with their whole families—a sentence worse than death.
This fact may account for the beauty of form pecuUar to their class, in spite of the abject demeanour
which their degraded position superinduces The Rodias Uve in villages of their own, and obtain
their subsistence by begging. They have the credit, moreover, of being expert thieves Having
formerly been debarred f r o m tilling the soil, they have learnt to make articles of handicraft, such as
grass ropes, baskets and mats. They also make strong hide ropes for securing cattle and wild elephants
From the fibre of a species of aloes they also manufactured whips, which are carried before the
great in processions, and cracked with a noise like the report of a pistol. The women are expert at
such feats as spinning brass plates on one finger, tossing balls in the air and catching them, etc
Their habits of hfe are said to be unnatural and immoral. Their figures are erect as arrows. One can
hardly view a race so fine in a physical point of view, so degraded in a moral aspect, without pity, and
a desire to see them raised. "

T H E L O W - C O U N T R Y SINHALESE

The Low-Country Sinhalese formed only 43-6 per cent, of the total population of the
the Island at the census of 1946, but this was an increase of 0-8 per cent, since the census of 1921.
Their biggest concentration was in the districts of the Southern Province. In the Hambantota
District 96-0 per cent, of the population were returned as Low-Country Sinhalese. Matara claimed

1 Of. Knox : Historical Relation, p. 112-113.

152
9 4 - 1 per cent, and Galle 94-0 per cent, of their respective populations as Low-Country Sinhalese. Their
percentage distribution in 1946 and 1921 in the various Districts of the Island is given in the following
Table :—
T A B L E 100—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE L O W - C O U N T R Y SINHALESE I N REVENUE
DISTRICTS (INCLUSIVE OF M U N I C I P A L A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS), 1946 A N D 1921
Per Cent, of
Total Population of District
District
1946 1921

Colombo 79-2 80-0

Kalutara 85-8 82-4
Kandy 101 8-3
Matale 9-4 7-7
Nuwara Eliya 7-2 6-6
Galle 94-0 92-9
Matara 94-1 94-5
Hambantota 96-0 95-9
Jaffna 0-76 0-25
Mannar 30 1-9
Vavuniya 4-1 20
Batticaloa 1-4 0-89
Trincomalee 14-7 2-3
Kurunegala 17-2 20-3
Puttalam 28-5 22-7
Chilaw 84-5 82-7
Anuradhapura 12-7 6-2
BaduUa 7-6 5-1
Ratnapura 15-2 11-1
Kegalla 10-2 9-6

The Table reveals that the Low-Country Sinhalese have increased their proportions in all Districts,
except Kurunegala, Colombo and Matara where they have declined, and Hambantota where
their proportionate strength has remained almost stationary. The greatest proportionate increase
has been in the Trincomalee District, owing to the large increase in the Urban Council Area, particularly
in Sinnakkadai where their numbers run the Ceylon Tamils very close. The growth of the
Low-Country Sinhalese population in the Tamil Districts is noteworthy.
As was observed in the last Chapter, the Low-Country Sinhalese showed a ratio of 1,091 males
to 1,000 females in the Island. There was, however, a preponderance of females in Galle and Matara
Districts—there being only 9 6 5 males to 1,000 females in Galle, and 9 9 3 males to 1,000 females in
Matara. The ' masculinity ' of the Low-Country Sinhalese was, as might be expected, greatest in the
Districts in which they were immigrant, that is, chiefly in the Tamil Districts of Trincomalee, Mannar,
Vavuniya, and Batticaloa, and in the Kandyan District of Anuradhapura.

In the towns, the Low-Country Sinhalese formed more than 90 per cent, of the population of
Ambalangoda, Moratuwa, Horana, and Panadura. They comprised only 44 - 3 per cent, of the popula-
tion of Colombo City, and were also in a minority in two other Low-Country towns, Hambantota ( 4 4 - 1
per cent.) and Puttalam ( 1 6 4 per cent.). In Beruwala, Ambalangoda, Matara and Weligama the Low-
Country Sinhalese had more females than males, while the sex ratio among them was fairly evenly
balanced in Galle, Moratuwa, Negombo, Horana, Panadura, Gampola, Tangalla-Beliatta, and Chilaw.

The rate at which the Low-Country Sinhalese have increased their numerical strength propor-
tionate to the total population o f the Island, since 1901, is as follows ; — 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 1 1 : 0 9 per cent. ;
153
1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 1 : 1-0 per cent. ; 1921-1946 : 0 - 8 percent. On the " triple age-grouping " adopted by
Sundbarg, the Low-Country Sinhalese were shown at the census of 1946 to be grouped as in the
following Table in respect of their ages :—

T A B L E 1 0 1 — L O W - C O U N T R Y SINHALESE BY A G E GROUPS, 1946

Males Females Total Per Cent, of

Total
A L L AGES ... 1,514,607 1,387,902 2,902,509 . 100-0
0 - 1 4 years ... 539,269 511,321 1,050,590 36-2
1 5 - 4 9 years ... 789,695 713,347 1,503,042 51-8
50 years and above 185,643 163,234 348,877 12-0

The population of Low-Country Sinhalese in the Island is, in terms of Sundbarg's classi-
fication, 1 likely to be somewhat progressive.

THE K A N D Y A N SINHALESE
The Kandyan Sinhalese, who numbered 1,717,998 persons at the census of 1946, against 1,089,097
persons in 1 9 2 1 , comprise 2 5 - 8 per cent, of the total population of the Island. Their distribution shows
that their percentage to the total population of a District was highest in Kurunegala, where they formed
75 • 0 per cent, of the population. The following Table gives their percentage distribution in the various
Districts of the Island in 1 9 4 6 and 1 9 2 1 :—

T A B L E 102—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE K A N D Y A N SINHALESE IN REVENUE DISTRICTS

(INCLUSIVE O F M U N I C I P A L A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS) I N 1946 A N D 1921

Per Cent, of
Total Population oj District

District 1946 1921

Colombo 1-8 ... 1-1
Kalutara 1-0 ... 0-8
Kandy 47-7 ... 47-3
Matale 58-7 ... 54-3
Nuwara EUya 30-6 ... 28.5
Galle 0-45 ... 0.34
Matara 0-30 ... 0.15
Hambantota 0-56 ... 0-26
JalTna 0-31 ... 007
Mannar 0-70 ... 0-21
Vavuniya 12-5 ... 9-8
Batticaloa ... 4-5 ... 3-7
Trincomalee... 6 0 ... 2 1
Kurunegala 75-0 ... 69-2
Puttalam 23-6 ... 19-6
Chilaw 2-5 ... 2-7
Anuradhapura 67 0 ... 69-3
Badulla 49-7 ... 53-4
Ratnapura ... 60-5 ... 63-3
Kegalla 71-9 ... 64-9
' Sundbarg, a Swedish demographer, thought that a normal age distribution would show about half the
population as being between 15 and 49 years (inclusive). He characterized such a population as
(i) progressive, if the proportion in group 0-14 years is 39 per cent, against 11 per cent, in group 50
years and above ; (ii) stationary, if the percentages are 33 and 17 ; and (iii) regressive, if the
percentage in group 50 years and above exceeds that in group 0-14 years.

154
 It is apparent f r o m the above Table that in Anuradhapura, Badulla, and Ratnapura Districts,—
" Kandyan " Districts, all of them—the Kandyan Sinhalese have lost their proportionate numerical
strength since 1 9 2 1 . On the other hand, in two districts of the Central Province, i.e., Matale and
Nuwara Eliya, in Vavuniya District, in Kurunegala and Puttalam Districts, and in Kegalla District,
their numbers in proportion to the rest of the population in these Districts have risen considerably.
The decennial mean rate of increase among the Kandyan Sinhalese was noted in 1921 to be 11 • 8 per
cent. This has been greatly accelerated within the past twenty-five years, due no doubt to better health
conditions, and the decennial mean rate of increase had risen to 18" 0 per cent.

In no town, even in the Kandyan Districts, were the Kandyan Sinhalese in a majority. Their
proportionate numerical strength in any town was greatest within the Kegalla and Ratnapura. Urban
Council Areas in which they formed 4 4 - 5 per cent, and 4 4 - 2 per cent, respectively of the total
population. In Badulla they constituted 43 2 per cent. In Kandy, Gampoia, Hatton-Dickoya,
Kadugannawa, Nawalapitiya, Wattegama, Nuwara Eliya, Kuliyapitiya, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura,
Bandarawela, and Balangoda—towns within the Kandyan Districts—they were, in fact, outnumbered
by the Low-Country Sinhalese. In Gampoia they were outnumbered also by the Ceylon Moors ;
in Hatton-Dickoya by the Indian Tamils, Ceylon Tamils, and the Ceylon Moors ; in Nawalapitiya
by the Ceylon Moors ; and in Nuwara Eliya by the Indian Tamils.

The age composition of the Kandyan Sinhalese on the triple grouping, is shown in the following
Table :—
T A B L E 1 0 3 — K A N D Y A N SINHALESE BY A G E GROUPS, 1946

Males Females Totals Per Cent, of

Total
905,108 .. 812,890 .. . 1,717,998 .. 100
A L L AGES
362,491 .. 349,270 .. 711,761 .. 41-4
0 - 1 4 years
451,021 .. 394,429 .. 845,450 .. 49-2
1 5 - 4 9 years
50 years and above 91,596 .. 69,191 .. 160,787. .. 9-4

The Kandyan Sinhalese population may be described as " progressive " by Sundbarg's standards,
and seems likely to increase.

Kandyan Sinhalese are subject to the operation of certain characteristic laws of marriage and
succession.' Grounds for a divorce include mutual consent, as well as adultery, desertion or separa-
tion f r o m bed and board. Marriage may be in diga, or binna. With some exceptions, the diga
married wife forefeits her claim to her parents' estate, as she has gone out of her ancestral home to
hve with her husband. In a binna marriage, the husband lives in the house of the wife's parents.

The Rodiyas were not enumerated separately, as they were regarded as a caste of the Sinhalese
and not as a race-group. ' Caste ' though proposed as a subject for the census, was not accepted as
such by the Executive Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce, and particulars in respect of
caste were not collected. Nevertheless, from their characteristic names, their settlements known as
Kuppayams, and their headmen known as hulawali, it would appear that they are most numerous in
Ratnapura and Kurunegala Districts, and in the Yatikinda Division of Badulla District.

The Tamils, both Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils, at the census of 1946 aggregated a total
of 1,514,320 persons, or 2 2 - 7 per cent, of the Island's total population. The distinction between
Ceylon Tamils, i.e., those who traced their origin to a Tamil district in Ceylon, and ' Indian Tamils'

I Cf. Hayley : Laws and Customs of the Sinhalese.

155
i.e., those who did not, was first made at the census of 1 9 1 1 . Enumerators were instructed that stock
and not birthplace, determined race, and that Tamils, who admitted that they or their recent progeni-
tors were comparatively new arrivals in the Island f r o m " the coast " in India, were to be counted as
' Indian T a m i l s ' .

THE CEYLON TAMILS

The Ceylon Tamils enumerated at the census o f 1946 amounted to 733,731 persons, as against
5 1 7 , 3 2 4 persons belonging to this race-group in 1 9 2 1 . This represents a numerical increase in twenty
five years o f 2 1 6 , 4 0 7 persons, or a percentage increase of 4 1 - 8. The sex ratio showed a proportion o f
1,091 males to 1,000 females, somewhat less than the ' masculinity' of the Kandyan Sinhalese, but some-
what higher than that of the Low-Country Sinhalese. As is to be expected, the majority of the Ceylon
Tamils were to be found in the Jaffna District, where 56 per cent, of them had their homes. They
numbered 4 0 9 , 0 7 0 in Jaffna District, with a sex ratio, as was noted in the last Chapter, in favour of the
females. I n no other District in the Island did they exceed 100,000 persons, except Batticaloa District,
which claimed the next largest aggregation enumerating only 101,061 persons. Their proportion
in relation to the total population in each District of the Island is given in the following Table :—

T A B L F 104--PFRCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CEYLON TAMILS IN RE-VENUE DISTRICTS

(INCLUSFVE O F MUNICIPALITIES A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS) I N 1946 A N D 1921

Per Cent, of Total Population

of District
^ , A

District 1946 1921

Colombo
Kalutara 41 2-5
Kandy 0 83 0 49
Matale 4 2 1 5
Nuwara 'Eliya 3 1 1 2
Galle 2 0 0 96
Matara 0 68 0 25
Hambantota 0 67 0 16
Jaffna 0 53 0 51
Mannar 96 3 97 7
Vavuniya 51 0 58 1
Batticaloa ... 69 3 77 0
Trincomalee 49 7 52

Kurunegala 40 1 53
1 5 0
Puttalam
Chilaw 12 8 15 3
5 2 5 3
Anuradhapura 6 7 6 4
BaduUa 4 2 1 4
Ratnapura ... 1 2 0 75
Kegalla O 80 0 55

The Table reveals that in all the reputed Tamil Districts, Jaffna not excepted, the Ceylon Tamils
have, within the 25-year period 1921-1946, lost ground, and showed in 1946 a numerical strength
proportionate to the rest of the population in these Districts inferior to that possessed by them in 1921.
In the Districts of the Eastern Province, the Ceylon Tamils in fact were in a minority. They have
on the other hand, increased their proportions in all the Sinhalese Districts (except Chilaw, where they
remained almost stationary) particularly in the Kandyan Sinhalese Districts of BaduUa, Matale and
Nuwara EUya.

156
 The Ceylon Tamils formed the majority of the population in the two Urban Council Areas of
Jaffna and Batticaloa in which towns they constituted respectively 84 • 4 per cent, and 77 • 8 per cent, of
the population. In all other towns as defined for census purposes, they were in a minority,—in
Trincomalee they were only 44-3 per cent, of its population. Their numbers were least within the
Horana Urban Council area, while their proportionate numerical strength was the smallest in the
Weligama Urban Council area.

The age grouping of the Ceylon Tamils showed about 52 per cent, within the age group of 15-49
years, and about 35 per cent, in the group of children 0-14 years, indicating a slightly " progressive "
population. The characteristics of the Jaffna Tamil are sometimes stated to be different from those of
the Batticaloa Tamil. Emerson Tennant ^ wrote : " Jaffna is almost the only place in Ceylon of
which it might be said that no one is idle or unprofitably employed This is a satisfaction ex-
perienced in no other part of Ceylon in visiting their villages and farms and witnessing the industrious
habits and improved processes of the peasantry ". On the other hand, H. R. Freeman as Government
Agent of the Eastern Province in 1907, ^ declared : " A native has aptly described to me the difference
between Batticaloa villagers and the Jaffnese ; the latter, he puts it, are ' manured with industry ',
while the former are ' sterile with idleness '. "

Many members of the group called Mukkuvars were no doubt included among the Ceylon
Tamils. The Mukkuvars who bear a close resemblance to the Tamils in their physiognomy, manners,
and gait were once regarded as a caste whose hereditary occupation was fishing, and were found in
the Batticaloa and Puttalam Districts. Some of them, being Muslims by religion, may have been
enumerated as Ceylon Moors. The Ceylon Paravars were found in the North-Western coast of
Ceylon, particularly in the Mannar District. Names such as Crusz, Vaas, Santiago, and Fernandez
frequently occurred among members of this community, some of whom claimed to be of Portuguese
descent. Some of them may have been enumerated as Ceylon Tamils. Colombo Chetties, whose
original home was probably Madura District in South India, are now domiciled in Ceylon, have
intermarried with Tamils and Sinhalese, and many of them have doubtless been classified within
these race-groups.

THE INDIAN TAMILS

The Indian Tamils numbered 780,589 persons at the census of 1946. This was an increase of
177,854 persons over the Indian Tamil population enumerated in 1921, or a percentage increase of about
29-5. This race-group was most numerous in the Kandy, Nuwara Eliya and BaduUa Districts, and
in the Nuwara Eliya District formed the majority of the population. They were also relatively im-
portant in Matale, Ratnapura, Kegalla, and Mannar Districts. Their percentage distribution in the
Districts of the Island, as at 1946 and 1921, is shown in the following Table :—
TABLE 105—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF I N D I A N T A M I L S IN THE REVENUE DISTRICTS
(INCLUSIVE OF MUNICIPALITIES A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS), 1946 A N D 1921

Per Cent, of Total

Population of District
District , ^
1946 \92\
Colombo ... ... 4-3 ... 63
Kalutara ... ... 64 ... 102
Kandy ... ... 292 ... 339
Matale ... ... 219 ... 300
» Temieut: " Ceylon Vol. I I . , p. 542.
^ Freeman: Administration Report of the Eastern Province, 1907.

157
 Per Cent. of Total
Population of District
District , ^
1946 1921
Nuwara Eliya 57-3 60-8
Galle 1-5 2-4
Matara 21 1-9
Hambantota 0-17 0-35
Jaffna ... • 1-0 0-54
Mannar 11-3 X-2
Vavuniya 4-2 3-1
Batticaloa 0-59 0-58
Trincomalee 4-4 1-3
Kurunegala 1-6 4-7
Puttalam 2-1 6-6
Chilaw 3-3 4-7
Anuradhapura 2-2 4-7
Badulla 34-2 35-3
Ratnapura 20-6 21-6
Kegalla 13'0 20-2

The feature of this Table is the considerable variation in the proportionate numerical strength
of the Indian Tamils in every District in the Island between 1921 and 1946. This was perhaps to be
expected in a race-group which was largely, if not exclusively, immigrant in character. In the majority
of the Districts, the Indian Tamil population has reduced in its proportions to the rest of the population,
only showing a firmer hold in the district of the Eastern Province (Trincomalee), in Mannar and
Vavuniya Districts of the Northern Province, and, strangely enough,, though very slightly, in the Matara
District of the Southern Province. It was numerically smallest in Hambantota District where only 261
Indian Tamils were enumerated, forming 0-2 per cent, of the total population. They showed a high
" mascuhnity "—counting 1,228 males to every 1,000 females among them. About 56 per cent, of the
Indian Tamils in the Island were of the age-group between 15 and 49 years, while children formed about
36 per cent. By the standards adopted earlier in this Chapter, the population may be described as a
" progressive " population tending to increase.
Among Indian Tamils there may have been enumerated some Chettiars, who hail f r o m the
Sivaganga and Ramnad Districts of South India, and are reputed to be excellent men of business,
although 37 of them were found separately enumerated as " Indian Chettiars ".

T H E C E Y L O N MOORS
The Ceylon Moors totalled 373,559 persons at the census of 1946. In 1921 they numbered
251,938, thus showing an increase in the 25-year period, 1921-1946, of 121,621 persons, or a percentage
increase of 48-3. They began to be enumerated separately from the Indian Moors at the census of
1911, the distinction drawn being between " Sonahar ", i.e., those permanently settled in Ceylon, and
" Sammankarar ", i.e., " Coast Moors " who are in Ceylon for trading purposes and intend to return
to the " Coast " of India. The largest number of Ceylon Moors was found in the Batticaloa District
where they aggregated 85,373 persons, or 42-0 per cent, of the total population of the District. But
they formed a high percentage of the total population of Puttalam, Mannar, and Trincomalee Districts
as well. In Anuradhapura District they constituted a little over one-tenth of the entire population,
and their ubiquity may be inferred from the fact that they are the only race-group who had a percentage
above one of the population in every District in the Island. Their smallest aggregation was in
Vavuniya District, but even there they had 2,028 persons.

158
 In Colombo City, the Ceylon Moors counted 4 4 , 8 0 0 persons, mainly in Alutkade, Grandpass,
San Sebastian, MaUgakande, and St. Paul's Wards. The Galle Municipality enumerated 9,437
Ceylon Moors, but Puttalam and Beruwala, their traditional first settlements, are the only towns in
the Island where they form the majority of the population, comprising 64 4 per cent, and 5 6 - 2 per
cent, respectively of the entire population of these towns. Apart f r o m these towns, there were
considerable concentrations of Ceylon Moors in Kandy Municipality (fairly evenly distributed
throughout the several Wards), in Jaffna (where they had a " Muslim Ward ") in Kalutara, Gampola,
Matale, and Negombo Urban Council areas.

The percentage distribution of Ceylon Moors in the respective Revenue Districts in 1946
and 1921 is given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 106—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CEYLON MOORS IN T H E REVENUE DISTRICTS

OF CEYLON (INCLUSIVE OF M U N I C I P A L A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS), 1946 A N D 1 9 2 1

Per Cent, of Total

Population of District
District r
A

1946 1921

Colombo 4-2 3-7

Kalutara 5-4 5-4
Kandy 6-8 6-1
Matale 5.3 4-7
Nuwara Eliya 1-4 1-0
Galle 3-0 3-6
Matara 2-6 2-9
Hambantota 1-6 2-1
Jaffna 1-2 1-1
Mannar 30-1 30-3
Vavuniya 8-7 7-1
Batticaloa 42-0 39-6
Trincomalee 29-2 37-1
Kurunegala 3-9 ... • 3-7
Puttalam 30-8 32-4
ChUaw 2-9 3-3
Anuradhapura 10-1 11-3
BaduUa 2-7 2-6
Ratnapura 1-4 1-5
Kegalla 3-5 3-6

In the Districts of the Southern Province, in Trincomalee, in Puttalam and Chilaw Districts,
in Anuradhapura and to a lesser degree in the districts of Sabaragamuwa, and in Mannar, the Ceylon
Moors are seen from the above Table to have declined in their proportionate numerical strengths since
1 9 2 1 . Vavuniya District, which had the least number of Ceylon Moors in any District in the Island,
nevertheless showed the greatest increase since 1921 in the percentage of Ceylon Moors in relation
to the total population of the District.

The age grouping of the Ceylon Moors suggests a " progressive " tendency—children aged
0 — 1 4 years representing 38 per cent, as against old people, aged 50 and above, about 10 per cent. only.
159
THE I N D I A N MOORS

The Indian Moors, who numbered 35,624 persons at the census of 1946, were found mostly i n
the Colombo, and Kandy Districts. The Municipality of Colombo claimed more than 7 5 - 0 per cent,
of the Indian Moors resident in the Colombo District. The biggest concentrations of Indian Moors
within the City of Colombo were in San Sebastian, Pettah, and St. Paul's Wards. The highly immi-
grant character of this race-group is confirmed by the fact that its working-age group comprises nearly
77 per cent, of the total population, while the two age-groups, 0 - 1 4 years, and 50 and above, are
1 3 - 7 per cent, and 9 - 4 per cent, respectively.

BURGHERS A N D EURASIANS

I n the category of " Burghers and Eurasians " were included :—(i) the descendants of the civil
and military employees (of European ancestry) of the Netherlands East India Company at the date
of the cession of the Dutch settlements in Ceylon to the British ; -(ii) the descendants of the Vryburgers,
of European origin, who had been permitted by the Dutch to reside and carry on trades and occupa-
tions on their own account in Ceylon ; (iii) the descendants of the " train band " or militiamen of
mixed Portuguese descent ; and (iv) the descendants of mixed European and Sinhalese or Tamil or
other Asian parentage, who preferred to call themselves " Eurasians ", or, more recently, " Euro-
Ceylonese ". Though classified as one group f o r purposes of comparison with previous censuses,
the Burghers, and Eurasians or Euro-Ceylonese, were enumerated in 1 9 4 6 as separate " races ", and
described as such according to the statements of the persons themselves. The number of Burghers
was found to be 38,803, and the number of Eurasians or Euro-Ceylonese, described as such, was 3,123.
The amalgamated group showed a population of 4 1 , 9 2 6 persons, or a percentage of 0 6 3 o f the total
population of the Island. In 1 9 2 1 , the population of the group was 2 9 , 4 3 9 — a numerical increase of
12,487 persons i n the 25-year period 1921-1946. The growth of the population o f this " race-group "
since 1 8 7 1 is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 1 0 7 — T H E POPULATION O F THE " B U R G H E R S A N D E U R A S I A N S " I N CEYLON, 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6

Year Population Numerical Intercensal Intercensal Per

Increase Cent. Increase
1871 15,335 — —
1881 17,886 2,551 16-6
1891 21,231 3,345 18-7
1901 23,482 2,251 10-6
1911 26,663 3,181 13-5
1921 29,439 2,776 10-4
1946 41,926 12,487 42-4

The rate of increase of this race-group is seen to have been accelerated within the last intercensal
period of twenty-five years, and the decennial mean rate which was 13 9 per cent, in 1 9 2 1 may be
reckoned as having risen to about 15 0 per cent. The age-grouping suggests continued " progress " , —
there being about 32 per cent, in the group below 15 years of age, about 54 per cent, in that f r o m 15 to
49 years ; and about 14 per cent, in the group aged 50 years and above. More than 68 per cent, of the
" Burghers and Eurasians " in the Island were to be found in Colombo District, and of these Colombo
City alone claimed 1 7 , 4 1 2 persons, or over three-fifths o f the District population. The characteristics

160
of this " race-group *' is that it is predominantly urban. In fact, nearly 80 per cent, of their number
live in towns, that is, within Municipal or Urban Council areas. Their percentage distribution
relative to the total population of each District is shown in the following Table :—

T A B L E 108—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF " BURGHERS A N D EURASIANS " IN REVENUE

DISTRICTS (INCLUSIVE OF M U N I C I P A L A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS), 1946 A N D 1921

Per Cent, of Total Population

District
1946 1921
Colombo 2-1 •0
Kalutara 0-15 •21
Kandy 0-52 •72
Matale 0-30 •27
Nuwara EUya 0-35 •42
Galle 0-16 •31
Matara 0-11 •20
Hambantota 0-07 •09
Jaffna 009 •15
Mannar 0-13 •26
Vavuniya 0-33 •56
Batticaloa 0- 57 •67
Trincomalee 1- 5 •91
Kurunegala 0-14 •14
Puttalam 0-23 •30
Chilaw 0-16 •19
Anuradhapura 0-16 •18
Badulla 0-30 •29
Ratnapura 0-16 •21
Kegalla O-IO •18

The Table shows that in Trincomalee District the " Burghers and Eurasians" in 1946 have
increased their proportion considerably since 1921 in relation to the total population of the District.
They show an increase in Colombo, Matale and Badulla Districts as well. In the other Districts of
the Island they have either decHned in their proportionate numerical strength or remained stationary.

OTHER RACES

The Malays, whose origin is traced to Java, numbered 22,508 persons at the census of 1946.
Twenty-five years earlier, they were 13,402. Thus, they showed an increase of 9,106, or a percentage-
increase within the 25-year intercensal period of 67 • 9. About three-fifths of their number were found
in Colombo District, while 2,512 Malays were found in the Kandy District. Other Districts which
counted more than a thousand Malays within their limits were Hambantota (1,401) and Badulla (1,186).
In Colombo City they numbered 10,802, their largest concentrations being in Slave Island, Wekande,
and Maligakande. Of the 1,401 Malays in Hambantota District, 1,049 were found within the Hamban-
tota Urban Council Area. W i t h a " child " population approximating 38 per cent, and an " a d u l t "
population of about 52 per cent, the trend of the Malay population in Ceylon seems to be towards an
increase in numbers.

The Veddahs, whose primitive characteristics have aroused much interest and speculation among
anthropologists, were found mainly in Batticaloa District, although Badulla and Anuradhapura Districts
also enumerated a few hundreds. Their aggregate population in 1946 was 2,361 against 4,510 enu-
merated in 1921. The decrease suggests absorption of this " race-group " in the Sinhalese and Tamil

161
races. The numbers of " Veddahs " have fluctuated considerably at the various censuses since 1871
and this circumstance may possibly be explained by divergencies in the connotation of the term as
understood by enumerators. Their numbers, as recorded at the several censuses, are given in the
following Table :—

T A B L E 1 0 9 — T H E V E D D A H POPULATION OF CEYLON, AS RECORDED AT THE CENSUSES, 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6

Year Population
1871 2,030
1881 2,228
1891 1,229
1901 3,971
1911 5,332
1921 4,510
1946 2,361

The Europeans, who must be regarded as an immigrant and undomiciled " race-group " in
Ceylon, showed a large decrease in numbers at the 1 9 4 6 census f r o m the population recorded in 1 9 2 1 .
Enumerating only 5 , 4 1 8 in 1946, they registered a fall of 2 , 7 0 0 from 1 9 2 1 , and showed a population
which approximated that existing during the period 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 0 1 . More than half the European
population were found in the Colombo District, the city alone claiming above 45 per cent, of the total
European population in the Island. Districts with over 2 5 0 Europeans within their limits were :
Kandy (778—Municipahty 2 3 6 ) ; Nuwara EUya (510—Urban Council area 170) ; and Badulla
( 3 8 2 ) . The age-grouping o f the Europeans on the triple classification of Sundbarg is as follows :—

T A B L E 110—EUROPEAN POPULATION IN CEYLON BY SELECTED AGE-GROUPS, 1946

Males Females Total Per Cent, of Total

A L L AGES 3,017 ... 2,401 5,418 100-0
0-14 426 382 808 14-9
1 5 - 4 9 years 1,763 1,413 3,176 58-6
50 and above 828 606 1,434 26-5

It appears on Sundbarg's theory that, since the percentage in the age-group 50 and above is
higher than that in the age-group below 15, the European population in the Island is " regressive ",
and likely to decrease. The high proportion in the last group may, however, suggest that Europeans,
who have spent most of their lifetime in Ceylon, are not inclined to leave Ceylon although, perhaps,
they generally retain their intention to return to their homeland and do not acknowledge a Ceylon
domicile.

77;^ Malayan and Cochinese, who are included in the miscellaneous category of " Others ",
have reached numerical proportions which place them above the indigenous race-group of
" Malays " . Their number, as recorded at the census o f 1946, was 3 3 , 5 4 2 against 14,549 enumerated
in 1 9 2 1 . The other " Indian Races enumerated at the census were : — " Afghans " .• 5 5 5 ; Baluchi
51 ; Andamanese : 2 ; Baniya : 8 ; Bengali : 3 8 9 ; Bhatia : 21 ; Borah : 5 0 5 ; Brahman : 46
Dakui: 55 ; Goanese: 114; Gujarati; 179 ; Hindustani . - 1 1 7 ; Kurawan : \2\ ; Mahrathi: 2 0 2 ; Malabar
2 1 8 ; Memon : 1 8 0 ; Moplah : 10 ; ' Nayar : 45 ; Parsi: 211 ; Pathan : 73 ; Punjabi: 102 ; Rajput
8 ; Sikh : 47 ; Sindhi: 371 ; Telegu : 75 ; Wadugan : 19 ; Indian Paravar (not included among
Indian Tamils) : 3 7 8 ; Indian Chettiars (not included among Indian Tamils) : 37 ; Other Indian Races
(not specified) .• 3 0 2 . The aggregate number of these race-groups was 4 , 4 4 1 , which, together with

' The term ' Indian ' is vised here as applicable to all races from the neighbouriag sub-continent of India
before its division into the two Dominions of India and Pakistan.

162
the Maiayali and Cochinese, and the Indian Tamils and Indian Moors, make a grand total of 854,196
immigrants f r o m what is now India and Pakistan, found resident in Ceylon in 1946. This number
represents about 13 per cent, of the total population of the Island.
The census instructions permitted the recording separately, if so desired, of " races " originally
of European stock but claiming to be differentiated according to their political nationality. On
this basis, 70 Americans, 104 AustraUans, 63 Canadians, 83 New Zealanders, and 69 South Africans,
were separately enumerated at the census. These 389 persons would normally have been included
in the " race-group " of " Europeans ".

" Other Races " with a numerical strength of over 100 persons enumerated at the census
were -.—Arabs: 178 ; Chinese : 497 ; Canarese: 239 ; Ceylon Paravar (not included among
Ceylon Tamils) : 251 ; Colombo Chetties (not included among any Sinhalese or Ceylon Tamils) ;
778.
As is to be expected, more than 64 per cent, of the " Other Races " were concentrated in
Colombo District, but 2,457 persons of this category were found in Kandy District, and 1,479 in
Trincomalee District. Other Districts with over 1,000 belonging to this category were :—Kalutara
(1,025), Chilaw (1,295), BaduUa (1,110) and Ratnapura (1,546). In all these Districts, the Maiayali
formed the largest section of this group. In fact, except in Colombo District, the other sections did
not enumerate a hundred persons belonging to them in any one District.

As of interest, it may be recorded that one female claiming to be Madagascarian and one male
claiming to be Mongolian have been enumerated at the census as the sole representatives of their
respective " races ".

163
 CHAPTER V l l

(II) A NOTE ON T H E ETHNOLOGY OF THE RACES OF C E Y L O N

by

D R . N . D . WIJESEKERA

Deputy Superintendent of Census

I—Social Characteristics
" R a c e " ^ according to the scientific definition, is a group of people showing similar
tendencies, features and mental make up ; whilst a fusion of such groups may be called a nation.
The binding force of a nation may be a common language, blood or land.

From the anthropological point of view, Ceylon is one of the most interesting Islands of the
world. In this land, in addition to a main cultural stock, whose prototype can be traced to India,
there are several other racial groups—particularly the late European and Asiatic mixtures—which
would repay biological research and study.

The two major communities of the Island are the Sinhalese and the Tamils, whose racial history
reaches back to the remote past. At the very outset it should be stated that the division of the
Sinhalese into Up-country and Low-country Sinhalese is the result of historical accident and betokens
no racial distinction. W i t h the passing of the Maritime Provinces into European hands, the territory
in the central mountainous region which still remained under the rule of the Sinhalese kings was
distinguished as the Up-country. The rest of the land was called the Low-country. There is more
justification for the division of the Tamil-speaking population into Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils.
The former have settled down in Ceylon for centuries, while the latter have been attracted to these
shores in search of gainful employment, as traders or estate labourers, without severing themselves
completely f r o m the land of their birth.

The same distinction holds between Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors.

Burghers the descendants of the Dutch and Portuguse ; Europeans ; Eurasians and Malays
make up the chief minor racial entities.

T H E SINHALESE
The historical foundation of the Sinhalese race was laid on the day when Vijaya and his
followers landed in Ceylon. W i t h the assistance of a native Princess, Kuveni by name, he conquered
the Island and its people—the Yakkas and the Nagas. Racial discrimination against these indigenous
tribes was silently proclaimed by the rejection of Kuveni's claims to be lawful queen. Kuveni and
her daughter Disala and her son Jivahattha were banished to the Samanalagala region where the
mother was killed by her people and the children grew up to marry each other and found the Vedda
race. Vijaya invited a princess f r o m Madura (Central India) to be his queen, and she came accompanied
' Carr-Saunders.

164
by other princesses and ladies as her companions. The marriages were solemnized and the Aryan
occupation of Ceylon was confirmed. The newcomers and aboriginal inhabitants—called homogene-
ously the Veddas—continued to live as separate units, but f r o m time to time they intermarried and
co-mingled, giving birth to the Sinhalese people of today.

SOME P R I M I T I V E TRIBES
In this mixture of races which united to form a new nation, the Veddas stand out as the earliest
racial element. Naturally, very few of the present-day Sinhalese have been able to escape Vedda
admixture, as evidenced by features and other ethnic characteristics.
The Veddas as a distinct tribe today number only a few thousands and inhabit portions of the
Uva and Eastern Provinces. The wonder is that these unfortunate derelicts of humanity have
managed to survive in the inhospitable dry zone of the Island. Their isolation may have certainly
helped to preserve certain elements of their individuality and culture. There is certainly a case for
protecting the Veddas f r o m extinction, not as experimental material nor as living human curios, but
as citizens forming a distinct social group.
Apart from the Veddas there are a number of other tribal units of considerable interest to the
ethnologist.
In the environs of Uda Dumbara and Kurunegala live scattered families of people known as
Kinnaras, weavers of mats—the so-called Dumbara mats—embodying traditional art motifs.
Although they bear a superficial resemblance to the Veddas, they are a different group. Short-statured
and coarse-featured, with long hair, the Kinnaras eke out a wretched existence and are treated as
practically outcastes by the general population. How this tribe came to this degradation and have
at the same time preserved the fine art of weaving mats of exquisite design, remain mysteries.

Then there are the Vanni i folk who live in the area known as the Vanni Hat Pattu which lies
south of Anuradhapura and extends towards Kurunegala. They are long-headed, short-statured,
dark-skinned people resembling the Veddas not only in their physical appearance but also in cultural
make-up. Some families bear, in fact, names reminiscent of Vedda names. They are, however,
proud of their ancestors, even claiming superiority over the people among whom they dwell.
Legend and literature have preserved colourful stories about the Rodiyas -, another distinctive
tribal group. Their beautiful damsels have captivated even royalty : The story of Prince Sali
providing the most famous example. Tradition has associated the Rodiyas with Princes and nobles,
the aristocratic bearing of their maidens lending some point to this surmise. But how they received
their royal blood, whether as outcastes or otherwise, is not yet known.
The Rodiyas are outcastes, despised but feared. Begging has been to this day their traditional
vocation. Although there is nothing against their employment in some gainful occupation, tradition
and custom are still strong enough for them to remain professional mendicants. There is a popular
fear about the curse of a Rodiya who is refused alms. It is generally believed that the women resort
to prostitution and are well off on that account.

Rodiya women are tall, well-built, fair and attractive, besides possessing a dignified bearing
and carriage. The men are not so handsome, and are often poor physical specimens. The tribe
had at one time certain feudal obhgations to perform, such as cleansing fields, making leather ropes
and burying carcases ; but these are things of the past. The women dance and are trained to walk
on the rope, while the men beat the drum and sing. The entertainment they provide still attracts
attention at the Kandy Perahera and at festivals at Anuradhapura.
' Neville, H. Taprobanian, Vol. 3, page 15.
' cf Neville, H. Taprobanian I I I pages 80, 82, 85 Casie Chetty, S. C, J. R. A. S. Vol. I I , Pt. EC.

165
 A l l these tribal groups—the Veddas, the Kinnaras and the Rodiyas—are believed to possess
an innate and mysterious power which can be turned against others. It is doubtful whether this
power is attributed to magic or is derived f r o m jungle association. One niay observe with what fear
the village f o l k feel the axes and other objects belonging to the Veddas, how greatly the magic power
of the Kinnaras is dreaded and how the very approach of a Rodiya iS regarded as a bad omen. Their
physical touch or the supposed magical influence they exert are believed to cause harm ; therefore
avoidance of them as agents of evil has been traditionally observed. Whatever the psychological
reasons for the degrading isolation in which these tribes live, it is certainly an injustice to deny them
the common amenities of civilised life.

THE CEYLON TAMILS

The Ceylon Tamils are presumably descendants of early settlers who arrived in this Island
f r o m India. Some of them were of Alpine and Armenoid stocks, although the majority were power-
f u l bands of Tamils who conquered the Northern territory and caused it to be abandoned by
the Sinhalese. The Tamils continued to pour in either as conquerors or settlers to such an extent
that in about the second century B.C. Elara's kingdom threatened the Sinhalese.
During the Christian era, the Malabars, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyans attempted in turn to
overrun the Island, but failed. For several centuries, however, Tamil influence was widely felt not
only in social and cultural spheres but in the racial composition as well. There were periods of
peaceful settlement when the races lived in amity as neighbours and intermarriages took place. This
practice became very common during the later Kandyan period.

Although the Tamils do not possess such minute shades of difference in the divisions of castes
as prevail among the South Indians, they can count a considerable number of castes in their social
organisation. Most of these divisions are on a functional basis on orthodox lines. To a superficial
observer the striking difference of colour among the Jaffna Tamils might suggest a divison into a fair
and a dark grouping. The Vellalas, who belong to the darker and more numerous section, are mostly
round-headed Alpines and Armenoids. Amongst others the lighter in colour generally belong to the
higher grade. The prevalence of a Sinhalese racial admixture among the Jaffna Tamils can be
traced among theKoviars who though Tamil in name are probably descendants of Sinhalese captured
in the wars.
The Tamil population ^ of the present day is spread over the whole Island with concentrations
in the N o r t h , Eastern and North-Central Provinces. They speak Tamil, a main branch of the
Dravidian group of languages.

T H E MOORS
The Arabs who wrested the maritime trade of the ancient world f r o m the Phoenicians, were
acquainted with Ceylon f r o m the early Christian period. The presence of Roman and Greek coins
may be a clue to ancient trade with the Mediterranean lands. It is unUkely that the Arabs went
far beyond Ceylon, since the Chinese handled the trade with the farther East. This circumstance
encouraged local settlements of Arab traders which increased f r o m the sixth century A . D . onwards.
In the ninth century, ports of call such as Beruwala, Galle and Puttalam attracted M o o r traders
who estabUshed trading depots at these places. Some of them married Sinhalese or Tamil women
and settled down permanently. Even today their names, mode of life and dress betray such an
admixture. That the Sinhalese kings recognized them is shown by the Moorish settlers being given

• TambipUlai, V. J . , — J . R. A. S. Vol. X X I . , 1908.

166
titular ranks and honorific names, which are used to this day. This group, called the Sonahars, are
cultivators and tie their hair in a knot like fhe Sinhalese. They are fair in coiour and are Mediterranean
by race ; but they talk Tamil as that was the language used by the South-East coastal traders at that
time.

There is another group of Moors popularly called Coast Moors whose ancestry appears to be
different f r o m the previous class. They, too, were traders and spoke Tamil ; but they are the descen-
dants of the original Arabs who had settled down along the coastal districts of South-West India.
The Indians of these areas were the dark-hued population belonging to dark-skinned Dravidian
stocks, speaking a Dravidian tongue. Intermarriages between these races and the Arabs produced
a race called the Sammanhar which adhered to Islam and followed the culture of the Mohammedan
population. Their descendants were the Coast Moors who settled down in Ceylon f r o m time to time.

Strangely, the Ught-eyed, fair-skinned, tall and handsome Indian Moors, who are of Turkish
extraction, did not come to Ceylon until very recent years.

THE EUROPEAN ELEMENT

European racial infiltrations have influenced the racial composition of the Sinhalese less widely
and deeply than those already mentioned. Very little is known of early European contacts, but f r o m
the 14th century onwards records exist for determining the effects of infiltrations of the peoples of
the West. Under the Portuguese certain classes are permitted to intermarry with the people of the
Island. So long as the Portuguese power continued, Portuguese citizens commanded respect and
enjoyed privileges. But on the conquest of the Island by the Dutch, the Portuguese and their mixed
descendants, known as Portuguese Burghers, came down in the social scale. They still exist and are
chiefly occupied as mechanics, shoe-makers and artisans.

The same fate might have befallen the Dutch settlers but for the patronage extended to them
by the British. The Burghers, as they are called today, found employment as clerks in Government
and Mercantile offices, while several of them have distinguished themselves in the learned professions.

The British settlers in Ceylon discouraged racial mixtures for a variety of reasons of which
colour discrimination and racial prestige were perhaps paramount. But despite such discourage-
ment, the European planter in colonial exile, sometimes solaced himself with the company of the
daughters of the land. The offspring of these unions, which introduced additional European blood
into the national stem, are known as Eurasians.

There have also been a number of marriages contracted between Sinhalese or Tamils with
European girls. Few such marriages have been successful, a number of factors contributing to their
failure, such as incompatibility with the new social relationships.

O T H E R R A C I A L GROUPS
There still remain to be considered a number of racial groups which despite free association
with the Sinhalese have continued to maintain their identity. To this class belong the Kaffirs,
the Malays, the Mukkuvars, the Paravars and the Kuravans.

The Kaffirs i were brought to Ceylon either as slaves or as mihtia during the time of the
Sinhalese kings. The Portuguese, Dutch and English employed them as musicians in the regimental
bands. Consequently Kaffir settlements grew up near the miUtary forts. Today, one finds them in

> Ceylon at the Census 1911, p. 244.

167
Colombo and at Puttalara in a small village called Sellankandal. Their dances, songs and tunes
(namely Cafferinna, Chikoti and Baila) are still popular among the mechanic class, and have strangely
enough assumed a national character as well.
The Malays in Ceylon are supposed to have been brought by the Dutch who employed them
as soldiers. But there are stories to the effect that they were in the Island at an earlier date. The
English continued to employ them as a mihtary unit.
These Malays have married Sinhalese, Tamil and Moor women with the result that their
Mongoloid characteristics are fast disappearing. They are followers of Islam and live practically in
every part of the Island but are concentrated at Colombo, Hambantota, BaduUa and Kandy.

The Mukkuvars i, who are probably descendants of craftsmen brought over by the Sinhalese
kings f r o m India, live near Puttalam and Batticaloa. Their chief occupation today is fishing. Some
of them are Christians, while others are Muslims. That they belonged to a matrilineal society may
be observed by a study of their laws of inheritance.
The Paravars, who prefer to call themselves Bharathas, are traders who spend a short time in
Ceylon and then return to India.
Both the Mukkuvars and Paravars are dark and long-heSded.
The only nomadic group of people living in Ceylon are the Ahikuntakas, otherwise called
Kuravans. They are a South-Indian Telegu speaking people who live in makeshift palmyrah huts
seldom staying in one place for more than two or three days. They resemble Indian estate labourers
and come under the class of gypsies. They are well-known as snake-charmers, astrologers and
thieves.
The Colombo Chetties must also receive mention in a racial description of the people of
Ceylon. The term does not include the Nattukottai Chetties, who have formed themselves into a
gpild for carrying on business in Ceylon and are only temporary residents of the Island.
The Colombo Chetties are descendants of early Chetty traders and money-lenders who inter-
married with the Sinhalese and Tamils. They are mostly Cathohc converts and have been in Ceylon
f o r a very long time. They speak Sinhalese and are considered in Colombo to be respectable enough
to practise connubium with the higher caste Goigama Sinhalese.
The Vaggei are another racial group who have not been completely absorbed by the Sinhalese.
They are a small community and live in the Anuradhapura, Kurunegala and Mullaitivu Districts.
The foregoing survey will enable the reader to perceive that the races which inhabit Ceylon
are an amalgamation of several distinctive types. When one realises the diversity of the racial
elements and the variety of cultural complexes that have contributed to the making of the Ceylonese
national pattern, the existence of racial or caste distinctions would seem to have httle meaning.

II—Physical Characteristics
The human constituents of the people of the Island arranged under social types have been
enumerated above. The classification into physical types, irrespective of caste, class or racial
distinctions, may now be undertaken.
The present Vedda population cannot be left out, as undoubtedly it forms the basic structure
of the later Ceylonese composition. This itself is an admixture of three human types, viz., Negrito,
Australoid and Mediterranean. It is an observable fact that the lower stratum of the population shows
definite signs of a Vedda element which must not be confused with that prevalent in the Vanni folk.

' Brodie. A. 0., J. B. A. S. Vol. I I , Pt. 11.

168
 The present population is apparently a very mixed one. It has been the result of various ad-
mixtures repeatedly mixed amongst themselves as well as with foreign elements that were introduced
f r o m time to time.
W i t h the data so far available on the general observations, combined with the results of observa-
tion and measurement of individuals f r o m the different parts of the Island, it may be possible to classify
the present population under the following types :—
1. Vedda (a) open eyed 6. Melanid
(b) Gond 7. Mediterranean
2. Pre-Dravidian 8. Negroid
3. Sinhalese doUcos (Vanni) 9. Mongoloid
4. Sinhalese brachys 10. European
5. Armenoid

VEDDA A N D PRE-DRAVIDIAN
The Vedda as a type can quite easily be recognized, although the Vedda himself is a mixture of
more than one racial element. It is a regularly persisting type prevailing chiefly in the Badulla District.
One is often impressed by the reticent shy manner of a Vedda. He is a thin, small-made man of a dark
complexion with wide open eyes. He has a small head, narrow and long, thin hps, dark wavy hair,
scanty body hair, except in the Australoid type that has profuse body hair and beard. The eyes are
smaU, open, dark-brown and dark in colour. The nose is broad and flat with wide alae, except the
Mediterranean element that has a fine straight nose. The skin colour is dark and tends to be oily.
Some of his average measurements are as follows :—
Stature ... ... ... ... 1,578 mm.
Cephalic Index ... ... ... 72-6
Cranial Capacity ... ... ... 1,227 cc.
Nasal Index ... ... ... 73-1

The Pre-Dravidian type, though not so common, does actually crop up generally in the Tamil
speaking areas of the Island. It may be the continuation of a very early element in the population.
The type itself is vigorous and is bound to persist. It is a thick-set, rugged type with apparent virihty,
and is characterised by a long and narrow head with heavy eye-brows, thick lips, wide mouth and nose
and defined features. There is no prognathism. The hair is very dark and wavy, body hair being
scanty. The eye colour is dark-brown or dark. The skin colour is invariably dark or black. The
stature varies f r o m medium to tall showing a big-boned structure.

S I N H A L A D O L I C O A N D BRACHYS
The Sinhala Dolico type may be graphically described as the Vanni type. It is the common
type of the so-called Vanni districts and Up-country. This forms the backbone of the Sinhalese
peasantry in the dry zone. This type is weak and emaciated, probably the result of malnutrition and
environment. The amateur may confuse this with the Vedda type although this is quite different.
He has a long narrow head with a shght alveolar prognathism. He has thin lips w i t h fine teeth,
shghtly wavy dark hair, moderate body hair, small eyes dark or brown in colour, small narrow nose,
skin colour dark brown or black and is of short or medium stature. Some of the measurements of
this type are as follows :—
Stature ... ... ... ... 1,592 mm.
CephaUcIndex ... ... ... 73-3 cm.
Cranial Capacity ... ... 1,268 cc.
Nasal Index ... ... ... 74'9

169
 Sinhala brachys, probably the Vijayan type, comprise the bulk of the Sinhalese population and
together with the Vanni type constitute the Sinhalese of the present day. In general appearance he
looks an aristocratic noble type with a provocative affinity to the Bengalis of today. He has a long
and broad head. At times certain individuals show a marked alveolar prognathism and a general
tendency to alveolar prognathism and dental protrusion. The hps are somewhat thick, hair is dark
and slightly wavy with profuse body hair. Eyes are fairly large and dark in colour. The nose is narrow
and straight. The skin colour varies f r o m brown to fair. Some of the measurements of this type are
as follows :—

Stature ... ... ... ... 1,609 mm.

Cranial Capacity ... ... ... 1,298 cc.
Cephalic Index ... ... ... 80-8
Nasal Index ... ... ... 69 9

O T H E R R A C I A L TYPES

The Armenoid type is not uncommon in the Island. It is found mostly among the Tamils. He
has a heavily built body with a tendency to corpulency. He has a short broad head that is brachyce-
phalic. Prognathism-is absent. He has thick hps with the lower hp tending to be pendant, dark, light
wavy hair with profusion of body hair. The eyes are somewhat long. The nose is prominent w i t h a
hooked beak shape. His skin colour varies from fair to dark and the stature ranges f r o m medium
to tall.

The Melanid type is not uncommon amongst the Sinhalese. It is an ancient type and may be
easily distinguished f r o m the Pre-Dravidian and Vanni as it lacks both the rugged coarseness of the
former and weak appearance of the latter. The head length is medium, so is the breadth. He is
brachycephalic and shows no prognathism. His lips are thin, he has very dark hair, moderate body
hair, dark eyes, straight fine nose, and very dark almost black skin colour. The stature varies f r o m
short to very tall.

The Mediterranean is a fine-featured handsome type, quite common in the Island. He is of

delicate build and average proportions. His head is long and narrow. He shows no prognathism.
His hps are thin, and his hair is dark and wavy with sparse body hair, his eye colour is brown, nose is
straight and skin colour is brown or fair. He is of medium size in stature.

The Negroid type is sometknes traceable amongst the Sinhalese and Tamil population. It is
very difficult to miss this as the colour, hps, hair and facial prognathism betray the ethnic elements.
The general appearance is unpleasant at first. The individual shows great energy which has accounted
for his success. His head is long and narrow, face is prognathous, lips thick and hair is dark, wavy
and curly. The body has very httle hair. His eyes are brown and small, nose is broad and short
with wide alae. Skin colour is dark-brown or quite black. He is medium to tall in stature and
dolicocephahc. He has generally a thick set body.

The Mongoloid element is of very recent introduction and preserves the ethnic traits fairly
markedly. This type is seldom observed among the Sinhalese or Tamils but the Sinhalese cannot
be considered altogether free of certain traits. Mongohan appearance may develop as a pathological
condition. The head is short and wide. There is no prognathism. The lips are thin. Hair is
straight and dark in colour. Body hair is almost absent. The eye is almond-shaped with an epicanthic
f o l d . The nose is not prominent but broad and flat. The skin colour is hght-brown or pale yellow.
He is mediiun to short in stature and effeminate in general appearance.

170
 The European type is also of recent development and can be fairly easily detected on observation.
But in certain cases the European admixture can scarcely be noticed. The general appearance and
build are European. The head f o r m varies f r o m round to narrow. There is no prognathism. His
lips are thin. His hair is straight but of light colour. The eye colour varies from brown to grey or
even blue. The nose is straight and fine. The skin colour is fair. He varies from medium to tall in
stature.
The following observation may be made regarding the Sinhalese round headed type. Such a
type, although found scattered amongst the Sinhalese speaking parts of the Island, seems restricted in the
Indian Continent to the West Littoral and East Bengal or Mysore. Could this in any way point to the
early origin of the Sinhalese to any one of those two main areas ? The present evidence is insufficient
to posit such an origin purely on physical measurements. But the social kinship when studied with
physical attributes seems to favour such a view.

I N T E R M I X T U R E O F R A C I A L TYPES
The foregoing sketch shows that the composition of the Sinhalese racial stock has been affected
by the environment in which the people lived. From the time of Vijaya onwards the march of racial
progress has been through an intermixture of pre-existing racial types and of later arrivals.
But definite Tamil and European types can be traced in the Sinhalese population of today.
Vedda affinities may also be detected, particularly among the Up-country Sinhalese. There are not
many Sinhalese who show the true Nordic characteristics according to European standard of
measurement. But a large proportion of the population consists of a round-headed element, resembling
the Alpine type, which may be the survival of the Aryan race. The Vanni folk belong to the long-
headed Mediterranean type. The intermediate mesocephalic type, probably the result of the fusion
of the two earlier types, predominates in the Island.
It is likely that the sub-stratum of the population of Ceylon is a Negrito type on which are
superimposed Australoid and later Mediterranean types, followed by the brachycephalic Alpine or
so-called Aryan type.
There is a strong probability of a further component from the little-suspected area of the
Indonesian islands.

171
 CHAPTER VIII

RELIGION

may have been noted, from the reference to it in Chapter I I I , that the International Statistical
Institute at its meeting in St. Petersburgh in 1872 had recommended that the subject of " religion "
should be one on which particulars of information should be asked for and collected in a standard
census schedule. Superficially it may appear that " religion " is not of very great importance as a
basis of classification in demography, since it implies an attitude of man, not so much towards his
fellow-men, as to some power outside and beyond them. Moreover, it may be urged that religion is
a personal affair, and as such can be divorced f r o m social relationships. But this seems fallacious,
and the divorce, even if it were practicable, could scarcely be complete. For an individual is the
inheritor of the mores of his social group. These are themselves founded on the codes of conduct
inherent i n , or prescribed by, the religious beliefs of his group, f o r " ethnography knows no race
devoid of religion " i. The individual's personal values, and the pattern of his social behaviour, such
as that, for instance, which is related to the exercise of his reproductive powers, cannot fail to be
influenced in some degree at least by them.

It may, therefore, be reasonably concluded that a demographic study may not neglect rehgion as
a factor in the evolution of a given society. The beginnings of rehgion are said to have arisen f r o m the
anxious desire o f Early M a n to appease the formidable powers which seemed to beset his life and deter-
mine his lot. At that stage of Man's development,—more, perhaps, than in the sceptical and sophisti-
cated world of today,—rehgion would appear to have coloured Man's entire life, being shaped by his
mode of Uving and the nature of the land he Uved in, expressing his temperament, and directing his
mode of thought. Certain rules of conduct began to be observed, and there were taboos, marking
o f f certain things as to be shunned, with hints of mystic penalties to enforce their observance. As
society developed, more elaborate religious creeds and codes appeared, which sought to link up human
relationships with benign or demonic superhuman powers, or showed " the Way " to a definitive
goal, where the human personality could fully realize itself. The St. Petersburgh recommendation
may thus be regarded as giving authoritative recognition "to the fact that religion is a fundamental
human necessity, giving expression to certain innate human impulses, and operative in every tribe,
race, and nation. When formulated or organized in even the shghtest degree, rehgion is capable of
exercising some measure of control over the actions of human beings. This, perhaps, is an under-
statement, for the fanaticism that is sometimes exhibited by the adherents of particular forms of
rehgion shows its potency as an instrument both of social unification and of anti-social disruption.
A more correct statement to make would appear to be that religion has exerted, since the beginnings
of Man, a preponderant influence over his life and thought.

THE DOCTRINE OF BUDDHISM

An examination of the results of the census of 1946 in respect of this subject of " rehgion " shows
that Buddhism is the most widely professed faith in Ceylon. Out of the total population of 6,657,339,
no less than 4,294,932 were returned as Buddhists. In other words, about 645 persons out of every
1,000 in the Island belonged to that faith. Introduced into the Island, according to the Sinhalese
' Ratzel: History of Mankind, i. 40.
172
chronicles, in the reign of Devanampiyatissa (circa 300 B.C.) who owed his conversion to the missionary
zeal of the Emperor Asoka of India, Buddhism has been the predominant religion of Ceylon for over
twenty-two centuries. The preservation of the Pali Buddhistic Canon is acknowledged to be the special
credit of Ceylon, ^ and it was in Ceylon, about the beginning of the 5th century of the Christian era,
that Fah Hian, the Chinese traveller, obtained copies of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Dirgagama, the Sanyuk-
tagama, and the Sanyukta Pitaka " in the original language (Fan) " — a l l " hitherto entirely unknown
in the land of Han. " ^ The " Agamas " which Fah Hian collected contained part of the various
doctrines of the Hinayana {or the Little Vehicle), the form of Buddhism which the people of Ceylon
have adopted, and which differs f r o m the Mahayana {or the Great Vehicle) in its refusal to acknowledge
the conception of a Buddha-spirit which can be incarnate in a series of Bodhisathwas who refrain f r o m
attaining Nirvana in order to spread the knowledge of " the Way " among their fellowmen, and in
its denial of the continuance of the human soul through heavens and hells until it attains a final condi-
tion of individual beatitude. These variant schools are, however, later developments and the essential
doctrines of the Buddha are to be found in his reported discourse to his five former disciples who had
fallen away f r o m him and whom he successfully converted to the new " Ambrosia of Truth " that he
had discovered under the shade of the sacred Bo-tree.

This " ambrosia" was to be found in the Four Noble Truths (aryani satyani),—first
that life is suffereing : " Birth is painful, decay is painful, death is painful. Union with the
unpleasant is painful, painful is separation f r o m the pleasant ; and any craving unsatisfied,
that too is painful. In brief, the five aggregates of clinging (that is, the conditions of
individuality) are p a i n f u l " ; next, that evil desires, low ideals, useless cravings, idle excitements are
the cause of suffering : " Verily, it is the craving thirst that causes the renewal of becomings, that
is accompanied by sensual deUghts, and seeks satisfaction now here, now there,—that is to say, the
craving for the gratification of the senses, or the craving for a future Ufe, or the craving for posterity " ;
thirdly, that suffering ceases with the removal o f desire : " Verily, i t is the passing away so that no
passion remains, the giving up, the getting rid of, the being emanicipated f r o m , the harbouring no longer
of this craving thirst " ; and, fourthly, that this is effected by a course of conduct called the Noble
Eightfold Path : " the Middle Path discovered by the Tathagata,—a faith which opens the eyes, and
bestows understanding, which leads to peace, to insight, to the higher wisdom, to Nirvana. Verily, it is
this Noble Eightfold Path, that is to say. Right Views, Right Aspirations, Right Speech, Right Conduct,
Right Mode of LiveUhood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Rapture ". The eight divi-
sions may be interpreted as orthodoxy, lofty desires or aspirations, perfect truthfulness, pure conduct,
upright and sinless occupation, constant alertness to conform with the law, clear memory, and quiet
meditation. While these were the positive quahties that had to be acquird, there were qualities that had
to be suppressed ; the Ten Bonds (Samyojanas)—delusion about the soul, doubt, dependence on good
works, sensuality, hatred, love of earthly fife, desire for heavenly life, pride, self-righteousness, and
ignorance,—had to be broken : the Four Intoxications (Asava)—arising in the mental state f r o m bodily
passions, f r o m becoming, f r o m delusion, and f r o m ignorance,—had to be got r i d of ; and the Five
Hindrances (Nivaranas)—hankering after worldly advantages, the corruption arising out of the wish to
hurt, the torpor of mind, the forgetfulness and worry, and the wavering of mind,—had to be over-
come. He who has reaUzed the Truth, traversed the Path, broken the Bonds, freed himself f r o m the
Intoxications, and overcome the Hindrances attains the ideal, the Fruit of Arahatship.

^ " It is to Sinhalese Buddhism that we must turn to get the works of the PaU collection ; for it is only in
Ceylon that the inteUigence and piety of the faithful have known how to keep this pledge of their faith
unsullied, and they only have cultivated the language in which it ia revealed. "—Barthelemy St. Hilaire :
The Buddha and His Religion, p. 304.

' Fah Hian : Ch. XI (Beal's Translation).

173
 These were the doctrines preached by the Buddha in the sixth century before Christ to an India in
which the religious philosophy was that of the Upanishads. The doctrine of Karma, the belief that
what a man sows in one Ufe, that must he reap in another, the belief that what he is on earth today is
the outcome of deeds in a past existence, was prevalent at the time, and was linked with the doctrine
of the Atmam which identified the Universe (the Brahma) with the self in Man, the doctrine which
taught that "even if one performs a great and holy work, but without knowing that the whole world
is Brahma or the self, and that I am Brahma or the Self, that work merely perishes in the end." ' The
Absolute Self was attained only when one was released f r o m Samsara, the chain of births, deaths
and rebirths. "They who seek the Atmam by austerity, chastity, faith and knowledge they do
not return The Buddha accepted and adopted these doctrines, but as he would not acknowledge
a soul, found the Unk of connection between one life and the next in the influence of Desire, which
he taught, was the product of past thoughts and acts, according to the inexorable law of cause and
effect.

INFLUENCE OF HINDUISM
Such were the tenets expounded f r o m a thousand preaching halls in Ceylon for well over two
thousand years since Mahinda, the son of Asoka, first " difi"used the good law like unto a light of
the land." ^ But while the teaching helped to make some men " more moral, kinder to others, and
happier themselves the great mass of the people could scarcely comprehend its philosophy, and
lapsed easily into Hindu practices, which regained their former influence with the Tamil invasions,
and many even retain today their beliefs in demonism and astrology. " Hinayana ", states an
European writer,^ "is still the ' little vehicle ', because i t does not and cannot appeal to the masses o f
any population. It is a creed for a minority. It is true that it is the Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon.
But anyone who knows these countries is well aware that the real popular faith of these peoples is
not Hinayana, but a thinly veiled animism." The observations of Knox, in the seventeenth century
A . D . as regards the religion of the people of Ceylon in the days of the Second Raja Sinha are of
interest*: " There are many both Gods and Devils, which they worship, known by particular Names*
which they call them by. They do acknowledge one to be the Supreme. This great Supreme God,
they hold, sends for the other Deities to see his W i l l and Pleasure executed i n the w o r l d ; and these
are the petty and infeiior gods. These they say are the Souls of good men, who formerly lived upon
the Earth. There are Devils also, who are the inflictors of Sickness and Misery upon them. A n d
these they hold to be the Souls of evil men. There is another great God, whom they call Buddham
unto whom the salvation of Souls belongs. The Sun and Moon they seem to have an Opinion to
be gods f r o m the Names they sometimes caU them by They reckon the chief poynts of goodness
to consist in giving to the Priests, in making Pudgiahs, sacrifices to their Gods, in forbearing shedding
the blood of any creature and in abstaining f r o m eating any flesh at all, because they would
not have any hand, or any thing to do in killing any living being. They reckon herbs and plants
more innocent food. It is religion also to sweep under the Bogaha or God-Tree, and keep it clean.
It is accounted religion to be just and sober and chaste and true, and to be endowed with other vu^ues,
as we do account it They give to the poor out of a Principle of Charity, which they extend to for-
raynirs, as well as to their own Country-men They lay Flowers, out of religion, before their
Images every morning and evening They love a man that makes conscience of his ways. "

> Brihadaranayaka TJpanishad, i. 4, 15. « W. W. Hvinter.

2 Prasna TJpanishad, 1, 10. ^ Bouquet: Comparative Beligion, p. 129.
» Mahawamsa : Ch. X I V . • Knox : Historical Relation, Chs. m . V .

174
THE BUDDHIST POPULATION

Againat this background of the religious behefs of the Sinhalese,—for Buddhism as practised
in Ceylon is almost exclusively the religion of the Sinhalese,—the statistics relating to its adherents
may be considered f r o m the date of the first modern census conducted in 1 8 7 1 . The following Table
gives the number of professed Buddhists at each Census :—

TABLE 1 1 1 — T H E BUDDHIST POPULATION I N CEYLON, 1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6 , SHOWING

PERCENTAGE OF THE T O T A L POPULATION

Total Number of Per Cent, of Total

Year
Buddhists Population
1871 1,520,575 63 •3
1881 1,698,070 61 •5
1891 1,877,043 62 •4
1901 2,141,404 60 •1
1911 2,474,170 60 •3
1921 2,769,805 61 •6
1946 4,294,932 64 •5

Since the Buddhists are mainly Sinhalese (both Low-Country and Kandyan) the percentage
of the amalgamated race-group in proportion to the total population is given for purposes of
comparison in the following statement :—

TABLE 1 1 2 — T H E SINHALESE POPULATION ( L O W - C O U N T R Y A N D K A N D Y A N ) ,

1 8 7 1 - 1 9 4 6 , SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF THE T O T A L POPULATION

Total Number of Per Cent, of Total

Year
Sinhalese Population
1871 1,664,459 69
1881 1,846,614 66
1891 2,041,158 67
1901 2,330,807 65
1911 2,715,420 66
1921 3,016,154 670
1946 4,620,507 69-4

The comparison of the two Tables shows a differential excess per cent, of Sinhalese over
Buddhists as follows : — 1 8 7 1 : 5 - 9 ; 1881 : 5 - 4 ; 1891 : 5 . 5 ; 1901 : 5 - 3 ; 1 9 1 1 : 5 - 8 ; 1921 :
5-4 ; 1946 : 4 9.

The numerical distribution of the Buddhist population in the several districts (inclusive of
Municipalities and Urban Council Areas), showing the percentage of the total population in each
district, is given in the following Table :—

TABLE 1 1 3 — B U D D H I S T POPULATION, CEYLON, 1946, BY REVENUE DISTRICTS,

(INCLUSIVE OF MUNICIPALITIES A N D U R B A N C O U N C I L AREAS) SHOWING
PERCENTAGE OF T O T A L POPULATION OF DISTRICT

District Number of Percentage of

Buddhists Total Population
of District
Colombo 942,106 66-3
Kalutara 380,431 83-3
175
 Number of Percentage of
District Total Population
Buddhists
of District
Kandy 409,559 57-6
Matale 104,515 67-1
Nuwara Eliya 100,217 37-4
Galle 431,599 93-9
Matara 331,237 94-1
Hambantota 144,243 96-4
Jaffna 4,434 1-0
Mannar 815 2-6
Vavuniya 3,507 15-1
Batticaloa 11,132 5-5
Trincomalee 13,669 18-0
Kurunegala 430,407 88-7
Puttalam 14,090 32-7
Chilaw 59,263 42-4
Anuradhapura 111,587 80-0
Badulla 213,799 57-4
Ratnapura 259,144 75-4
Kegalla • 329,178 81-9

I t will be observed that the greatest percentage o f Buddhists relative to the total population
of the District was found at the census of 1946 to be in the Districts of the Southern Province. In
Kandy District, which may be regarded as the Headquarters of the Buddhist hierarchy, there were
only 57 • 6 per cent. Buddhists. This was due to some extent to the large number of Hindus in the
District,—Hinduism being professed by a good proportion of the Tamil estate population of the
District. The fact that the Buddhist population .is greater in the Low-Country than in the Kandyan
Sinhalese Districts may be observed f r o m the following Table which gives the Percentage Distribution
of the adherents of Buddhism by Revenue Districts :—

TABLE 114—PER CENT. DISTRIBUTION OF BUDDHISTS BY REVENUE

DISTRICTS, 1946 AND 1921

1946 1921
CEYLON 1000 100 0
Low-Country Sinhalese
Districts
Colombo 21-9 21-5
Kalutara 8-9 9-2
Galle 10-1 10-5
Matara 7-7 81
Hambantota 3-4 4-1
Chilaw 1-4 1-5
176
 Kandyan Sinhalese 1946 1921
Districts
Kandy 9-5 •6
Matale 2-4 2 •6
Nuwara Eliya 2-3 2 •1
Kurunegala 10-0 10 •9
Puttalam 0-32 0 •32
Anuradhapura 2-6 2 •7
BaduUa 5-0 5 •0
Ratnapura 60 5 •4
Kegalla 7-7 7•I

Tamil Districts
Jaffna 010 0-03
Vavuniya 0-08 0-07
Batticaloa 0-26 0-25
Trincomalee 0-32 0-04

The Low-Country Sinhalese Districts claimed in 1946 53-4 per cent, of the total Buddhist
Population of the Island against only 45 • 8 per cent, in the Kandyan Sinhalese Districts. The corre-
sponding distribution in 1921 was 54-9 per cent, in the Low-Country Sinhalese Districts against 44'7
per cent, in the Kandyan Sinhalese Districts, showing a gain by the latter in the 25-year
period 1921-1946.

HINDUISM
Hinduism is the religion which, next to Buddhism, has the largest number of followers in Ceylon.
At the census of 1946 there were enumerated 1,320,352 adherents of Hinduism in Ceylon, or about
198 Hindus in every 1,000 of the total population. It is interesting to note that this records a progres-
sive decline in proportion since 1901 when there were 232 Hindus in every 1,000. In 1911 there were
228 Hindus and in 1921 there were 218 in every 1,000 persons. For a religion which is admitted to
be a very comprehensive and elastic one, embracing very many varieties of religious behefs which have
grown up on the basis of the old Brahmanic Scriptures, the decrease in ratio may seem surprising,
but can be accounted for by the low rate of increase among the Tamil population of the country,
more than half of which is immigrant and non-indigenous in character. For, just as Buddhism in
Ceylon is generally identified as the religion of the Sinhalese, Hinduism is the principal religion of
the Tamil population, and fluctuations in the latter are seen to be reflected in the Hindu population.
This will be observable i n the two succeeding Tables :—

TABLE 115- - T H E H I N D U POPULATION I N CEYLON, 1871-1946, SHOWING

PERCENTAGE OF THE T O T A L POPULATION

Year Total Number of Percentage of Total

Hindus Population
1871 465,944 19 •4
1881 593,630 21 •5
1891 615,932 20 •5
1901 826,826 23 •2
1911 938,260 22 •8
1921 982,073 21 •8
1946 1,320,352 19 •8
177
 TABLE 116—THE T A M I L POPULATION (CEYLON TAMILS AND I N D I A N TAMILS) I N CEYLON,
1871-1946, SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF THE T O T A L P O P U L A T I O N

Year Total number of Tamils Percentage of Total

Population
1871 537,814 22-4
1881 687,248 249
1891 723,853 24-1
1901 951,740 26-7
1911 1,059,007 25-8
1921 1,120,059 24-9
1946 1,514,320 22-7

The remarkable consistency in the differential of about 3 per 100 excess of Tamils over Hindus
throughout the entire period of seventy-five years is noteworthy.

The characteristic of the Hindu religion is its catholicity. Some good Hindus cite a statement
of the Lord Krishna in the Blmgavad-Gita as the fundamental idea of their religion. " They who
worship other gods with devotion, full o f faith, they also worship Me " . (IX. 23). I t is not surprising,
therefore, that there has sprung up a multitudinous crop of religious beliefs, all of which claim to be
within the fold of Hinduism. Nevertheless, sectarianism within the Hindu religious community has
never developed into bigoted exclusiveness. " In fact, the respectable Hindu, whilst owning special
allegiance to one of the two gods", (i.e., Siva and Vishnu,—the more potent gods of the Hindu
Trimurti or Trinity, the third being Brahma, regarded as functus officio), " will not withhold his tribute
of adoration f r o m the other gods of the pantheon ' . " New gods arise to serve local needs, but are
not worshipped as supreme beings. The doctrine of incarnation has been accepted, more especially
by the worshippers of Vishnu, who is believed to have been incarnate in ten Avatars (more, according
to some authorities), two of whom Rama and Krishna are the best known, while the Buddha himself
is worshipped by some Hindus as an incarnation of Vishnu. To quote the Bhagavad-Gita again :
" Whenever there is a decay of righteousness and a rising of unrighteousness, then I emit Myself.
In order to save the good, and to destroy evil-doers, to establish righteouness I am born f r o m age to
age." ( I V . 7). Thus, the Skanda Purana records the incarnation of the son of Siva and Parvati,
as Skanda or Kartikeya or Subrahmanya, the god of war and wisdom, and the famous shrine at
Kataragama (Kartikeya Grama) in the Hambantota District commemorates his successful combat
with the powers of evil. Rama, the hero-king, whose exploits are recorded in Valmiki's epic Ramayana,
—the third, fourth, fifth and sixth books o f which are o f special interest as laying the scene o f the
episodes narrated therein in Ceylon,—is identified with an incarnation of the god Vishnu. The
tendency to apotheosize has been most marked among the less philosophical votaries of Hinduism,
and the Hindu influence in this respect even on those who profess the Buddhist faith is to be discerned
in the deification of such as Raja Sinha I and Keppetipola Maha Dissava ^.

" In the course of a very few years, as the recollection of the man's personality becomes misty,
his origin grows mysterious, his career takes a legendary hue, his birth and death were both
supernatural, in the next generation the names of the elder gods get introduced into the story, and so
the marvellous tradition works itself into a myth, until nothing but a personal incarnation can account

' Eggerling, J. : Hinduism.

2 E a j a Sinha I was worshipped as " Adharmistha Deviyo, " and Keppetipola as " Monaruwila Alut De viyo ".
Cf. Bouquet : Comparative Eeligion, p. 106 : " The idea of a discontinuous incarnation . . . .
expresses itself in the extraordinary tendency to deify and worship beings of an vmusual character,
such as . . . . Dr. Clough, a Baptist Missionary. "

178
for such a series of prodigies. The man was an Avatar of Vishnu or Siva ; his supreme apotheosis
is now complete, and the Brahmins feel warranted in providing f o r him a niche in the orthodox
pantheon."!
The close connexion between Buddhism and Hinduism has already been noted,—the doctrines
of ' Karma ' and transmigration were accepted by the Buddha. But while the effect of the Buddha's
teaching was to slacken the hold of caste on the structure of society, and this is noticeable in Buddhist
Ceylon, up i n the North, as is well known, caste is more rigidly entrenched, and seems difficult to be
dislodged even by ardent Hindu reformers.
The vast majority of the Hindus in Ceylon are known to be Saivites, that is, worshippers of
Siva, ' the kind or gracious one',—the euphemistic name of one whose characteristic is austere
sternness. A Saivite is generally known from the sacred ashes (tirumru) he rubs on his forehead,
and a temple dedicated to Siva is easily recognized f r o m the emblem of the " Great God's " re-
productive power, the Linga, consisting usually of an upright cylindrical block of marble or other
stone, mostly resting on a circular perforated slab. The worshippers of Vishnu are generally known
by the mark called the ' namam ' on the forehead. Statistically, however, no distinction has been
made at any census in Ceylon among Hindus, and it has been stated " that the line of demarcation
between the numerous Hindu sects is now so difficult to draw that census officials " in India " have
given up the attempt to classify them statistically." Besides the Saivites, and the Vaishnavites, it
may be noted that there is another main sect of Hindus termed the " Saktas " who are worshippers
of the female personification of the divine energy (Sakti).

THE HINDU POPULATION

The numerical distribution of the Hindus in Ceylon in the various districts at the census of
1946 is given in the following Table :—
T A B L E 117—THE H I N D U POPULATION OF CEYLON, 1946, BY REVENUE DISTRICTS

District Total Number of Per Cent, of Total

Hindus Population of District
Colombo 87,599 6-2
Kalutara 28,930 6-3
Kandy 212,848 29-9
Matale 35,946 23-1
Nuwara Eliya 147,622 55-1
Galle 8,263 1-8
Matara 8,566 2-4
Hambantota 924 0-6
Jaffna 363,227 85-5
Mannar 6,446 20-4
Vavuniya 14,182 61-0
Batticaloa 95,357 46-9
Trincomalee 29,379 38-7
Kurunegala 11,042 2-3
Puttalam 2,764 6-4
Chilaw 7,927 5-7
Anuradhapura 9,774 7-0
BaduUa 134,576 36-2
Ratnapura 68,646 20-0
Kegalla 46,334 11-5

» Lyall, A. C. : Asiatic Studies, p. 19.

179
The Table shows that, except in Jaffna and Vavuniya Districts, the Hindus are in a minority
in the other Tamil Districts, but have gained the ascendancy in Nuwara Eliya District, thanks to the
Tamil estate population.

The percentage distribution of the Hindus in the various Districts relative to their total popula-
tion in the Island is given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 118—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF H I N D U S BY REVENUE DISTRICTS

1946 Per Cent, of Hindus

CEYLON ... ... ... ... 1000
Colombo ... ... ... ... 67
Kalutara 2-2
Kandy ... ... ... . jg.]
Matale 2-7
Nuwara Eliya ... ... 11.2
Galle ... ... ... \'__ 0-6
Matara ... ... ... ' ' 0-7
Hambantota 0-1
Jaffna 27-5
Mannar 0-5
Vavuniya ... ... ... 1-1
Batticaloa ... ... ... 7-2
Trincomalee... ... ... 2-2
Kurunegala.... ... ... 0-8
Puttalam 0-2
Chilaw ... ... ... ... 6-6
Anuradhapura ... ... ... 07
Badulla ... ... ... ... 10-2
Ratnapura ... ... ... ... 5 2
Kegalla ... ... ... ... 3-5

Classified in the three groups of (i) Tamil Districts, (ii) Kandyan Districts, and (iii) Low-
Country Sinhalese Districts, the Hindu population is seen to be distributed in the following propor-
tions. :—(i) Tamil Districts : 3 8 - 5 per cent. ; (ii) Kandyan Districts : 5 0 - 7 per cent. ; (iii) Low-Country
Sinhalese Districts : 1 0 - 8 per cent. The predominance of Hinduism in the Kandyan Sinhalese
Districts, although this is consequent on the large Hindu population on the estates, is a phenomenon
that deserves further study from the viewpoint of its possible influence on Buddhism as practised
in these Districts.

THE CHRISTIAN POPULATION

Numerically the Christians occupy the third place among the religions of Ceylon, counting
603,235 adherents, or about 9 1 persons in every 1,000 o f the population of the country. The earliest
reference to Christianity in Ceylon is found in the Topographia Christiana of Cosmas Indicopleustes.i
who apparently visited Ceylon in the sixth century A . D . and found a colony of Christians in the
Island who had come from Persia. The type of Christianity prevailing was Nestorian, Hke that of
the Indian Syrian Christians, whose traditional saint was St. Thomas the Apostle. It was, however,
the Portuguese, as was indicated in the first chapter, that promoted Christianity in every possible
way in the Island during their period of occupation of the Maritime Provinces ( A . D . 1 5 0 5 - 1 6 5 8 ) .

• Cosmas, iii. pp. 178-9, and X I . p. 337 (cited by Gibbon in his Dedine aixd Fall, Ch. X L ) .
180
Being Roman Catholics, it was Roman Catholicism that the Portuguese pressed on the people. The
population of Mannar, in particular, notwithstanding the opposition of the Kings of Jaffna, became
largely Christian, thanks to the missionary zeal of St. Francis Xavier, who, unable to come over him-
self, had sent another priest to baptize the converts. The Dutch made it profitable for the people
to become Protestant Christians during the period of their occupation (A.D. 1658-1796), by making
public office their monopoly. Under the British, many Christian Missions arrived f r o m England
to preach Christianity, while an American Mission was also established in Jaffna.

The numerical and percentage distribution of the Christians in. the various Districts as shown
by the 1946 census, is given in the following Table :—

TABLE 119—CHRISTIAN POPULATION BY REVENUE DISTRICTS, 1946

District Total No. of Per Cent, of

Christians District Popu
Colombo 295,550 20-8
Kalutara 21,472 4-7

Kandy 33,365 4-7

Matale 5,528 3-5
Nuwara Eliya 14,353 5-4

Galle 5,593 1-2

Matara 2,858 0-8
Hambantota 531 0-4

Jaffna 51,265 12-1

Mannar 13,709 43-5
Vavuniya 3,378 14-5

Batticaloa 10,696 5-3

Trincomalee 9,056 11-9

Kurunegala 22,304 4-6

Puttalam 12,303 28-6
Chilaw 67,626 48-4

Anuradhapura 2,746 20

Badulla 10,689 2-9

Ratnapura 9,537 2-8

Kegalla 10,676 27

The Christian population, i t will be seen, has no majority in any District, but it approximates
half the total population of the Chilaw and Mannar Districts. Christians are least in Hambantota
District. The comparatively weak hold of Chrisrianity on the South-Western Littoral, notwithstand-
ing five centuries of domination by Christian Powers is noteworthy.

D I S T R I B U T I O N BY SECTS
The Roman Catholic Church, which acknowledges the Pope as its head, and " holds as an
article of faith that communion with and submission to the authority of the See of Rome is essential
to effective membership of the Catholic Church as founded by Christ", claimed 8 4 - 1 percent, of the
Christian population of Ceylon as its adherents. They were most numerous in Colombo, Chilaw
and Jaffna Districts, but considerable concentrations were also found in the Kandy, Kalutara, Kurune-
gala, Mannar, Puttalam, and Nuwara Eliya Districts.

181
 Members of the Anglican Communion, by which is meant members of the Church of Ceylon
and other churches in communion with the Church of England, amounted to a little above 8-0
per cent, of the total Christian population. They were found mainly in the Colombo and Kandy
Districts, but Nuwara Eliya, Jaffna, Kegalla, Badulla, Kurunegala, Ratnapura, Kalutara and Galle
Districts also counted a fair number of Anglicans.

The next most numerous sect after " the Anglicans " was that which at the last census was
called ' Wesleyan ', but now prefers to call itself ' Methodist'. They totalled 20,335, or about 3-4
per cent, of the Christian population. The sect traces its origin to the evangelistic teaching
of John Wesley, and its first missionaries began work in Ceylon in 1814. They are found chiefly
in the Colombo, Batticaloa, Jaffna and Kandy Districts.

The Presbyterians, Scotch and Dutch, have been classified together and aggregated 4,248
persons. About 72 per cent, of the Presbyterians were in the Colombo District. As their name
implies, their organization consists of a council of representative presbyters or elders, in whom lie
the supreme authority. The doctrines of the sect may be said to be evangelical and Calvinistic.

Although the Baptists were the first English-speaking Protestant Mission to commence work
in Ceylon, their first missionary arriving in 1812 A . D . , their numbers at the census of 1948 were only
3,321 persons,—an increase of only 12 persons over the number of Baptists enumerated forty-five
years earlier, at the census of 1901. They are distinguished from other Christian denominations by
the view they hold regarding the ordinance of baptism which they would administer only to believers
by immersion. More than 65 per cent, of the Baptists in Ceylon were found in the Colombo District,
but Kandy, Kegalla, Matale and Chilaw too had a fair proportion.

Salvationists have more than doubled their numbers since 1901, when they were no more than
1,011. At the census of 1946, there were 2,894 persons who were returned as Salvationists, mainly
in Kurunegala, Colombo, and Kegalla Districts.

The American Mission of Congregationahsts was established in Jaffna in 1816, and enumerated
2,094 persons at the census of 1946. British Congregationahsts were enumerated separately and returned
135 persons, making an aggregate of 2,229 adherents of Congregationalism. The sect " regards
church authority as inhering, according to the very genius of the Gospel, in each local body of
believers, as a miniature realization of the whole Church, which can itself have only an ideal corporate
being on earth ". The medical work of the American Mission has been attended with great success
and the Manipay Hospital and the McLeod Hospital for women and children have been of great
service to the people of the Jaffna Peninsula.

A sect recently established in Ceylon has been the Pentecostalists, whose growth, however,
has been rapid, counting at the census of 1946 a total of 1,864 persons, most of whom were found in
the Colombo, Jaffna, and Kandy Districts.

It may be recorded, as of interest, that, while the majority of the denominations returned an
excess of male adherents, the Congregationahsts (both American and British) and the Pentecostalists
showed a preponderance of females.

182
TABLE 1 2 0 — N U MERICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIAN SECTS IN REVENUE DISTRICTS, CEYLON, 1946

The following Table gives the numerical distribution of the Christian Sects in tlie Districts of
the Island :—
All Roman Presby-
Anglicans Methodists
Christians Catholics terians
CEYLON ... 603,235 . .. 507,418 . . .. 48,823 .... 20,335 ... 4,248

Colombo ... 295,550 . .. 248,075 ... 26,547 . .. 11,129 ... 3,048

Kalutara ... 21,472 . .. 18,635 ... 1,309 . 973 ... 59

Kandy ... 33,365 . .. 23,934 ... 5,693 . 1,195 ... 274

Matale 5,528 . 3,940 ... 594 . 85 ... 31
Nuwara Eliya ... 14,353 . .. 10,957 ... 2,177 . 264 ... 205

Galle 5,593 . 3,464 .. 1,241 , 480 ... 86

Matara 2,858 . 1,466 .. 680 , 462 ... 43
Hambantota 531 . 343 .. 80 . 56 ... 6

Jaffna ... 51,265 . .. 44,437 .. 1,850 1,320 ... 142

Mannar ... 13,709 . .. 13,477 .. 46 167 ... 2
Vavuniya 3,378 . 3,252 .. 72 24 ... 2

Batticaloa ... 10,696 . 7,627 .. 564 ... 2,313 ... 12

Trincomalee 9,056 . 8,150 .. 379 303 ... 57

Kurunegala ... 22,304 ... 17,995 .. 1,622 ... ' 255 ... 48
Puttalam ... 12,303 ... 12,013 .. 62 29 ... 12
Chilaw ... 67,626 ... 65,857 .. 660 401 ... 14

Anuradhapura 2,746 2,232 .. 264 65 ... 32

Badulla ... 10,689 7,515 .. 1,722 505 ... 75

Ratnapura ... 9,537 7,017 .. 1,456 163 ... 58

Kegalla ... 10,676 ... 7,032 .., 1,805 146 ... 42

Congrega-
Baptists Salvationists Pentecostalists Others
tionalists
CEYLON ... 3,321 2,894 ., 2,229 1,864 ... 12,103

Colombo 2,172 622 ., 137 749 ... 3,071

Kalutara 47 66 . 8 30 ... 345

Kandy 228 162 . 29 210 ... 1,640

Matale 174 70 . 1 34 ... 599

Nuwara Eliya 45 63 . 24 60 ... 558

• Galle 37 17 . 7 73 ... 188

Matara 8 39 . 3 29 ... 128
Hambantota ... 2 4 . 2 2 ... 36

183
 Baptists Salvationists Congrega- Pentecostalists Others
tionalists.
Jaffna 22 .. 247 ... 1,886 . 414 ... 947
Mannar — .. 3 ... 1 . 1 ... 12
Vavuniya — .. — ... 6 . 6 ... 16

Batticaloa 1 .. 35 ... 9 .. 48 ... 87

Trincomalee 13 ... 6 ... 9 .. 8 ... 131

Kurunegala 72 .. 701 ... 17 .. 34 ... 1,560

Puttalam 3 .. 2 ... — 1 ... 181
Chilaw 146 .. 107 ... 2 . 20 ... 419

Anuradhapura 18 .. 15 ... — .. 4 ... 116

Badulla 47 ... 37 ... 25 .. 32 ... 731

Ratnapura 78 .. 84 ... 3 . 91 ... 587

Kegalla 208 .. 614 ... 60 . 18 ... 751

ADHERENTS OF ISLAM

Islam is the religion of the Moors and Malays. At previous censuses it was termed " Muham-
madanism ", but a growing public opinion among its adherents has insisted on the name given by the
Prophet himself being applied to their faith. ' I s l a m ' means " pious submission to the W i l l o f God",
and the participle of the same Arabic word, Muslim, is used as the appellation of one who professes
this religion. The majority of the Muslims in Ceylon are said to belong to the Sunnite sect, that is,
" those of the path ", who claim to be orthodox. Some Indian Moors are known to belong to the
other main division of Islam, the Shiites. The chief difference between the Shiites and the Sunnites
is that the former believe that the superhuman power of the Prophet descended to A l i , his son-in-law,
the fourth Caliph, and his children, so that they could interpret the W i l l o f God and tell future events.
No statistical distinction, however, was drawn between the two sects at the last census, or at any
previous census.

The total number o f Muslims, as recorded in 1946, was 436,556, or about 6 6 persons in every
1,000 of the population of the Island. The Islamic population in Ceylon, since 1 8 7 1 , is shown in
the following Table :—

T A B L E 1 2 1 — M U S L I M POPULATION I N CEYLON, 1871-1946

Year Total Number of

Muslims Population
1871 171,542 7-1
1881 197,775 7'2
1891 211,995 7-0
1901 246,118 6-9
1911 283,631 ... • 6-9
1921 302,532 6-7
1946 436,556 ... . 6-6
184
The largest number of Muslims was found in the Colombo, Batticaloa and Kandy Districts, but
Kalutara, Trincomalee, and Kurunegala Districts each recorded a Muslim poptiktion above
20,000. The percentage distribution of the Muslims in the Districts in 1946 and 1921 is given in the
following Table :—

TABLE 122- -PER CENT. DISTRIBUTION OF M U S L I M POPULATION IN THE REVENUE

DISTRICTS IN 1946 A N D 1921

Per Cent, of Total Population of

District
District
1946 1921
Colombo 6-6 6-5
Kalutara 5-6 5-7

Kandy 7-8 7-7

Matale 6-2 6-3
Nuwara Eliya 2-2 2-0

Galle 31 3-7
Matara 2-6 3-0
Hambantota 2-7 2-8

Jaffna 1-4 1-2

Mannar 33-5 31-3
Vavuniya 9-3 7-2

Batticaloa 42-3 39-8

Trincomalee 31-3 37-9

Kurunegala 4-4 4-6

Puttalam 32-3 349
Chilaw 3-5 40

Anuradhapura 110 12-1

Badulla 3-5 3-6

Ratnapura 1-8 20
Kegalla 3-9 4-2

The Table shows that the Muslim population has increased proportionately in relation to the
total population in Colombo, Kandy, Nuwara Ehya, Jaffna, Mannar, Vavuniya, and Batticaloa
Districts, and has declined more or less in the other twelve districts since 1921.

OTHER RELIGIONS
Of the " Other Religions ", a sort of primitive Animism with demon worship 'and song and
dance to drive away the evil spirits of dead ancestors was the religion of the Veddahs, some of whom
have, however, been returned as Buddhists and Hindus. Zoroastrianism, the teaching of Zoroaster
which is believed to be rooted in the ancient Aryan folk-beliefs, and which makes the earth the battle-
field of the powers of Good and Evil, Ormazd and Ahriman, counted 400 adherents in Ceylon. Free
Thinkers, whose ' religion ' has what they would call a rationalistic basis, had increased f r o m 242 to
326 in 1946, while there were 40 Agnostics in the Island in 1946 against 22 in 1921.
185
 CHAPTER I X

LITERACY
HE questions in a census schedule relating to literacy, though confined to an enquiry as
regards a person's ability to read and write a language, are universally accepted as providing a fair
measure of a people's educational advancement. Forcensus purposes, a ' literate' person is onewhocan
both read and write a language, and the instructions to enumerators required that persons who had
learnt to read and not write a language, and persons who had learnt to sign or write their names but
not to read other script, should be excluded f r o m the category of ' literates '. On this basis of abihty,
both to read and write a language, the census of 1946 returned a total number of 3,352,789 persons in
Ceylon as ' Uterates'. The ' educable ' population of the country, that is, the population exclusive
of infants below five years of age who are regarded as being too young for instruction, was found at
the census to be 5,795,900. Thus, the ' l i t e r a t e ' population represented 57-8 per cent, of this
population, leaving 2,443,111 persons or 42-2 per cent, in the category of illiterates. The conversion
of this percentage to literacy is doubtless a task which must be undertaken.

That there has been a continuous improvement in hteracy since If \\ may be observed f r o m
the following Table :—
T A B L E 123—PERCENTAGE OF LITERATES IN CEYLON RELATIVE TO POPULATION,
AGED FIVE YEARS A N D OVER, 1881-1946
Persons Males Females
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Population—
(aged 5 years & over) 1000 100 0 1000
1881 17-4 29-8 3-1
1891 21-7 36-1 5-3
1901 26-4 42-0 8-5
1911 31-0 47-2 12-5
1921 39-9 56-4 21-2
1946 57-8 70-1 43-8
The remarkable progress made in female literacy within the last twenty-five years is especially
encouraging.
Diagram V I I on page 187 illustrates these facts more forcibly.

EXTENT OF ILLITERACY
The fact, however, must be faced that, in a country enjoying autonomy on universal suffrage,
about a third of its male population and more than half of its female population still remain illiterate.
Complacency on the ground of the progress already accomplished, or on that of the common lot of
" Oriental countries ", where " caste and custom are obstacles ", or even on account of the knowledge
that the majority of the members of the Council in Dutch times in Ceylon who were " treated with
no less Title than that of Honourable " and " Judge and give Sentence in all causes, as well Capital
as Others " ^ could neither read nor write, would not appear to be justified.
1 Sohveitzer: "Account of Ceylon (1676-1682) ".

186
 Diagram VII

EER CENT PER CENT

PERSONS MALES FEMALES

Percentage of Literates, 1871-1946, Relative to Population aged 5 years and over

187
 Since the problem to be tackled is that of illiteracy, the numerical distribution of the illiterate
population, by sexes, among the Districts of the Island, is given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 124—ILLITERATE POPULATION (AGED FIVE YEARS «fe OVER) IN CEYLON, 1946

Population {excluding age-group 0-4 years) Illiterates

r
Persons Males Females
Persons Males Females
EYLON ... 5,795,900 .. . 3,094,786 .. . 2,701,114 ... 2,443,111 .. . 924,039 ... 1,519,072
Colombo .. 1,260,899 .. . 699,153 .. . 561,746 ... 343,343 .. 139,619 ... 203,724
Kalutara .. 398,730 .. . 205,182 .. 193,548 ... 144,117 .. 54,014 ... 90,103
Kandy .. 610,065 .. . 325,629 . . 284,436 ... 320,357 .. . 123,139 ... 197,218
Matale ... 134,012 .. 72,237 . . 61,775 ... 66,649 .. 24,404 ... 42,245
Nuwara Eliya ... 226,715 .. . 119,906 . . 106,809 ... 135,033 .. 51,086 ... 83,947
Galle ... 399,759 .. 196,396 . . 203,363 ... 159,418 .. 55,844 ... 103,574
Matara .. 302,177 .. . 150,085 .. . 152,092 ... 136,984 .. 49,800 ... 87,184
Hambantota ... 130,732 .. 70,005 . 60,727 ... 74,479 -.. 28,897 ... 45,582
Jaffna ... 379,915 .. 189,560 . . 190,355 ... 111,593 .. 38,415 ... 73,178
Mannar 28,392 . 17,168 . 11,224 ... 9,984 .. 4,013 ... 5,971
Vavuniya 20,699 . 12,124 . 8,575 ... 6,365 . 2,412 .. 3,953
Batticaloa ... 176,253 . 88,431 . 87,822 ... 100,243 .. 33,196 ... 67,047
Trincomalee 68,904 . 47,074 . 21,830 ... 25,563 . 11,302 .. 14,261
Kurunegala ... 421,215 . . 227,501 . . 193,714 ... 178,995 . 62,524 .. 116,471
Puttalam 38,371 . 22,574 . 15,797 ... 15,976 . 5,909 .. 10,067
Chilaw ... 123,142 . 65,725 . 57,417 ... 32,562 . 13,045 .. 19,517
Anuradhapura ... 125,104 . .. 75,072 . 50,032 ... 60,508 . 23,692 .. 36,816
Badulla ... 316,428 . . 168,187 . .. 148,241 ... 200,963 . 78,897 .. 122,066
Ratnapura ... 292,125 . . 159,879 . .. 132,246 ... 156,547 . 62,305 .. 94,242
Kegalla ... 342,263 . . 182,898 . 159,365 ... 163,432 . 61,526 .. 101,906

The Table reveals that the largest number of illiterates was to be found in the Colombo and
Kandy Districts, a fact which was to be expected, as these Districts ranked first and second in their
total population. But the third largest number of ilUterates in a District was found in Badulla which
ranked only eighth in total population. Kurunegala is seen to have the next largest number.

DISTRIBUTION BY DISTRICTS
The percentage of illiterates relative to the population of each District in 1946 and 1921 is
given in the following Table :—

T A B L E 125—PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERATE PERSONS IN DISTRICTS

(INCLUSIVE OF M U N I C I P A L A N D U R B A N COUNCIL AREAS)

Persons Males Females

A

1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921

Colombo 27-2 460 20-0 340 36-3 60-7
Kalutara 36-2 54-4 26-3 39-9 46-6 70-1

Kandy 52-5 68- 2 37-8 51-8 69-3 86-7

Matale 49-7 69- 6 33-8 50-7 68-4 92-2
Nuwara Eliya 59-6 74-7 42-6 60-6 78-6 90-8

188
 Persons Males Females
f t \ ^ \
1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921
Galle 39-9 ... 57-4 28-4 ... 40 6 50-9 ... 73-4
Matara 45-3 ... 630 33-2 ... 44 1 57-3 ... 81-7
Hambantota 57 0 ... 68-6 41-3 ... 47 4 75-1 ... 92-4
Jaffna 29-4 ... 56-8 20-3 ... 37 0 38-4 ... 75-5
Mannar 35-2 ... 58-5 23-4 ... 42 8 53-2 ... 81-1
Vavuniya 30-8 ... 58-2 19-9 ... 40- 0 46-1 ... 84-2

Batticaloa 56-9 ... 74-8 37-5 ... 56 5 76-3 ... 92-9

Trincomalee 37-1 ... 61-8 24-0 ... 45 2 65-3 ... 82-3
Kurunegala 42-5 ... 60-6 27'5 ... 39 7 60-1 ... 88-0
Puttalam 41-6 ... 61-1 26'2 ... 44 8 63-7 ... 86-9
Chilaw 26-5 ... 42-5 19-9 ... 30 1 34-0 ... 58-1
Anuradhapura 48-4 ... 66-2 31-6 ... 44 8 73-6 ... 95-5
Badulla 63-5 ... 76-8 46-9 ... 62 7 82-4 ... 93-2
Ratnapura 53-6 ... 67-9 39'0 ... 51 2 71-3 ... 891
Kegalla 47-8 ... 66-8 33'6 ... 47 8 64-0 ... 89-6

This Table brings out the fact that the lowest percentage of illiteracy in the total population
of the District was in 1946 in Chilaw District, while the greatest illiteracy was prevalent in Badulla
District. In 1921, Colombo District had the least percentage of iUiterates, and Badulla District the
highest. Vavuniya and Chilaw Districts shared equally the credit of having in 1946 the least percentage
of male illiterates, with the balance weighing somewhat in favour of Chilaw which is a District little
affected by an immigrant adult population. Again, Badulla showed the maximum illiteracy, a posi-
tion which it has retained since 1921. This District was also the most backward in respect of female
literacy, 82 • 4 per cent, of its female population being still unable to read and write. It is, however,
encouraging to find that the percentage of male illiteracy which was in the sixties in 1921 has declined
to the forties in 1946, and that of female illiteracy which was in the nineties in seven Districts of the
Island twenty-five years ago has now dropped to the maximum of 82 • 4 reached in Badulla District.
If the ' educable ' capacity of a population is determined by the existence of opportunity and not so
much by innate racial capacity or social custom, the Districts in the Island that would appear to need
to be provided with better facilities would be those indicated in Chapter IV as Regions ' C ' and ' D ',
that is, the Dry Zone Districts and the Kandyan H i l l Country where the patterns of life are distinct
from the more advanced Low-Country and the Tamil-speaking Districts.

L I T E R A C Y I N TOWNS
Literacy in towns was, of course, decidedly better, and a percentage of 73-0 of the urban
population, five years of age and over, was returned in 1946 as bemg able both to read and write.
The highest percentage of literates was to be found within the Wattegama (85-2) and the Jaffna (82-2)
Urban Council Areas. Other towns with a general literacy percentage higher than 75 per cent, were :
Gampaha (76 9) ; Jaela (79-3) ; Moratuwa (76 7) ; Negombo (79 8) ; Panadura (79-0) ; Hatton-
Dickoya (77-8) ; Kadugannawa (75-9) ; Ambalangoda (79-4) ; Trincomalee (79-6) ; Kuliyapitiya
(76-0); Bandarawela (78 -9) ; and Balangoda (76 2). The Urban Council area of Dehiwala-Mount

189
Lavinia returned exactly 75-0 per cent. ' literates', while the three Municipalities had the following
percentages : Colombo (73-4) ; Kandy (68-3) ; and Galle (67 -9). The majority of both males and
females in the Island's urban population was found to be literate, the greatest illiteracy among males
occurring in Badulla (31-3 per cent.), Beruwala (30-8), and Hambantoa (30-7), and among females in
Puttalam (64-9), Beruwala (61 -7), and Hambantota (59 3). The Urban Council areas of Badulla,
Nuwara Eliya, and Avissawella also showed a majority of female illiterates. The fact that the religious
composition of the population of Puttalam, Beruwala, and Hambantota was to a large extent Muslim
may be a factor in the low degree of female literacy reached in these towns as the traditional seclusion
of females may be said to militate against their education, but the advance proved to have been made
among Muslims in other Districts and towns suggests that similar progress may be made in these as
well.

LITERACY IN MOTHER TONGUE

The literacy referred to hitherto in this Chapter is in respect of any one language at least, but
not necessarily in " the mother tongue ". Particulars regarding literacy in the mother tongue were
also obtained for the first time at the census of 1946,—" mother tongue " being defined for the
purpose as " the language of the race ". In the case of Ceylon Moors, Burghers and Eurasians, the
" mother tongue " was regarded as the normal language of the home whatever it be. On this basis,
it was ascertained that 2,442,418 persons were able to read and write in their mother tongue, Sinhalese.
In other words, about 52-9 Sinhalese out of every 100 of their race-group were ' hterate ' in their
mother tongue. About 63-2 per cent, of Sinhalese males, and about 41-5 per cent, of Sinhalese
females were able to read and write their own language. The percentage becomes higher when the
age-group of infants 0 • 4 years is excluded. General literacy in Sinhalese among the Sinhalese popula-
tion aged five years and above was found in 60" 8 per cent, of it, while among Sinhalese males of five
years and over the percentage of literates in Sinhalese was 72-4, and among Sinhalese females of the
same age group the percentage was nearly 48 0. There were 815,436 persons who were enumerated
as able to read and write in their mother tongue, Tamil. These comprised 48 0 per cent, of the popula-
tion aged five years and above of the group of ' races' who acknowledged Tamil as their mother
tongue : 62-4 per cent, of the males (aged five years and above) in this group were ' literate' in their
mother tongue, Tamil, but female literacy reached a percentage of only 30 • 7. Arabic was claimed
to be the mother tongue in which 1,391 persons in Ceylon declared that they were literate (850 males
and 541 females). A high percentage was recorded by those who claimed English as their mother
tongue. As many as 36,252 persons in Ceylon were enumerated as being able to read and write their
mother tongue, English. This number formed 85 7 per cent, of the population aged five years and
over of the race-groups whose normal language in their homes was English. 86 • 2 per cent, of the males
and 85-3 per cent, of the females, in both cases exclusive of infants aged 0-4 years, were enumerated
as ' literate' in English as their mother tongue.

LITERACY IN ENGLISH
The total number of persons in the Island who were able to read and write English was 367,622,
or 6 • 3 per cent, of the population aged five years and over. This is an advance of 2 • 6 per cent, over
the percentage of Uterates in English as recorded in 1921,—the percentage then attained being 3-7
per cent. Male Hterates in English numbered in 1946 a total for the Island of 259,865 persons or 8-4
per cent.- of its male population, aged five years and above. In 1921 male hteracy in English was 5*2
per cent. There were 107,757 females enumerated in 1946 as Uterate in English, representing about
4 • 0 per cent, of the total female population aged five years and above.

190
 The following Table shows the literacy in English in 1946 compared with that in 1921 for each
District in the Island.

T A B L E 126—PERCENTAGE OF LITERATES IN ENGLISH TO THE T O T A L POPULATION, BY SEX,

IN EACH DISTRICT (EXCLUDING CHILDREN, AGED 0 - 4 YEARS), 1946 A N D 1921

1946 1921
A

District f Males
r ^
Persons Females Persons Males Females
Colombo 13-3 .. . 16-5 . 9-3 . 8-2 .. 10-7 5-3
Kalutara 5-0 .. 7.1 . 2-9 . 2-8 . 4-2 1-3

Kandy 6-3 .. 8-4 . 3-9 . 4-3 6-0 2-4

Matale 4-4 5-9 . 2-8 . 2-7 . 3-7 1 3
Nuwara Eliya 3-7 .. 5-2 . 2 0 . 3-2 4-4 1-8

Galle ... - 5-7 .. 7-9 . 3-6 . 3.3 5-1 1-6

Matara 3-2 .. 4-3 . 2-2 . 1-8 2-5 1 1
Hambantota 1-8 .. 2-5 . 0-9 . 1-0 1-3 0-4

Jaffna 9-1 .. . 12-4 5-7 . 4-1 6-7 1-6

Mannar 3-6 .. 4-6 1-9 . 1-7 . 2-5 0-6
Vavuniya 3-8 .. 5-5 . 1-3 . 1-7 . 2-6 0-5

Batticaloa 2-7 .. 3-6 . 1-7 . 1-7 . 2-5 0-8

Trincomalee 11-4 14-9 3-9 . 4-2 5-9 2-1

Kurunegala 1-9 .. 2-7 . 0-9 . 1-0 1-5 0-5

Puttalam 2-5 .. 3-5 . 1 1 . 2-0 . 2-5 1 1
Chilaw 3-2 .. 4-1 . 2-2 . 2-2 3-1 1-3

Anuradhapura 2-7 .. 3-8 . 1-1 1-6 2-3 0-5

Badulla 3-5 .. 4-9 . 1-8 . 2 1 3-0 1-1

Ratnapura 2-7 .. 3-8 . 1-5 . 1-8 . 2-7 0-7

Kegalla 2-4 3-4 1-3 . 1-6 . 2-3 0-6

In the two Census Reports of 1921 and 1 9 1 1 , comment was made on " the growing demand for
an Enghsh education ". The figures in the Table do not show that that demand had been appreciably
met, for the progress " i n an Enghsh Education" in the period 1921-1946 does not seem very
remarkable. In 1 9 4 6 it was only in Colombo and Trincomalee Districts that there was a proportion
of over one in ten persons literate in English. O f the 3 6 7 , 6 2 2 persons who were literate in English,
13('>,043 were able to converse in both Sinhalese and Tamil, 167,292 could speak Sinhalese only, and
5 8 , 3 2 4 Tamil only.

191
 CHAPTER X

CONJUGAL CONDITION AND F E R T I L I T Y

I—General

THE expression ' conjugal condition ' , or ' civil condition ', means in census phraseology the
state of being unmarried, married, widowed, or divorced. It would have been noted in Chapter I I I
that 'civil or conjugal condition' had been recommended by the 1871 St. Petersburg Conference for
inclusion in census schedules as a main head of enquiry, and that it had in fact been a subject of the
Ceylon Census of that year. It was, however, dropped from the schedules formulated in 1881 and
1891, as it was believed that the information collected in 1871 was untrustworthy on account of
the prevalent uncertainly as to what constituted a legal marriage in Ceylon. Later juristic decisions ^
by the highest authorities removed much of the uncertainty by holding that registration was not
essential to the validity of a marriage in Ceylon, and the marriage relation could be presumed on
adequate evidence of cohabitation and repute. In 1901 ' civil condition ' was once again included
in Ceylon as a subject, of inquiry at the census, and has remained so in the schedules framed for
succeeding censuses. The question asked was not' what is your civil or conjugal condition, or your
condition as to marriage ?'—for this would be somewhat vague and Uable to be misunderstood—
but the more direct and explicit question ' are you unmarried, married, widowed, or divorced ?'.
The request was made that every person, whether infant, child, or adult, should be entered in one
of these categories. The entry ' married ' was also to be made in the case of a person claiming to be
' married ' according to custom or repute, though the marriage had not been registered according to
law. In the census reports of 1911 and 1921 it was recorded that enumerators had tended to enter the
parties to unregistered marriages as " unmarried ", with the result that the figures relating to the
number of married persons in Ceylon were reasonably suspect as understated. With a view to elimi-
nating this source of error as far as possible, enumerators at the 1946 census were specifically instructed
to record registered and customary marriages separately using the abbreviations " MR " and " MC ",
respectively.

The importance of the statistics of conjugal condition in estimating the fertility of a population
is generally appreciated, although the marriage rate is not recognized as an unerring guide. Marriage
has been defined as a physical, legal, and moral union between a man and a woman in complete
community of life for the establishment of a family. It is thus the social sanction to that kind of sex
behaviour which makes possible the procreation of new lives and the perpetuation of the race. Most
reproduction takes place within marriage, and the marriage rate therefore has a direct bearing on the
birth rate. Moreover, marriage gives stability to one of the profoundest impulses of man's organic
nature,—that of mating, procreation, and the care and nurture of the young. It also satisfies many
of his secondary needs,—emotional, cultural, and economic. Many men and women yearn for
romantic love and seek in marriage its fulfilment. Many others seem to long for a home, which they
would wish personally to create, and where they could find shelter from life's " sea of troubles " in
the close companionship of a loving and understanding mate. Some are influenced by a desire for
economic security, or for personal possession, or even for the continuation of a name of which they

> 2 N. L. B. p. 352 (Tisselhamy v. Nonnohamy).

192
are proud. A whole complex of motives may be present in a given case. Marriage, then, is a
social phenomenon of which the student of a particular society must necessarily take account if he
desires to have a good understanding of the object of his study.

MARRIAGE LAWS
It is, perhaps, convenient at this stage briefly to recount the laws relating to registration of
marriages which operate in Ceylon. Three distinct systems obtain, one for the general population,
one for the Kandyan Sinhalese, and one for the MusUms. The earliest law in regard to the regis-
tration of marriages was passed in 1847, and has since been amended from time to time. What is
now operative in respect of the general population is a law enacted in 1907 as subsequently modified
to enable even Kandyan Sinhalese to marry under it, if so desired. The solemnization of Christian
marriages is usually performed by a Christian Minister in church upon the certificate of a Registrar
of Marriages that all preliminary conditions required by law have been complied with. Non-Christian
marriages are solemnized by the Registrar himself, but good Hindus do not allow consummation unless
the marriage ceremony, which is regarded as a religious and sacred rite, is performed by a Brahmin
priest, with the essential features being observed of the tying of the thali (or necklace) and the serving
of the rice and betel to the bridegroom by the bride. The thali is the token throughout life that a
woman has been married, and is never removed till her husband's death.

The Kandyan Marriage Law is that embodied in a statute passed in 1870 which codified the
ancient marriage laws and customs of the Sinhalese. These customs included the practices of
polyandry and polygamy, but both these practices had been legally abolished in 1859 at the request
of the Kandyan Chiefs themselves who urged that they were the frequent causes of litigation and crime.
Although the penalty of three years' imprisonment was imposed for violating the law, it is notorious
that the practice of associated marriages ^ prevailed to some extent among remote areas in the Kandyan
Districts even in the first few decades of this century, though it is now believed to have died out. Knox,
writing towards the end of the 17th century A.D., refers to this practice : " In this country each Man,
even the greatest, hath but one Wife ; but a Woman often has two Husbands. For it is lawful and
common with them for two Brothers to keep house together with one Wife, and the children do
acknowledge and call both Fathers ". ^ The type of polyandry that prevailed among the Kandyan
Sinhalese is designated by anthropologists as " Tibetan ", or "fraternal polyandry " ' as distinct from
the " Nair" type obtaining in Travancore where the husbands are not related to each other.
Polygamy, though not illegal before 1859, was rarely practised, as the extract from Knox tends to show,
but on the authority of Diodorous Siculus it is believed * that at one time in Ceylon there existed a
form of " Punaluan " or " Group Marriage ", where a group of brothers or sisters was conjointly
married to their wives or husbands, so that,as in the Platonic Republic, no one was "able to know his
own child, but all should imagine themselves to be of one family ". Kandyan marriages may, as
akeady noticed, be in diga, or binna—diga, where a girl becomes a member of her husband's family,
the " patrilocal " type of marriage, as it is termed by anthropologists ; or binna, where the husband
enters the wife's family, the " matrilocal" type of marriage. In the former case, the woman loses all

' The pedigrees of parties to lattd suits in the Kandyan District Courts reveal the frequency of such
associated unions.
2 Knox ; Historical Relation, p. 150.
' Fraternal polyandry is alluded to in the Mahabharata where the story goes that Draupadi, daughter of
King Panchala, won by Arjuna in open contest, became the wife of the five Pandava brothers, Arjuna,
Yudhishtira, Bhinna, Nakula, and Sahadeva.
' Cf. Modder, Papers on the Customs of Polyandry, p. 15, cited by Turner in Census Report, 1921, p. .39.
193
claim upon her ancestral property, except for maintenance if she becomes destitute, and in the latter
case the man is dependent on his wife and her parents, and is liable to be turned out of the house at
any moment.

The registration of Muslim marriages is regulated by law enacted in 1886 and subsequently
modified in certain details. On the day of the marriage the terms of the contract (including the amount
of dowry and the maggar or compensation to be given to the wife in the case of divorce) are entered
by the officiating Lebbe, or priest, in Tamil in a register, which is signed by the bridegroom and the
lawful Wall or agent of the bride. The custom of tying the thali round the bride's neck has apparently
been adopted from the Hindus. Although limited polygamy is allowed—religion and law permit
Muslims four wives at a time—monogamy may be said to be general among Ceylon Muslims.

THE MARRIED POPULATION

At the Census of 1946, out of the total population of 6,657,339 persons, it was found that
1,722,099 persons or 25 8 per cent, were married and had had their marriages registered, while 776,433
persons or another 11 • 7 per cent, claimed to be married according to custom. No marriage is regarded
in Ceylon as valid to which the male party is under 16, or the female under 12', but if a child is born
to them during the non-age of either or both of them, the marriage is not impeachable or invalid on
the ground of non-age. The census has recorded a total of 783 males and 2,898 females under 15 years
of age as " married " (by registration or custom),—most of whom belonged to Muslim races resident in
the Colombo District. The proportion, however, is negligible,—for the number of young boys who
were ' married ' was only about 6 (six) in 10,000 (ten thousand) in the age group of males 0-14 years,
and about 2 (two) in 10,000 (ten thousand) of the total male population of the Island. Among females,
the proportion was greater, there being about 24 girls married in every 10,000 under 15 years of age.
In 1921, only one male in every 10,000 was found married below fifteen years of age, but 142 females
in ten thousand were married at that young age. Apart from Colombo District, the number of married
girls below fifteen years of age exceeded a hundred in Badulla (508), Batticaloa (349), Kandy (243),
Kurunegala (181), Anuradhapura (171), Trincomalee (164), Jaffna (127), Matale (112) and Ratnapura
(110). It will be observed from the figures recorded that infant marriage is an exceptional occurrence
in Ceylon, and that it is to be found mainly in Districts where the population is either predominantly
Tamil, MusHm, or Kandyan Sinhalese,—the Manmunai North Pattu of the Batticaloa District showing
a good number of young Moorish girls under fifteen as "married".

Of the population, aged 15 years and over, it was revealed at the 1946 census that there were
1,719,608 persons whose conjugal condition was described as ' married by registration ', and 775,243
persons who claimed to. have been married according to custom—an aggregate of 2,494,851 persons,
whose marriage contracts were in force at the date of the census. In other words 597 persons in every
1,000 of the population aged 15 years and over or 375 in every 1,000 of the total population, were
found in the married state. Among males, 877,935 were returned as married by registration, and 386,475
as married according to custom, making a total of 1,264,410 males of 15 years and above married out
of a total male population in that age-group of 2,268,334. This works out at about 557 males in every
1,000 of this age-group who were returned as married. In 1921, the proportion was recorded as 516,
and in 1911 as 534. Females of 15 years and above, who were shown as ' married ' at the date of the
census, numbered 1,230,441,—841,673 having had their marriages registered, and 388,768 recording
marriages by custom. The total represents 644 women in every 1,000 of the age-group as ' married '.
In 1921, the proportion was recorded as 583, and in 1911 as 602.

' There is no limit of age fixed in the law regulating Muslim marriages.
194
 The following Table gives the proportions ot the Married to a Thousand of the population
(aged 15 years and above) in each District of the Island :—

TABLE 127—PROPORTION OF MARRIED PER MILLE OF POPULATION, MALES AND FEMALES, AGED
15 YEARS AND ABOVE IN EACH REVENUE DISTRICT, 1946.

Both Sexes Males Females

CEYLON 597 557 644
Colombo 552 515 599
Kalutara 563 536 591
Kandy 627 578 687
. Matale 628 573 695
Nuwara Eliya 667 620 724
Galle 568 557 579
Matara 571 560 582
Hambantota 572 534 615
Jaffna 626 602 650
Mannar 633 586 712
Vavuniya 628 561 732
Batticaloa 618 604 632
Trincomalee 549 471 750
Kurunegala 620 573 680
Puttalam 615 557 705
Chilaw 579 555 609
Anuradhapura 608 529 739

BaduUa 660 610 • 718

Ratnapura 621 558 703
Kegalla 628 581 684

The first noticeable feature of the Table is that persons in the married state are in a majority
over single persons, aged 15 years and over in every District in the Island,—the Kandyan and Tamil
Districts (except Trincomalee which has shown peculiar characteristics in many respects) having the
largest proportions. This seems to confirm even today the observation made by Davyi at the
beginning of the 19th century : " Old bachelors and old maids are rarely to be seen amongst the
Sinhalese ". The next noteworthy point is that in every District there is a larger proportion of married
females than married males, suggesting that in Ceylon, as in other Asian countries, the marriage of the
daughters of the house is considered almost a sacred duty which should be performed as soon as
possible. The largest number of bachelors in any District was found in 1946 in the Trincomalee District
and the greatest number of spinsters in the Galle District. The former may be explained by the influx
of young men into the District for employment and the latter by the emigration of young men into
other Districts in quest of employment which was noted previously as the cause of the unbalance in
the sex ratios."
' Davy ; Interior of Ceylon, p. 284.

195
AGE AT MARRIAGE
A factor of importance in regard to the natural increase of the population is the age at which
marriage takes place. The following Table gives the Married Population in Age Groups, and the
proportion Married Per Cent, of the Total Population of each Group, as recorded at the Census of
1946 :—

TABLE 128—THE MARRIED POPULATION OF CEYLON BY AGE GROUPS, 1946, SHOWING PER
CENT. MARRIED IN EACH AGE GROUP

Age group Total Popu- Persons Per Cent- Males Per Cent. Females Per Cent.
lation in Age Married Popula- Married of Male Married of Female
Group tion in Age Population Popula-
Group in Age in Age
Group Group
15-19 680,614 79,608 11-7 .. 4,154 1 1 ... 75,534 .. 23-9
20-24 641,571 276,756 43-1 .. 62,122 . . 18-9 ... 214,634 . .. 68-4
25-29 577,518 397,450 .. 68-8 .. 169,373 . . 55-1 ... 228,077 . .. 84-4
30-34 449,887 362,708 .. 80-6 .. 185,594 . . 75.3 ... 177,114 . .. 87-1
35-39 468,282 396,956 .. 84-8 .. 219,912 . .. 84-2 ... 177,044 . .. 85-4
40-44 322,232 266,463 .. 82-7 .. 156,744 . .. 86-0 ... 109,719 . .. 78-4
45^9 319,564 255,039 .. 79-8 .. 157,754 . .. 86-0 ... 97,285 . .. 71-5
50-54 196,131 143,228 .. 73-0 .. 87,264 . .. 83-3 ... 55,964 . .. 61-3
55-59 163,150 115,021 .. 70-5 .. 77,835 . .. 82-2 ... 37,186 . .. 54-3
60-64 130,448 80,891 .. 62 0 .. 55,296 . .. 77-7 ... 25,595 . .. 43-2
65 & over... 229,498 120,651 52-6 .. 88,362 . 70-8 ... 32,289 . .. 30-8

It is apparent from this Table that while only about 11 jyoung^ men ^ x in
, . a thousand marry before
they are 20 years old, about one-fourth of the number of young girls in the age-group, 1 5 - 1 9 years,
are given away in marriage. The age at which most men seem to enter the married state is the age-
group 25 years to 29 years, while most women marry when they are from 20 to 24 years. Age-group
35-39 years contained the largest number of married males, while married females were most
numerous in the age-group 25-29 years.

THE DIVORCED AND WIDOWED

The figures relating to the widowed and divorced were tabulated separately for the first time
only at this census. The total number of widowed persons in Ceylon enumerated in 1946 was 363,235
or about 54 in every thousand of the population. There were more widows than widowers,—a normal
feature in every country because husbands are generally older than wives, and are more likely to die
first, and because more widowers remarry. There were 267,813 females returned as widowed, against
95,422 males. About 398 women out of every 1,000 widows belonged to the reproductive age-group,
49 years and under. Expressed as a proportion to the total population of females, excluding those
under 15 years, there were about 140 widows in every thousand, while widowers numbered 42 in every
thousand males. The figures are below those recorded in 1921 which were 177 widows and 57 widowers
in a thousand in the corresponding sex groups. They are suggestive of success in the measures taken
to reduce mortality within the last twenty-five years.

The total number of divorced persons formed only a small proportion of the population,—
about in every ten thousand,—for the aggregate figure at the census of 1946 was 12,108, of whom
18
5,519 were males, and 6,589 were females. I f the marriageable population is regarded as aged 15 years
and over, the proportion of divorces to the male population of that age-group was about two in a
196
thousand, and the proportion of divorcees to the female population of that age-group was about
tliree in a thousand. The distribution of the divorced population in the various Districts is shown
in the following Table, which also gives the proportion to every thousand of the total population :—
TABLE 129—DIVORCED POPULATION, 1946, BY REVE^^JE DISTRICTS
Persons Proportion Males Proportion Females Proportion
per Milk of per Mille of per Mille of
Total Male Female
Population Population Population
Colombo ... 1,621 ... 1 .. 798 ... 1 823 ... 1
Kalutara ... 394 ... 1 .. 188 ... 1 .. 206 ... I
Kandy ... 1,637 ... 2 665 ... 2 972 ... 3
Matale ... 330 ... 2 157 ... 2 .. 173 ... 2
Nuwara Eliya ... 579 ... 2 .. 265 ... 2 314 ... 2
Galle ... 365 ... 1 .. 185 ... 1 180 ... 1
Matara ... 262 ... 1 .. 123 ... 1 139 ... 1
Hambantota 82 ... 1 42 ... 1 40 ... 1
Jaffna ... 1,576 ... 3 686 ... 3 .. 890 ... 4
Mannar ... 122 ... 4 .. 77 ... 4 45 ... 4
Vavuniya ... 146 ... 6 84 ... 6 62 ... 6
Batticaloa ... 1,308 ... 6 .. 386 ... 4 922 ... 9
Trincomalee ... 383 ... 5 194 ... 4 .. 189 ... 7
Kurunegala ... 872 ... 2 .. 462 ... 2 410 ... 2
Puttalam ... 167 ... 4 92 ... 4 75 ... 4
Chilaw ... 108 ... 1 58 ... 1 50 ... 1
Anuradhapura ... 328 ... 2 .. 182 ... 2 .. 146 ... 3
Badulla ... 520 ... 1 .. 232 ... 1 .. 288 ... 2
Ratnapura ... 581 ... 2 .. 309 ... 2 .. 272 ... 2
Kegalla ... 727 ... 2 .. 334 ... 2 .. 393 ... 2
This Table shows that, while the largest numbers of divorced persons were enumerated in
Colombo, Kandy, Jaffna, and Batticaloa Districts, the highest proportion was found in Vavuniya and
Batticaloa Districts. Male divorcees were most numerous in Colombo, Jaffna and Kandy Districts,
and were greatest in proportion to the rest of the population in Vavuniya, Mannar, Batticaloa, Putta-
lam, and Trincomalee Districts. The largest numbers of female divorcees were found in Kandy,
Batticaloa, Jaffna, and Colombo Districts, but in relation to the total population they were pro-
portionately greatest in Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Vavuniya Districts. As previously noted, divorces
are comparatively easy to obtain among the Kandyan Sinhalese, and the high proportion recorded in
the Kandyan Districts must be attributed to this fact, although many divorced persons would have
remarried and so qualified again for inclusion within the category of the " married ". Kandyan
marriages, whether in diga or in binna, may be dissolved by mutual consent, or on the ground of the
wife's adultery, the husband's adultery coupled with incest or gross cruelty, complete and continued
desertion for two years, or inability to live happily together. The Sinhalese have been commended
" for evolving a marriage system well suited to the social needs of modern civilized life " . i Among
the Muslims, too, facilities for divorce exist, for a marriage may be dissolved by the husband
delivering to the wife letters of divorce, or addressing her in the presence of two witnesses in the words
" I divorce thee ". The existence of these facilities is reflected in the statistics appearing in the above
Table, for in Districts where Muslims and Kandyan Sinhalese form a considerable element in the
population the proportion of divorced persons is observed to be high. Though divorce is opposed
to the principles of Hinduism the high proportion of divorced persons in the Tamil Districts is
noteworthy.
Aninaohalam, P, : Census of Ceylon, 1901.
197
AGE A N D CONJUGAL CONDITION

The following age-group pyramid illustrates the conjugal condition of each group :—
Diagram VIII

AGES
AGES

70 & OVER FEMALES

MALES

I HOUSACJOS
THOUSANDS
1,200 OF PERSONS
OF PERSONS

Widovk'ed &. D i v o r c e d

Conjugal Condition of the Population, Classified by Age Groups and Sex, Ceylon 1946
It is observed in the pyramid that about three-fourths of the female population in the age
group 15 to 19 years are unmarried, and that it is only from the 20th year onwards that marriage
of females becomes more general. Since puberty is attained in the early teens, it is evident that several
years of reproductive activity are lost, and that thus to some extent a check is imposed on the rate of
natural increase i, which is further retarded by the fact that about 3-3 per cent, of women in Ceylon
pass the child-bearing age without having married. The following Table gives the percentage of the
total population of the Island for each conjugal condition :—
TABLE 130—CONJUGAL CONDITION OF THE TOTAL POPULATION OF CEYLON, SHOWING
PER CENT. DISTRIBUTION
Persons Males Females
Total 1000 100-0 100 0
Unmarried 56-9 ... 61-4 ... 51-8
Married 37-5 ... 35-7 ... 39-5
(i) By Registration 25-8 ... 24-8 ... 270
(ii) According to custom 11-7 ... 10-9 ... 12-5
Widowed 5-4 ... 2-7 ... '8-5
Divorced 0-2 ... 0-2 ... 0-2
* It was estimated by Sir Francis Galton that a marriage at the age of 18 would result in twice as many
children as one ^t the age of 28, Cited by Landis : Population Problems, p. 65.

198
 If the population under 15 years of age is excluded, the percentages are as shown in the following
Table :-

TABLE 131 —CONJUGAL CONDITION OF POPULATION, 15 YEARS AND OVER, SHOWING

PER CENT. DISTRIBUTION

Persons Males Females

Total ... 1000 100-0 ... 1000
Unmarried 31-3 .. 39-8 ... 21-2
Married 59-7 .. 55-8 ... 64-4
(i) By registration ... 411 .. 38-7 ... 44-1
(ii) According to custom 18-6 .. 171 ... 20'3
Widowed 8'7 ... 4-2 ... 140
Divorced 0-3 ... 0-2 ... 0-4

The following Table compares the conjugal condition of every thousand of either sex in certain
age-groups in 1946 and 1921 :—

TABLE 132—CONJUGAL CONDITION OF EVERY THOUSAND IN SELECTED

AGE GROUPS, 1946 AND 1921

Unmarried Married
r
Males Females Males Females
-J,
N

Age Groups 1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1 921 1946 1921
0-14 ... 999 .. . 1,000 ... 997 ... 996 1 ... 0 . 2 4
15-19 ... 988 .. . 985 . . . 753 ... 721 11 ... 14 . . 239 271
20-29 ... 625 .. . 646 ... 213 ... 238 ... 365 ... 342 . . 758 717
30-39 ... 173 .. . 224 55 ... 107 ... 799 ... 734 . . 862 754
40-49 84 .. 126 37 82 ... 860 ... 790 . . 750 611
50-59 70 .. 99 34 68 ... 828 ... 763 . . 583 449
60 and Over 68 .. 93 33 61 ... 733 ... 654 . . 353 215

Widowed or Divorced

Males Females
A
r 1 r
Age Groups 1946 1921 1946 1921
0-14 0 0 1 0
15-19 1 1 8 8
20-29 10 12 29 45
30-39 28 42 83 139
40-49 56 84 213 307
50-59 102 138 383 483
60 and Over 199 253 614 724

The Table indicates that a great proportion of the population had entered the married state in
1946, than in 1921, and that this occurred among males in the decennial age-group 30-39 years, and
among females in the age-group 20-29 years. Apparently, too, a greater proportion of married
199
folk reached the age-group of 60 and over in 1946 than in 1921. The increased proportion is partly
attributed to the inclusion in 1946 of persons married according to custom in the category of the
married, but seems also to reflect better health conditions resulting in increased longevity. There were
proportionately fewer classified at the census of 1946 as ' widowed or divorced ' than recorded at the
census of 1921.

RACE AND CONJUGAL CONDITION

The conjugal condition of the population, when examined in relation to the race-groups, reveals
the following characteristics:—The greatest proportion of bachelors within the marriageable age-group,
that is, 15 years and over, was found by the census of 1946 among the Low-Country Sinhalese,
and the next highest among the Burghers and Eurasians. Similarly, it was in these racial groups,
that is, among the Burghers and Eurasians, and the Low-Country Sinhalese, that the highest percentage
of unmarried females within the marriageable age-group was found. A possible explanation may be
that these race-groups are the most affected by Western cultural influences, and economic values and
a growing consciousness that marriage is not necessarily the only career for women are, perhaps,
responsible for this state of affairs. On the other hand, very few girls (no more than ten in a
hundred) were found unmarried among the Ceylon Moors.
The following Table gives the conjugal conditions of the population by sex in 1946 and
1921 among the indigenous race-groups :—
TABLE 133—CONJUGAL CONDITION AMONG INDIGENOUS RACE GROUPS, CEYLON, 1946 AND
1921 SHOWING PROPORTION PER THOUSAND OF EACH SEX (AGE 15 YEARS AND OVER)

Males
. - A _

Unmarried Married Widowed Divorced

Race f—— ^ ^ j^.
N r - ^ ^ K.
\
1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921
Low-Country Sinhalese ... 439 ... 474 . . 525 ... 476 ... 35 ... 50 . .. 1 .. 0
Kandyan Sinhalese ... 388 ... 433 . . 561 ... 495 ... 48 ... 70 .. 3 .. 2
Ceylon Tamils ... ... 361 ... 334 . . 573 ... 591 ... 62 ... 74 .. 4 .. 1
Ceylon Moors ... ... 369 ... 346 . .. 588 ... 606 ... 37 ... 44 .. 6 .. 4
Burghers and Eurasians ... 435 ... 448 . . 527 ... 499 ... 32 ... 51 .. 6 .. 2
Malays ... 403 ... 378 . . 557 ... 569 ... 34 ... 52 . .. 6 .. I
Veddahs . . . 374 ... 310 . . 577 ... 638 ... 44 ... 50 . .. 5 .. 2

Females

Unmarried Married Widowed Divorced

, ^ , ^ -K. s ^ - ^ - ^
1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921
Low-Country Sinhalese . . . 275 ... 306 . .. 593 . . . 528 ... 131 ... 165 .. 1 .. 1
Kandyan Sinhalese ... 180 ... 252 . .. 684 . . . 570 ... 132 ... 174 .. 4 .. 4
Ceylon Tamils ... ... 151 ... 145 . .. 662 . . . 629 ... 181 ... 225 .. 6 .. I
Ceylon Moors ... ... 99 ... 90 . .. 688 ... 670 ... 201 ... 229 .. 1 2 .. 11
Burghers and Eurasians . . . 340 ... 391 . .. 535 ... 475 ... 120 ... 133 .. 5 .. 1
Malays ... 217 ... 159 . .. 630 ... 662 ... 143 ... 176 .. 1 0 .. 3
Veddahs ,,. 55 ... 157 . • • 770 696 169 . . . 146 .. 6 .. 1

2PP
Compared with 1921, the figures for 1946 show an increase in the "unmarried" of both sexes
among the Ceylon Tamils and Ceylon Moors, more unmarried females among the Malays, and a
larger number of unmarried males among the Veddahs. A corresponding decrease occurs among
these race-groups in the numbers of the "marrieds". A uniform decrease in the number of "widowed"
is observed among all race-groups, except among the Veddahs where the number of widows has
increased, suggesting greater male mortality among them. The census of 1946 shows more divorced
persons in all race groups, the greatest proportionate increase occurring among the Veddahs, the Ceylon
Tamils, the Malays, and the Burgher and Eurasian race-group.

The following Table compares the number of inter-racial marriages in the decade 1936-1945
with that of the decade 1911-1920 :—
TABLE 134—INTER-RACIAL MARRIAGES, CEYLON, 1936-1945 AND 1911-1920
Marriages between 1936-1945 1911-1920
Sinhalese and Burghers ... ... 1,221 ... 509
Sinhalese and Europeans 47 ... 24
Sinhalese and Tamils 1,492 ... 725
Tamils and Burghers 243 ... 109
Tamils and Europeans 15 ... 5
Burghers and Europeans 176 ... 75

Though the trend towards intermarriage seems to have advanced in recent decades, the numbers
of inter-racial marriages are still relatively very small. The aggregate of marriages between Sinhalese
and Tamils remains highest among inter-racial marriages, but the rate of intermarriage between
Sinhalese and Burghers is seen to be the greatest, among the inter-racial marriages of indigenous race-
groups.
It may be noted, before concluding this section, that the proportion of persons in the married
state in urban areas was found to be less than that in the country as a whole. Of the total urban
population in the marriageable age-group, the proportion of the married per thousand was found in
1946 to be only 529 as against 597 for the Island. Among males the proportion was only 491 against
558 for the Island, and among females it was 587 against 644 per thousand for the whole country.

201
 CHAPTER X

CONJUGAL CONDITION AND F E R T I L I T Y

II—Fertility

n was observed in Chapter IV thatabetter measure of the natural growth of a population than
the crude birth and death rates was the " fertility " of the female population combined with mortality
data. By " fertility " is meant simply the actual production of children and in the statistical vocabulary
the term is distinguished from " fecundity ", which connotes child-bearing capacity. If fecundity
alone were the factor, it has been estimated that a single human female would give birth on the average
to about 15 to 20 children during a maximum reproductive period of forty years, but social and reli-
gious taboos and controls operate elTectively in every human society to reduce the rate of human
reproduction. One such restraint is the institution of marriage, and though a few children are born
out of wedlock, the error emanating from the failure to reckon them in any computation, in which the
aggregate number of children born is a factor, is not regarded as serious. Hence, the Census of 1946
asked the following questions only from women who were married at the date of the census, or had
previously been married and were at that date widowed or divorced :—(I) Date of marriege, or, if
previously married, date of first marriage ; (2) Number of children ever born ; and (3) Age of mother
at birth of first child live or dead.

The Census disclosed, however, that, out of a total of 1,209,561 mothers in Ceylon at March 19,
1946, there were 7,486 mothers in the Island who were admittedly unmarried. In other words,
six in a thousand mothers were single women who had given birth to illegitimate children. The aggre-
gate number of children born to these mothers was 27,170, of whom 20,420 or 75 "2 percent, were alive
at the date of the census. The average number of children born to each unmarried woman is seen to
be 3 6. The proportion of the number of children born to unmarried mothers to the aggregate
number of children born to all mothers was five in one thousand. The largest number of unmarried
mothers was found in the Colombo, Galle, Matara, and Kandy Districts. The highest proportion
of unmarried mothers relative to all mothers was found in Matara and Batticaloa Districts. Among
the towns, Colombo counted 322 unmarried mothers, Galle 74, Jafi'na 59, and Kandy 44. The pro-
portion of unmarried mothers to all mothers was greatest in Ratnapura, Chilaw and Nuwara Eliya
Urban Council areas.

MOTHERS BY AGE-GROUPS
Of the 1,507,741 females found in the ' ever married ' conjugal state, i.e., married, widowed
or divorced, there were 1,202,075 women who had borne one or more children. Thus, there were
305,666 women who had entered the married state but had borne no children. The percentage of
childless women among the " ever-marrieds " was 20 3. The women who had married and borne
children had produced between them 5,174,661 children,—an average of 4*3 per married and fertile
female, or 3 4 per women ' ever married '.

202
 The following Table gives the conjugal condition of mothers by Age Groups :—

TABLE 135—CONJUGAL CONDITION OF MOTHERS BV AGE GROUPS, CEYLON, 1946

Age Groups
Conjugal Condition Total Under 15-29 30-49 50 years and
15 years years years above
All mothers .. 1,209,561 380 ... 385,984 ... 564,665 .. 258,532
Unmarried 7,486 58 ... 2,883 ... 3,164 1,381
Married by Registration 677,128 .. 208 ... 245,100 .. 332,671 .. 99,149
Married by Custom 310,891 97 ... 125,362 .. 154,331 .. 31,101
Widowed .. 210,164 14 ... 11,199 ... 72,608 .. 126,343
Divorced 3,892 3 ... 1,440 .. 1,891 558

The number of children to mothers classified by conjugal condition is shown in the following
Table :—

TABLE 136—CHILDREN BORN TO MOTHERS CLASSIFIED BY CONJUGAL CONDITION OF

MOTHERS, CEYLON, 1946

Conjugal Condition Mothers Children Born Average Number

of Children
( ^ Number Per Cent. Born
Number Per Cent.
All Mothers 1,209,561 ... 100 0 . . 5,201,831 .. 100 0 ... 4-3
Unmarried 7,486 ... 0-6 . 27,170 .. 0-5 ... 3-6
Married by Registration 677,128 . . . 56 0 . . 2,880,942 .. 55-4 ... 4-3
Married by Custom 310,891 . . . 25-7 . . 1,240,104 .. 23-8 ... 40
Widowed 210,164 . . . 17-4 .. . 1,042,312 .. 20-0 ... 50
Divorced 3,892 ... 0-3 . 11,303. .. 0-3 ... 2-9

It is obf.erved that the average number of children born to women whose conjugal condition
was ' married ' or ' widowed ' was higher than the number born to single women or women whose
marriages had been interrupted by divorce.

CHILDREN BORN AND CHILDREN LIVING

In the succeeding Table is given the number of children born and living by the conjugal condition
of the mothers :—

TABLE 137- -NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN AND LIVING BY CONJUGAL

CONDITION OF MOTHERS

Female Children Living

Conjugal Condition Population Total Children
10 years Mothers Born Number Per Cent.
and over of Children
Born
All Conjugal Conditions 2,301,583 1,209,561 5,201,831 3,816,620 73 •4
Unmarried 794,251 7,486 27,170 20,420 75 •2
Married by Registration 843,176 677,128 2,880,942 2,204,327 76 •5
Married by Custom 389,812 310,891 1,240,104 899,714 72 •6
Widowed 267,758 210,164 1,042,312 684,239 65 •6
Divorced 6,586 3,892 11,303 7,920 70 •1

203
 The figures showing the percentage of children alive may be misleading unless the age composi-
tion of the respective conjugal groups is borne in mind. Thus, any inference that the comparatively
low proportion of children hving who were born to widows was due to difficulties experienced by
widows in bringing up their issue would not be justified, for the percentage figure represents the propor-
tion of children who were ahve at the date of the census having been born to women who were at that
date widowed, the majority of whom (about 73 per cent, in fact) were already in the grand-parent age-
group. On the other hand, it may be suggested with some reason that divorced women whose age-group
corresponds generally with that of married women—(only about one-fifth of the number in each condition
have gone beyond the reproductive ages)—find it somewhat more difficult to maintain their children,
judging from the lower rate of survival of the children born to them.

The following Table gives the ratio of children to women of child-bearing age (regarded as
15-44 years) as observed at successive census years from 1881 :—
TABLE 138—CHILDREN 0^ YEARS PER WOMEN, 15-44 YEARS,
CEYLON, 1881-1946

Number of Number of Proportion of

Women Children' Children 0-4 per
Year 15-44 years 0-4 years Thousand Women
15-44
1881 581,988 496,082 858
1891 642,351 535,703 834
1901 783,017 638,776 816
1911 885,776 607,975 686
1921 994,192 643,481 647
1946 1,450,640 861,439 594

The Table suggests a continuous decline in fertihty within the period of 65 years,—1881-1946.
The decline was rapid in the first decade of this century, and has been steadily maintained since. The
figures confirm the observation made elsewhere that the trend seems to be towards the smaller family.

INDICES OF DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY

The following Table gives the number of ' ever married women', (i.e., inclusive of widowed
and divorced women) in-each Revenue District, the total number of children born to them, the number
ahve at the date of the census, and the average number hving per woman :—
TABLE 139—NUMBER OF " EVER MARRIED " WOMEN, AND AVERAGE NUMBER OF CHILDREN LIVING
PER " EVER MARRIED " WOMAN, BY REVENUE DISTRICTS, CEYLON, 1946

Number of Number of Number of Average Number

" Ever Married Children Children of Children Living
Women " Born Living per " Ever
Married Woman "
CEYLON 1,507,741 5,201,831 3,816,620 2-5

Colombo 303,759 925,379 735,656 2-4

Kalutara 101,615 389,816 294,458 2-9

Kandy 158,838 567,103 415,452 2-6

Matale 35,203 120,619 83,188 2-4
Nuwara EUya 61,741 208,878 147,644 2-4
204
 Number of Number of Number of Average Number
" Ever Married Children Children of Children Lining
Women " Born Living per " Ever
Married Woman"
Galle 103,799 415,179 302,425 2- 9
Matara 77,119 323,440 237,279 3- 1
Hambantota 33,730 112,583 76,814 2-3
Jaffna 119,208 360,064 260,859 2-2
Mannar 7,467 22,260 13,782 1-8
Vavuniya 5,482 15,279 10,458 1-9
Batticaloa 55,330 183,504 122,118 2-2
Trincomalee 14,374 40,421 28,128 2-0
Kurunegala 112,528 382,959 267,695 2-4
Puttalam 10,041 28,376 19,264 1- 9
Chilaw 31,569 106,324 81,028 2- 6
Anuradhapura .. 31,277 97,329 60,259 1-9
Badulla 83,689 275,673 209,883 2-5
Ratnapura 73,719 277,530 197,848 2-7
Kegalla 87,253 349,115 252,382 2-9

The low average in all the Tamil districts is noteworthy.

The distribution of mothers and children between the rural and urban populations is shown in
the following Table ;—

TABLE 140—MOTHERS AND CHILDREN BORN AND LIVING, CLASSIFIED

BY RURAL AND URBAN POPULATION, CEYLON, 1946
Number of Children Average per Children Average per
Mothers Born Mother Living Mother
Rural 1,057,468 4,627,043 4-4 .. 3,379,812 . 3-2
Urban 152,093 574,788 .. 3-8 .. 436,808 2-9

The Table indicates that the rural community is the more fertile, a fact which is further empha-
sized when one notes that the female population in the reproductive age group in urban areas is 54- 3
per cent, of the total as against 50 2 per cent, in the rural areas. The differences between rural and
urban fertility in Ceylon follow the general pattern prevalent in most countries. It is stated that the
urban environment is not always conducive to family permanence or high fertility, while in rural areas
the family has a predominant value. The proportion of women in the reproductive age-group
(15-44 years) in urban areas who had borne no children was 51 0 per cent, while in the rural areas
59 2 per cent, of that age-group were mothers.
Differential fertiUty, that is to say, different rates of natural increase of different groups within
a population such as different income, occupational, religious or educational groups, and the reasons
for such difference may be a fit subject for more detailed study than is possible in this general report,
but it may be noted that in many countries of the West investigations have shown that the more wealthy
groups produce fewer children, that agriculturists are generally more fertile than industrial workers,
that certain' reUgious beliefs encourage high fertility, and that among the factors that bring about
differences in fertility are age at marriage, celibate ideals, birth control practices, and sensitivity to
economic and social pressures. To what extent Western patterns have influenced reproductive
behaviour in this country may be ascertained from such separate studies.
205
FIRST BIRTHS BY AGE OF MOTHER
In Ceylon the single ages at which most first births occurred to mothers were 20 years, and 18
years. The following Table gives the number of first births by age of mother grouped in 5-year period,
and shows the percentage in each age-group of total mothers to whom first births occurred:—
TABLE 141—FIRST BIRTHS BY AGE OF MOTHER, CEYLON, 1946, SHOWING
NUMBER OF MOTHERS TO WHOM THESE OCCURRED IN EACH 5-YEAR
AGE GROUP, AND THEIR PROPORTION TO ALL MOTHERS
Number of Mothers Percentage of
Age-Group to whom First Births All Mothers
Occurred
10-14 years 44,228 3
15-19 years 539,625 44
20-24 years 457,178 37
25-29 years 124,373 10
30-34 years 32,371 2
35-39 years 7,924 0-7
40-44 years 2,338 0-2
45-49 years 682 •06
50 and above 842 •07

It is observed that most mothers in Ceylon had given birth to their first child when they were
from 15 to 19 years of age, but an examination of the figures for the Districts shows that in the
Western Littoral, more first births occurred to women in the higher age-group 20 to 24 years than to
those in the age-group 15 to 19 years. The following Table gives the proportion to all mothers in
each District of mothers of the age-group 15 to 19 years who had given birth to their first-born :—
TABLE 142—PROPORTION OF MOTHERS, AGED 15-19 YEARS, WHO HAVE
HAD FIRST BIRTHS IN THAT AGE PERIOD TO ALL
MOTHERS IN EACH DISTRICT, CEYLON, 1946
Proportion of Mothers, 15 to 19 years who have had First
Births in that Age-Group, to all Mothers
Per Cent.
Colombo 33-2
Kalutara 30-3
Kandy 55-4
Matale 55-9
Nuwara Eliya ... 57-9
Galle 29-9
Matara 34-0
Hambantota 38-7
Jaffna 41-6
Mannar 55-8
Vavuniya 55-8
Batticaloa 54-5
Trincomalee 55-6
Kurunegala 54-0
Puttalam 53-5
Chilaw 43-5
Anuradhapura ... 60-7
Badulla 57-5
Ratnapura 54-3
Kegalla 52-5
206
The Table suggests that in Districts where the population Is mainly Kandyan Sinhalese, Indian
Tamil, Muslim, or Ceylon Tamil, first births occur eariier than in the Low-Country Sinhalese Districts.
Since first births generally follow marriages fairly closely, it appears that the age at marriage is later
in the Low-Country Sinhalese Districts than in the other Districts. It may be noted here that over
62 per cent, of first births in urban areas occurred to mothers aged 16 to 22 years, which is an age-group
somewhat older than that of mothers in rural areas who had had first births. This seems to suggest
that urbanization has the effect of delaying first births.

207
 CHAPTER XI

AGE

T^HERE is, perhaps, no factor of such great importance or significance in the study of the prob-
lems of a popula ion as that of its age composition. Statistics relating to age are needed to interpret
trends and tendencies in regard to the growth or decrease of a population, for the birth-rate depends
to a large extent on the age at which marriage takes place and on the proportion of women in the child-
bearing ages, and the death-rate is affected in no inconsiderable degree by the mortality in the early
and late years of life. The age period during which children attend school and the age at which they
begin to be first employed may be an index to the culture pattern prevalent in a given society. An
abnormal proportion of old people may give rise to problems affecting not only their care and welfare,
but also, as has been recently observed in certain countries, in their exploitation for political purposes.
" Scarcely any attribute of population can be adequately depicted by means of statistical data,
without introducing the subject of age. Most, if not all, of the activities of the population are at par,
under par, or at optimum, at some period of life ". ^ In the physical life cycle, capacity is largely a
matter of age, and the universal recognition of this fact determines the imposition of limitations of age
in respect of certain activities of human beings within their social and political organization. Thus
marriage and the ballot are barred to persons below a limit of age set bylaw in most civiUzed countries,
and compulsory rest is enforced at a certain age on persons employed in an administrative service.
The age composition of a population may also affect its economic condition. An abnormal proportion
in the younger middle-aged group may be inclined to migrate under economic pressure. Indeed, no
phase of the complex life of a people is altogether free f r o m the influence of the factor of age on its
evolution.

C O M M O N ERRORS
Unfortunately, however, it must be confessed that it is generally acknowledged by demogra-
phers that the returns in respect of age are among the less satisfactory results of a census. Inaccuracies
are attributed to ignorance on the part of the illiterate population, to deliberate misstatements,
especially on the part of women, and to a tendency to exaggerate longevity by those who have jumped
the three score and ten years allotted as man's " span of life ". To an illiterate person, one number
may seem much the same as another, although in rural Ceylon the age of a person may be sometimes
reckoned in reference to a tree planted in his garden. " When the mean illiterate People (who cannot
Read) have a Child Born the Father plants a young Jacken or Jager tree by his House, by which he
can reckon up the Child's Age. I have been at some of these Men's Houses to buy goods and happened
to ask the Age of some of their Children that came about me and they shewed me a Tree and told
me he was of the same Age with that ". ^ Misstatements may arise f r o m a general proneness to state
one's age in round numbers, in even multiples of five, as well as f r o m the desire of many women between
25 and 40 years to declare themselves as under 25 ^. A further cause may be found in the Oriental

> Coates, R. H. : Census of Canada, 1931.

'Schweitzer: " Account of Ceyloa. "
' This has been established by investigations in England and Canada, but are not peculiar to these
countries.
208
tradition that age is one of the personal particulars that one should carefully conceal.' For most
purposes, however, it is believed by statisticians that the inaccuracies, which are apt to be mainly
errors of less than five years, are not serious, as they can be ironed out by compiling the returns of
ages in aggregates of five or ten years, and then redistributing among the single years by the method
of differences. Quinquennial grouping with a multiple of 5 at the beginning of each group is what
is generally employed in census tabulations, and the Tables of the 1946 Census have adopted this
grouping as well as by single years.

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN

The instructions to enumerators were directed with a view to minimizing inaccuracies as far as
practicable. They were warned that in many cases persons would report their age in round numbers,
like 30 or 45, or " about 30 " or " about 45 ", when that was not the exact age, and that therefore when
an age ending in 0 or 5 years was reported, they should ascertain whether it was the exact age. Every
effort was to be made to find out the correct age o f each person, by comparing ages of members of a
family whose relative ages might be known or by reference to some important public event, or even
to the age of some tree which might be described as the person's " tambi " or " brother ". That more
satisfactory results have been attained in 1946 on account of the especial care which instructors were
asked to take in recording reported ages may, perhaps, be inferred f r o m the follow'ng Table which
compares the proportion of population aged 28-32 years to the total population of that age group,
as recorded respectively in 1946 and 1921. It was estimated ^ that, under normal circumstances,
and in the absence of extensive migration, or marked variations in the number of births and deaths,
if age were correctly stated in a group such as that given above, the number at age 30 would represent
approximately 20 per cent, of the total for the group, while the number for each age under 30 would be
greater, and the number at each age above 30 would be less than 20 per cent, of the total for the age
group. I t will be observed from the Table that, when this norm is applied, the variation in 1946 is
considerably less than that shown in 1921 :—

TABLE 143—PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION AT EACH AGE I N THE GROUP 28-32 YEARS INCLUSIVE,
TO THE TOTAL POPULATION IN THE GROUP, IN 1946, AND 1921

Age last
Birthday
r
1946
Persons

1921
r
1946
Males

1921
^
r
1946
Females

1921
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
28 ... 28-2 .. 27-3 . . 27-6 .. 27-8 . . 290 .. 26-8
29 ... 12-9 .. 6-6 . . 13-3 . .. 7-3 . . 12-4 .. 5-7
30 ... 26-9 .. 48-1 . . 25-4 . .. 44-7 . . 28-6 .. 52-1
31 ... 12-3 .. 4-8 . . 13-1 . .. 5-5 . . 11-4 .. 3-9
32 19-7 .. 13-2 . . 20-6 . .. 14-7 . . 18-6 .. 11-5

DIVERGENCE F R O M STANDARD GROUPING

Reference was made in an earlier Chapter ^ to the Triple Age-Grouping suggested by the Swedish
demographer, Sundbarg, whose observations on a long series of enumerations carried out in Sweden
for over a century and a half indicated that, in a given population, the proportion of those aged 15-49
would tend to be about 50 per cent, of the total, except when it was increased by immigration, giving

1 Cf. Hutton : Census of India, 1931, who cites the Niti Shashtra.
2 Cf. Knibbs, G. H. : Census of Australia, 1911, p. 91.
' Ch. VII.

209
an " accessive " distribution, or decreased by emigration, a " secessive " distribution ; that a non-
migratory increasing population would tend to show a higher percentage under 15 than over 49 ; and
that a population with a high birth-rate and a high death-rate would show a high proportion at ages
0 - 1 4 . The Triple Age-Grouping for Ceylon at the census of 1946, and at the two previous censuses
of 1921 and 1 9 1 1 is shown in the following Table :—
T A B L E 144—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIPLE AGE-GROUPING,
CEYLON, 1946, 1921, AND 1911

Ages 1946 1921 1911

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
0 - 1 4 years 37 39 41
1 5 - 4 9 years 52 51 49
50 and over 11 10 10

The progressive decline in the " child " group, and the increase in the " grand-parent " quota
are noteworthy.
The same Swedish authority set up a standard of age distribution in four groups, 0 - 1 4 years,
1 5 - 3 9 years, 4 0 - 5 9 years, and 6 0 years and over. The following Table gives the position o f Ceylon
at the census of 1 9 4 6 in reference to this standard :—
TABLE 145—PROPORTION IN CERTAIN AGE GROUPS, 1946, PER THOUSAND OF POPULATION

Per 1,000 of Population

(y~\4 years \5-39 years 40-59 years 60 years

and over
Standard 336 389 192 83
Ceylon, 1946 372 423 151 54

The divergence f r o m the standard is observed to be in the excess of the younger and in the
deficiency in the older elements of the population. Read with the previous Table, this suggests that,
while the trend seems to be towards having fewer children and more old people, it is yet far remote
f r o m the standard proportions set by Sundbarg for these groups.

P O P U L A T I O N B E L O W F I V E YEARS
The following Table gives the distribution by sex of the population in the early years, 0 - 4
years, as recorded respectively in 1946, and 1921 :—

TABLE 146—POPULATION, AGED 0-4 YEARS, BY SEX, 1946 AND 1921

1946 1921
Age last r
Birthday Total Males Females Total Males Females
Years
0 ... 160,677 . . 81,343 . .. 79,334 . .. 120,336 . . 60,849 .. 59,487
1 ... 167,455 . . 85,174 . .. 82,281 . .. 107,877 . . 54,866 .. 53,011
2 ... 170,213 . .. 86,428 . .. 83,785 . .. 138,950 . . 70,368 .. 68,582
3 ... 189,140 . .. 95,535 . .. 93,605 . .. 144,226 . .. 73,955 .. 70,271
4 ... 173,954 . .. 88,952 . .. 85,002 . .. 132,092 . .. 68,449 .. 63,643

861,439 437,432 424,007 643,481 328,487 314,994

210
 Expressed as a proportion of the total population, this age-group comprised 12 9 per cent, in
1 9 4 6 , against 1 4 - 3 per cent, in 1 9 2 1 . The proportion in regard to males was 1 2 - 4 per ceaL of the total
male population in 1946, against 1 3 - 8 per cent, in 1 9 2 1 , while in regard to females the proportion was
1 3 - 6 per cent, of the total female population in 1 9 4 6 , against 14 9 per cent, in 1 9 2 1 . The inference is
that the smaller number of persons found in this age-group in 1 9 4 6 proportionately to the total popula-
tion is due to a decline in the birth-rates during the years 1941 to 1 9 4 5 , as compared with the quin-
quennial period immediately preceding the 1 9 2 1 census. This is observed in the comparative Table
given below :—

TABLE 147—CRUDE BIRTH RATES, 1941-1945, AND 1916-1920, CEYLON

1941-1945 1916-1920

Crude Birth Crude Birth

Year Rate per thousand Year Rate per thousand
1941 36 •5 1916 39 •9
1942 36 •7 1917 41 •4
1943 40 •6 1918 41 •0
1944 37 •1 1919 35 •9
1945 36 •7 1920 36 •5

Mean 37-7 Mean 38-9

Another noticeable feature in Table 146 which showed the population in the Age-Group
0 - 4 years in 1 9 4 6 and 1 9 2 1 respectively, is that the number of infants who had completed the first
year of life was in 1 9 2 1 smaller than that alive within the first year, while in 1946 this was in excess of
infants below 1 year of age.

The infantile mortality statistics of the decennium 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 4 5 and 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 2 0 are given in the
following Table :—

TABLE 148—DEATHS OF INFANTS, AGED 1 YEAR AND LESS, TO 1,000 BIRTHS IN THE

YEARS 1936-1945, AND 1911-1920

1936-1945 1911-1920

Deaths of Infants, Deaths of Infants,

Year aged 1 year and less, Year aged 1 year and less,
per 1,000 Births per 1,000 Births
1936 166 ... 1911 218

1937 158 ... 1912 215

161 ... 1913 189
1938
166 ... 1914 213
1939
149 ... 1915 171
1940
129 ... 1916 184
1941
120 ... 1917 174
1942
132 ... 1918 188
1943
135 ... 1919 223
1944
182
1945 140 ... 1920

Mean 146 Mean 196

211
 The progress made in a quarter of a century in reducing infantile mortality by about 50 deaths
per 1,000 births is no doubt due to better maternal and child care,—a greater diffusion of knowledge
among mothers of parental care, and an improvement in child care and feeding. Generally, infant
mortality statistics are regarded as " a most sensitive index of the healthfulness of environment", and
decUne may be attributed to improvement in health conditions. There is still, however, a very long
way to go in order to attain the standard reached in a country like New Zealand, for instance, where
the infant loss is only about 32 per thousand in each year.

S C H O O L - G O I N G SECTOR

The next age-group that may be considered is that aged 5-14 years inclusive. This corres-
ponds approximately, though not exactly, to the compulsory school-going age in Ceylon which is
6-14 years for males and 6-12 years for females, though in the case of Tamil or Muslim girls, or the
children of labourers employed on the estates the school-going age is 6-10 years. The total number of
persons in this age-group (5-14 years) was 1,617,005 at the census of 1946,-826,452 males and 790,553
females. The percentage population of this age group in respect of the total population was 24 • 3
and in respect of the aggregate male population in the group 23 • 4 per cent, and in respect of the female
population 25 • 3 per cent. The total number of pupils on the school registers in 1945 was 864,557,—a
figure which is 53 5 per cent, of the populationaged 5 years to 14 years as recorded on March 19, 1946.
The aggregate number of pupils on the registers of Boys' Schools in 1945 was 492,317 or 59-6 per cent,
of the male population in the age-group, while the number of pupils on the registers of Girls' Schools
in 1945 was 372,240 or 47 1 per cent, of the female population enumerated within the age-group
at the census of 1946. The number of scholars of both sexes in Ceylon in 1921 amounted to 36-3
per cent, of the population at ages 5-14 years. There appears to have been an improvement of 17 2
per cent, in the spread of education among the young in an interval of twenty-five years.

E M P L O Y A B L E GROUP

The employable population may be regarded as found in Ceylon within the age-group of 15 to
59 years. The aggregate population of this age-group was 3,818,949 persons of both sexes, represent-
ing 57 4 per cent, of the total population of the Island. The tqtal number of persons reported at the
census as " gainfully occupied " (exclusive of those temporarily unemployed) was 2,586,466, which is
67-7 per cent, of the employable group. The breakdown of the population of this age-group by
sex showed 2,072,390 males and 1,746,559 females. The census enumerated 2,020,032 males and
566,434 females as gainfully occupied ajgain (excluding the temporarily unemployed), representing 97*5
per cent, of the males, and 32-4 per cent, of the females in this age-group. Of the females in this age-
group 1,080,855 were mothers. The figures, therefore, seem to call up a picture o f near " full employ-
ment " of both sexes at the date of the census. But it should be borne in mind that the " gainfully _
occupied " who were enumerated as such at the census includes persons below 15 years of age and
above 59 years of age, and persons who may be described as " under-employed " as being engaged in
seasonal or casual occupation. On the other hand, there were inclu-ded within the age-group 15 -59
years, although described as the " employable group ", many persons who were still under schooling,
and many who had withdrawn from a life of activity.

The final age-group maybe classified as that of the population in retirement, a good proportion
of which would be dependent on the employable group. The age of this group may be regarded as
commencing at 60 years. The aggregate population of this age-group of persons aged 60 years and
over was 359,946 constituting 5 4 per cent, of the total population of the Island.

212
 The following Diagram illustrates this distribution :-

Diagram IX

PERSONS MALES FEMALES PER C E N T

POPULATION IN R E T I R E M E N T
(60 years and over)
100

90

I 80
O

o
E M P L O Y A B L E POPULATION 70
(15-59 years)
60

50

40

SCHOOL POPULATION 30
(5-14 years)
20

CHILDREN 10
(under 5 years)
0
Distribution of Population, 1946 (by functional age groups)

" N A T U R A L AGE-GROUPS"

Varying the " natural ages " classification adopted in the Australian Census Report of 1911,
which defined "natural age groups " to be Infancy (Ages 0 and 1), Childhood (Ages 2 to 13 inclusive).
Adolescence (Ages 14 to 20 inclusive), Early Adult Life (Ages 21 to 44 inclusive), Mature Age (Ages 45
to 64 inclusive). Old Age (Ages 65 and Over), the Ceylon Census Report of 1921 adopted the following
classification :—Infancy (under 1), Childhood (1 to 12), Adolescence (13 to 18), Early Adult L i f e
(19 to 29), Mature Age (30 to 50), Old Age (51 and over). For purposes of comparison, the 1921
Census classification is retained in Table 149.

213
 TABLE 149—PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION OF EACH SEX IN EACH
NATURAL AGE-GROUP, 1946 AND 1921

1946 1921

Age Period of Life .\

r
Males Females Females
Males
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
2'3 ... 2-5 .. 2-6 2-8
Under 1 Infancy
... 31-9 .. 3 2 - 1 34-1
1-12 Childhood 29-1
... 1 3 0 .. 11-5 11-9
13-18 Adolescence 131
... 20-3 .. 19-8 20-9
19-29 Early adult life 19-5
... 23-1 .. 2 5 - 6 23-7
30-50 Mature age 25-7
... 9-2 .. 8-4 6-6
51 and over Old age 10-2

The Table confirms what was noted before, that there were fewer children and more old people
in 1 9 4 6 than there were in 1 9 2 1 . It also shows an increase in the number of adolescents, while the
proportion of the population aged 1 9 - 5 0 has remained with little variation.

The Age composition of the population in the several Districts has been referred to in brief in
Chapter V. The following Table gives the age differences as between the separate Districts :—

TABLE 150—PERCENTAGES OF THE POPULATION IN FIVE-YEAR AGE

GROUPS, IN REVENUE DISTRICTS (INCLUSIVE OF MUNICIPAL
AMf^ TIRRAN COUNCIL AREAS), 1946

Colombo Kalutara Kandy Matale Nuwara Galle Matara

Eliya
100 100 0 . . . 1 0 0 . 0 .. . 1 0 0 0 ... 1 0 0 0
A L L AGES 100 0 100
14 13-9 . .. 1 5 . 4 . . 1 3 1 ... 14-1
0- 4 years 11-2 12
13 13-5 . .. 1 3 . 5 . . 1 2 - 5 ... 12-7
5- 9 years 10-2 12
12 12 12-2 . .. 1 1 . 9 . . 13-3 . . . 14-3
1 0 - 1 4 years 10-7
... 1 0 2
10 10 100 . 9.4 . . 104
1 5 - 1 9 years 10-4
9 9 9-3 . .. 8.9 . . 8-3 ... 8-0
2 0 - 2 4 years 111
8 8 8 7 . .. 8.9 . 7-4 ... 7-3
2 5 - 2 9 years 9-6
6 6 6 5 .. 6.8 . . 6-2 ... 6-1
3 0 - 3 4 years 7-5
7-5 6 7 7-2 .. 7.2 . . 6 0 ... 6-1
3 5 - 3 9 years
5-1 4 4 4-9 4.8 . 4-8 ... 4-5
4 0 - 4 4 years
5-0 4 4 4 8 .. 4 . 8 . .. 4 6 ... 4-2
4 5 - 4 9 years
3-2 3 2 2 6 2 . 7 . .. 3-2 ... 2-9
5 0 - 5 4 years
2-6 2 2 2-2 .. 2 . 3 . .. 2-6 ... 2-6
5 5 - 5 9 years
2 1 1-6 ... 1.4 . 2-4 ... 2-4
6 0 - 6 4 years 2- 1
4 2 2-6 ... 2 . 0 . .. 5-2 ... 4-6
65 and Over 3- 8

Hamban- Jaffna Mannar Vavmiya Batticaloa Trinco- Kurune-

malee gala
tota
. . 100 0 .. . 100 0 . . 100- 0 .. 1 0 0 - 0
A L L AGES . 100-0 1 0 0 - 0 . . 100 0
1 0 - 6 . .. 1 0 0 . .. 1 1 0 . .. 13-3 . 9 2 .. 1 3 - 2
0- 4 years . 12-
11-3 . .. 10-4 . .. 11-5 . .. 1 3 - 4 . 9 5 .. 1 3 0
5- 9 years . i r
9-6 . .. 10-7 . .. 12-8 . .. 8 8 . . 12-2
1 0 - 1 4 years . 14- 11-8 .
9 0 . .. 10-3 .. 1 0 1 . .. 1 0 6 .. 1 0 - 4
1 5 - 1 9 years . 10- 10-2 .
8 - 6 . .. 11-5 .. 10-5 8-9 . .. 1 7 4 ... 9-8
20-24 years 9-
7-7 ,. 1 0 - 6 .. 10-3 8-4 . . 1 3 -2 ... 8-8
25-29 years 9-
6-6 7-4 7-7 6-9 .. 8 -5 ... 6-7
30-34 years . 6-
7-0 ., 8-1 7-8 7-2 .. 7 -2 ... 7-4
35-39 years . 6-

214
 Hamban Trinco- Kurune-
Jaffna Mannar Vamniya Baticaloa
-tota malee gale
40-44 years 47 .. 5-4 6-2 . .. 5-5 . . 5-2 .. 4-6 ... 4-9
45-49 years 4'3 .. . 5-3 .. 5-7 . 5-1 . 4-7 .. 40 ... 4-9
50-54 years 26 .. 40 3-5 . .. 29 . 29 .. . 2-3 ... 2-5
55-59 years 21 .. 3-2 .. 2-8 . .. 2-5 . 2-0 .. . 16 ... 2-1
60-64 years 20 .. 3-1 .. 21 . .. 1-6 . 1-9 .. 1-3 ... 1-6
65 and Over 2-9 .. . 5-2 .. 31 . .. 2-6 . 2-3 .. . 18 ... 2-5
Anuradha-
Puttalam Chilaw Badulla Ratnapura Kegalla
pura
A L L AGES ... 100 0 .. 1000 .. 100 0 . . 100-0 ... 100 0 . .. 1000
0 -4 years 10.9 .. 11-9 10-3 . 15-0 15-0 . 14-8
5- 9 years 106 .. 11-5 120 .. 14-2 13-0 . 13'4
10-14 years 10-9 .. 11-7 11-7 . 13-4 12-2 . 12-5
15-19 years 96 .. 10-2 10-8 .. 9-7 9-9 . 10-4
20-24 years i r i .. 101 11-7 .. 8-1 9-3 . 9-1
25-29 years 101 .. 91 106 .. 8-2 8-5 . 8'3
30-34 years 7-8 .. 69 7-2 .. 6-5 6-3 . 6-1
35-39 years 8-5 .. 7-5 7-8 .. 7-1 6-8 . 66
40-44 years 55 .. 50 4-8 .. 4-5 4-6 . 4-3
45-49 years 5-5 .. 5-2 5-0 .. 4-6 4-9 . 4-5
50-54 years 29 .. 30 2-5 .. 2-6 2-7 . 2-5
55-59 years 22 .. 2-4 2-1 . 2-2 2-4 . 2-4
60-64 years 1-7 .. 19 15 . 1 -5 1-6 . 1-8
65 and Over 2-7 .. 3-6 2-0 . 2-4 2-8 . 3-3

From the Table it is apparent that the highest proportion of children was found at the census of
1946 in the Badulla District, and the smallest in the Trincomalee District, which also had the largest
proportion of persons in the "supporting " age-group. Mannar and Puttalam Districts had the next
highest proportions of persons aged 15 years to 64 years. Old people were proportionately greatest
in Jaffna and Galle Districts.

P O P U L A T I O N ABOVE 21
An important division of population in a country which enjoys universal adult suffrage is that
according to age-groups (i)21 years and over, and(ii) under 21 years and the early results of the classifica-
tion on this basis as at the census of 1946 were presented to the last Delimitation Commission. The
finalised figures showed 3,352,959 persons, or 50-4 per cent, of the total population, who had completed
their 21st year before the date of the census of 1946. Of these, 1,834,771 persons were males,
comprising 51-9 per cent, of the total male population, while 1,518,188 females, or 48 6 per cent, of
the total female population fell within the age group of 21 years and over. It is interesting to note,
as indicating the degree of accuracy of the earlier figures, that the final computation showed the same
proportion of females within the age group of 21 years and above as at the earlier reckoning, and an
excess of only 0 • 6 per cent, in respect of the males. The following Table gives the distribution of the
population, aged 21 years and over, in each Revenue District :—

TABLE 151- - P E R C E N T A G E OF T H E POPULATION, AGED 21 YEARS AND OVER

IN EACH REVENUE DISTRICT BY SEX, 1946

Total Population Males Females

CEYLON 100-0 ... 100 0 100-0
Colombo 55-0 57-3 52-3
Kalutara 50-7 50-9 50-5
215
 Total Population Males Females
Kandy 47-9 49-8 45-7
Matale 48-4 50-9 45-6
Nuwara Eliya 47-8 50-1 45-2
Galle 48-9 47-9 49-9
Matara 46-7 46-0 47-5
Hambantdta 48-5 48-5 48-6
JaflFna 53-9 53-9 53-9
Mannar 58-2 61-9 52-8
Vavuniya 53-9 58-5 47-7
Batticaloa 48-1 47-7 48'5
Trincomalee 57-9 63-3 47-1
Kurunegala 49-2 51-0 47'2
Puttalam 55-3 58-4 51-0
Chilaw 52-4 54-2 50-3
Anuradhapura ... 52-5 56-4 47-0
Badulla 45-8 47-9 43-5
Ratnapura 47-8 50-4 44-7
Kegalla 46-9 48-6 44-9

THE FEMALE POPULATION

The female population of a country is sometimes divided, w i t h reference to the function of

childbearing, into three groups of Immature, Reproductive and Sterile. The corresponding age-groups
are 0-14 years, 15-44 years, and 45 and upwards. Though there is evidence that a fair proportion
of women of 40 and above give birth to children in Ceylon, the limit 15-39 years has been taken in
the following Table as the " reproductive " period for purposes of comparison with the 1921 Census
Report :—

TABLE 152—FEMALE POPULATION, CEYLON, 1946 AND 1921, BY SELECTED AGE-GROUPS

Percentage of Total Percentage of Total

Age-Group Period of Life Number of Persons Female Population Population
K A A

1946 1921 1946 1921 1946 1921

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
0-14 Immature ... 1,214,560 854,397 .. 38-9 .. 40-4 .. 18-2 ... 19-0
15-39 Reproductive 1,310,773 894,500 .. 41-9 .. 42-3 .. 19.7 ... 19-9
40 and above Sterile 599,788 367,896 .. 19-2 .. 17-3 .. 90 ... 8-2

If the standard division is adopted, the " reproductive " group (15-44 years) would form 46-4
per cent, of the total female population in 1946. The proportion of women in the " reproductive "
age-group has increased f r o m 20-0 per cent. in.l901 to 21 -8 percent, in 1946 of the total population.

The mean age, which is obtained by totaUing the ages of all the population and dividing the result
by the number of persons, was 25 fOr the whole population, and 25 for males, and 24 for females. The
median age, by which is meant that age which is so situated that there are as many persons above it as
there are below, was seen to be between 21 and 22 years for the total population, between 22 and 23
years for males, and between 20 and 21 years for females.

216
SEPTUAGENARIANS
" Septuagenarians " are of interest, not merely because they have completed the " three score
and ten years " which it is popularly believed is the allotted span of life, but also because in some
countries they become eligible at the age of 70 years for institutional care or old age pensions. The
census of 1946 found 136,676 persons in the Island whose age was recorded as 70 years and above.
These formed a little over 2-0 per cent, of the total population. Of these 73,042 were males, and 63,634
were females. Since in certain countries pensions are given to old women of 65 years and over, it may
be noted that there were in 1946 in Ceylon 104,683 females aged 65 and over.

The highest age returned was 126—a Low-Country Sinhalese female, and 493 persons (or -07
per thousand) were enumerated as having attained 100 years of life and above. Most of them were
Low-Country Sinhalese females.

LENGTH OF LIFE IN CEYLON

Though man has an extreme limit of life set by old age, and few men live the full potential span
owing to environmental hazards it is generally acknowledged that the average duration of life has
increased with civilization, notwithstanding the strain imposed on life by modern social organiza-
tion. An improving environment, greater care of the young and the aged, advances in medical and
surgical science, have tended to make an increasing proportion of human beings live longer and to die of
natural causes through the decay of the human organism rather than through disease, famine or
malnutrition.

Ceylon shares with the'rest of the world generally the benefit of the better health conditions, and
Life Tables, prepared for 1946, suggest that the expectation of life at birth is 47' 19 for males and 43-81
for females, against 34-60 for males and 31-84 for females in 1 9 2 1 C o m p a r e d with New Zealand,
where life expectancy is greatest,—65 04 for males, and 67-88 for females,—it is evident that Ceylon
needs to register a greater improvement on its biometer in order to attain a comparatively high standard,
particularly in respect of its female population. Nevertheless, the remarkable improvement that seems
to have been effected in a quarter of a century in the prolongation of life in Ceylon, as evidenced by the
relative figures for 1946 and 1921, may well cause a sense of grateful satisfaction.
The social and cultural implications of the prolongation of life have been discussed at
length by demographers ^. That an individual may expect to live longer gives him, it is said, a feeling
of security which cannot fail to react on his outlook and range of development. It has been alleged
that an extended span of life saves much of the tragedy involved in premature deaths, and has been
a factor in modifying religious creeds by lessening the tendency to ponder over the justice of the Divine
W i l l . I t is claimed that the human race profits from the rich background of experience and the
mature judgment of older men, albeit a certain conservatism is also likely to creep in and affect social
development. Yet it may be asserted that ' you are only as old as you feel,' or t h a t ' life begins at
f o r t y ' , or that ' senescence is a state of m i n d ' , for instances arc not wanting in authentic history
of very old persons who have made invaluable contributions to the progress of mankind. From
time to time, however, human complacency receives depressing shocks f r o m catastrophic occurrences,
and a small group of physicists may yet succeed in destroying themselves and all mankind.

' It may, however, be noted that Ceylon has been famous thiougli all ages for the longevity of its inhabitants.
Cf. Pliny : Nat. History V I , 24, and Knox : Historical Relation, p. I S l .
2 Cf. Dublin and Lotka : Length of Life.
217
 CHAPTER X I I

BIRTHPLACE AND L E N G T H OF RESIDENCE

HE importance of statistics relative to the birthplace of the individuals who comprise a population
has received international recognition sufiicient to justify the inclusion of ' birthplace ' in the census
schedule as a necessary inquiry of any census conducted in accord with minimum international
standards. Its value is, of course, greatest in countries which derive an appreciable proportion of its
population f r o m outside, for the importation of a large quota of immigrants, generally adults whose
original environment and early training are different f r o m those of the indigenous population, cannot
fail to influence the latter in many ways, social, economic, and cultural. The influence may be subtle,
but is usually mutual, and the immigrants themselves often tend to conform with the pattern of life
prevalent in the country in which they have taken up residence. " Birthplace " statistics also give
some indication of the movement of population within a country, though their relevance to this is be-
lieved by some to be overstated, and it is considered that they rather record the number of survivors in
a particular area of those born there and elsewhere than give information regarding the various streams
of migration. It is, nevertheless, agreed that these statistics provide useful information regarding the
source of supply of the existing population.

INVADERS A N D IMMIGRANTS

In the first Chapter an attempt was made to study historically the origin and background, and
the circumstances of the first arrival in Ceylon, of the several race-groups that form the country's existing
population. It was noted that recorded history began with Ceylon being under the occupation of a
race-group whose social, cultural, and religious background was that of the Aryans, then dominant
in India, particularly N o r t h and Central India. Geographical proximity subjected the race-group in
later years to invasions and immigration f r o m Southern India, and an element was added to the Island's
population that was anthropologically distinct but culturally little different. The need for what has
been termed " a mobile equiUbrium" in the Occidental world may be said to have impelled the entry
into Ceylon of various European peoples, some of whom were assimilated with the indigenous popula-
tion, but most of whom were anxious merely to develop the resources of the country for their own
profit and advantage. It is this last phase that may be said to have caused the major population pro-
blem of Ceylon today, introducing as it did a large immigrant population f r o m South India a great
part of which, though long resident in Ceylon, still retained its Indian domicile.

Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that at the census of 1946 only some 5-7 per cent, of the de jure
population of Ceylon claimed a place of nativity outside Ceylon. The number of persons who were
enumerated as born outside was 376,715 out of the f u l l de jure population of 6,657,339. In 1921,
218
the number of persons whose birthplace was recorded as outside Ceylon, was 467,925 out of a total
population of 4,498,605. The figure in 1946 represented the lowest percentage at any census since 1891,
as will be seen from the following Table :—
TABLE 153—PERCENTAGE OF P O P U L A T I O N OF C E Y L O N , 1891-1946, BY BIRTHPLACE I N A N D
OUT OF CEYLON

Born in Ceylon Bom Outside Ceylon

Year Per Cent. Per Cent.
911 8-9
1891 12-4
1901 87- 6
88- 4 11-6
1911 10-4
1921 89- 6
94-3 5-7
1946
The gradual decline observed in the first two decades of the century may suggest that the i m m i -
grant population was becoming stabilized, but the rapid decrease in the 25-year interval, 1921-1946,
may have been occasioned at least in part by deliberate misstatement at the 1946 census in view of
impending political changes. In any case, it is conceded that the accuracy of figures relating to
birthplace is subject to considerable error owing to wrong information which census enumerators
can scarcely verify. It is estimated that persons born outside Ceylon at the census of 1946, would have
been nearly 8 per cent, but f o r the uncorrected errors arising f r o m misstatements.

FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION

The distribution of the foreign-born population of Ceyion in the various Districts of the Island
is given in the following Table :—
TABLE 154—FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, CEYLON, IN REVENUE DISTRICTS, 1946

District Number Born Outside Per Cent, of District

Ceylon Population
Colombo ... ... 90,923 ... 6 4
Kalutara ... ... 12,617 ... 28
Kandy ... ... 74,734 ... 10-5
Matale ... •• lO.?^^
Nuwara Eliya 52,178 ... 19-4

Galle 4,168 ... 10

Matara ... ••• , 3,547
^'-^ ...
- 1-0
^.3
Hambantota ... •••

::: ::; ::; 12-8

Mannar
Vavuniya 920 ... 4-0
Batticaloa ... - 978 ... 0-5
Trincomalee ... •• 5,654- ... i
Kurunegala ... - 6,762 ... 1;4
Puttalam ... •.• ... 28
Chilaw
Anuradhapura 2,916 ... 2-1

Badulla 46,319 ... 12-4

29,009
Kegalla ... ••• ^^'"64
219
 The Table shows that the highest proportion of " foreign-born " was found in Nuwara EUya,
Mannar, Badulla, and Kandy Districts. It is interesting to note that this corresponds with the pro-
portionate distribution of Indian Tamils in the Island, the highest percentage of whom was found in
Nuwara Eliya, Badulla and Kandy Districts in that order. Mannar District, as was observed in
Chapter V, had besides Indian Tamils a very high proportion of Indian Moors.

Of the towns, the greatest percentage of " foreign-born " in relation to the indigenous popula-
tion was enumerated in Wattegama, Colombo, Hatton, Trincomalee, Nuwara Eliya, Bandarawela,
and Balangoda. The largest number was found within the Colombo Municipal limits, and other
towns with more than a thousand " foreign-born " were Trincomalee (4,738), Kandy (3,429), Jaffna
( 2 , 9 4 2 ) , Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia ( 2 , 0 1 5 ) , Kotte ( 1 , 9 5 0 ) , Nuwara Eliya ( 1 , 5 5 0 ) , Negombo ( 1 , 5 1 4 ) ,
Moratuwa ( 1 , 0 6 6 ) , and Hatton ( 1 , 0 3 7 ) .

COUNTRIES O F N A T I V I T Y

The following Table shows the Countries of Nativity of the population born outside Ceylon
and enumerated at the census years 1871-1946, (except 1881 and 1931 in which years particulars o f
birthplace were not collected) :—

TABLE 155—COUNTRIES OF NATIVITY OF POPULATION BORN OUTSIDE CEYLON,

1871-1946 (EXCEPT 1881 and 1931)

Country of Nativity 1871 1891 1901 1911 1921 1946

British Commonwealth 195,148
267,367 . .. 440,391 . ..
British Isles (including 475,596 466,243 . .. 373,924
Eire) ... 1,653
2,481 . 3,140 . 4,319
Australia ... 17 4,407 . .. 2,936
44 . 99 . 186
New Zealand ... 1 182 . 395
5 . 10 . 18
Canada ... 16 20 . 51
19 . 22 . 33
South Africa ... 13 15 . 62
7 . 14 . 25
India ... 1 9 3 , 3 7 7 38 . 271
264,580 . .. 436,622 . .. 470,651
Burma ... — 461,044 . .. 365,711
22 . 249 . 88
Federated Malay States 243
and Straits Settle-
ments ... 42 125 ., 184 ., 204 443 ....
Other British Colonies 29 84 .. 51 ..
3,775
72 94 ..
Countries outside the 480
British Commonwealth 647 738 .. 1,092 .. 1,099 1,682 .. . 2,791
United States of
America ... — 10 .. 9 .. 3 36 .. 44
Continental Europe 153 302 .. 461 .. 720 536 .. 1,053
China ... 40 36 .. 40 .. 36 63 .. 352
Japan ... — 9 .. 8 .. 23 44 .. 30
Other countries ... 120 341 .. 502 .. 298 . 1,002 .. 1,254
A t sea ... 14 . 13 .. 6 .. 19 ^ 1 .. 58
Unspecified ... 320 27 .. 66 ..

The foreign-born enumerated in Ceylon is seen to be almost exclusively Indian-born, although

the proportion of the latter had shghtly decreased in 1946 in comparison with previous censuses. The
proportion of persons born outside the British Commonwealth was about twice as much in 1 9 4 6
as in 1 9 2 1 , while the comparatively large number of persons born in Malaya who were enumerated in
Ceylon in 1946 was largely due to the return of families of Ceylon Tamils from that country in recent
years.

220
L E N G T H O F RESIDENCE
For the first time at a census in Ceylon, ' length of residence ' was a subject of enquiry in 1946
from persons born outside Ceylon. By this expression was meant the continuous period of residence
in Ceylon from the date of arrival to the date of the census, without a break of twelve months or more
in such residence. The following results were obtained :—

TABLE 156—FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION BY LENGTH OF RESIDENCE CEYLON, 1946

Length of Residence Proportion Per

Thousand
Less than 5 years 138
5 - 1 0 years ... 129
1 1 - 2 0 years ... 326
2 1 - 3 0 years ... 235
3 1 - 4 0 years ... 118
4 1 - 5 0 years ... 41
5 1 - 6 0 years... 10
60 years and over 3

I t will be observed that the majority of the foreign-born in Ceylon claimed to have been conti-
nuously resident in the Island f r o m 11 to 30 years, that is, they claimed to have first arrived in the
Island in the period 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 3 5 . ' It is interesting to compare the figures of immigrants for the period
and observe the percentage of, what may be believed to be their survivors in 1946. There were
apparently 327,830 immigrants who took up residence in Ceylon during the period 1916-1935. The
foreign-born population enumerated in 1946 who claimed to have arrived in the Island during that
period was 211,228, representing 6 4 ' 4 per cent, of the immigrants of the period. The floating character
of the immigrant population of urban areas may be deduced f r o m the fact that nearly 30 per cent, of
the foreign-born population enumerated in 1946 in the towns of Ceylon had a residence of admittedly
less than five years' duration.

Of the 6,280,624 persons enumerated as born in Ceylon, numerically the largest aggregation
was, of course, in Colombo District, but the population of Hambantota and Batticaloa Districts was
almost wholly Ceylon-born (the former claiming 9 9 - 7 per cent, and the latter 99 5 per cent, of its
population as such).

CEYLON-BORN POPULATION
The following Table gives the percentage resident in each District of the population born in it :—

TABLE 157—CEYLON-BORN POPULATION, CLASSIFIED BY SEX SHOWING

PERCENTAGE RESIDENT IN DISTRICT OF BIRTH, 1946

District of Birth Persons resident in Males resident in Females resident in

District of Birth District of Birth District of Birth
Colombo 87-6 89-9
Kalutara 86 84-6 89-9
Kandy 84 83- 4 851
Matale 84 84- 3 84- 6
Nuwara Eliya 81 810 82-2
Galle 82 78-2 88-0
Matara 81 77-2 85- 5
Hambantota 93 92-7 94-4

> The figure is arrived at by aggregating the yearly net balance in the movement of passengers into and out
of Ceylon in 1916-193.5. ^

221
 Persons resident in Males resident in Females resident in
District of Birth District of Birth District of Birth District of Birth
87-2 94 1
Jaffna 90-8
93-0 95 1
Mannar 94-3
94
Vavuniya 93-7 92-9

88-8 95
Batticaloa 92-1
92-4 93
Trincomalee 930

91
Kurunegala 90-9 90-2
86
Puttalam 86-3 86-1
81-8 84
Chilaw 82-9

94
Anuradhapura 93-4 92-6

90-5 91
Badulla 91-2

90
Ratnapura 90-6 90-6
88-9 88
Kegalla 88-9

INTERNAL MIGRATION
The Table makes it clear that persons born in the Matara District are the most prone to migrate.
Males born in Matara and Galle Districts apparently seek permanent residence elsewhere, while
women of the Nuwara Eliya District have the greatest mobility. This is not unexpected, as the compo-
sition of the population of this District is predominantly Indian Tamil. Among the Districts with a
large indigenous population, Chilaw District shows the greatest movement outside its limits of district-
born women.
Small towns like Kuliyapitiya, Gampaha and Bandarawela show a very large proportion of
persons born within their limits finding permanent residence outside them. Of the Municipalities,
the Kandy-born seem to be the most migratory. The following Table classifies the Ceylon-born
population of each town with a population of over 10,000, showing the percentage of persons born
in the town who were found at the census of 1946 resident in it :—
TABLE 158—CEYLON-BORN POPULATION OF TOWNS, ABOVE 10,000 IN TOTAL POPULATION
CLASSIFIED BY SEX, SHOWING PERCENTAGE RESIDENT IN BIRTH TOWN, 1946

Birth Town Persons Born and Males Born and Females Born and
Resident in Town Resident in Town Resident in Town
1946
Per Cent Per Cent. Per Cent.
69
Colombo 69-8 70
92
Dehiwela-Mount Lavinia 92-0 91
90 90
Kolonnawa 90-6
95 96
Kotte 96-3
81 84
Moratuwa 83-2
46 56
Negombo 51-2
85 86
Wattala-Mabole-Peliyagoda 86-2
80 89
Beruwala 84-'8
69 73
Kalutara 71-7
66 72
Panadure 69-1
64 65
Kandy 64-7
78
23
Matale 51-0
69
67
Nuwara Eliya 68-7
75
70
Galle 73-0

222
 Persons Born and Males Born and Females Born
Birth Town Resident in Town Resident in Town Resident in To
1946
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Matara 70-6 66-4 74-7
WeUgama 85-3 80-5 90-1
Jaffna 83-2 80-1 86-8
Batticaloa 74-3 69-6 79-6
Trincomalee 82-5 82-3 82-7
Kurunegala 36-5 32-9 41-7
Anuradhapura 64-4 57-5 71-3
Badulla 64-1 59-2 70-0
Ratnapura 76-7 77-2 76-1

The large proportion of persons born in Kurunegala Town who seem to have emigrated is
somewhat surprising, but the movement was probably within the District for it is observed f r o m
Table 157 that the district-born population was generally immobile. Matale and Negombo also
show a town-born population with a tendency to migrate. Indeed, very few males born in Matale
Town seem to reside permanently within its limits, while the female population resident in Kurunegala
and Negombo showed only a relatively small percentage of females who were born in their respective
towns.
Generally speaking, the census of 1946 has found about 87 • 5 per cent, of the Ceylon-born popula-
tion resident in their original birth-places throughout the Island. In 1901 the percentage was 90 0
per cent. Mobility may thus be said to have increased only by 2-5 per cent, in forty-five years, a rate
which suggests that internal migration is not yet a problem in Ceylon of any very great dimensions.
But it may be observed that in many countries population policies take note of the fact that internal
migration is selective in character, affecting mostly the young and the able, and are therefore framed
to guide it along desirable channels, if not to control it.

223
 CHAPTER XIII

GAINFUL OCCUPATION AND EMPLOYMENT STATUS

General Observations

Ii[T has become almost a convention in Census Reports to preface the discussion of the results
of a Census in regard to the occupation of a population by a reference to the difficulties involved in the
compilation, the tabulation, and the interpretation of the statistical data on the subject. Thus the
Indian Census Report of 1931 began its Chapter on " Occupation " by calling it " the most troublesome
and complicated return called for on the census schedule ". The Ceylon Census Report of 1921
averred that " the difficulty in obtaining accurate data is very considerable. The great variety of the
differeilt occupations, the difficulty of framing an unexceptionable classification of them, and of
obtaining sufficiently precise information, either from the enumerator or the householder to enable
specific occupations to be located in the classification, make the tabulation of the occupations a work
of great complication, and the results are, in most countries, probably subject to considerable error ".
The Australian Census of 1911 described the field of investigation comprised under the head of
" occupations " as one of the most complex of those that came within the ambit of a census. And
the Ceylon Report of 1901 quoted the Census Commissioners of England and Wales as saying that
occupation statistics were " the most laborious, the most costly, and, after all, the least satisfactory
part of the Census. "

CHANGE IN ACTIVITY ROLES

Yet it cannot be denied that the distribution of a population by its occupational roles is one of
the most important subjects of a demographic study. The very life of a people is dependent upon the
manner in which it divides itself in order to labour to sustain it. The economic structure of a country
is built up on the types of occupation followed by its people. The proportion of persons engaged in
each type may be regarded as an index to the trend and stage of a country's cultural development.
Where caste normally determined an individual's occupation, much progress was doubtless made in
particular arts and crafts, knowledge, experience, and hereditary skill in which were transmitted from
father to son. But it had also the effect of stratifying industry. Opportunity of change was denied,
and general progress was retarded. The common belief in the Buddha tended to make men lose their
caste labels, like the Gangetic tributaries their distinctive names once they flowed into the Holy
River, and the ideals of Western democracy have combined with the economic needs of an interdepen-
dent world to deal the deathblow to occupational immobility. Accordingly, in Ceylon, as doubtless
elsewhere in the East, a change in activity roles, rather than continuity in traditional occupations, is to
be discerned among large elements of its population, bringing with it in its train, slowly but surely,
the special problems involved in maintaining a sound and balanced occupational distribution. Status
becomes associated with occupations, aspirants exceed opportunities, ambitions and capacities do not
coincide, failure and frustrations follow, and grave problems arise.

THE GAINFULLY EMPLOYED

Recognition of the importance of the subject caused special attention to be given to the training
of census enumerators in the meaning of the terms used, and the scope of the particulars required.
224
it was believed that the definition of the term " earner " which had been adopted without qualification
at previous censuses was too wide and likely to confuse and mislead the enumerator, and that the re-
quirement to record subsidiary occupations imposed on him a difficult task. Accordingly, it was
decided to adopt the expression " gainful occupation " which had acquired currency in census usage
since 1921. It was defined as an occupation by which the person who pursued it earned money or
money equivalent. Only the principal occupation, that is, the occupation which was regularly followed
and brought in the largest income, was to be treated as the " gainful occupation " of the person
enumerated.

A distinction was drawn between " gainful occupation " and " useful occupation ". An
activity which was not regularly practised and which did not bring in a regular income was excluded
from " gainful occupation ". Thus, a housewife who did odd jobs and earned some money and
contributed it to the support of a family was not included within the category of " the gainfully
occupied ". Daughters of working age who helped at home were certainly usefully occupied. They
may be said to take the place of domestic servants and it may even be urged that they sometimes
received " money " (pocket money), or " money equivalent " e.g., food and clothing, &c. Yet they
were not to be deemed to be " gainfully occupied ", for there was no stipulated contract of service,
and their maintenance, whether they helped or not, was regarded as the responsibility of the head of
the family.
This narrowing of the range of ' earners', which made for simplification, should be
borne in mind when any attempt is being made to compare the statistics of 1946 with the figures
recorded at previous censuses. The grouping itself has been somewhat changed to conform with
recent-international standards, and it is believed that the statistics provide more accurate information
of the gainfully occupied than previous censuses. This advantage would seem to offset any loss
occasioned by the inconvenience experienced in the inability to compare them satisfactorily with
earlier records.

The census of 1946 enumerated 2,611,524 persons as "gainfully occupied". Following

standard practice, the census included in this number 25,058 persons who happened to be actually
unemployed at the date of the census but who had been previously employed in a regular occupation.
These were counted as of the occupation usually followed when employed, or of the occupation in
which they were last regularly employed. Persons who had not previously been employed, although
seeking employment, were not included.

The proportion of the " gainfully occupied " (exclusive of the temporarily unemployed) to the
total population of the Island in 1946 is seen to be 38-9 per cent. This suggests, if the figures recorded
at previous censuses are regarded as comparable, a decline in employment, for the percentages at those
censuses were as follows :—1901 45 9 per cent. ; 1911 43-0 per cent. ; 1921 49-6 per cent. The
" gainfully occupied" among males formed 57-2 per cent, of the total male population in 1946, against
60-4percent. in 1901,59 2 per cent, in 1911,and 62-4percent. in 1921, while the proportion offemales
" gainfully occupied" in 1946 was only 18-1 per cent, of the total female population contrasted with
29-4 per cent, in 1901, 24'8 per cent, in 1911, and 35 2 per cent, in 1921. But comparison becomes
difficult and the accuracy of the 1921 census becomes suspect when the composition by age and sex of
the employable population is considered on the basis of the 1921 figures. Since 62-4 per cent, of the
male population in 1921 were 'earners' the number would be 1,486,251, but in the age-group,
15-59 years which may be regarded as the ' employable population ' there were only 1,353,580
persons,—suggesting not only that all the males in that age-group were ' earning ' but that even some
in the younger group 10-14, and the older group 60-64, together aggregating 132,671, males, were
also active in 'earning'. This seems very unUkely. It will be found that in 1911 and 1901, too,
225
the recorded number of male earners exceeded the aggregate number of males in the age-group 15-59
years, and that it is only in 1946 that the number of " gainfully occupied " males is below that of the
number of males in the age-group, 15 -59 years.

BROAD OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS

With these facts in mind, the results of the 1946 census may be examined in greater detail.
Analysis of the division of a population by occupational groups is usually directed towards ascertaining
the proportions respectively engaged in physical production, distribution and service occupations. The
following Table gives the number of gainful workers by broad occupational groups, and the percentage
in each group in relation to the total number of gainful workers :—

T A B L E 159—GAINFUL W O R K E R S , C E Y L O N , 1946, BY BROAD OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS,

SHOWING P E R C E N T A G E IN E A C H G R O U P OF ALL GAINFUL W O R K E R S
Per Cent, of
Occupations Number all Gainful
Occupations
Agriculture, fishing and forestry 1,381,612 . 52-9
Industry (manufacturing, mechanical pursuits and mining) 286,507 . 11-0

Total for physical production 1,668,119 63-9

Commerce (Trade and Transportation) 530,029 , 20-2

Banking, Commission Agencies, accountancy and Secretarial Services 22,489 , •9

Total for distribution 552,518 21-1

Professional service 81,800 3-1

Public service • 66,802 2-6
Domestic and personal service 242,285 9-3

Total for service occupations 390,887 15-0

The Table shows that, broadly speaking, about 63 9 per cent, of the "gainfully occupied" in
1946 were engaged in physical production, i.e., agriculture, fishing, and manufactures ; about 21-1
per cent, in distribution, /.e., commerce, trade, and transportation ; and about 15 0 per cent, in the pro-
fessions and public and domestic services. As far as it is possible to compare this occupational
classification with that in 1921, it appears that that the corresponding percentages on the recorded figures
of that census are :—74 2 per cent, engaged in production, 18 -1 per cent, in commerce and trans-
port, and 7 • 7 per cent, in services. The shift in the last twenty-five years seems to have been away from
productive activity towards increase in distribution and services, particularly the latter. How far
psychological factors, such as the desire for higher social status, have determined this change in the
occupational distribution must be left for more detailed investigation and study.

II—Production
AGRICULTURE, FISHING AND FORESTRY
Paddy Cultivation.—The. aggregate number of those " gainfully occupied " in the growing of
paddy and market garden crops was returned as 366,420 persons in 1946. Of these, 282,8 54 were growers
of paddy and 83,566 of market garden crops. Paddy land owners who were also cultivators numbered
82,014, while paddy cultivators who did not own the lands they cultivated numbered 199,519 persons
226
 Market Gardening.—" Market garden crops " included chena products, and chena cultivation
was the principal occupation of 37,689 persons, while vegetable cultivation was the major activity
of 30,871 persons. In the interpretation of these statistics, the definitions of " gainful occupation "
and " principal occupation " should be borne in mind.

Crops for Export.—The growers of special crops, chiefly for export, numbered 782,927 persons.
As is to be expected, tea and rubber gave gainful occupation to the largest numbers,—tea counting
4 6 7 , 7 1 3 persons engaged in the industry, while rubber counted 204,210. Coconut and tobacco provided
69,683 and 21,114 persons respectively with gainful occupation. The census of 1946 also collected
information in regard to employment status, defining an employer as one who employs helpers in
transacting his own business and employee as one who works for a salary or wages, and is subject to
the control and direction of an employer, and a worker on own account as one who is gainfully occupied
but is neither an employer nor a wage-earner. The following Table gives the employment status of
the persons engaged in tea, rubber, coconut and tobacco growing, expressed as percentage of the
total occupied in the industry :—

T A B L E 1 6 0 — G A I N F U L L Y OCCUPIED IN T E A , R U B B E R , C O C O N U T AND T O B A C C O
G R O W I N G BY P E R C E N T A G E EMPLOYMENT STATUS, C E Y L O N , 1946
Employer Employee Own Account Unemployed*
Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
Tea ... ... 0-27 ... 96-98 ... 2 60 . . . 0 15
Rubber ... ... 1 04 . . . 9 2 - 3 9 ... 5 95 . . . 0 62
Coconut ... ... 2-00 ... 39-68 ... 58 02 . . . 0 30
Tobacco ... ... 0-65 ... 15-03 ... 84-07 ... 0-25
* " Unemployed " means persons who had previously been employed in these occupations but weiV.
unemployed at date of Census, though seeking employment.

It is seen that tobacco was mainly the small proprietors' crop, while coconut cultivations were
largely worked by owners themselves. Employers in tea and rubber and persons working on these
plantations on their own account were very few, and the great majority were employees working for
salaries or wages. Cinnamon and citronella growing formed the principal gainful occupation of
7,497 and 4,783 persons respectively.

Undefined Agriculture.—There were 184,044 persons whose gainful occupation was described
as land cultivation, with no particular crops specified. 51,189 persons were engaged as field labourers
and farm servants.

Livestock Industry.—The livestock industry gave 5,832 persons their principal " gainful occupa-
tion ", the majority of whom were cattle and buffalo breeders and keepers. Elephant trainers and
keepers numbered 278. Poultry rearing was the main occupation of 208 persons.

Forestry.—Forestry occupations provided 4,215 persons with their principal means of

subsistence, there were 2,104 woodcutters, and 1,327 grass cutters.

Hunting and Fishing.—Hunting and chasing were returned as the principal occupation of 108
persons, while the total number of fishermen was 38,066 of whom 37,289 were " sea fishermen ".

I N D U S T R Y ( M A N U F A C T U R I N G , M E C H A N I C A L P U R S U I T S A N D MINING)
Mining and Quarrying.—The aggregate number gainfully occupied in mining and quarrying
was 8,026, of whom the majority were engaged in stone quarrying and plumbago mining. Gem diggers
numbered only 303. Treatment of mineral products gave gainful occupation to 1,060 persons, most
of whom were lime burners.
227
 JBrick, Pottery and Glassware Manufacture—There were 11,010 persons who gave this as
their principal gainful occupation. Of these, 6,857 were pottery and chinaware makers, and 3,710
brick and tile makers.

Makers of Other Chemical Products.—The majority of these were coconut oil manufacturers
and refiners, match manufacturers, and soap manufacturers. The increase in the numbers of the
two latter, from 29 in 1921 to 331 in 1946 in the case of match manufacturing, and from 30 in 1921
to 249 in 1946 in the case of soap manufacturing, is noteworthy.

Metal Workers—The number of persons who found their principal means of subsistence in
work on metals was 28,429. Of these, more than 2/5ths (11,798) were occupied as goldsmiths,
while blacksmiths numbered 8,464, and workers in iron and hardware 2,522. The skill of the Sinhalese
in work on metals had aroused admiration from European writers in the past. They make " good
guns ", wrote Knox, while Barbosa called them " very skilful in their business ". Pyrard described
them as " very apt at manufactures " : " these Cingalla have a very cunning and dehcate hand for
gold and silver, iron, steel, ivory and other materials which they work with excellent neatness".
There were 81 gun makers and menders in 1946,—an improvement on the 8 found in 1921. Watch
makers numbered 648, while 100 claimed to be makers and repairers of " scientific instruments ".

Workers in Electricity, Gas, Water and Drainage Services aggregated 4,985, of whom more
than seven-tenths were occupied in electricity supply service. There were 1,158 water supply
service workers. Leather workers (other than those engaged in the manufacture of leather articles
of dress) were not numerous. Textile Workers numbered 33,452 persons, of whom coir yarn makers
were the most numerous, counting 13,024 persons engaged in coir-yarn making as their principal
occupation. There were 10,425 rope makers, 3,539 cotton weavers, 2,935 coir goods manufacturers,
and 2,468 lace makers, mostly women. There appears to have been a decrease since 1921 in the
number of those who found in lace-making a profitable principal occupation, for in 1921 there were
apparently 15,892, in 1911 there were 6,641, and in 1901 there were 7,222. Tailors, milliners, dress-
makers and darners numbered 12,948, while there were 1,996 boot, shoe, sandal and clog makers.
Among makers of foods, those who found in baking their most gainful occupation numbered 8,151.
Hopper-making, rice-pounding and husking, and copra manufacturing were the other activities engag-
ing many thousands in them,—3,224, 3,106 and 1,611 respectively. In the making of drinks, toddy
drawing attracted the largest number of gainful workers (15,105). In the group of makers of tobacco,
cigar rolhng provided the largest number (5,841) with gainful occupation. Workers in wood numbered
61,006 persons, of whom 77 per cent, were carpenters, and 21 per cent, were sawyers. There were
1,232 makers of furniture including varnishers, poUshers, and upholsterers,—only 100 persons gave
upholstering as their principal occupation. Of Workers in Cane and Reeds, 11,517 persons returned
mat-weaving as their principal occupation, while there were 3,072 cadjan-makers and 2,134 makers
of basketware among them. Few persons found a gainful occupation in paper-making,—no more
than 70 in fact. But printers and compositors numbered 3,629, while there were 575 persons who
made photography their chief occupation. Work in the erection of buildings gave gainful occupation
to 30,675 persons,—masons comprising more than 85 per cent, of this group. There were 1,600 stone
workers and 935 building contractors and 216 house painters. Workers in Horn, Bone, and Ivory
aggregated 395 and broom makers numbered 467. Repairs to motor vehicles gave gainful occupation
to 5,123 persons, and bicycle repairers numbered 1,571. In 1921 earners and dependents on the motor
repair industry numbered together only 376 persons, and the very large increase in 1946 reflects the
development in the Island of this means of transport.

228
 TIT—Distribution
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
There were 8,323 persons who found in harbour works and dockyard services their chief gainful
occupation in 1946. In 1921 there were only 2,926 persons similarly employed. Shipping services
found einployment for 1,744 persons—mainly as stevedores, ship labourers, and in steamboats.
There were 3,523 boatowners and boatmen.

There was an increase in 1946 in the aggregate number of persons gainfully occupied as road
transport workers. Carters still formed numerically a very large section of these workers, but motor
car hirers and drivers, motor bus conductors, drivers and cleaners exceeded thern in numbers,—
the relative strength being :—carters, 15,700 and motor car and bus employees, 15,754. Cart hirers,
road labourers, rickshaw pullers (3,129 in number), motor transport supervisors and inspectors,
porters and messengers, and general transport labourers also counted nearly 3,000 persons or over in
each category. There were 16,154 railway transport workers, 735 air transport workers, and 484
persons employed in the tramway service. 6,507 persons were engaged in the telecommunication
services.

C O M M E R C E AND TRADE
Dealers in foods found the largest of the groups gainfully occupied in trade. There were
43,166 of them. Vegetable sellers and fish vendors formed the bulk of this group, but a considerable
proportion was occupied in selling bread and rice cake, groceries, milk, butter and ghee, and in
generally hawking food. Betel and arecanut selling was the chief occupation of 5,987 persons in
Ceylon, while there were 6,401 dealers in rice. There were 7,735 persons engaged in the export trade
in commodities, mostly coconut, vegetable oil, tea and rubber. There were comparatively few
dealers in building materials (other than timber) who made this their principal occupation but there
were 8,438 persons who earned their livelihood chiefly by dealing in textile goods and articles of
dress. There were 1,849 jewellers and 1,043 dealers in gems, while dealing in timber was the chief
occupation of 1,685 persons. Small shopkeepers, general merchants, and salesmen in miscellaneous
articles together numbered 83,388 persons, while there were 3,361 hawkers and 1,302 basket women
and pingo carriers.
The administrative and financial side of commerce was attended to by 1,184 persons employed
in banks and establishments of credit and insurance, 2,571 commission agents, auctioneers, and brokers,
and 18,734 persons occupied in accountancy, secretarial, and general clerical work.

rv—Service Occupations
THE PUBLIC SERVICE
The Census of 1946 enumerated 36,277 persons as employed in the Central and Local
Government Services. Of these, 22,633 persons were officers described as Government Servants or
Government Clerks, while 3,566 belonged to the Local Government Services. Headmen who were
enumerated separately—" it is good to be a headman even in hell"—numbered 4,656 in all ranks.
There were 4,746 peons and messengers of all grades in the two services. The Police counted 5,901
officers and men, (including all employees).

There were 24,624 persons employed in the Defence Services,

229
T H E PROFESSIONS
Persons engaged in Religious Ministration.—The largest number was credited to Buddhism,—
7,095 Buddhist monks (including acolytes) and Buddhist nuns and persons engaged in temple service
being deemed to be " gainfully occupied ", as in receipt of money or money equivalent towards their
maintenance. Christians came next, with 1,726 persons engaged in Church, Chapel, or Mission
Service, and including ministers, monks, lay brothers, nuns, catechists and Bible women. Those
engaged in Hindu ministration numbered 1,580 persons (including 21 Saniyasis), while there were
838 Muslim priests and attendants at mosque service.
Legal Profession.—There were 3,239 persons who were returned as " gainfully occupied " in
law. Of these, 1,492 were barristers, advocates, and proctors, against 816 in 1921,—an increase of
over 85 per cent, in twenty-five years.
Medical Profession.—Vevsons engaged in medicine as their chief " gainful occupation "
numbered 19,901 in 1946. Of these, 7,651 were described as " Ayurvedic Physicians ". Hospital
orderlies and attendants accounted for 5,600. Midwives numbered 1,657, nurses 1,373, and dispensers
1,273. There were 929 physicians, surgeons, and registered medical practitioners, and 805 apothecaries.
Veterinary surgeons numbered 132.

Teaching Profession.—Persons engaged in education numbered 31,787, consisting mainly of

school teachers, tutors, and professors. There were 338 music teachers, and 168 governesses.
Letters, Arts and Sciences.—There were 10,308 persons who were returned as " gainfully
occupied " in work in this category. Of these, about 22 per cent, were employed as " painters ",
and another 20 per cent. (2,114 in number) as " devil dancers ". The next largest group was that of
astrologers, whose number had more than doubled itself since 1921,—there being 1,543 gainfully
occupied in astrology in 1946, against 653 in 1921. Land surveyors and their labourers together
numbered 1,947, while 418 persons gave civil engineering as their main occupation.. There were 59
architects in the Island.

Sports Professionals.—This was a small group of 713 persons, 496 of whom were engaged as
employees in sports clubs. There were 185 "bookies" in the Island who returned themselves in
1946 as such.
Professional Entertainers.—Of these, the largest number was found in the group of tom-tom
beaters, of whom there were 1,328 in the Island in 1946, against 1,355 in 1921, and 1,310 in 1911.
There were 717 persons gainfully occupied in theatres, cinemas, and circusses, 218 actors, and 600
bandmasters and music players.

PERSONAL AND DOMESTIC SERVICE

Hotels and Restaurants.—There were 25,320 persons gainfully occupied in work in eating-houses
or as resthouse-keepers and their employees, while 20,865 were classed as employed in clubs and hotels.
There were 669 persons employed in bars.

Domestic Service.—A miscellaneous group of undefined domestic occupations claimed 105,704

persons as gainfully occupied in them. There were 19,260 cooks, 16,354 watchers, 3,913 private car
drivers, 3,257 ayahs, 2,555 private carters, and 1,929 gardeners in the category of persons engaged in
domestic service.

Other Personal Service.—The bulk of the group engaged in other personal service consisted of
dhobies, washers, barbers, hairdressers, and wig makers. There were 26,103 dhobies, and 7,851
barbers.

230
 V—The Temporarily Unemployed
The census of 1946, as indicated in Table 160, collected statistics of persons temporarily
unemployed at the date of the census. At the census of 1921 persons temporarily out of work were
shown as following their last occupation. The 1946 instructions required that a person temporarily
out of employment and seeking employment should be entered as following the occupation in which
he was last regularly employed, but with the letter " U " signifying " unemployed " added at the end
in brackets. In accordance with these instructions, 25,058 persons were returned as " unemployed ",
or about 9 persons in every thousand who had once been occupied. It should be remembered that the
figures represent a temporary phase,—the unemployment in the particular occupation may be seasonal
and quite unrepresentative of the year as a whole or of its normal incidence.

The following Table gives the proportion per cent, of the unemployed in each main Division
to the total returned as following the respective occupations :—

TABLE 161—PROPORTION P E R C E N T . UNEMPLOYED O F T O T A L POPULATION

Per Cent.
Agriculture and Related Occupations 0-47
Fishermen, Hunters, Trapping, &c. 0-43
Workers in Mine and Quarry Occupations 1-96
Craftsmen and Production Process Workers 1-36
Workers in Transport and Communications 2-26
Trade and Finance 1-61
Public Administration and Defence 2-57
Professions and Liberal Acts 1-37
Sports and Entertainments 1-31
Personal Service 0-76
Miscellaneous 1-74

It is observed that the highest proportion of the unemployed in an occupational group was found
among persons engaged in public administration and defence. Further analysis shows that these
were mainly persons discharged from the defence services, about 4 per cent, of those formerly occupied
in them being found to be unemployed at the date of the census.

VI—Females Gainfully Employed

The largest number of females gainfully occupied was found in the Tea industry, where 221,141
females found employment in tea cultivation. 64,468 females were engaged in the rubber industry,
and 13,483 in coconut cultivation. Domestic service provided 59,013 females with gainful occupa-
tion,—50,067 in miscellaneous grades, 5,515 as cook-women, 3,257 as ayahs. There were 36,513
women employed as general labourers on undefined jobs. A predominantly feminine occupation
was that of making rope, string and fibre products,—female coir yarn makers numbering 12,192
against 832 males employed in this, and 9,509 women being occupied in rope making against 916
males. There were 2,278 women who found lace-making their principal occupation. Mat-weaving,
cadjan-making, and the making of basketware were other pre-eminently feminine occupations,
engaging respectively 10,880, 2,619, and 1,357 females in them. There were 11,911 females occupied as
school teachers, while 5,225 women found their principal gainful occupation in the sale of vegetables.
There were 7,815 women who worked as dhobies and washer-women. Other occupations giving
gainful employment to over a thousand women in each were the growing of market garden crops,
cacoa and citronella cultivation, mining (chiefly plumbago) and quarrying (chiefly stone), the making of

231
pottery and chinaware, of textile goods and articles of dress, of foods (chiefly hopper-making), road
transport (mainly as labouiers), trade in grains, pulses and forage, trade in coconuts and coconut
products, small shop and boutique-keeping, the central and local government services, nursing, mid-
wifery and hospital science,—there were 1,304 nurses, 1,657 midwives and 1,877 female hospital
attendants, employment in hotels, lestaurants, and eating-houses, and also begging.
It is interesting to note that in Jaffna District, apart from agriculture and related occupations,
more women engaged themselves gainfully in occupations in the category of ' trade and finance'
than in any other. Crafts and production processes gave women in Galle, Matara, Batticaloa and
Chilaw their chief gainful occupation (agriculture excluded), while personal service engaged the
attention of a high proportion of women in Colombo, Galle, Kalutara and Matara Districts.
Agriculture and related occupations were, of course, the predominant activity in every District
in the Island, except Trincomalee, where the largest number was engaged in public administration
and defence. But the following table gives the occupational division which is the next largest
numerically in the respective Districts of the Island,—excluding the miscellaneous category of un-
defined occupations :—
T A B L E 1 6 2 — S H O W I N G DISTRICTS, AND T H E PREDOMINANT OCCUPATIONAL
DIVISION NEXT TO A G R I C U L T U R E , 1946

District Occupational
Division
Colombo ... Personal Service
Kalutara ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Kandy ... Personal Service
Matale ... Personal Service
Nuwara Ehya ... Personal Service
Galle ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Matara ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Hambantota ... Personal Service
Jaffna ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Mannar ... Fishermen, Hunters, Trappers, &c.
Vavuniya ... Personal Service
Batticaloa ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Trincomalee ... Public Administration and Defence
Kurunegala ... Personal Service
Puttalam ... Fishermen, Hunters, Trappers, &c.
Chilaw ... Craftsmen and Production Process Workers
Anuradhapura ... ... Trade and Finance
Badulla ... Personal Service
Ratnapura ... Personal Service
KegaUa ... Personal Service

Vn—Wage Earners
The proportion of wage-earners in selected income-groups is given in the following table :—
T A B L E 163—WAGE EARNERS BY INCOME G R O U P S
Males Females
Per Cent. Per Cent.
Under Rs. 40 per mensem ... 64 2 ... 91"5
Rs. 40-120 per mensem ... ... 32-7 ... 7-5
Rs. 120-400 per mensem... ... 2-8 ... TO
Above Rs. 400 per mensem ,.. 0"3 ... 0-03
232
 Among males, apart from agriculture, income group of Rs. 40-120 per mensem was most
numerous in manufacture, that of Rs. 120-400 per mensem in public administration and defence,
which was also the occupational division counting the largest number in the income-group above
Rs. 400 per mensem, although the professions and liberal arts claimed more in the income group
Rs. 600-800 per mensem. On the other hand, among females, the largest number of wage-earners
with incomes above Rs. 40 per mensem were workers in the professions and liberal arts.-again
excepting agriculture.

233
 CHAPTER XIV

ORPHANHOOD
OR the first time at acensus in Ceylon, questions relating to " Orphanhood" were included
in the census schedules in 1946. Where young persons and children who were below 21 years of age
at their last birthdays were enumerated, further particulars were required to be stated in respect of
them, i.e., whether both parents were living ; or, if the mother was dead or her whereabouts were
not known, whether the father was living ; or, if the father was dead or his whereabouts were not
known, whether the mother was living ; or, whether both parents were dead. Enumerators were
permitted to record that particulars were not known in individual cases, if after diligent enquiry no
reliable information could be secured. The questions were included in the census schedule as it was
believed that the information thus elicited might prove useful in any contemplated social legislation
for the payment of orphans' pensions or children's allowances. In certain countries the questions
relating to " orphanhood " were asked in respect of children below 16 years of age, and careful
consideration was given to the adoption of this limit of age, but it was felt that this would be too low,
and that it would be better to set the limit at 21 years of age when an " infant " at law ceases to be such,
and the condition of dependency may legally be deemed to have been terminated.

The total population under 21 years of age enumerated at the census of 1946 was 3,304,380
and in respect of 2,984,681 90-3 per cent, the returns were such that it has been possible to classify
them within the four categories, the information being not available in 319,699 or 9-7 per cent, of the
cases.

EXCESS OF FATHERLESS CHILDREN

• Of the total number of persons below 21 years of age, 2,426,532, or 73-4 per cent, were returned
as having both parents alive ; 317,171, or 9 6 per cent, as having lost their fathers ; 184,310, or
5-6 per cent, as having lost their mothers, and 56,668, or 1-7 per cent, as having lost both parents.
The excess of fatherless as compared with motherless children is noteworthy, but the excess is not as
large as in most Western countries. For instance, in England and Wales fatherless children out-
numbered motherless children in 1921 by a ratio of nearly 3 to I, while in Ceylon at the last census
the ratio is seen to be less than 2 to 1. This is doubtless to be accounted for by the higher female
mortality in Ceylon. The excess may be explained by the generally higher average age of fathers
which is one of the factors causing an excess of more widows than widowers, and, possibly, by the
inclusion of illegitimate children whose fathers' whereabouts were reported to be not known.
In regard to the sex distribution of orphans, it was found that about 2-0 per cent, of the males
and 1 • 5 per cent, of the females below 21 years of age were bereft of both parents ; about 6 • 0 per cent,
of the males and 5-1 per cent, of the females had lost their mothers; and about 10-3 per cent, of the
males and 8-8 per cent, of the females had lost their fathers. The ratio of young men and boys to
young women and girls was 1,056 per 1,000, while the corresponding ratios in the case of young
persons having both parents alive was 1,084, for the several classes of orphans, the ratios were 1,237
" father dead " ; 1,246 " mother dead " ; 1,417 " both parents dead ". In the case of those about
whom information could not be obtained, the ratio was, however, only 637 males to 1,000 females,
suggesting greater concealment in respect of the orphaned condition of female children.

234
ORPHANHOOD BY DISTRICTS

The following Table shows orphanhood by Districts in Ceylon :—

TABLE 164—ORPHANHOOD BY DISTRICTS, CEYLON, 1946

Numbers of Both Both

children under 21 Parents Father Mother Parents Not
years of age alive dead* dead* dead* known
CEYLON ... 3,304,380 ... 2,426,532 ... 317,171 ... 184,310 ...56,668 319,669

Colombo 638,603 473,301 55,502 30,089 9,920 69,791

Kalutara 225,192 174,325 19,779 10,611 2,826 17,651

Kandy 370,812 282,847 30,638 19,114 4,765 33,448

Matale 80,357 58,252 7,747 5,016 1,321 8,021
Nuwara EUya 140,054 107,250 9,536 6,230 1,242 15,796

Galle 234,879 170,795 20,405 10,295 2,427 30,957

Matara 187,424 143,654 19,321 8,156 2,716 13,577
Hambantota 77,056 46,702 13,033 7,227 4,339 5,755

Jaffna 195,813 148,628 ... 17,821 11,253 3,289 14,822

Mannar 13,175 8,385 ... 1,525 1,090 395 1,780
Vavuniya 10,715 6,576 ... 1,339 1,045 377 1,378

Batticaloa 105,527 ... 67,773 ... 17,019 ... 5,945 ... 3,054 ... 11,736
Trincomalee 31,942 ... 18,982 ... 3,699 ... 2,192 ... 945 ... 6,124

Kurunegala 246,182 171,794 ... 28,620 20,457 5,155 20,156

Puttalam 19,262 12,216 ... 2,609 1.671 598 2,168
Chilaw 66,537 50,519 ... 6,340 3,323 913 5,442

Anuradhapura ... 66,239 ... 39,268 ... 8,311 ... 6,424 ... 2637 ... 9,599

Badulla ... 201,715 ... 138,962 ... 17,411 ... 10,398 ... 3,677 ... 31,267

Ratnapura 179,452 142,831 16,057 11,681 3,433 5,450

Kegalla 213,444 163,472 20,459 12,093 2,639 14,781

*" Dead " includes "whereabouts not known '

235
PROPORTIONATE DISTRIBUTION

The proportionate distribution of the several classes of " Orphans " is given in the following
Table :—

T A B L E 165—PROPORTION OF ORPHANS PER 1,000 PERSONS UNDER 21 YEARS OF AGE IN E A C H

DISTRICT, CEYLON, 1946

Both parents Father Mother Both parents

alive dead* dead* dead* Not known
CEYLON 734 ... 96 . 56 17 .. 97

Colombo 741 ... 87 . 47 16 .. 109

Kalutara 774 ... 88 . 47 13 ., 78

Kandy 763 ... 83 . 51 13 .. 90

Matale 725 ... 96 . 62 17 .. 100
Nuwara Eliya ... 766 ... 68 . 44 9 .. 113

GaUe 727 ... 87 . 44 10 .. 132

Matara 766 ... 103 .. 44 14 .. 73
Hambantota ... 606 ... 169 .. 94 56 ... 75

Jaffna 759 ... 91 . 57 17 .. 76

Mannar 636 ... 116 .. 83 30 .. 135
Yavuniya 614 ... 125 .. 97 35 .. 129

Batticaloa 642 ... 161 .. 56 . 29 ... 111

Trincomalee ... 594 ... 116 . 69 29 .. 192

Kurunegala 698 ... 116 .. 83 . 21 ... 82

Puttalam 634 ... 135 .. 87 . 31 ... 113
Chilaw 759 ... 95 .. 50 . 14 ... 82

Anuradhapura... 593 ... 125 .. 97 . 40 ... 145

Badulla 689 ... 86 .. 52 . 18 ... 155

Ratnapura 796 ... 90 .. 65 . 19 ... 30

Kegalla 766 ... 96 .. 57 . 12 ... 69

' Dead " includs " whereabouts not known '

It is apparent from the above Table that Hambantota and Anuradhapura Districts have the largest
proportion of orphaned children, bereft of both parents. Orphans with their mothers dead are
proportionately most numerous in Yavuniya, Anuradhapura, and Hambantota Districts, while
Hambantota, Batticaloa, Puttalam, Yavuniya and Anuradhapura have fatherless orphans in a
proportion of 125 and over to every 1,000 young persons under 21 years of age,
236
 CHAPTER XV

T H E ESTATE POPULATION
HE census of 1946 defined an 'Estate' as an agricultural holding which was 20acres or more
in extent, and classified Estates into " A " and " B " categories—the former employing ten or more
resident labourers and having their census schedules filled up in English by the Superintendent, or
Person-in-Charge, and the latter being dealt with by the general enumerator. The statistics of popula-
tion on estates, though collected separately, have been integrated at this census with the population of the
respective administrative units within which the estates were situated, as much inconvenience had been
experienced in the past as the result of treating estates as separate units. Nevertheless, it may be
noted that the estate population mainly composed of immigrants and drawn chiefly from South
India since the commencement of planting enterprise in Ceylon, has affected to a very great extent the
rate of increase and the development of population in districts where estates are numerous and well-
established, and its influence has already been referred to in the analysis of the composition of the
population of those districts which has been made in Chapter V.

DECLINE IN GROWTH

With due allowance for variations in the definition of ' Estates the growth of the estate
population in the Island may be studied from the following Table :—

T A B L E 1 6 6 — T H E ESTATE POPULATION, 1871-1946

Census Year Population Numerical Increase Intercensal

Per Cent. Increase
1871 123,654
1881 206,495 82,841 67-0
1891 262,262 55,767 27-0
1901 441,601 179,339 68-4
1911 513,467 71,866 16-3
1921 568,850 55,383 10-8
1931 790,376 221,526 38-9
1946 851,359 60,983 7-7

The sharp decline in the growth of the estate population in the 1931-1946 intercensal period may be
accounted for by the severe depression in the planting industry prevalent in 1931, by the cessation of
new plantings in tea and rubber, by the ban on the emigration of South Indian labour imposed by the
Government of India, and by the greater participation of indigenous labour in work on estates. The
high rate of increase in 1921-1931 was attributed to the heavy immigration in 1924-1929, the effect of
which had persisted in spite of the depressed conditions at the end of that decade. The fall of the rate
in 1911-1921 was ascribed to trade depression and the influenza epidemic. The highest rates of
increase which are seen to have occurred in the two decades 1871-1881 and 1891-1901, were attributed
to the booms in coffee and tea respectively.

237
 The estate population, relative to the total population of the District, was greatest in Nuwara
Eliya District, where 62-2 per cent, of the total population was found on estates. Other Districts
with a high proportion of the estate population were :—Badulla (37 8 percent.), Kandy (34*0 per
cent.), Ratnapura (24-9 per cent), Matale (24-4per cent,), and Kegalla (16-1 percent.). The following
Table compares the proportion of the estate population to the total population of each District in the
census years 1901, 1911, 1921, and 1946.

TABLE 167—PROPORTION OF ESTATE POPULATION TO THE TOTAL POPULATION OF EACH

DISTRICT, 1901-1946

Percentage of the Total Population

1946 1931 1921 1911 1901
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent
Colombo 0-9 . 11 2-1 . 1-6 .. 1-4
Kalutara 8-7 10-1 11-4 . 11-0 .. 7-4

Kandy ... 340 41-9 .. 34-7 36-2 .. 41-2

Matale ... 24-4 . 29-7 .. 29-9 .. 28-8 .. 28-3
Nuwara Eliya ... 62-2 . 66-4 . .. 62-8 . .. 64-6 67-7

Galle 3-7 . 3-8 3-6 . 2-2 .. 20

Matara 40 3-5 2-2 . 1-4 .. 1-7
Hambantota 0-1 . — — — —

Jaffna
Mannar
Vavuniya
00
0-3 .
—
—
—
—
_
— —

Batticaloa 0-2 . -
Trincomalee
Kurunegala
0-1
3-5
. —
3-7 . 4-5 3-2 ..
_2-3
Puttalam 1-4 1-2 1-9 . 4-4 1-6
Chilaw 30 . 3-5 . 3-2 . 4.0 4.6

Anuradhapura ... 5-9 0-8 . 1-4

Badulla ... 37-8 . 43-0 . .. 35-7 33-2 . 27-7
Ratnapura ... 24-9 . 30-5 . 23-9 18-3 12-5
Kegalla ... 161 19-1 . .. 21-0 25-8 22-0

PREPONDERANCE OF INDIAN TAMILS

Indian Tamils formed the predominant race group in the population on estates, comprising
78-2 per cent, of the total estate population of the Island—a drop of 9 4 per cent, from their proportion
as recorded in 1931. The proportion of Ceylon Tamils on the estates rose from 0- 7 per cent, in 1931
to 3-9 per cent, in 1946—an increase which may be partly accounted for by long-resident Indian
Tamil families claiming to be Ceylon Tamil. But it may be noted that both Low-country Sinhalese
and Kandyan Sinhalese resident on estates also showed approximately the same increase—both
registering a 3 0 per cent, increase over their respective proportions in 1931. The fact suggests a
238
slight displacement of immigrant resident labour on estates by indigenous resident labour. It may
also be noted that nearly one-fifth of the total European population in the Island was found on the
estates. The estate population by race and the rates of increase in 1921 -1931, and 1931 -1946, are shown
in the following Table :—

TABLE 1 6 8 — E S T A T E POPULATION B Y R A C E , 1921-1946

Persons Increase or decrease Per Cent.

Race 1946 1931 1921 1931-1946 1921--1931
Low-Country Sinhalese 79,946 ... 50,490 .. 37,111 . . + 58-3 .. . + 36-1
Kandyan Sinhalese 53,060 ... 25,296 ... 17,468 . . -1- 109-7 .. . + 44-8
Ceylon Tamils . . . 33,339-... 5,541 ... 2,716 . . + 501-7 .. . - f 104-0
Indian Tamils ... 665,853 ... 692,540 ... 493,944 . . — 3-9 .. . + 40-2
Ceylon Moors . . . 5,827 ... 2,831 ... 2,300 . . + 105-8 .. • + 23-1
Indian Moors 4,258 ... 4,665 ... 4,214 . . — 8-7 .. • + 10-7
Burghers and Eurasians 1,816 ... 2,031 ... 2,309 . . — 10-6 .. — 12-0
Malays 1,451 ... 1,988 .. 1,483 . . — 27-0 .. . -1- 34-1
Veddahs 22 ... — 1 . — —
Europeans 1,027 .. 2,814 .. 2,670 . . — 63-5 .. T 5-4
Others 4,760 ... 1,738 .. 4,904 . . + 173-9 .. — 64-6

The Table shows that, while the Low-Country Sinhalese, the Kandyan Sinhalese, the Ceylon Tamils,
the Ceylon Moors, and " Others " on estates had registered an increase since 1931, the Indian Tamils,
the Indian Moors, the Burghers and Eurasians, the Malays, and Europeans resident on estates had
declined in numerical strength within the last fifteen years. Burghers and Eurasians, Malays, Europeans
and " Others " showed in 1946 a fall in numbers from those recorded for the respective race-groups
in 1921.

SEX RATIO, LITERACY AND MARRIAGE

The sex ratio of the population on estates showed 1,098 males to 1,000 females—a ratio lower
than that of the Island as a whole. Although the population on estates is mainly immigrant, it is
well-known that the migration is that of whole families rather than merely of adult males in quest
of employment.

Literacy among the estate population was found to be comparatively low. Of a total population
of 721,396 persons, aged 5 years and above, only 233,115, or 32-3 per cent, were able to read and
write a language. Among males on the estates, the percentage of ' literates ' relative to the population
aged 5 years and over was 49-1, while only 13-5 per cent, of the female estate population aged 5 years
and over were found to be literate. These figures compare most unfavourably with the Island's
general literacy figures—57-8 per cent, for the total population, 70-1 per cent, for males, and
43 • 8 per cent, for females. Both in respect of males and in respect of females, the estate population
taken as a group showed greater illiteracy than in any single territorial district of the Island. This,
however, does not mean that the improvement efTected since 1921 when the last census of literacy
was taken has been small, for in the quarter-century, the proportion of literates in the estate population
had risen from 17-9 per cent, in 1921 to 32-3 percent, in 1946. The percentage of male literacy
had risen to 49-1 from 27-6 in 1921, and the figures for females showed 13-5 per cent, literates in
1946 against only 7-1 per cent, in 1921.

239
 Marriage among the estate population was apparently more a matter of custom than of civil
registration. While in the whole Island only about 31 per cent, of the " married " claimed to be
married according to custom, in the estate population the proportion of those married according
to custom to the total married was as high as 65 per cent. Divorced persons remaining at the census
of 1946 in that conjugal condition amounted to a little over two per thousand of the total estate
population,

C O M P A R I S O N W I T H PEASANT P O P U L A T I O N
The Triple Age-Grouping of the estate population at the census of 1946 is shown in the following
Table :—
T A B L E 169. .—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIPLE
A G E - G R O U P I N G OF THE ESTATE POPULATION, 1946

Percentage of Total
Ages Estate Population
Per Cent.
0-14 ... ... 38-9
15-49 years ... ... 53 5
50 and over ... ... 7-6

Compared w i t h the Island Triple Age-Grouping, the estate population is seen to be composed of
more children and persons " in the prime of life ", and fewer old people than the general population
of Ceylon—the corresponding figures being :— 0-14 years : 37 per cent ; 15-49 years : 52 per
cent. ; 50 and over : 11 per cent.

It seems evident f r o m the preceding analysis that the type of population on estates has
characteristics which diverge to a great extent f r o m those of the ordinary rural population of the
country. The interaction of the rural estate and the rural non-estate populations would be an
interesting subject for further study.

240
 CHAPTER X V I

THE PHYSICALLY INFIRM

I—General
T, HE opinion had been expressed at the British Empire Statistical Conference, 1920, that
"the information hitherto obtained through the census with regard to infirmities had proved unsatisfac-
tory ". The Ceylon Census Report o f l 921 suggested that consideration should be given to " the retention
or deletion of the inquiry in 1931," in view of " the probable inaccuracy of the figures, the abandon-
ment of the inquiry in several countries, the somewhat limited utility of the figures, and the advisability
of reducing the census schedule." The question did not, however, come up for consideration in
1931, since the Ceylon Government, as has already been observed, had decided that year only on a
mere enumeration of the population, and not on a census with particulars. In India, there was at
one stage a suggestion to drop the inquiry altogether, but the census of 1931 followed previous censuses
in recording particulars of the insane, the deaf and dumb, the blind of both eyes, and of those suffering
f r o m corrosive leprosy. The Government of India was apparently convinced that, as the errors
in the figures were to some extent constant f r o m census to census, the ratio of variation afforded some
guide to the growth or decline of particular infirmities, and that the statistics, furnishing as they did
a clue to the racial and territorial distribution of these infirmities, were of some comparative interest.

COLLECTION OF THE D A T A
In the preparation for the Ceylon 1946 Census, the matter was placed before the Executive
Committee of Labour, Industry and Commerce, and it was agreed that the importance of recording
accurate particulars in respect of infirmities justified the use of a supplementary schedule which would
contain cages for the recording of the infirmity f r o m which a person suffered, and the cause of i t .
It was recognized that experience had shown that the only infirmities, particulars of which could be
recorded at a census with reasonable accuracy, were blindness, deafness, deaf-mutism, or a combination
of these, and that there was an obvious difficulty in securing accurate information on such points as
feeble-mindedness, idiocy, &c. It was believed that, apart f r o m errors of diagnosis, there was consider-
able danger of w i l f u l concealment, for the existence of any mental derangement was not likely to be
wilhngly admitted. Hence, it was decided to confine the inquiry to the physically infirm only—the
expression being taken to mean the blind, the deaf, the deaf-mute, and the crippled in both legs.
The " Infirmities Schedule " was normally filled in by the specially appointed female enumerators
though in many cases general enumerators discharged the task. An " eye test " card was to be applied
to persons reported blind, and no person who could see to read the letters in the card at a distance
of one foot with or without the aid of glasses was to be returned as " blind " . I n the case of children
under ten years of age, or of older persons who were illiterate, the test was whether they could distin-
guish and recognize the images on the card at a distance of about two feet. Persons who were blind
in one eye only were not to be included among the " blind while deaf-mutism was to be entered for
persons who had been totally deaf f r o m birth and who could not hear nor talk.
On this basis, it was ascertained that the " physically infirm " in the Island numbered 13,007
persons, or nearly 20 in every ten thousand. The largest numbers were found in Colombo (2,371),
241
Kandy ( l , l 4 9 ) , Kalutara (1,166), Jaffna (1,101), and Kurunegala (1,031) Districts. Proportionately
to the total population, the physically infirm were the most numerous in Batticaloa District, where
there were 29 such persons to every ten thousand. Other Districts with a proportion of 20 or over
'' infirm " persons to 10,000 of the total population were :—Jaffna 26, Kalutara 25, Kegalla 24,
Ratnapura 23, Anuradhapura 22, Kurunegala 21, and Matara 20.

II—The Blind Population

The figures in the preceding paragraph refer to the " physically infirm " of all descriptions
reckoned by the census, i.e., blind, deaf, deaf-mute, and crippled. The " bUnd " population in the
Island totalled 4,602 persons, or 35-4 per cent, of the aggregate of the " physically infirm ". The
following Table compares the " b l i n d " population enumerated in 1946 with that at previous
censuses:—

TABLE 170—THE B L I N D POPULATION, BY SEX, CEYLON, 1881-1946,

SHOWING PROPORTION PER T E N THOUSAND OF POPULATION

Population Proportion Per 10,000

Year . Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
1881 5,906 . .. 3,543 .. 2,363 .. 21 24 18
1891 5,636 . 3,371 .. 2,265 .. 19 21 16
1901 3,747 . .. 2,269 .. 1,478 .. 11 12 9
1911 3,957 . .. 2,428 .. 1,529 .. 10 11 . 8
1921 ... 4,005 . .. 2,361 .. 1,644 .. 9 10 8
1946 4,602 . .. 2,431 .. 2,171 .. 7 7 7

The increase in the actual number of reported cases of blindness does not reflect an increase pro-
portionate to the increase of the population but records a proportionate decrease. It may also be
remarked that over 31 per cent, of the bUnd were found to be in the age-group 60 years and above,
and that they represented nearly 40 persons in every 10,000 or about 1 in every 250 persons at these
ages.

The incidence of bhndness was found to be greatest in Batticaloa District, where nearly 14
persons out of every ten thousand were returned as ' blind '. Ratnapura and Matale Districts were
next w i t h about 9 persons in each returned as ' b l i n d ' out of every ten thousand. Others w i t h a
fairly high incidence were Kalutara, Kegalla, and Jaffna Districts.

CAUSES OF B L I N D N E S S

The data collected by the census of 1946 as regards the cause of the infirmity revealed that
about 22 per cent, of the bhnd were reported as having been blind at birth. This no doubt included,
besides a few congenital cases, a great number of cases of infantile purulent ophthalmia caused by the
eyes being infected with h u r t f u l material at birth. It may be noted that legislation exists in certain
countries making inflammation, redness, or swelUng in the eyes appearing within two weeks of birth
a reportable disease, and prohibiting treatment by midwives. Nearly 58 per cent, of the blind, as
242
recorded at the census, had lost their vision when under 14 years of age, that is to say, almost 11 out
of every 1 0 , 0 0 0 children (under 14) in the Island were reported as " blind ". The following Table
showing age at which vision-was lost is interesting :—

T A B L E 1 7 1 — C U M U L A T I V E NUMBER OF B L I N D , BY A G E AT W H I C H
VISION WAS LOST, CEYLON, 1946

Age at which Vision was Lost Cumulative Number

of Blind
Under 14 years 2,667
Under 24 years 2,914
Under 39 years 3,311
Under 59 years 4,001
Over 60 years 601

Total Blind 4,602

DECLINE IN INCIDENCE
About 63 per cent, of the blind population had their infirmity attributed to disease, while about
6 per cent, lost their vision as the result of injury. It is generally believed that blindness is much
more common in hot countries than in cold and temperate regions, and it has been stated that
inhabitants on the coast are more liable to have defective vision than those living at a distance f r o m the
sea. But " the dictum that ' blindness is more prevalent in hot countries than in cold ' means more
than that climate is a cause. Climate is a cause of the muscular relaxation, nervous exhaustion,
and mental lassitude which help disease and retard recovery ; but the causes of the greater prevalence
of eye diseases in hot countries are not purely climatic causes ; they are the less degree of civiUzation,
the lack of sanitary routine, the constant dust and strong winds, and the superabundance of reflected
light (strong tropical light) fatiguing the eyes''.^ The proportionate and continuous decUne in the
incidence of bUndness in Ceylon, as disclosed at the several censuses, may be attributed to the progress
made in medical science which has resulted in better sanitation, greater control of infectious diseases,
and more general use of antiseptics, and also, perhaps, to better protection in mines, factories, and
workshops throughout the Island.

The following Table shows the number of blind persons i n every 10,000 of each sex of the
population in each race in 1946 and 1921 :—
TABLE 1 7 2 — N U M B E R OF B L I N D IN EVERY 10,000 OF EACH SEX OF THE POPULATION IN
EACH RACE
im 1921
Males Females Males Females
A L L RACES 7 . 1 ... 10 . 8

Low-Country Sinhalese 7 . 6 ... 10 . 7

Kandyan Sinhalese... 9 . 9 ... 16 . .. 12
Ceylon Tamils 8 . 6 8 . 5
Indian Tamils 4 7 5 . 7
Ceylon Moors 6 . 8 7 . 6
Indian Moors 0 . 10 2 9
Burghers and Eurasians 1 3 5 . 4
Malays 4 1 6 . 2

Dr. A. Nell cited in "Ceylon at the Census of 1911," p. 382, footnote.

243-
The general all-round decrease in the incidence of blindness since 1921 is noteworthy, the exceptions
being among females of Ceylon Tamils, Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors. It is possible that the
reported increase among these was due to better enumeration in 1946 through the medium of the
special female enumerators. The Kandyan Sinhalese still have the highest incidence of blindness
among all race-groups in the Island. This was attributed in 1921 to their being " wedded to traditional
practices which damage the eyes of children having ophthalmia of the newborn ", and to " careless
and harmful use of belladonna in unsuitable cases ".

About half the blind population fell within the category of married, widowed, or divorced.
About 20 per cent, of the blind were in the widowed state at the date of the census—a proportion
considerably higher than the widowed ( 5 - 4 per cent.) in the population as a whole. This seems to
indicate the greater age of the blind. The proportion divorced was 0 3 per cent, of the blind, as
against 0 • 2 per cent, in the total population.

Among the blind of the age of five years and above, 8 7 - 5 per cent, were iUiterate in the sense
of being unable to read and write, as against 4 2 ' 2 per cent, illiterate in the total Island population aged
five years and above. Comparison with previous censuses is impossible as no statistics of the literates
among the blind were collected at them, but the fact that the blind can be taught to read and write
is now generally appreciated, and an improvement on the 1 2 ' 5 per cent, literacy may be reasonably
expected at the next census. It seems, however, evident that the high illiteracy among the blind is
not due solely or mainly to blindness, for the age composition ot the blind population, which shows the
majority as aged 40 years and above, and the data relating to the age at which vision was lost suggest
that a good many of the illiterate blind were illiterate before they became blind.

in—Deaf-Mutes
Deaf-mutes in Ceylon in 1946 numbered 3,123 or 4 1 3 more than in 1 9 2 1 . The following
Table shows the number of deaf-mutes and the proportion per 10,000 of each sex in Ceylon from
1881-1946 :—

T A B L E 173—DEAF-MUTES OF EACH SEX, CEYLON 1881-1946.

Proportion per 10,000

Numbers of Total Population
Persons Males Females Persons Males Females
1881 ... ... 542 . . 338 .. 204 ... 2 ... 2 2
1891 ... ... 694 . 435 .. 259 ... 2 ... 3 2
1901 ... ... 2,578 . . 1,542 .. 1,036 ... 7 ... 8 6
1911 ... ... 3,233 . . 1,921 .. 1,312 ... 8 ... 9 7
1921 ... ... 2,710 . . 1,562 .. 1,148 ... 6 ... 7 5
1946 ... ... 3,123 . . 1,820 .. 1,303 ... 5 ... 5 4

It is seen f r o m this Table that, although the number of deaf-mutes has increased, they have decreased
in proportion to the population. That deaf-mutism is largely a congenital defect is shown by the fact
that as many as 91 per cent, of the deaf-mutes were retuined as having this infirmity f r o m date of birth.
This is further confirmed by the fact that the age of as high a percentage as 97 of the deaf-mutes was
returned as under 14 years of age when the infirmity began. The figures, incidentally, may be regarded
as indicating a fair test of the accuracy of the enumeration. Deaf-mutism is not willingly admitted
by parents who hope that it is a case of retarded development.

244
 The causes of deaf-mutism have been stated to be, among others, malformation of some part
of the auditory apparatus, the intermarriage of blood relations, and the absence of iodine salts in
the soil and consequently in drinking water. In Bengal deaf-mutism was found to be most prevalent
along the banks of certain rivers where it was associated with goitre and idiocy. In Ceylon, the census
of 1946 showed that the incidence of deaf-mutism is greatest in the Districts of Jaffna (8 per 10,000)
and Kalutara (7 per 10,000), while Colombo, Galle, Matara, Hambantota, Kurunegala, Puttalam,
Ratnapura, and Kegalla Districts each had a proportion of about 5 deaf-mutes per 10,000 of its
population.
The racial distribution of the deaf-mutes shows that the infirmity is proportionately greatest
among the Sinhalese (both Low-Country and Kandyan) and the Ceylon Tamils. To what extent
the prevalence of cross-cousin marriage (i.e., marriage with a paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's child)
among these race-groups; has contributed to this comparatively high incidence of deaf-mutism among
them it is not possible to consider in this general report.
The conjugal condition of the great majority of deaf-mutes was returned as " unmarried ".
Only about 12 per cent, were found to be married, about 4 per cent, were widowed, and less than 1 per
cent, divorced. Deaf-mutes were almost all illiterate, only about 8 per cent, being shown as " literate ".

923 persons in the Island were returned as " deaf ",212 as " blind and deaf", 69 as " blind and
deaf-mute ", and 738 as " mute ". The cause of deafness was attributed to disease in about 43 per
cent, of the cases of deafness, while 39 per cent, of the " blind and deaf" were such f r o m birth. About
half the " blind and deaf mute " suffered f r o m the infirmity from birth. About 56 per cent, of the
mute had been such since birth.

IV—The Crippled
The crippled in both legs numbered 3,259 persons in Ceylon at thecensus of 1946. The number
was greatest in Colombo District, there being 598 cripples within its limits, but proportionately
to the total district population the largest number of cripples was found in Anuradhapura District,
which returned about 8 " cripples " in every 10,000 of its population. About 64 per cent, of the
"cripples" were returned as having had their infirmity beginning when they were children—almost 36
per cent, were reported " crippled " as f r o m birth. It is possible that malnutrition was the cause in
many of these instances, though as many as 45 per cent, were reported caused by disease. Other
Districts with a relatively high proportion of cripples in their population were Kegalla (7 in 10,000),
and Kalutara, Matara, Jaffna, Batticaloa, Kurunegala, and Ratnapura (each with about 6 in every
10,000).

245
 CHAPTER XVII

HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLDS

T, HE Census of 1946 defined a " building" as any structure which is used or can be used
f o r human habitation or place of rest or shelter. Thus an ambalama or pilgrims' rest was regarded as a
" building ", as were also carpenters' sheds, or workmen's camps (wadiyas), watch-huts (pelas), carters'
encampments (galas), tents and even ships and boats, if anchored or moored for some length of time
and used as human habitations.
Buildings so defined fall into two broad categories which may be conveniently distinguished .:
(1) dwelling houses, serving as habitations for family households ;
(2) other buildings, including not only institutions (hospitals, and sanatoria, mental
institutions, penal, reformative and corrective institutions and charitable and bene-
volent institutions) but also religious houses, boarding and lodging houses, public
buildings such as police and railway stations and post oflSces, and commercial
estabUshments such as theatres, cinemas, markets and shops.
This chapter confines itself to a brief review of family dwellings and family households.

DWELLINGS
The 1946 Census recorded particulars of dwellings relating to (a) material of wall, (b) material
of roof, (c) ownership and rental, (d) whether encumbered by a mortgage and if so, the race of the
mortgagee. What constituted a separate dweUing was somewhat widely defined to suit local conditions,
the chief criterion being the possession of separate cooking arrangements.
Particulars were recorded at the census, relating to the material of the outer walls of the building
in which a person resided, whether they were built of cadjan, mud, wood, zinc, stone, brick, concrete
or other material. Similarly, in regard to the construction of the roof of the building, information was
recorded as to whether it was tile, thatch, asbestos, shingle, zinc or other material.

M A T E R I A L O F OUTER W A L L S
The following table compares the percentage distribution of dwellings classified by principal
material of construction of outer walls, (a) for Urban and (b) for Rural areas (including estates) :—

T A B L E 174—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF D W E L L I N G S , CLASSIFIED BY PRINCIPAL M A T E R I A L

OF CONSTRUCTION OF OUTER W A L L S , FOR U R B A N A N D R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946.

Percentage distribution of dwellings

A
Material of outer walls Urban Rural
(U.CC. and M.CC.) {Including Estates)
Cadjan ... ... ... 5 6 ... 5-5
Mud 291 ... 71-0
Wood I 6 ... 1-0
Zinc 0 9 ... 0-1
Stone 10-& ... 12-7
Brick 48-7 ... 8-2
Concrete 1-4 ... 1-1
Other
1-9 .. 0-4
246
 I n urban areas as a whole it will be seen that in about half the total number of dwellings the
walls were of brick and concrete. Those having walls of mud comprised 29 per cent, of the total-
It has to be remembered in this connexion that a considerable number of urban council towns are
semi-rural in character. In the Colombo Municipality houses with mud walls were about 11 per
cent., as compared with the Hambantota Urban Council where the percentage was as high as 71 • 0 . In
the Colombo Municipal Area dwellings with outer walls of brick, stone and concrete represented
about 84 per cent, of the total.

In the rural areas 71 per cent, of the dwellings had outer walls of mud, about 13 per cent, of
stone, 8 per cent, of brick and about 6 per cent, of cadjan. Kurunegala and Hambantota headed the
other districts in having the largest number of dwellings with outer walls of mud, the percentages being
86 and 85 respectively. Cadjan outer walls were predominant in dwellings in the Puttalam District
( 4 5 - 7 per cent.) and Mannar District ( 4 2 - 8 per cent.), while in Trincomalee cadjan-walled houses ran
a close second ( 3 9 - 5 per cent.) to habitations with mud walls ( 4 1 - 5 per cent.). Nuwara Eliya ( 6 1 2
per cent.) Badulla ( 5 7 • 8 per cent), Kandy ( 4 4 - 5 per cent.) and Matale ( 3 5 • 6 per cent.) had a considerably
larger percentage of houses with brick and stone walls than the rest of the Island, due no doubt
to the preponderance of " lines " housing estate labour which are more solidly built than the houses
of the peasantry in these Districts.

M A T E R I A L O F ROOF
The following table classifies dwellings according to the material used for the roof, {a) for Urban
and (b) for Rural areas.

T.-siBLE 175—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DWELLINGS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE M A T E R I A L

OF CONSTRUCTION OF ROOF FOR U R B A N AND R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946.

Percentage distribution of dwellings

Material of Roof Urban Rural

(M.CC. and U.CC.) (Including Estates)

Thatch ... ... ... 26 1 ... 68 0
Tile ... ... ... 67-3 .:. 22 9
Zinc ... ... ... 5-1 ... 7-8
Asbestos ... ... 0-4 ... 0-3
Shingle ... ... ... 01 ... 01
Other ... ... ... 10 ... 09

1 . The classification of dwellings according to the material of roof can be correlated with the data
relating to the material of outer walls. Thus, in Urban areas tiled structures generally predominate
and are associated with the more solid buildings with outer walls made out of stone and brick. In
Rural areas 68 per cent, of the dwellings are covered with thatched roofs which again are associated
with mud walls.
It is interesting to note that in Colombo City 9 1 - 4 per cent, of all dweUings had tiled roofs.
At the other extreme, in Nuwara EUya Urban Council houses with tiled roofs constituted only 9 • 5 per
cent, of all dweUings, the large majority of houses ( 8 8 - 3 per cent.), having zinc roofs. This is no doubt
due, partly at least, to climatic conditions,—other Urban Councils with a high percentage of zinc-roofed
dwellings being Hatton-Dickoya ( 6 3 • 5 per cent.), Bandarawela ( 4 9 • 0 per cent.) and Nawalapitiya
( 2 4 ; 3 per cent.). Urban Council areas where over 70 per cent, of all dwelUngs had thatched roofs
were Kuliyapitiya, Batticaloa, Puttalam and Chilaw.
247
 In rural areas thatched roofs are the most common type. Puttalam, Kurunegala, Chilaw,
Jaffna, Batticaloa, Trincomalee, and Anuradhapura District (excluding Urban Council areas) had more
than 80 per cent, of all dwellings roofed with thatch. In Nuwara Eliya District, however, about 69
per cent, of all dwellings were roofed with zinc. Similarly, in BaduUa and Kandy Districts the per-
centage of dwellings with zinc roofs was higher than that of thatched dwelHngs. In Galle District
the majority of dwellings had tiled roofs.

N U M B E R O F ROOMS
The classification of dwellings according to the number of rooms in each house shows that
one-room dwellings f o r m the largest class both in urban and rural areas, although two-roomed
dwellings come a close second. Many dwellings in Ceylon have an open verandah either in front
or the back, or both, the one serving as a parlour and the other as a kitchen. But such verandahs
were not for census purposes counted as " rooms " unless they were " finished o f f for living purposes
for all times ". Similarly, bath rooms, closets, pantries, basements, stables, stalls, space used as
store-rooms, garages and boutiques were not regarded as " rooms ".

The following Table shows the distribution of dwellings in the Island classified according to
the number of rooms, (a) for Urban and (b) for Rural areas (including estates) :—

T A B L E 176—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION O F ' D W E L L I N G S CLASSIFIED BY THE NUMBER OF ROOMS

FOR U R B A N A N D R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946

Percentage distribution of dwellings

Number of Rooms in Dwellings Urban Rural

(M.CC. and U.CC.) (Including Estates)
One 351 38-6
Two 32-0 35-7
Three 15-2 161
Four 7-5 5-5
Five 4-1 2-0
6- 7 ... 3-8 1-2
8- 9 1-3 0-3
10-11 0-5 0-3
12-13 0-2 0-1
14-15 0 1
16 and over 0-2 0-2

I t will be seen that about 9 0 per cent, of the houses in rural areas were dwellings with three
rooms or less, the corresponding figure for urban areas being about 82 per cent. In urban areas
four-roomed dwellings were about half the number of dwellings with three-rooms ; in rural areas the
proportion was lower, being about one-third.

TENURE

The census schedules asked for the following particulars regarding the tenure of each dwelUng
( 1 ) Is the house owned or rented ( 2 ) If owned and mortgaged, the race of mortgagee. Even if a house
was not fully paid for, or possessed an encumbrance, instructions were given to consider it as '• owned " .
In regard to rented houses a distinction was made between houses rented furnished and those
unfurnished. The inquiry regarding encumbrances on a dwelhng related only to a first or primary
mortgage. If the mortgagee was a corporation the place of incorporation was asked for.
248
 The tenure of dwellings in urban and rural areas is shown in the following table :—

T A B L E 177—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF DWELLINGS CLASSIHED BY TENURE FOR

U R B A N A N D R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946

Percentage distribution of dwellings

Tenure Urban Rural Areas

{M.CC. and U.CC.) {Including Estates)
Owned ... ... •• 30-4 ... 73-8
Free of rent ... •• 8 9 ... 16-8
Rented (unfurnished) ... ... 60 6 ... 9-4
Rented (furnished) ... ... 01 ••. —
The most striking-feature revealed by the comparative figures is that while in urban areas the
majority of houses ( 6 0 ' 7 per cent.) were rented, in rural areas most people owned the houses in which
they lived. Nevertheless, over 30 per cent, of houses in urban areas were recorded as owned. This
figure has been influenced by the fairly large percentage of owned houses in a number of Urban
Councils where the degree of urbanization is not very marked. In Beruwala and Weligama Urban
Councils the percentage of owned houses was over 70 and a percentage of over 50 was recorded in
the following areas :—Horana, Ambalangoda, Matara, Tangalla-Beliatta, and Jaffna Urban Councils,
and the Galle Municipality. In Colombo City, only about 12 per cent, of dwellings were owned.

In rural areas the somewhat high percentage of houses returned as being " free of rent " calls
for comment. The explanation lies in the fact that estate labour occupy quarters free of rent, and it
is precisely in the estate areas that the percentage o f rent-free dwellings is high when compared with
other forms of tenure. In Nuwara Eliya the percentage was as high as 71 • 7, the percentages for the
other chief estate areas being as follows :—Kandy 49 - 8, Badulla 4 8 - 0 , Matale 38 ' 1, Ratnapura 3 9 - 3 ,
Puttalam 37 • 1, Kegalla 28 • 2 and Chilaw 2 7 - 3 .

Houses reported to be mortgaged represented only 0 - 4 per cent, of all dwellings in urban
areas and 0 - 2 in rural areas. It is not unlikely that this is an underestimate owing to the natural
reluctance of householders to disclose the fact that the properties which they ostensibly owned were
subject to encumbrances.

RENTALS

Rented houses, as has been noted earlier, comprised 60 6 per cent, of all dwellings in urban
areas and only 9 - 4 per cent, in rural areas. Of these, furnished houses constituted a negligible
proportion in rural areas, and amounted to only 01 per cent, in urban areas.

The following Table shows the percentage distribution of unfurnished houses according to
rentals :—
T A B L E 178—PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF UNFURNISHED DWELLINGS c t A s s i H E D BY
RENTALS PAID FOR U R B A N A N D R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946

Percentage distribution of dwellings

Monthly Rent Paid * Urban Rural

(M.CC. and U.CC.) (Including Estates)
Under Rs. 10 ... .-. 48 ... 69
Rs. 10 and under Rs. 20 ... ... 28 ... 19
Rs. 20 and under Rs. 30 ... ... 10 ... 7
Rs. 30 and under Rs. 40 ... ... 5 ... 2

249
 Percentage distribution of dwellings
Monthly Rent Paid Urban Rural
(M.CC.andU.CC.) (Including Estates)
Rs. 40 and under Rs. 50 ... 3 1
Rs. 50 and under Rs. 60 ... 2 1
Rs. 60 and under Rs. 70 ... 1 *
Rs. 70 and under Rs. 80 ... 1 *
Rs. 80 and under Rs. 120 . *
Rs. 120 and under Rs. 160 ... 1 *
Rs. 160 and under Rs. 2 0 0 ... * I
Rs. 2 0 0 and over ... ... *
Less than one per cent.
I t will be seen that as much as 4 8 per cent, of all rented houses in urban areas carried rentals
below Rs. 10. I n rural areas the percentage was higher, being as much as 6 9 . Houses with rentals
above Rs. 10 but less than Rs. 20 comprised 28 per cent, of the total in urban areas, and 19 per cent,
in rural areas. In the next class (Rs. 20 and below Rs. 3 0 ) the respective percentages were 10 for urban
and 7 for rural areas. In the higher classes of rentals the proportion diminishes rapidly, but less
steeply in urban than in rural areas. It may reasonably be inferred that among those who live in
larger houses there is a higher proportion of owners than among the dwellers of smaller houses.

FAMILY HOUSEHOLDS

A family household comprises the members of a household forming the nucleus of the household,
including resident domestic servants. Persons living alone were counted as separate family households.
Other persons sharing the rooms occupied by the family were counted as members of the family
household. A difficulty arose when a household contained a considerable number of lodgers so that
it assumed the character of a lodging house. After a careful examination of the: schedules, it was
decided to regard as family households only those which had five, or less than five, lodgers.
The following Table shows the distribution of various sized households for (a) Urban, ( 6 ) for
Rural areas :—
TABLE 179- -PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO SIZE, FOR U R B A N A N D
R U R A L AREAS, CEYLON, 1946.

Percentage distribution of households

No. of persons in household Urban Rural
(M.CC. and U.CC.) (Including Estates)
1 6-3 •1
2- 3 22-4 26 •0
4- 6 390 43 •6
7- 9 21-4 18 •0
10-14 9-4 3 •9
15 and over 1-5 0 •4
In both rural and urban areas the 4-6 person household predominates, but the percentage is
higher in rural areas. The percentage of larger households is higher in urban than in rural areas,
but this can be attributed hot so much to the presence of larger biological families in the cities as to a
greater frequency of lodgers in urban households. In rural areas one-person households are pro-
portionately larger in Kandy, Matale, Nuwara Eliya, Ratnapura, Puttalam, Kurunegala, Anuradha-
pura, Mannar and Vavuniya Districts. The higher percentage is no doubt influenced by the pattern
of the labour force in the planting districts and the exigencies of Dry Zone cultivation.
(The percentage Tables used in this chapter have been derived from a sample analysis of the
household schedules).

250
 CHAPTER X V I I l

AGRICULTURE
T^HE Census of Agriculture was carried out in conjunction with the Preliminary Census of
Population which commenced on February 18, 1946. A l l agricultural holdings had previously been
listed as " estates ", " small holdings ", " village and town gardens ", " chenas or " asweddumized
paddy lands ", and separate schedules had been prepared for the different categories. An " estate ",
for census purposes, was defined as a holding which was 20 acres or more in extent, and was classified
into " A " and " B " classes,—an " A " estate being regarded as one which employed ten or more
resident labourers and had its census schedules filled up in English by the Superintendent or Person-
in-charge. The general enumerator was entrusted with the duty of filling up the schedules in respect
of " B " estates. A " small holding " was one which was below 20 acres in extent, while a " village
garden" or " town garden " was one which was one acre or less in extent, usually forming
the compound of a dwelling house.

CULTIVABLE EXTENT
The census found that, of the total land area of the Island comprising 16,023,229 acres, some
f o r m of cultivation existed on February 18, 1946, on 3,210,101 acres, or on one-fifth o f the area.
Exclusive of lands not opened for cultivation at the time of the census, the aggregate cultivable extent,
by which is meant land which had at some time or other in the recent past carried some form of
cultivation, was 4,267,398 acres, representing 26-6 per cent, of the total land area. I t is thus seen
that the actual cultivated extent at the time of the census was only a little more than f ths of the
cultivable extent, an area of 1,057,297 acres representing about a quarter of the total cultivable extent
remaining uncultivated at the time.
Of the 3,210,10,1 acres under cultivation holdipgs described as 'estates' which covered an
aggregate extent of 1,634,069 acres inclusive of uncultivated land, had under cultivation at the date
of the census an area of 1,343,697 acres. A n extent of 2 9 0 , 3 7 2 acres, or about 1 8 per cent, o f the
estates was lying uncultivated, although it had some time previously been under cultivation and was
still deemed to be cultivable, though some of i t was at the time of the census covered with natural
or planted forest trees or jungle shrubs.

A C R E A G E U N D E R TEA
The crop covering the largest acreage on " A " estates was tea, which was found cultivated
on 456,398 acres on those estates. " B " estates and smallholdings carried only 77,248 acres o f tea.
The cultivation of this crop was carried on, for the most part, at elevations above 3,000 feet, but i t can
be, and was in fact grown at lower elevations down almost to sea level. The distribution of the acreage
under tea cultivation on " A " estates by Districts is given in the following Table :—
T A B L E 1 8 0 — A C R E A G E O F T E A O N " A " ESTATES I N THE REVENUE DISTRICTS, SHOWING
PERCENTAGE OF THE T O T A L ACREAGE OF TEA ON " A " ESTATES IN THE ISLAND, CEVXON, 1946.
Acreage Percentage
CEYLON ... ... 456,398 ... 100 0
Colombo ... ... 602 ... 0 1
Kalutara ... ... 8,440 ... 1-9

251
 Acreage Percentage

Kandy 151,711 33-2

Matale 19,317 4-2
Nuwara Eliya 100,738 22-1
Galle ... 9,676 21
Matara 12,349 2-7
Hambantota

Jaffna
Mannar
Vavuniya

Batticaloa
Trincomalee

Kurunegala 339 0-1

Puttalam
Chilaw

Anuradhapura

Badulla 84,849 18-6

Ratnapura 48,555 10-6
Kegalla 19,822 4-4
I t will be observed that the Kandy, Nuwara Eliya, and Badulla Districts together had 73-9
per cent, of the acreage under tea cultivation on " A " estates throughout the Island. Tea requires
a fairly distributed rainfall of f r o m 60 to 250 inches in a year ; hence the absence of any acreage under
tea in the Dry Zone districts of the Island.

The cultivation of the tea bush. Camellia thea, was first begun in Ceylon in 1839, but since the
manufacture was expensive it was not a popular crop at the time. In 1867 Assam tea was introduced,
but it was not u n t i l the failure of coffee that Ceylon planters generally took to the cultivation of tea.
A phenomenal expansion of the acreage under this crop took place in the last two decades of the 19th
century. It may be noted that while only 23 lb. of black tea were exported f r o m Ceylon in 1873,
the quantity exported in 1946 amounted to 291,775,051 lb. at an average price of Re. 1-30 against
Rs. 2-52 per lb. in 1873.

ACREAGE U N D E R RUBBER
The next largest crop grown on " A " estates was rubber which covered 341,996 acres. In
1876, the Government of India had obtained seeds and plants of Para Rubber {Hevea brasiliensis)
f r o m South America but finding the climate unsuitable for them sent them to Ceylon where they were
planted at the Heneratgoda (Gampaha) Botanic Gardens, 17 miles f r o m Colombo, and tended under
the general supervision of Henry Kendrick Thwaites to whose memory a salutation is justly due as the
scientific worker who more than any other may properly lay claim to having laid the foundations of
the successful plantation economy of Ceylon. The rubber tree flourishes at low elevations, generally
below 2,000 feet, on soil which retains moisture. It requires a well-distributed rainfall of at least
80 inches per annum.

252
I

The following Table gives the geographical distribution of this crop as on " A " estates at the
census of 1946 :—

TABLE 181—RUBBER ON ' A " ESTATES, BY DISTRICTS, SHOWING ACREAGE A N D PERCENTAGE

DISTRIBUTION, CEYLON, 1946.

Acreage Percentage
CEYLON 341,996 ... 100-0

Colombo 17,976 5-2

Kalutara 62,555 ... 18-3

Kandy 23,953 7-0

Matale 25,907 7-6
Nuwara Eliya 237 0-1

Galle ... 31,939 9-3

Matara 7,798 2-3
Hambantota — —

Jaffna
Mannar — —
Vavuniya — —

Batticaloa
Trincomalee • — —

Kurunegala 13,735 4-0

Puttalam — —
Chilaw... — —

Anuradhapura — —

Badulla... 19,463 5-7

Ratnapura 51,987 ... 15-2

Kegalla... 86,446 ... 25-3

The Table shows that Kegalla, Kalutara, and Ratnapura Districts were the leading rubber
districts in the Island. In 1 9 2 1 , the exports of rubber f r o m Ceylon approximated 88 million lb.
while in 1946 the quantity exported was 2 2 8 miUion lb. accounting for about 30 per cent, of the total
value of all exports f r o m this country.

ACREAGE U N D E R COCONUT
The coconut palm was cultivated on 920,942 acres (exclusive of town and village gardens).
Of this acreage, " A " estates claimed only 108,289 acres,—in other words, it may be asserted that
only about 1 1 - 8 per cent, of the acreage under coconut is well cultivated on systematic lines.
The coconut palm is not believed to be indigenous to Ceylon, and its introduction into the
Island has been assigned to a chance casting-up of nuts by currents on the Southern coast of the
Island.
The first mention of a coconut plantation in historical records is, perhaps, that which
attributes to Agrabodhi I in the sixth century of the Christian era the dedication to the Kurunda
253
Vihare of " a plantation of coconuts three yojanas in extent " , i although earlier there is reference to
Duttugemunu's comrade-in-arms, Sona, being endowed with sufficient physical strength to tear up
" f u l l grown coconut palms ".^

The distribution of this crop in the various Districts of the Island is shown in the following
Table

T A B L E 182—COCONUT CULTIVATION (EXCLUSIVE OF T O W N A N D V I L A G E GARDENS),

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION BY REVENUE DISTRICTS, CEYLON, 1946.

Acreage Percent
CEYLON ... 920,942 ... 100-0

Colombo 201,862 ... 21-9

Kalutara 31,529 3-4

Kandy 20,887 2-3

Matale ... 10,642 1-2
Nuwara Eliya 640 01

Galle ... 32,897 3-6

Matara 38,182 41
Hambantota 31,842 3-5

Jaffna 15,868 1-7

Mannar 6,450 0-7
Vavuniya 1,914 0-2

Batticaloa 18,647 2-0

Trincomalee 2,668 0-3

Kurunegala 300,351 ... 32-6

Puttalam 45,173 4-9
Chilaw... 74,859 81

Anuradhapura 2,762 0-3

Badulla... 1,479 0-2

Ratnapura 17,957 1-9

Kegalla... 64,333 7-0

The Table reveals that in every District of the Island an attempt has been made to cultivate
the coconut. Although the belief was at one time held that it grew best along the sea coast, it may be
noted that Kurunegala District had the greatest acreage under this crop. Colombo District was
next, with Chilaw, Kegalla, Puttalam, Matara, Galle, Hambantota, and Kalutara in that order in
respect of extents under cultivation. Of the acreage in Kurunegala District, about 18-2 per cent,
formed " A " estates, as defined for the census.

Coconut cultivation is " an ancient industry " in Ceylon, and the uses to which various parts
of the palm are applied are numerous. The production of " toddy " and " arrack " f r o m the juice
of the unexpanded flower spathes is carried on mainly in the Western and Southern Provinces, but
^Mahawamsa Ch. XLII
"Mahawamsa Ch. XXIII

254
the most important manufactured coconut product may be said to be " copra *', which is the dried
kernel of the nut, f r o m which is extracted cocon ut o i l , which is utilized for the production of margarine,
soap, and other products. Poonac, a by-product in the manufacture of coconut oil f r o m copra, is
of importance as cattle food. Coir is also an important commercial product, and is in great demand
for the manufacture of rope, brushes, door mats, and woven coir-matting. The exports of
some of the coconut products at 1946 and 1921 are recorded here as of interest :—

1946 1921
Cwt. Cwt.
Copra 776,000 1,367,000
Coconut oil 861,000 485,000
Desiccated coconut 198,000 871,000
Coir fibre 543,000 202,000

Paddy Cultivation
The aggregate extent of Asweddumized Paddy Lands in the Island, as ascertained at the census
o f 1946, (exclusive of paddy lands within estates) was 899,969 acres, 3 roods, and 33 perches. The
area under cultivation during Maha 1 9 4 5 - 4 6 was 6 0 7 , 5 1 0 acres, distributed as follows in the several
districts :—

T A B L E 1 8 3 — P A D D Y C U L T I V A T I O N , M A H A 1 9 4 5 - 4 6 , (EXCLUSIVE OF SUCH C U L T I V A T I O N
W I T H I N ESTATES) BY REVENUE DISTRICTS, CEYLON, 1946.

Acreage Perce
CEYLON 607,510 .. lOO-O

Colombo 47,630 7-8

Kalutara 36,637 60

Kandy 35,652 5-9

Matale... 16,839 2-8
Nuwara Eliya 14,410 2-4

Galle ... 35,430 5- 8

Matara 39,509 6- 5
Hambantota 23,379 3-8

Jaffna 39,066 6-4

Mannar 16,841 2-8
Vavuniya 13,646 2-2

Batticaloa 41,271 6-8

Trincomalee 7,536 1-2

Kurunegala 105,434 .. 17-4

Puttalam 4,616 0- 8
Chilaw... 9,542 1- 6

Anuradhapura 53,553 8-8

Badulla... 21,291 3-5

Ratnapura 20,962 3-5

Kegalla... 24,266 4 0

255
 Kurunegala District is seen to have cultivated the largest acreage with paddy on asweddumized
lands during the maha season, 1946, while Anuradhapura, Colombo, Batticaloa, Matara, and Kalutara
Districts ranked next in importance as paddy-growing districts during maha.

DISTRIBUTION OF HOLDINGS

The following Table gives for each District the total extent of asweddumized paddy lands
(exclusive of paddy lands within estates) whether cultivated or not in maha 1945-46, and the number
of holdings, and the average size of holding, as registered at the 1946 census :—

T A B L E 184—ASWEDDUMIZED P A D D Y L A N D S (EXCLUSIVE OF P A D D Y L A N D S WITHIN E S T A T E S )

BY DISTRICTS, SHOWING NUMBER OF HOLDINGS, T O T A L E X T E N T , AND A V E R A G E SIZE, CEYLON, 1946.

District Number of Total Extent Average Si

Holdings {Acres) (Acres)

CEYLON 771,908 899,970 1 1/5

Colombo 68,097 62,567 0 9/10

Kalutara 30,790 46,132 1 1/2

Kandy 67,025 39,731 03/5

Matale 38,642 21,292 0 3/5
Nuwara Eliya 25,462 16,646 0 7/10

Galle 32,884 48,992 1 1/2

Matara 27,655 48,789 1 4/5
Hambantota 10,362 38,417 3 7/10

Jaffna 57,484 52,881 0 9/10

Mannar 9,044 23,356 2 3/5
Vavuniya 8,258 22,644 2 7/10

Batticaloa 17,291 119,170 6 9/10

Trincomalee 4,737 21,592 4 3/5

Kurunegala 118,149 125,348 1 1/10

Puttalam ... . 7,833 7,983 1
Chilaw 10,584 14,336 12/5

Anuradhapura 126,630 95,877 0 4/5

Badulla ... 44,950 33747 0 4/5

Ratnapura 31,778 33,541 1 1/10

Kegalla ... 34,253 26,930 0 4/5

EXTENT OF FRAGMENTATION

It would appear from the above Table that fragmentation is greatest in the Kandyan Districts
where the average size of the holding was below one acre, except in Kurunegala and Ratnapura
256
Districts where the average holding was slightly above one acre, More precise information is given
in the following Table :—

T A B L E 1 8 5 — A S W E D D U M I Z E D P A D D Y L A N D H O L D I N G S (EXCLUSIVE O F P A D D Y L A N D S WITHIN
ESTATES) BY SIZE OF H O L D I N G IN R E V E N U E DISTRICTS, C E Y L O N , 1946
h Acre to 1 Acre to 2 Acres to 5 Acres to 10 Acres
Less than less than less than less than less than and
i Acre 1 Acre 2 Acres •5 Acres 10 Acres Above
CEYLON ... 242,690 .. 253,823 .. 162,120 85,310 . .. 19,705 . 8,260

Colombo ... 22,447 .. 23,845 15,371 5,472 . 674 . 288

Kalutara 5,083 8,783 9,437 6,032 . 1,109 . 346

Kandy ... 28,933 .. 26,084 9,865 1,784 . 340 . 19

Matale ... 18,209 .. 14,783 4,599 968 . 64 . 19
Nuwara Eliya 8,661 .. 10,527 5,194 1,031 . 44 . 5

Galle 6,413 9,697 9,523 5,739 . 1,076 . 436

Matara 4,099 6,230 8,152 8,044 . 904 . 226
Hambantota 993 1,646 2,254 3,268 . 1,362 . 839

Jaffna ... 26,282 17,144 8,699 4,154 . 727 . 478

Mannar 1,074 1,331 2,283 3,114 . 939 . 303
Vavuniya 240 1,165 2,108 3,509 . 989 . 247

Batticaloa 160 . 230 . 1,400 6,417 . 5,840 . 3,244

Trincomalee 171 . 639 . 780 . 1,661 . 940 . 546

Kurunegala ... 26,313 . .. 44,347 . .. 30,214 .. 14,862 . 1,963. . 450

Puttalam 2,721 . 2,676 . 1,325 910 . 142. . 59
Chilaw 2,885 . 2,647 . 3,052 1,576 . 307 . 117

Anuradhapura ... 51,901 . .. 42,066 . .. 22,029 . 8,660 . 1,629 . 345

Badulla ... 19,311 .. 15,247 7,819 2,008 . 357 . 208

Ratnapura 7,015 .. 10,713 . 9,848 3,866 . 256 . 80

Kegalla 9,779 14,023 8,168 2,235 . 43 . 5

It is observed that about 64*3 per cent, of asweddumized paddy land holdings in the Island
were below one acre in extent. The following Table shows the percentage of asweddumized paddy
land holdings in each District which are below one acre in extent :—

T A B L E 186—PROPORTION P E R CENT, O F ASWEDDUMIZED P A D D Y L A N D HOLDINGS BELOW

O N E A C R E I N E X T E N T T O A L L ASV/EDDUMIZED P A D D Y L A N D HOLDINGS I N E A C H
D I S T R I C T , (EXCLUSIVE OF P A D D Y L A N D S WITHIN ESTATES), C E Y L O N , 1946

Proportion
District Per Cent.
Colombo ... 68-0
45-0
Kalutara ...

Kandy 82-1
Matale 85-3
75-4
Nuwara Eliya
49-0
Galle
257
 District Proportion
Per Cent.
Matara 37-3
Hambantota 25-5

Jaffna 75-5
Mannar 26-6
Vavuniya 17-0

Batticaloa 2-3
Trincomalee 17-1

Kurunegala 59-8
Puttalam 68-9
Chilaw 52-3

Anuradhapura 74-2

Badulla 76-9

Ratnapura 55-8
Kegalla 69-5

The Table seems to confirm the observation previously made that the smallest units of paddy
land holdings were to be found in the Kandyan Districts. Jaffna District also had a high proportion
of holdings below one acre in extent. On the other hand, Batticaloa District had a large aggregation
of paddy land holdings of 10 acres and over in extent.

TYPES OF TENURE

The information collected by the census regarding the tenure on which asweddumized paddy
lands were held disclosed that holdings which were fully owned by cultivators aggregated 4 6 9 , 7 0 1
out of the total number of 771,908 holdings. This amounts to 6 0 - 8 per cent, of the total. The
number of holdings held in tattumaru ownership, {i.e. a co-ownership where the co-owner has- to
await his turn to cultivate the whole field) was 52,190, or 6 8 per cent., while part-owned holdings
(other than tattumaru) numbered 9,116, or 12 per cent. Leased holdings aggregated 28,069, or 3 - 6
per cent, of the total number of holdings. " Ande " tenancies, that is, tejiancies where the cultivator
is required to give a share of the crop to the ground owner, numbered 199,934 or 2 5 - 9 per cent, of
the total number of asweddumized paddy land holdings. This form of tenancy was most prevalent
in Ratnapura, Matara, Kandy and Matale Districts, in each of which they comprised more than
two-fifths of the total number of holdings. Other forms of tenure not in full ownership aggregated
12,898.

The following Table shows the distribution of fully owned holdings, and other holdings in the
Districts :—
T A B L E 1 8 7 — A S W E D D U M I Z E D P A D D Y L A N D HOLDINGS, (EXCLUSIVE OF PADDY LANDS WITHIN
ESTATES) F U L L Y O W N E D , AND O T H E R , BY R E V E N U E DISTRICTS, C E Y L O N , 1946
Total Number of Fully Owned Other
Ho/dings
Colombo 68,097 44,940 .. 23,157
Kalutara 30,790 18,120 .. 12,670

Kandy 67,025 35,629 .. 31,396

Matale 38,642 20,678 .. 17,964
Nuwara Eliya 25,462 15,617 9,845
258
 Total Number of Fully Owned Other
Holdings'
Galle 32,884 21,384 11,500
Matara 27,655 12,248 15,407
Hambantota 10,362 5,777 .. 4,585

Jaffna 57,484 50,518 6,966

Mannar 9,044 7,131 1,913
Vavuniya 8,258 6,032 2,226

Batticaloa 17,291 10,686 6,605

Trincomalee 4,737 3,123 1,614

Kurunegala 118,149 64,938 .. 53,211

Puttalam 7,833 5,854 1,979
Chilaw , ... 10,584 6,446 4,138

Anuradhapura 126,630 96,765 .. 29,865

Badulla 44,950 25,173 .. 19,777

Ratnapura 31,778 6,917 .. 24,861

Kegalla 34,253 11,725 .. 22,528
The Table shows that holdings not in full ownership exceed those fully owned by cultivators
in the Ratnapura, Kegalla and Matara Districts.

Small Holdings, Gardens and Chenas

Small holdings.—The aggregate number of " small holdings," defined as " holdings of less
than 20 acres and more than one acre ", was 394,785, covering a total acreage of 1,110,750, of which
903,191 acres, or 81 per cent., was found at the census to be cultivated with various crops. The largest
aggregation of " small holdings " was found in the Kurunegala District (70,798) while Colombo
(63,471), Kegalla (43,968), Matara (28,413), Kalutara (26,897), Galle (26,229), Kandy (25,239),
Ratnapura (23,339), Hambantota (20,419), Jaffna (16,163), Chilaw (10,862) and Badulla (10,346)
came next in order in the number of small holdings as recorded at the census.
Town and village gardens—There were enumerated at the census 858,892 " town and village
gardens ", defined as holdings of one acre or less carrying some form of cultivation and usually forming
the compound of a dwelling house. The average size of a holding of this type was about 75 perches,
and Colombo and Jaffna Districts recorded the largest numbers of these holdings,—Colombo reckoning
149,546, and Jaffna 127,060 of these gardens. In the Sinhalese Districts the gardens carried a mixed
tree cultivation, jak, breadfruit (near the sea), coconuts, arecas, kitul palms, mangoes, plantains, limes,
papaw, &c., while in Jaffna the cultivation was chiefly of tobacco, vegetables, dry grains, and mangoes,
besides the palmyrah palm.
Chenas.—The number of separate chenas, or areas of land covered with secondary forest or other
vegetation which are cleared and burned periodically for cultivation, as enumerated at the census, was
91,996. They were mainly found in the Kandyan Districts (Kurunegala, Ratnapura, Kandy, Badulla,
Anuradhapura, Nuwara Eliya, and Matale). The aggregate acreage covered by chena land was
reckoned at 221,395 acres, of which only 46,322 acres were found cultivated at the time of the census.
The principal crops grown were kurakkan, maize, millet, pulses, gingelly, mustard, and edible tubers.
Chena cultivation is generally regarded as wasteful, as it seeks to grow crops by rotating thesoil, and an
attempt has been made to instruct the cultivator in these areas to rotate his crops rather than to exploit
the capital of the soil in this manner.
259
 The Changing Pattern
The foregoing outline of the pattern and distribution of agriculture gives some indication
of the predominant place it occupies in the economy of the Island. Agricultural occupations absorb
the energies of about 50 per cent, of the gainfully occupied population of the country, and a large
number of other occupations are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture.
A more detailed examination of the agricultural statistics will have to be the subject of a separate
study. But it may be noted here that agriculture in Ceylon has followed two broad lines of develop-
ment—one harking back to the days of the earliest Aryan settlements, and the other, the result of recent
activity.
The civilisation of ancient Lanka was a peasant civiUsation and the measure of its wealth and well-
being was reckoned in terms of the food crops produced by the people. Incursions of marauders
from the neighbouring sub-continent, recurring century after century, eventually destroyed the irriga-
tion works which alone made fertile and habitable the arid lands now known as the Dry Zone.
With the arrival of the British and the unification of the Island under " one canopy of
dominion ", began an era of new agricultural development, the cultivation primarily for the export
market of coffee, tea, rubber and coconut. It has been noted elsewhere that the opening of these
plantations brought into Ceylon a considerable number of immigrants from South India, particularly
for work on estates in the Hill Country. This estate labour population forms a distinct demographic
pattern as indicated in Chapter X V .
It is but natural that the expansion of commercial agriculture should have still further stifled
the peasant agriculture devoted to the cultivation of food crops. The peasant agrarian problem
was ah-eady acute when the first concerted attempt was made to tackle it, in the era of the State Councils,
by a planned programme for the reclamation of the Dry Zone, involving the restoration of the ancient
irrigational works and the creation of new colonies, affording ampler opportunities for the cultivation
of paddy and other food crops than was available in the more populous areas of the Island. The new
agricultural policy has been progressively enlarged, the multi-purpose Gal-Oya Scheme representing
the latest phase of its development.

260
 APPENDIX 1

Proclamation by Governor, Census Ordinance, etc.

1. Proclamation by the Governor ordering the taking of the Census.

2. Census Ordinance.
3. Rules relating to the Population Census made under the Census Ordinance.
4. Governor's .A.ppeal.
5. The Hon. Mr. G. C. S. Corea's Appeal.

261
 1. Proclamation by tlie Governor ordering the taking of the Census

B Y HIS E X C E L L E N C Y THE GOVERNOR

A PROCLAMATION

(Sgd.) H E N E Y MOOB

K n o w Yc that by virtue of the powers vested in me by section 2 of the Census Ordinance (Chapter 118), I,
H e n r y Monck-Mason Moore, Governor of Ceylon, do hereby direct that for the purpose of ascertaining the social,
civil and economic condition of the inhabitants of Ceylon, a census of—

((f) the population,

(6) the agriculture (including animal husbandry),
(c) the labour, industry, trade and commerce,
(d) the hospitals, nursing homes and other medical organisations,
(e) the charitable institutions,
(/) the prisons and other penal establishments, of the Island, shall bo taken in the year nineteen hundred
and forty-six.

By His Excellency's command,

(Sgd.) J . A . M U L H AT.T..
Acting Secretary to the Governor.
Colombo, J u n e 21st, 1945.

GOD S A V E T H E K I N G .

262
 2. Census Ordinance

O R D I N A N C E N O . 9 OF 1900 AS A M E N D E D BY C E N S U S
( A M E N D J I E N T ) O B D I N A N C E N O . 6 OF 1945

A7i Ordinance to provide for the talcing oj a Census from time to time

1. This Ordinance may be cited as the Census Ordinance. Short Title

2. It shall be lawful for the Governor from time to time by Proclamation published In the Governor to
Gazette, to direct that a Census be taken of the population, agriculture (including animal direct
husbandry), trade, labour, industry or commerce or such other matters as he may deem necessary taking of
for ascertaining the social, civil or economic condition of the inhabitants of Ceylon. Census.

3. It shall be la%vful for the Governor to appoint a fit and proper person to be called tho Governor may
" Snperintondent of Census " to superintend the tnking of any census, and at any time to appoint jippoijit
some other in liis place or to appoint any person to act temporarily for such Superintendent of Superintondont
Census. of Census.

.3A. ( I ) There may also be appointed for the purposes of the Ordinance such number of Appointment
Deputy or Assistant Superintendents of Census and other officers and servants as the Governor of IDeputy and
may deem necessary. Assistant
Superintend-
(2) A Deputy or Assistant Superintendent of Census may be appointed by name or by ents of Census,
office, and shall in the exercise of his powers and the performance of his duties, be subject to the and of oflficers
general direction and control of the Superintendent of Census. and servants.

4. ( 1 ) Tlie Governor may for the carrying out of the purposes of this Ordinance from Rules by tho
time to time, make rules consistent witli tho provisions of this Ordinance and rescind, revoke, Governor.
amend, alter, or add to such rules.
(2) The rules may prescribe—

(a) the duties of census officers :

(b) the particulars regarding which, tlie persons from whom, and the mode in which,
information shall be obtained for the purposes of the census ;
(c) the forms of schedules to be prepared by the Superintendent of Census for the purpose
of being filled up with the particulars so prescribed.
(3) The rules shall be published in two issues of the Goverrmient Gazette in the English
lii,uguage, imd shall from the date of the last of such publications be as legal, valid, and effectual
as if the same had been enacted in this Ordinance and shall be judicially noticed.
( 4 ) A n y person committing a n j ' breach of any such rule shall be liable on conviction to
simple or rigorous imprisonment for a term not exceeding one month, or to a fine not exceeding
one hundred rupees, or to both.
5. The Go%'ernment Agent of a Province shall be Commissioner of Census for his Government
province and the Assistant Goverrmient Agent of a district shall be Commissioner of Census Agent, Asst.
for his district, and the Chairman of every Municipality, District Council and L o c a l Board shall Govt. Agent,
be Commissioner of Census for the local area of such Municipality, District Council, or L o c a l and
Board. Chairraau of
Provided that the Governor may appoint any other person as Commissioner for such iVIunicipality,
Dist. Council,
province or district or Mimicipality, or District Council, or L o c a l Board.
or L o c a l Board
to be
Comraissioneis.

r>A The Governor may appoint for any specified area an Assistant Commissioner of Census Appointment
to assist the Commissioner of that area in the taking of a Census under the provisions of this of Asst.
Ordinance. Commissioners
of Census.
6. A Commissioner may in writing appoint any person as enumerator or supervisor to Appointment
take or aid in taking or supervise the taking of the census within any specified local area, and of
may at any time revoke such appointment. Enumerators
and
Supervisors.

263
W h o are 7. The Superintendent and every Deputy Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent,
Census Commissioner, Assistant Commissioner, enumerator and supervisor, referred to in the preceding
Officers. provisions of this Ordinance shall be a census officer within the meaning of this Ordinance, and
shall be deemed a public servant within the meaning of the Penal Code.

Occupier to 8. E v e r y person occupying any land, house, enclosure, vessel or other place shall, allow
allow access any census officer such access thereto as he may require for the purpose of the census, and as,
and permit having regard to the customs of the country, may be reasonable, and shall allow him to paint,
aflRxing of mark or affix on or to the property in the occupation of such person such letters, marks or
numbers. numbers as m a y be necessary for the purposes of the census.

Asking of 9. E v e r y census officer may ask all such questions of all persons within the limits of his
questions by local area as by rule made in this behalf by the Governor he m a y be directed to ask.
Consus
Officers.
Obligation to 10. E v e r y person of whom any question is asked under the last foregoing section shall
answer be bound to aniswer such question to the best of his knowledge and belief.
questions.
Schedules to 11. (1) Subject to such rules as the Governor may make in this behalf, any census
be left at officer m a y leave or cause to be left a schedule, in the form prescribed by the Governor, at any
dwelling-houses dwelling-house within the local area of such census officer, for the purpose of its being filled up
and filled up by the occupier of such house or any specified part thereof.
by the (2) W h e n any such schedule has been so left, the occupier of the house or part to which
householders. it relates shall fill it up or cause it to be filled up, to the best of his knowledge and belief, so far
as regards the inmates of such house or part, as the case may be, at the time of the taking of
census, and shall sign his name thereto, and when so required shall deliver the schedule so filled
up and signed to the enumerator or supervisor appointed for the local area within which the
house is situated to such other person as the Commissioner may direct.

Schedule to bo 12. (1) Subject to such rules as the Governor may make, any census officer of any area,
delivered to may, if so required by the Commissioner deliver or cause to be delivered to—
and filled up
by persons in (a) the person in command or in charge of any agricultural labour, or fire-service corps
command or which is quartered in any barracks, station or premises, or of the staff and labourers
in charge of serving in any residential state farm, in that area ;
institutions. (b) the person in charge of any public or private hospital, sanatorium, convalescent or nursing
home, mental hospital, workhouse, or any public, charitable, religious or educational
institution, in that area ;
(o) the person in charge of any prison, police station, reformatory, lock-up, or other place
of detention in that area :
(d) the keeper, secretary or manager, or other person in charge of any hotel, boarding-house,
lodging-house, or club, or other similar residential establishment, in that area,

a schedule or schedules in the prescribed form and require him to enter therein the particulars
relating to the persons who at the time of the taking of the census are under his command
or charge, or are Inmates of such residential establishment.

(2) The person to whom the schedule or schedules is or are delivered under sub-section
(1) shall cause the schedule or schedules to be filled up with the particulars required by that sub-
section, to the best of his knowledge and belief, and shall sign his name thereto, and when so
required shall deliver the schedule or schedules so filled up and signed to the enumerator or super-
visor appointed for that area, or to such other person as the Commissioner for that area may direct.

E n u m e r a t i o n of 13. T h e Superintendent of Census shall obtain by such ways and means as shall appear to
naval, military, him best adapted for the purpose the information required by this Ordinance or by the rules made
or air forces, by the Governor with respect to—
and V03'agers,
travellers, &c. (o) any body of men belonging to H i s Majesty's naval, military or air forces or to any
vessel of war ; and,
(fc) all persons who during the time appointed for taking any census were travelling or on
shipboard, or for any other reason were not abiding in any house, of which account
is to be taken by the census officers as aforesaid,

Schedules and shall include such information in the abstract to be made by him as hereinafter provided.
to be 14. (1) It shall be the duty of every Commissioner to make or cause to be made a list of all
delivered to estates of the extent of twenty acres or. more in his district, upon which there are ten or more
superintendents resident labourers, with the approximate number of residents on each such estate and of the
of estates acreage under cultivation, and to cause to be delivered to the superintendent or person-in-charge,
and filled up being resident on such estate, schedules in the prescribed form to be filled up by such superinten-
by them. dent or person-in-charge with the particulars required in such schedules.
(2) E v e r y such superintendent or person-in-charge shall furnish the Commissioner with such
information as he may require for the preparation of the list mentioned in the preceding sub-
section, and shall sign and deliver to the person from whom he shall receive the schedules

264
mentioned in the said sub-section a receipt therefor to be provided for that purpose, and shall
fill up the said schedules to the best of his knowledge and belief as to all persons being on the
estate under his superintendence or charge at the time of the taking of census, and shall within
forty-eight hours from such time transmit suoli schedules to the Kaclicheri of the district or to
the nearest post office addressed to the Commissioner, together witli a, certificate signed by him
that the said schedules have been truly and faithfully filled up by him, and that to the best of
his knowledge £ind belief the same are correct.

14A. (1) It shall be the duty of every employer or person in charge of ten or more employees Duty of
who reside upon any mining property, or in any factory, workshop or other commercial or industrial employers
establishment, to make a declaration in the prescribed form to the Commissioner of the district of labour to
within which such mining property, factory, workshop or other commerical or industrial establish- make rotiirus.
ment is situated, stating that he has under his employ or in his charge upon such mining,
property, factory, workshop or other commercial or industrial establishment ten or more
resident e.mployees. Such declaration shall be made within fourteen days of the publication,
in the Government Gazette and in one or more newspapers, of a notice by the Commissioner
of the district or area calling for such declaration to be made.
(2) It shall be the duty of every Commissioner to deliver or cause to be delivered, to every person
making the declaration required by sub-section (1) a schedule or schedules in the prescribed form
to be tilled up by such person with the required particulars.
(3) Every person to whom any schedule Is delivered under sub-section (2) shall sign and return
to the person from whom he shall receive the schedule such receipt therefor as may be provided for
that purpose, and shall fill up the schedule or schedules, to the best of his knowledge and belief,
with the particulars relating to all persons who are on the mining property, factory, workshop,
or other commercial and industrial establishment under his charge at the time of the taking of
the census, and shall sign his name thereto, and when so required shall deliver the schedule or
schedules so filled up and signed to the enumerator or supervisor appointed for the local area within
which the mining property, factory, workshop or other commercial or industrial establishment is
situated, or to such other person as the Commissioner may direct.

15. E v e r y enumerator shall deli%'er to the supervisor all schedules and all such returns as m a y jijnumerator to
be required by the Superintendent of Census on a day to be appointed for the purpose by the deliver
Commissioner, and it shall be the duty of such supervisor to verify them and to transmit them schedules and
forthwith to tho Commissioner. returns to the
supervisor.
16. Tho Commissioner shall upon the receipt of such schedules and returns forthwith forward Commissioner
the same to the Superintendent of Census. to forward
them to
S uperintendent.
17. T h e Superintendent of Census shall, upon receipt of the schedules and returns, cause an Abstract to be
abstract to be made of the same and forward the said abstract to the Governor within such time made avid
as m a y be appointed by the Governor, and the same shall be printed and published for general forwarded to
information. the Governor,
and published.
I S . (1) Any Census officer or any other person employed by the Superintendent of Census or a Penalties.
Commissioner of Census for the purposes of any census under this Ordinance, who—
(a) without sufficient cause, refuses or neglects to comply with any instructions or directions
given to him by the Superintendent or Commissioner, or fails to use reasonable diligence
and care in performing any duty imposed on him ; or
(b) wilfully puts an offensive or improper question, or knowingly makes any false return; or
(c) asks, receives, or takes from any person other than an autliorised officer of Government
any payment or reward,
shall be guilty of an offence, and liable on conviction to imprisonment of either description for a
term not exceeding one month or to a fine not exceeding one hundred rupees, or to both.
(2) A n y person who—
(a) refuses to answer to the best of his knowledge and belief any question asked of him by
a census officer which he is legally bound so to answer, or wilfully makes a false
answer thereto ; or
(fc) makes, signs, delivers, or causes to be made, signed, or delivered any wilfully false or
incorrect schedule, statement, or return ; or
(c) refuses to allow a census officer such reasonable access to a land, house, enclosure,
vessel, or other place as he is required by this Ordinance to allow ; or
{(1) removes, obliterates, alters, or injures, before the expiry of four weeks from the time
of the taking of census letters, marks, or numbers Avhich have been painted, marked,
or affixed for the pirrposes of the census ; or
(e) refuses or neglects to comply with a n y provision of this Ordinance, or of a n y rule made
thereunder,
shall be guilt3' of an offence, and liable on conviction to iraprisoimient of either,description for
a term not exceeding one month or to a fine not exceeding one himdred rupees, or to both.

265
No prosecii- 19. No prosecution shall be instituted under this Ordinance except on the written authority
tion'without of the Attorney-General.
Attorney
General's
authority.
Record or entry in any book, register or record made by a census oifioer or by any other person
entry made discharge of his duty under this Ordinance shall be admissible as evidence in any civil or in
by Census criminal proceeding, save and except a prosecution, instituted under this Ordinance, in
Officer respect of such entry against the person who made, signed, or delivered the same, or caused the
•i lmissiblo same to be made, signed, or delivered, anything in any Ordinance contained to the contrary
in evidence notwithstanding.
only in a
prosecution
under this
Ordinance.

266
 3. Rules relating to the Population Census made under the Census Ordinance
T.HE C E N S U S O R D I N A N C E
i.. D.—B. 237/30
R U L E S made by the Governor under .section 4 of the Census Ordinance (Chapter 118).
B y H i s Excellency's command,
G. C. S. COREA,
Minister for Labour, Industry and Commerce.
Colombo, .July U t h , 194o.
Rules.
I.—Preliminary.

1. These rules may be cited as the Census Rules, 194,5.

2. In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires—
" Ordinance " means the Census Ordinance (Chapter I 18) ;
" Superintendent " means tho Superintendent of Census ;
" Comrnissloner " means a Commissioner of Census. *

II.—General.
1. The census of the population shall he taken on a date to be fixed b.y tlie Superintendent. Notice of such
flate shall be" given by the Superintendent by notification published in the Gazette at least fourteen days before that
date.
2. E v e r y person who is required to fill up a schedule shall, within such time as may be prescribed by tho
Superintendent, retm-n the schedule filled up as required and signed by him to tho enumerator or supervisor for that
area or to such other person as the Commissioner for that area m a y direct.
3. The verification of the particidars entered in the schedules shall be made in such mamier as the
Superintendent may determine, and as far as possible during such period as the Superiutendent m a y fix by notifica-
tion published in the Gazette.
I I I . — D u t i e s of Census Officers.
1. A n y power or duty conferred or imposed on the Superintendent by the Ordinance or any rule raadr
thereunder may, under the general or special diiection of the Superintendent, be exercised or performed by a Deputy
Superintendent of Census throughout the Island or by an Assistant Superintendent of Census within such areas at
are allotted to that Assistant Superintendent.
2. A n y power or duty conferred or imposed on a Commissioner by the Ordinance or any rule made thereunder
may be exercised or performed by an Assistant Corrunissioner of Census within the area for which he ia appointed,
under the general or special direction of the Commissioner of that area.
3. E v e r y supervisor shall attend for instructions or inspection on such dates and at such times and places
as the Superintendent, or the Commissioner of the area for which he is appointed supervisor, m a y direct.
4. E v e r y enumerator shall attend for instructions or inspection on such dates and at such times and places
as the Commissioner or the supervisor of the area for which he is appointed enumerator, or the Superintendent,
may direct.
5. No census officer or other person employed for the purpose of taking a n y census shall without lawful
authority publish or commimicate to any person, otherwise than in the ordinary course of such employment, any
information acquired by him for filling up a schedule or any particulars entered in a schedule.
6. No census officer or other person employed for the piu-pose of taking any census shall, while he has the
custody of any schedules, books or other documents relating to any census, permit any other person without lawful
authority to have access thereto.
7. E v e r y census officer or other person.employed for the purpose of taking any census shall, on employment
as such, make and subscribe the following oath or affirmation :—

that I will
solemnly, sincerely and truly affirm and declare
faithfully and honestly fulfil my duties as in conformity with the requirements of the Census
Ordinance (Chapter 118) and all rules made thereunder, and that I will not without due authority in that behalf
publish or communicate any information which I may obtain in the course of any employment as .

—. , 1945.

267
 I V . — I n f o r m a t i o n for the purposes of the Census.
1. The particulars regarding which information shall be obtained for the purpose of the census are tho
following :—name, sex, race, religion, literacy in mother tongue or other language, literacy in English, ability to
speak E n g l i s h , ability to speak Sinhalese, ability to speak T a m i l , conjugal condition, date of marriage, and, if previ-
ously married, date of first marriage, number of children, age at birth of first child, age last birthday, birth district
or town, principal occupation or means of subsistence of person, or of person on whom dependent, relationship to
head of household, number of rooms and material of roof and walls of dwelling, tenure of dwelling, whether owned or
rented, and, if owned, whether free or mortgaged, and if mortgaged, race of mortgagee, length of residence in Ceylon
of self and family, industry or business in which engaged or employed, whether employer, employee or working on
own account, salary or wage earnings, whether parent, or either parent, living, infirmities such as blindness, deafness,
deaf-mutism, and cripplehood.
2. A census officer may obtain the information necessary for the census by asking questions relating to the
particulars pre.scribed in rule 1 from all persons within his area regarding themselves or the persons constituting
their respective households, or by causing the particulars to be entered by such persons on prescribed forms.

v.—Schedules.
The schedule to be prepared by the Superintendent for the purpose of the census shall be made in the form
set out hereunder :—

STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL. C E N S U S O F C E Y L O N , 1946— OBVERSE.

D O NOT F O L D . GENERAL SCHEDULE S C H E D U L E No
I. Census No. of Building . .
I I . Name . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Sex : .
2. R a c e — I f Sinhalese, state whether K a n d y a n or Low-Country. If T a m i l or Moor, state whether Ceylon or
I n d i a n T a m i l , or Moor
3. Religion—if Christian, enter Denomination : .
4. Whether able to read and write mother tongue ; if not, what other language :-
5. Whether able to read and write English : .
6. Whether able to speak English : .
7. Uimaarried, Married, Widowed, or Divorced : .
8. Age last birthday : .
9. B i r t h district or town : .
10. Principal occupation or means of subsistence of earner : .
11. If not owner, means of subsistence of person on whom dependent:
12. District Letter and Circle Number : ..
13. Book No. : .
14. Serial number of person in book : .
15. Dwelling :—(1) No. of rooms, (2) material of roof, (3) material of walls ; .
16. Tenure :—(1) Is home owned or rented (2) If owned and mortgaged, race of mortgagee :-
17. (1) Relationship to head of household : .
(2) "Whether both parents, or either, living : .
18. (1) Date of marriage :~
(2) If previously married, date of first marriage : .
19. Number of children and age at birth of first child (live or dead)
20. L e n g t h of residence in Ceylon
(1) Self: . (2) F a m i l y : .
21. Whether able to speak Sinhalese and/or T a m i l :-
22. (1) Industry or business in which engaged or employed :
(2) Whether employer, employee, or working on own account :-
(3) If employee, salary or wages per month ; .

268
 4. Governor's Appeal
In the latter half of the month of February, 1946, about 35,000 Census Officers throughout the I s l a n d will
be busy collecting facts—facts pertaining to the people of Ceylon, their composition, their social and economic
condition, their agriculture, industries, and institutions. Again, on the night of Tuesday, March 19, 1946, between
the hours of 6 p.m. and midnight, Census Officers will be hard at work, visiting buildings for the purpose of a final
check of the information which they h a d previously collected.

T h e Census Officers will be discharging a duty of the utmost importance and value to the community. For
the facts that they collect will be the measure of the country's progress since the last Island-wide Census was taken
25 years ago. T h e y will also provide the essential data upon which the planned d 3 v e l o p m e n t of the country for the
next decade at least can be based. It is, therefore, clear that the Census Officers have a task to perform not only of
great importance but also of great responsibility.
I appeal to men and women of education and intelligence, and in particular to public servants, to assist in
this important social undertaking by notifying the Superintendent of Census, Colombo, or the respective Commis-
sioners of Census their willingness to serve as Census Officers in the areas in which they work or reside. T h e work
may involve some sacrifice of leisure, but I understand from the Minister of Labour, Industry and Commerce, whose
Executive Committee is responsible for the Census, that it is not intended that the sacrifice should go wholly un-
requited. Persons enrolling as Census Enumerators will receive a retaining fee of Rupees Five with further remune-
ration varying from Rupees Fifteen to Rupees Twenty-five computed according to the quantity of work performed.
T h e y will also be eligible for special bonuses and certificates of merit for good work done.

HENRY MOOKE.

269
 5. The Hon. Mr. G. C. S. Corea's Appeal
[Copy of Census Advertisement, 1946]

CENSUS OF CEYLON, 1946

On F e b r u a r y 18, 1946, the Census Enimierators throughout the Island will be visiting every building and
every agricultural fiolding for the purpose of collecting the particulars of information asked for in the various census
schedules. On every " institution ", (specially defined for census purposes), and on every large estate special sche-
dules will be served which it will be the legal duty of the person in charge of each " institution " or estate to fill
accurately and completely. In other cases enumerators will themselves collect and record the information required.
The Census of 1946 will be wider in scope than any previous census taken in Ceylon. It will be taken after
a lapse of almost exactly a quarter of a century since the last Island-wide Census. It will provide the foundation
on which all our social and economic information will depend. It will not only enumerate, but analyse the compo-
sition and condition of the people of Ceylon,—our primary asset—, against the background of historical develop-
ment a n d natural environment. It must, therefore, be a true and acciu-ate record of our national development
which can be used for the formvilation of policies for the fiu-ther progress of the nation. In order that this may be
so the intelligent co-operation of every individual in every section of the community is required.
I appeal for that co-operation. It can be given by all by answering all enquiries made on the census schedules
promptly, completely and accurately. It can be given by some by acti\'ely enrolling as census enumerators who
will be primarily responsible for the details collected on the census schedides. In the neighbouring sub-continent
of I n d i a with its population of 400 millions the work of the censiis is undertaken and performed by a multitude
of citizens in addition to their other duties and for the greater part impaid. Here in Ceylon it is not proposed that
they should be called upon to sacrifice their time, labour and energy without some measure of compensation. A
retaining fee of Rupees F i v e with further remuneration varying from Rupees Fifteen to Rupees Twenty-five according
to the volume of work involved will be paid to each enumerator who will also have the opportunity of securing
special bonuses and attractive certificates of merit for good work done.
T h e names and addresses of those who are willing to serve as enumerators should be sent to the Superintendent
of Census, Colombo, or to the local Commissioners of Census (the Government .Agents, the Assistant Government
.A.gents, the Municipal Commissioners of Colombo and K a n d y , the Deputy i l a y o r of Galle and Chairmen of Urban
Councils) before the 15th of December, 1945.
G. C. S. COEEA,
Minister for Labour, Industry and Commerce.

270
 APPENDIX 2

Memoranda and Connected Papers

1. Preliminary Memorandum of the Superintendent of Census to the E.xeciitive Committee of Labour, Industry
and Commerce.
-. " A Note on the Census, li)46 " circulated among Government Agents.
3. Letter from the Private Secretary to H . E . tlie Governor to the Secretary to the Ministry of Labour, Industry
and Commerce, enclosing copy of letter from Sir George Gater of the Colonial Office to H . E . the Governor.
4. Memorandum by . tlie Superintendent of Census to the Minister of Labour, Industry and Commerce dated
March 12, 1945.
r.. Correspondence—
(a) Letter from Superintendent of Census to the Secretary to the Ministry of Labour, Industry and Commerce.
(b) Letter to H . E . the Governor from Sir George Gater forwarding the Colonial Office comments on the pro-
pos d plan of the Census.
G. Colonial Office comments on the Memorandum on the Census of Ceylon.

27!
 1. Preliminary Memorandum of the Superintendent of Census to tlie Executive Committee
of Labour, Industry and Commerce
As the Superintendent of Census appointed by the Governor under section 3 of the Census Ordinance
(Cap. 118) I have to request the E x e c u t i v e Committee of Labovir, Industry a n d Commerce, to whom the subject
' Census ' has been assigned under the Constitution, to give me general directions as regards (a) the scope of the
proposed Census, (b) the financial limitations within which it may be undertaken, and (c) the approximate date at
which it should be completed.
In regard to (a) the scope of the Census, I gather from the files on the sxibject that the B o a r d of Ministers have
approved the taking of " a full census ". T h i s expression may mean either a full demographic census conducted
on the lines of the census of 1921 as distinct from the partial census conducted by Mr. Turner in 1931 who collected
detailed information in respect of the population of Colombo only, contenting himself with a mere count of the
population in the rest of the I s l a n d , or a full census, as in the United States and Canada, recording such detailed
information as will exhibit a full view of the population, pursuits, industay, education and resources of the country.
T h a t what is now contemplated is something akin to the latter seems to he indicated by references in the files to an
" agricultural and industrial census " to be taken in addition to a " Population Census ". T h e Minister for Labour,
I n d u s t r y and Commerce, for instance, in submitting a Supplementary Estimate in J u l y 1944 to the State Council
for financial provision which has now lajDsed observed that " the work of post-war reconstruction would bring
a great demand for accurate figures ", and indicated the need for a full census including a population census, and
an agricultin-al and industrial census." I note also that a Census Committee appointed by the Executive Committee
of L a b o u r , I n d u s t r y and Commerce with the Registrar-General as Chairman, reported in 1938 that a co-ordmated
census be taken comprising a census of population, an agricultural and fisheries census, an etlmological survey,
and an economic survey. It is, of course, essential that I should be quite clear in my mind as to the precise character
of the investigation which Government intends I should undertake before I could make any detailed preparations
for the requisite organization to fulfil my allotted task, and this memorandum is being submitted with a view to
the necessary clarification. T h e scope of a census is normally related to the administrative purposes for which the
information is collected, although there is the other view, as Turner indicated, that " all possible details should be
collected in the expectation that someone will find them useful in some connexion.'' Implementation of the latter
view will naturally involve prohibitive costs which no Goverimient, perhaps will be justified in incurring. T h e
sound position to take up would be the collection of only such details of information as would furnish fxmdamental
data for the formulation of a programme of national development. It is clear that the censuses hitherto conducted
under the 1900 Census Ordinance,— the census of 1901 (Armiachalam), of 1911 (Denham), and of 1921 (Turner),
whilst giving a general picture of the population of the country, did not contain enough statistical data to form the
basic for, say, the agricultural or industrial development of the eovmtry. T h e y were all taken on a single general
schedule, more or less standardized, which whilst recording information on subjects such as age, sex, civil condition,
religion, race, birthplace, occupation and literacy, gave little or no information regarding, say, the acreage of land
possessed in a village or worked on lease by a family, or the number of persons engaged in cultivation, or the acreage
under different crops, or the seasonal yields, or the number of cattle and livestock, or, again, say, the size and
structure of the family, or its income standard or the hours of work in different employments, or the periods of
unemployment, or the number of dependants, and so on.
If accurate information on these and similar points is desired with the object of utilizing such information
in the preparation of various schemes of national development, the mass of statistical data to be collected will involve
a recording on more than one schedule. In Canada, for instance, it is understood that no less than eleven schedules
were employed. Since Ceylon has not had even a purely demographic survey for nearly a quarter of a centurj', the
advantage of even such a census at this jimcture will be considerable, but if the policy of Government is stated to
be a complete survey, not only of the population and their ethnological aspects, their pursuits and education,
but also of the agricultural, industrial, and general economic conditions of the covmtry, the gain will be something
immense. There is, however, the danger of delay in the publication of the results of such a survey, handling,
as it will, a voluminous and complicated mass of information. I, therefore, propose, in the event of a complete
survey being declared to be the policy of Government, to publish the results of the demographic census in the first
instance, having regard also to the immediate objective, perfectly legitimate in a country enjoying universal
franchise, of a re-apportionment of seats in the legislatui-e. T h e information in regard to the economic conditions
of the country, which will be collected on subsidiary schedules, will be published later as soon as practicable. T h e
question which I submit at the moment for the decision of the Executive Committee is whether the proposed census
is to be purely a demographic or population census, or whether it is to be a co-ordinated and complete survey of the
population of the I s l a n d , and the economic conditions in which they live and follow their pursuits.
An important factor in determining the scope of the census will be the financial considerations involved in
the undertaking. Hence, the request for a general direction as to (6) the financial limit within which the cost of taking
the census must be kept. In presenting his Supplementary Estimate for " preliminary work for the proposed
Census " in the financial year 1943-44 with the concurrence of the Financial Secretary and the approval of the Board
of Ministers, the Minister for Labour, Industry and Commerce estimated that " the cost of a full census including
a population census, and an agricultural and industrial census, will be approximately R s . 1,000,000." This
figure does not purport to be anything more than a very rough estimate based on certain particulars furnished by
the Director of Statistics. T h e cost of the population census hitherto taken in Ceylon has been 7 • 1 cents per head
in 1921, 4 72 cents per head in 1911, and 4-36 cents per head in 1901. In view of the high cost of labour, paper
and printing, imder existing conditions, it will not be an exaggerated estimate if the cost per head of a population

272
census alone is regarded as likely to be thrice as much as the 1921 rate. T h e population of Ceylon in 1943 is esti-
mated by the Registrar-General as being 6,124,000 and the cost of a population census only m a y thus be assessed
at R s . 1,305,542, or 21 • 3 cents per head. If the seop& of the proposed census ia to be oompr^hensiv* enough to ineludo
agricultural, industrial and other economic statistics, the cost will naturally exceed this amount. Co-ordination
and synchronization, and the application of electrical machinery for the purposes of sorting and tabulating, will
no doubt result in a substantial reduction of costs, but even so an upper limit of R s . 2 million may not be unreasonably
high. In any case, the financial provision made in the 1944-45 Budget of R s . 448,000 (inclusive of R s . 150,000
provided under H e a d 39, Government Press, for overtime, labour, paper and plant and material) must be considered
hopelessly inadequate even for a purely population census, unless, of course, it was intended that supplementary
provision should be asked for from time to time as the work progressed. As the maximum of accuracy possible at a
census is the desideratum to be aimed at, I propose to employ as far as possible the agency of officials, specially trained
for the purpose to check up and verify the correctness of returns made by the householders, and it is submitted
that the expenditure incurred in this respect will be amply justified by the greater value of the results obtained.
F i n a l l y , a direction is required as to the approximate date at which it is desired that the census should be taken.
F r o m the files it is observed that Government at one stage contemplated that the census should be taken as early
as A p r i l 1945, and that the Director of Statistics reported in J u l y this year that he considered it " very unlikely
that it would be possible to take the possible census so early as that." I n connection with the census of 1921 IVIr.
Turner expressed the view that no less than eighteen months' preparation was needed before a census of that character
could be taken. As my appointment has been with effect from December 1, 1944, preparations on Mr. Turner's
time estimate can only be completed satisfactorily at the end of Blay, 1946. The final enimieration will then be made
in June, 1946. Since, however, other handicaps, not present in Mr. Turner's day, exist today, e.g., lack of office
accommodation in Colombo, the only town in Ceylon where facilities exist for the large staff necessary to be assembled
and for the installation of electrical machinery, it will require much expenditure of energy and labour to have the
census completed within this time-schedule. I recognize the importance and value of filling the statistical void
as soon as possible but it is useless to sacrifice accru-acy to mere speed, and the eaj-liest date at wliich the final
enumeration can possibly be taken must be set down as a date in March 1946—almost exactly 25 years after the
census of 1921 was taken.

December 7, 1945. (Sgd.) A. G. R A N A S I N H A .

273
 :S. A Note on the Census, ld46
(Circulated among Oovernment Agents)
It is,, perhaps, unnecessary to indicate to an experienced body of administrators such as Government Agents
the very great importance of the Census which it has been decided to hold in 1946. F o r well-nigh a quarter of a
century there has not been held in this country a full Census, the decennial Census iiiI931 being shorn of any value
by the severe curtailment imposed on it by the necessity of economy, andthe arrangements for a census in 1941 proving
abortive by reason of the decision taken on various grounds to abandon it. The absence of any reliable statistical
data is thus a circumstance which has caused considerable inconvenience to all branches of governmental activity
and has impeded the formulation of any ordered programme of national development. It is hoped to have this
gap in our statistical information filled as completely as is practicable by the Census in 1946, and with this end in
view directions have been issued to the Superintendent of Census to arrange for the collection of as wide a range of
information as is feasible. T h e next Census will therefore contain many new features as it will not only record
facts about the individuals constituting the population but will also take in within its scheme particulars regarding
agriculture, livestock, livestock production, major and cottage industries, a n d perhaps, merchandising and service
establishments ; in fact, every thing that will give us an accurate and comprehensive picture of the social and economic
conditions under which the people of Ceylon hve.
It is clear that, in order to achieve our object, efficient machinery must be set in motion. It has been usual,—
in fact, the law provides—for the well-established administrative system of the country, the Headmen System, to
be employed largely in the work of the Census. T h e additional features which the forthcoming Census will carry
will place a very heavy strain upon the machinery of the Headmen System, already heavily loaded as it is with
many war-time duties, but no adequate or satisfactory substitute can be found for it, and as the work is both urgent
and important there is no help for it but to impose on the system the additional load. One of the most important
duties of this Conference will be to agree upon ways and means of adjusting this load so that there will be no risk
of a breakdown and so that the entire machinery will operate smoothly vmtil the finished product is produced.
It is understood that the Headmen are already employed in the compilation of list of villages and estates.
It will be necessary for them also to make a record of all agricultural holdings and commercial and industrial establish-
ments within their respective areas. These latter lists can, perhaps, be compiled simultaneously with the preparation
of the list of buildings which, in any case, would have been necessary for the purposes of even a mere population
census. T h e object of these lists is to enable the satisfactory division of the whole country into census blocks which
c a n be placed in charge of enumerators who will be expected to visit every building and holding in accordance with
instructions. A certain amount of information is already available in regard to the major agricultural products of tea
and rubber, and in regard to paddy in connexion with the Internal Purchase Scheme, and it will be interesting to
compare the figures obtained at the Census with the quantitative information now available. B u t the value of the
agricultural Census will primarily be in regard to the information gathered in connexion with other agricultural and
cognate products not under governmental control at the moment, and an endeavour should be made to obtain as
accurate information as possible in regard to such products. Similarly, the greatest possible accuracy should be
aimed at in the collection of statistics connected with industries. To ensure accuracy, it is all important that enu-
merators should be of a high standard of intelligence and responsibility, and their selection should be made with care.
T h e Superintendent of Census will consult this conference on the particulars of information to be collected on
the various schedules. It is obvious that the wide range of information which it is expected to traverse cannot
possibly be wholly included in one printed form, and more than one schedule will thus become necessary. E v e n so,
not all the information that one would wish to see collected can practically be included, and a selection process is
inevitable. It is therefore essential that a sound judgment ripened by mature administrative experience be brought
to bear on the choice, if information most worth collecting from the viewpoint of successful administration is not to be
inadvertently excluded.
There will also be details to be discussed and settled, such as the amount of remuneration deemed adequate
for the Headmen, the allowances to enumerators and their supervisors, the adequacy or otherwise of Headquarters
Staff at Kachoheries, the supply of stationery, and, perhaps, various other matters which have been overlooked here
but which members at the Conference may possibly bring forward.
Census-taking is a stupendous undertaking the measure of the success of which depends on the quality of the
team work. One m a y confidently expect that, with the large issues involved, co-operation will be excellent.

274
 3. Letter from the Private Secretary to H. E. the 6overnor to the Secretary to the
Ministry of Labour, Industry and Commerce, enclosing copy of letter from Sir George
Gater of the Colonial Office to H. E. the Governor
No. M. 1/45/44
Governor's Office,
Colombo, 3rd March, 1945.
Dear Coomaraswamy,
I write in continuation of my letter of the 19th December, 1944, on the subject of Censuses and I enclose a
copy of a letter from Sir George Gater to H i s Excellency in reply to H i s Excellency's letter. H i s Excellency presumes
that your Minister will welcome the suggestion in the last paragraph t h a t the assistance of so eminent an authority
as Mr. K u c z y n s k i should be invoked. Will you please let me have a draft of the reply which the Minister thinks
should be sent, in due course.
Y o u r s sincerely,
{iSgd.) D O B B S .

S. Cen.
R . Coomaraswamy, E s q u i r e . E o r report please.

(Sgd.) R . C O O M A B A S W A M Y
S / L I.e.
7-2-45.

Colonial Office,
Downing Street, S . W . I
23rd F e b r u a r y , 1945.
My dear Moore,
T h a n k you for your letter of 5th J a n u a r y , 1945, on the subject of holding a census.
I am most interested to hear of the plan to carry out a Population Census this year, and of the proposals to
take an Agricultural and Industrial Census at the same time.
We will look forward to getting further details in due course, a n d we will have them examined if you wish,
by Mr. K u c z y n s k i , who advises on demographic matters at the Colonial Office, as I think he may be able to give some
help and some valuable advice.
Yours sincerely,
ISgd.) Q. H. GATER.
SIB HENBY MOOBE, G.C.M.G.

275
 4. Memorandum by the Superintendent of Census to the Minister of Labour, Industry
and Commerce, dated March 12,1945

Minister of L a b o u r , I n d u s t r y & Commerce,

" One of the last things to be desired in a census is uncertainty; yet that pursued us to the end ", wrote
Mr. Y e a t t s , the Commissioner of Census in I n d i a for 1941. A late decision to hold a census and uncertainty as to the
degree of tabulation enabled only a full tabulation in certain areas and the extraction of a random sample which
could not, however, be applied to all areas " owing " it was said, " to the limitation of the census effort." It is
understood that a special Committee has recently been appointed—four years after the enumeration—to consider
what further information, supplementary to that contained in the 1943 Report, can be obtained from the census
figures.
It is advisable to avoid similar uncertainty in connexion with the forthcoming census in this coimtry, and the
object of the memorandum is to sketch in outline a plan and a programme which, if approved by your E x e c u t i v e
Committee should be adhered to in its essential features, subject to such modifications in details as experience or
expediency m a y indicate.
As you are aware from the monthly reports submitted to you, a good deal of progress has been made in the
preparatory work, relative both to the organization of the Census Office which had perforce to be created de novo,
and to the arrangements for actual business of census-taking. B u t we have not been without our " uncertainties ".
On my assumption of duties on December 1, 1944, I had no office accommodation provided for me and I am still
" uncertain " as to when an office in Colombo will be made available. Fortunately for me and for the work entrusted
to me, a gentleman connected with a family with a traditional high sense of civic duty placed at my disposal at my
request a bungalow in Negombo although I am aware he had numerous other applicants clamouring for it. T h i s
enabled me to commence work almost at once. B u t I am still " imcertaiu " as to the quality or the permanence
of the personnel of my staff, as to the salaries to be assigned to some of the approved posts in the cadre of my
Department, as to office equipment, as to the paper supply, without which essential commodity any preparations
for a census must inevitably prove abortive, as to the availability of the requisite field staff, and as to irmumerable
other matters of detail which are incidental to my task. It is on the assumption and in the faith that all these
" uncertainties " will in due time be resolved that I have decided to prepare this plan for submission to you at
this stage.
F e w persons other than those who have made a study of the technique of census-taking or have actually
been engaged in its operation are aware of the magnitude of the task, and I therefore make no apology for summarising
its main features.
T h e work involved may be classified imder two principal heads:—
(1) the collection of the information,
(2) the compilation and tabulation of the census reports.

T h e information to be collected at a census is, of course, much more detailed than a mere count of the popula-
tion, and is far wider than, say, an enumeration for rationing purposes. A census in a civilized commmiity today
is a broad socioligical enquiry, a periodical stock-taking, so to speak, of the people, their composition and condition,
designed to show from the widest possible angle the stage that has been reached in the evolution of the national
life. Over a n d above information as regards actual numbers, facts such as local distribution, age, sex, conjugal
condition, race, language, religion, education, occupation, infirmities, housing conditions, etc., are usually ascertained
and analyzed in conjunction with one another and against the background of history and environment. As has
been well said, " the data on these various points form a standard by which almost all other facts relating to the
country must be measured if they are to have real significance ; the well-being of the State, physical, moral and
economic, including such important phases as the birth and death rates, criminality, production, trade, wealth,
can be apprehended and interpreted only through the medium of population statistics. Thus the census rounds
out a n d completes the scheme of information by which the Government as by a chart directs the affairs of a nation.
Without the census, it would be true to say that legislation and administration must be carried on in the dark that
there would be no means of knowing whether the country was on the road to success or disaster, or what constitutes
the norm or standard of its progress in almost any particular ".
Mr. Turner who carried out the last full census in Ceylon in 1921, remarked in a memorandum that, perhaps,
the ideal is to collect all manner of information in the hope that someone m a y sometime find some particular item
of information collected useful for his special purpose. He conceded, however, that no Government can afford the
expenditure involved in the practical realization of this ideal.
It is, indeed, obvious that teleological selection is inevitable in the drawing up of the schedules on which the
particulars of information are to be collected, as the limitations imposed by consideration of economy are not lightly
to be disregarded. International convention b o m of statistical experience has yet, as it were, a PlimsoU's mark
indicative of the quantity of freight that census schedules may safely carry, and, though the science of census-taking
is still far from being perfect, the grave danger of overloading census schedules beyond a given point is now receiving
universal recognition.

276
 A circular addressed by me to the Heads of Departments as to the information which, from their respective
viewpoints, should be collected on the census schedules has elicited such a variety of replies that, were all the desired
particulars of information to be included, we should undoubtedly be submerged below our safety line, and I have
therefore, been compelled to adopt a process of selection even from among the items suggested as important and
useful.
As I informed the Government Agents at their recent conference, I propose in the interests of economy to
utilise the large quantity of unused forms of population schedules printed for 1931 which have been retrieved from
the Registrar-General's Office, in varying degrees of deterioration it is true, but still mainly serviceable. These
schedules provide for ascertaining in respect of each individual the name, sex, race, religion, literacy in mother tongue
and in E n g l i s h , conjugal condition, age, birthplace, occupation and means of subsistence. In order to avoid the
copying out of the schedules into slips for hand sorting purposes, Mr. Turner had adopted the device of having the
the original schedules entered in vertical columns instead of horizontally, so that the colimms themselves should
form suitable slips when torn along the perforations by which they were held together. This method (anticipatory
in a sense of the I n d i a n Commissioner Mr. Yeats' 1941 device of recording the information on ' p a d s ' instead of
' schedules ') has its advantages and disadvantages, not the least of the latter being the special precautions necessary
for ensuring their safety. Since, however, I have decided to utilize these schedules, the limitations imposed by them
in respect of form and space have to be accepted, and, the only feasible method of getting additional particulars will
be to print on the reverse of the schedules the necessary cages for the purpose. Space is available for the inclusion
of just eleven items, and no more, and from the variety of suggestions it will be necessary to pick out these on
considerations of policy and utility.
I submit for your decision the question of what additional particulars, if any, are to be included in the
population schedule, and I suggest that the selection be made out of the following list :—

( I ) ' Description of home :

(i) whether tiled, thatched, or other roof ;
(ii) material of outer walls,—stone, brick, mud, cadjan, palmyrah, or other materials ;
(iii) number of rooms.

( I I ) Tenure of home :
(i) whether owned or rented ;
(ii) if owned, whether free or mortgaged ;
(iii) if mortgaged, race of mortgagee.

( I I I ) Personal description :
(i) relationship to head of household ;
(ii) date of existing marriage ;
(iii) number of children (living and dead) :—
(0) from existing marriage,
(6) from previous marriages (if any).
(iv) age at birth of first child (to be asked of married females only)
(v) caste.
( I V ) Birthplace and Domicile—
(1) if born outside Ceylon, length of residence in Ceylon ;
(ii) if b o m outside Ceylon, whether person has brought family to Ceylon.
(V) Language—
(i) whether able to speak Sinhalese ;
(ii) whether able to speak T a m i l .
( V I ) Education—whether attending school or university.
( V I I ) Occupation and Industry—
(i) Industry or business in which engaged or employed ;
(ii) Grade : whether employer, employee, or working on own account.
It will be observed that the list contains 18 separate items of information, and I recommend that on a first
choice the items of Personal Description at I I I (ii), (iii) and (iv) be included. Similar questions were included for
the first time in the census schedules for the I n d i a n Census of 1941, and there is no question that the information
obtained will be most useful for tabulation in conjunction with sizes of families and investigating the important
subject of fertihty. I also recommend the inclusion of the particulars at IV (i) and (ii) above : these questions were
asked at the last B i m n a census a n d have a similar significance—indeed, questions on the length of residence appear
on the census schedules of most countries.
I make no special recommendations regarding the choice, out of the remaining thirteen, of the six other matters
tiiat could be included, but will comment briefly on the objectives aimed at by them :—
I. (i), (ii) and (iii), and I I . (i), (ii), and (iii)—all these particulars would be of great importaace, both
from the economic, social and hygienic point of view, as throwing light on the subject of the housing of the
people. I I I . (i) is not ordinarily tabulated, but the information is of value for checking purposes and throws
some light on occupation and dependency.
I I I . (v) ' caste ', was the subject of a full discussion at the Government Agents' conference at which
there was general agreement that it was desirable to include it, provided Government approved of this policy,

277
 I t s inclusion certainly was not suggested in order merely to satisfy narrow sectionalism. Caste distinctions
receive no official recognition in Ceylon. In a recent judginent of the Supreme Court, Howard C. J. was of
opinion that the words " Goigama community " in a L a s t W i l l introduced uncertainty, and asked " i f it means
merely of Goigama descent, what degree of purity, if community is a synonymous term for caste, is required ? "
Caste in Ceylon has never been anything so rigid as it is stated to be in I n d i a , but even in the latter country,
according to D r . B. K. Sarkar, the eminent sociologist, " in physicial blood as well as in social manners, the
contents of each caste disappeared or got modified and underwent perpetual transformation. B u t the caste
as a covering title retained its formal identity during all these changes in substance ". It is, indeed, true that
in I n d i a ' caste ' has always appeared on the census schedules, but in 1941 the authorities permitted the public
to ignore this column, and dropped caste-sorting on an all-Indian basis. It would, therefore, appear that its
inclusion in the Ceylon schedule at this stage might be regarded by some as a retrograde step seeking to revive
and perpetuate a distinction which it is in the general interests of the entire community to ignore. B u t an
avowed purpose of the forthcoming census is the utilization of the data collected by it for the provision of
faciUties for the social and economic amelioration of all sections of the community, and information as regards
the numbers, the distribution, and the economic condition of the several castes which indubitably exist, though
difficult of analysis of blood-content and officially ignored, may be considered by some to be of sufficient
importance to justify the inclusion of this item in the schedule. Once these facts are ascertained on which at
present there is a dearth of reliable information, it may not be a matter of equal urgency or importance to have
the item repeated at future censuses, and indeed it is my personal view that in a country like Ceylon where
intercourse between castes in many spheres of social and economic activity is free and unrestricted, where there
is little or no occupational rigidity determined by the question of caste, where the sense of a common origin of a
given caste is nebulous and hazy and seldom operates as a binding tie in the everyday affairs of society, an
insistence in census schedules on a declaration of caste is vmnecessary and should be avoided.

V. (i) and (ii) are designed to ascertain the extent to which the two major languages in the Island are
spoken by its inhabitants.
T h e object of VI is the obvious one of recording the total number of persona receiving education at the
date of the census.
V I I . (i) is supplementary to the occupation question, the purpose of the two being to bring out, on
the one hand, the specific occupation or work performed, if any, by each person enumerated, and, on the other,
the character of the industry or place in which such work is performed.
V I I . (ii) is a further important explicatory question on the subject of occupation relating to the grade
or class of worker and the whole of this section is designed to give us interesting indication of the magnitude
of the various branches of industry in the country and to form the basis for the investigation and establishment
of schemes for social insurance.
It will thus be appreciated that no question is being asked for the gratification of mere curiosity and that all
the questions that have been suggested for inclusion have a specific purpose in view, and have received mature
consideration from all possible viewpoints before the proposal for inclusion is made.
I have omitted from the population schedule any questions regarding infirmity, the importance of recording
accurate particulars in respect of which justifies the use of a supplementary schedule, which will contain cages for
the recording of the infirmity from which the person suffers and the cause of it. Experience has shown that the
only infirmities particulars of which could be recorded at a census with reasonable accuracy are blindness, deafness,
deaf-mutism, or a combination of these. There is an obvious difficulty in securing accurate information on such
points as feeble-mindedness, idiocy &c., though inmates of mental hospitals are, of course, enumerated. Recent
interest in social security measures would seem to point to the desirability of collecting statistics regarding cripples
and I am, therefore, including in the infirmity schedule provision for recording particulars as regards the wholly
crippled and the cause of crippling.
Beyond this, it is not proposed to go in connexion with the population census. E v e n as it is, doubts, as you
are aware, were expressed at the Government Agents' Conference as to whether the increased items on which inform-
ation will be sought will not place on the enumerators an almost impossible task which they may not be able to dis-
charge in the short space of time available to them on the night of the census. B u t this misgiving was, perhaps,
due to a misapprehension,—since the enumerators on the final census date would be only checking up entries recorded
at greater leisure some weeks earlier at a preliminary census (of a de jure character, in technical census parlance),
and would not need to record all the entries at high pressure in the short time at their disposal on the census night.
T h a t 22 items are not an unduly large number would be apparent on a consideration of the number of questions
asked on the population schedules in other countries and even at previous censuses in Ceylon. An identical number
of questions (22) was asked at the Indian Census of 1941. In the 1931 Canada Census the population schedule
contained as many as 40 questions. E v e n in Ceylon in 1911 and 1921 there were 15 questions asked, and it would
seem that it was only diffidence as regards the quality of the enumerators that prevented an increase in 1921 in the
list of items. T h e rise in the general standard of education since 1921 would justify the shedding of this diffidence
today.
Disclosure of entries in census schedules is already prohibited by the main Ordinance, but in order that the
public m a y be assured of absolute secrecy, I recommend that under the statutory regulations every employee of the
census whether in the.field or at the head office should be bound by oath against divulging any information contained
in any individual census schedule.
It is, perhaps, little realized that the detailed instructions governing each item on the census schedules which
have to be drawn up and issued to enumerators have also the force of statutory regulations. As an instance of the
detailed nature of these instructions, those relative to literacy may be cited. T h e ability to read and write a short
letter is the test that enumerators are usually instructed to apply and tliey are warned not to assign as ' literate '

278
persons who can merely sign their names. It should be clear from this single instance that the instructions have to
be drafted with much care and precision. Thereafter, they will be sent to the L e g a l Draftsman for revision, and in
due course will be forwarded to you for submission to the Governor. B u t the drawing up of such detailfidinstructions
must, of course, await your decision as to the particulars of information to be collected on the census schedules.
I have dealt above mainly with the population schedule, but as it is intended that the plan should include a
census of agriculture and industries and an ethnological survey I shall proceed to discuss how I contemplate that
these should be integrated within the demographic census. The census of agriculture, it is proposed, should be taken
on four schedules—dealing respectively with estates (including State F a r m s and Agricultural Stations), paddy lands,
chenas and small holdings (including village gardens) respectively.
It will be recalled that at the discussion at the Government Agents' Conference the impracticability of applying
one general schedule to all agricultural holdings was stressed. There can be little doubt that a census schedule
must not be as elaborate as a questionnaire designed for an intensive survey of selected areas and must be so framed
as to elicit only certain fundamental but accurate information. In an agricultural country like Ceylon where there
exist varying standards of cultivation ranging from the primitive to the high-class modem, the adoption of a uniform
schedule is likely to be disastrous. Accordingly the standard form recommended by the International Institute
of Agriculture will be applied, as adapted to Ceylon conditions, only to estates,—the other three schedules being
of a more simplified character. D r a f t s of the forms proposed for the Census of Agriculture are annexed.*
It will be observed that F o r m Ag. Census 1 is a list of Agricultural Holdings, to be filled in by the Headmen,
giving a general description of the nature of the holdings, whether ' E s t a t e ' ' paddy land ', ' Chena ', or ' small
holding '. F o r m Ag. Census 2 is a register to be kept at the Head Office. F o r m Ag. Census 3 is the Estates Schedule.
Particulars are asked as regards the estate proprietor, the resident manager or superintendentor person in charge, the
labour on the estate, its acreage and condition, whether encumbered or not, expense of working it, facilities, crops,
livestock, and livestock production. F o r m Ag. Census 4 is the schedule applicable to paddy lands and asks questions
as to tenure, area, seasons of cultivation, irrigation facilities, and yield eacli season for the year preceding the census
year. F o r m Ag. Census 5 records the crop under cultivation of chena products at the date of the census and the
year when the same chena was last cultivated. F o r m Ag. Census 6 which is applicable to small holdings (including
village gardens), notes the area under cultivation of vegetables, &c., and enumerates the number of the various trees,
classifying them as ' bearing ' and ' not bearing ' and also the number of cattle a n d other livestock usually kept
in these holdings. Supplementary to these agricultural schedules is F o r m Ag. Census 7 which is a special schedule
that will be issued to town enumerators for the record of livestock within towns, together with their prodvicts, and
the products of' market gardens ' town orchards ', &c. It is intended to have these agricultural schedules filled
up about the same time as the preliminary census of population, that is, about February 1946. T h e material thus
obtained will form the basis for a more intensive survey of selected agricultural areas.
I do not propose to ran the Industrial Census pari passu with the censuses of population and agriculture, as
I am of opinion that the enumerators should not be burdened with, and cannot reasonably be e.vpected to discharge
adequately, any more duties than are allotted to them in cormexion with the population and agricultural censuses.
T h e modus operandi in respect of the census of industrial and commercial establishments will be to extract from
the lists of buildings prepared by T o w n Officers and Headmen those that answer to such description. These extracts
will then be checked by reference to existing official records and card indexed according to a classification scheme
prepared in advance. Thereafter, a schedule in the draft F o r m I n d . Cen. 1 will be served on the chief person operating
such establishment and will be collected by a special census officer in the month following the month in which the
censuses of population and agriculture are taken.
Similar action subsequent to the population and agricultural censuses is contemplated in respect of medical,
penal and charitable institutions. A l l inmates of these institutions would have been enumerated on the population
schedules. These returns would, after entry in the Census of Population, be made the basis of a further enquiry.
Special forms will be served to ascertain (1) the movement of population in respect of each institution, during 1945
—admissions, re-admissions, transfers, discharges ; (2) the strength of the administration staff; and (3) the value
of land, buildings, equipment, &c. In respect of mental instuutions a supplementary schedule for each inmate will
be served to ascertain mental status, social habits, physical habits, antecedents, &c. Drafts of these forms are
annexed.*
T h u s far, this memorandum has dealt in more or less detail with the range of the questions, which will be asked
at the Census of 1946. It is now necessary to consider the organization by means of which the data will be collected.
There must be, firstly, a division of the whole Island into " Census Blocks " to be assigned to the enumerators,—•
the village is the natural census unit and will form by itself a separate " Census Block ", but it is possible that some
villages can be combined with others so that one enumerator can be placed in charge of all of them. T h e size of a
Block m a y be about 60 buildings or a population of 300 in rural areas or of 600 in urban areas but, of course, no
hard and fast rule can be laid down.
T h e delimitation of " Blocks " must be left to the discretion of District Commissioners of Census who will
have regard to local conditions, distances between buildings, the nature of the country, and other considerations.
In deciding whether more than one " Block " should be assigned to a single enumerator or not, the District Commis-
sioner will have regard to the necessity of providing that each enumerator is allotted a sufficient quantity of work.
T h e selection and appointment of the enumerators must be left primarily in the hands of the District Commis-
sioners. It is, of course, important that only persons of intelligence and probity who are thoroughly famiUar with
the topography of the " Block " should be chosen. T h e work of the Census enumerator must not be regarded as
one which con be adequately performed by any and everyone. It is a highly responsible task, far removed from
routine, and calls for a conscientious realization of the importance of the work and of the difficulties which mistakes
will involve. The enumerator is, moreover, the " cutting edge " of the wholeCensus organization, the direct point of
contact with the pubLc, primarily responsible for the details collected on the census schedules. T h e Village Heftdman

* These forms are not reproduced here.

279
has always been an enumerator, but, where there are more buildings than he can possibly enumerate, other
enumerators will be required, a n d these should preferably be selected from other local officials such as Government
school teachers, &c.
T h e proposed addition to the schedules of particular questions affecting married women and the desirability
of getting replies direct from them will necessitate the appointment of female enumerators who will at a date
subsequent to the enumeration at the Preliminary Census be called upon to visit the buildings where such persons
dwell for the express purpose of entering the relevant cages left blank by the general enumerator. T h e female
enumerators will also be aUotted the duty of entering up the supplemental infirmity schedule.
Besides the general enumerators, male and female, it will be advisable to have certain number (1) of
supernumerary general enumerators to take the place of any general enumerators who, from illness or other cause,
m a y be unable to attend to the work of enumeration ; and (2) of outdoor enumerators where circumstances render
it necessary that special arrangements should be made to enumerate travellers, pilgrims, vagrants. &c., on the night
of the census. En passant, it may be mentioned that in 1921 the census was taken at the height of the pilgrim season
to Sripadasthana (Adam's Peak) and as many as 17special outdoor enumerators were posted along theroutes. E v e n
so, the figures collected were reported to be " fictitious It would be advisable, in fixing the date of the census,
to avoid a period where heavy concentrations of " travellers " are likely.
Enumerators will be placed rmder the direction and supervision of officers to be called " supervisors " whose
jurisdiction w i l l be their respective " Circles ". T h e area covered by these " Circles " will be a continuous and
compact group of " Blocks " and m a y be composed of one or moreKorala's, V . A ' s or U d a y a r ' s Division, of a D . R . O ' s
division, of a town or part of a town, or of a W a r d or part of a W a r d as the peculiar circumstances of each district may
dictate. T h e class of officers who will act as supervisors will be, in rural areas, the D . R . O . or Superior Headmen or
Registrars of B i r t h s , Marriages and Deaths, or Headmasters of Government schools, and in urban areas. Staff officers
of the local authority concerned. In certain districts a D . R . O ' s division m a y be too large or too populous for him
to act as " Supervisor " single-handed. Where it is necessary to split up such a division into more than one
" circle " with more than one "Supervisor", the D . R . O . will be given the designation of " Assistant Commissioner "
to enable him to function as a census officer directing operations in his division. It m a y be recorded here that in
1931 the I s l a n d was divided into 475 Circles and 22,263 Blocks.
It is clear that this organization cannot be expected to function efficiently unless its personnel are carefully
trained. F o r this purpose, it is necessary that some time prior to the date of the census training classes should be held
for a l l officers who will be concerned with the census. Precise written instructions must be drawn up and explained,
points in doubt cleared up, and staff officers of my office must tour the I s l a n d to discuss the work with the District
Commissioners and their assistants and to satisfy themselves that the instructions are fully understood. An intensive
" drill " must be held when each enumerator will be required to make the proper entries on the various
census schedules for a hypothetical family and agricultural holding. Enumerators who make a large number of
mistakes will be rejected and others appointed in their place.
In I n d i a , a large number of enumerators offer their services gratuitously, accepting the principle that census
work is a public duty imposed in the interests of the community. It is to be hoped that it will be possible to find
in this country too many such volunteers; but, as the principle of payment has been accepted in the past, provision
wUl have to be made for such payment at rates which Commissioners may recommend in their discretion, according
to local conditions, distance travelled, amount of work done, &G. Such payment should be deemed to be more a
reimbursement of out-of-pocket expenses than actual salary,
Not the least important phase of the work is the apportioning and forwarding of the necessary schedules and
printed forms to the various Commissioners and the census officers working under them. This is work which may,
perhaps, be regarded as uninteresting, but its very detailed nature call for its performance with the very greatest
care if confusion and waste are to be avoided. No census programme can afford to ignore this item or leave it to be
done in a haphazard manner.
T h e programme must also not overlook the necessary measures for enlisting the interest of the public and
their co-operation in the work of the census. It has been said that the ultimate responsibility for the accuracy and
usefulness of a census lies on the average citizen who must be made to feel that it is not " a bore " but a real social
event, " something which we do wish to have done when we think about it, but which is not worth doing unless wo
co-operate intelligently in the doing of it," a matter of real interest and a social achievement of which we may
well be proud. T h e clergy, the press, the radio, and, perhaps, the cinema can all help to explain the purpose and
function of the census, and it m a y confidently be expected that the fullest possible measure of support will be
forthcoming from these valued agencies.
Such in broad outline will be, as I visualise it, the organization for collecting the data, but many and varied
as its aspects are, the organization required for assembling, analyzing and interpreting the data so collected presents
an even larger problem. A release of the provisional population figures received from the District Commissioners
can of course, be made without delay, but as a census is not a mere enumeration, it will be necessary for us to make up
our minds as to the analyses to be made of the items of the information collected, singly and in conjunction with one
another. B u t before such analyses are considered each entry on the Schedule will require to be examined for omis-
sions or errors in detail, and a reference back to the enumerator concerned, before the work of compilation and
tabulation can begin.
It would undoubtedly m a k e for speed and accuracy if electrically worked tabulating macliines are used,
and I have before me a description of a system which, it is claimed, was accepted in principle by the Malayan Govern-
ment just before the Japanese attacked that country. As at present advised, if the cost is not altogether prohibitive,
it is proposed to make use of electric tabulators, and contacts have been made w i t h a view to obtaining a complete
scheme with an estimate of the cost of operating it.
As " coding " or the application of descriptive numbers to the entries on the census Schedules will be necessary
before the cards are punched and verified and passed to the sorting and tabulating machines which will carry out

280
the classification and analyses of the data, it is obvious that a careful preliminary training of the staff to be employed
on it will be required.
T h e results of the tabulation processes will be transferred to a special staff who will construct from them
the tables which will be published in the printed Volumes. In 1921 the Census Publications in Ceylon r a n to four
Volumes—in fact, five as the first was published in two parts. T h e y comprised a general Census Report, T o w n and
Village Statistics, E s t a t e Statistics, and General Tables. T h e number of Tables included in the Volume of General
Tables was 27 (three for the Maldive Islands). It seems clear that with the greater volume of data proposed to be
collected at the forthcoming census a larger number of Tables will have to be prepared, and the results embodied in a
greater number of publications.
As far as it is possible to arrange in advance, the final report of the Census will be issued in ten volumes, the
first five dealing with population as in previous years. Volume VI with Agriculture, Volume V I I with Industries,
Volume V i n with Institutions, Volume IX with the Ethnological Survey, and Volume X incorporating a series of
.special studies and monographs on various subjects which will be issued from time to time as the work progresses.
T h e whole, it is contemplated, should be completed by about the middle of 1949.
I am confident that, given an enthusiastic and consicientious band of helpers determined to be of service
to the commimity, this plan is not incapable of satisfactory execution. As regards the special qualifications needed
in this band of workers, " the primary requisite," as D r . Longstaff put it, " is a logical mind and a sound logical
training ; the second (and not less important) is a good general knowledge of the subject to which the figures under
consideration relate ".
In conclusion, I would invite your attention to the time-schedule which is appended and which shows the
approximate dates at which the principal census operations will tako place. It will be observed that the final
enumeration has been fixed for the hours between 7 p.m. and 12 midnight on the night of Thursday, March 28, 1946.

Time Table
December, 1944 to A p r i l , 1945—Preparation and revision of lists of villages and tovras, and lists of estates.
M a y to September, 1945—Preparation of lists of buildings and agricultural holdings, and their numbering
for census purposes.
August, 1945—Training class for Census clerks.
September, 1945—Formation of Census Blocks and Circles.
Nomination of enumerators.
Oazette notifications to Mine and Factory owners and Commercial and Industrial Establish-
ments.
October, 1945—Estimating quantities of F o r m s and Schedules required for distribution to each Circle.
November, 1945 till February, 1946-—Training Glasses and " D r i l l " for enumerators.
J a n u a r y , 1946—Despatch of Preliminary Census Forms and Agricultural Estates Census Schedules.
Launching of Publicity Campaign.
F e b r u a r y 15 to 28, 194(3—Preliminary Census.
February, 1946—Despatch of final Census F o r m s
March 29, 1946—7 p.m.-12 midnight—Final Census.
March 29, 1946—Telegraphing Population Census figures.
March 30, 1946—Oazette notification of population Census figures by sex and district.
A p r i l , 1946—Census of Industries.
May, 1946—Follow-up action re Industries, Industrial Institutions.
A p r i l 10, 1946—Last date for return of Enumeration books—Census of Population and Agriculture.
A p r i l 12-15, 1946—Advertisement calling for report of persons omitted.
A p r i l 30, 1946—Gazette notification of Agricultural Census figures by District, Crop and Acreages.
1946-1949—Publication of Report and Tables.
(Sqd.) A. G. R A N A S I N H A ,
Negombo, March 12, 1945. , Superintendent of Census.

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 5. Correspondence
(a) Letter from the Superintendent of Census to the Secretary to the Ministry of Labour, Industry and Commerce

M y No. A B / F E
S/L.I.C.
I suggest that copy of my memorandum of 12-3-45 to the Minister together with the draft forms of schedules be
transmitted to Sir George Gater. Needless to say, we shall very gratefully welcome the criticism and suggestions
of Prof. K u c z y n s k i . He will be particularly interested to hear that for the first time we propose to include in the
Census Schedules in Ceylon questions affecting fertility, a subject on which he is so eminent an authority.

{Sgd.) A . G. R A N A S I N H A ,
S. Cen.
13 3
Negombo, 13-3-45.

(6) Letter to H. E. the Governor from Sir George Gater forwarding the Colonial Office Comments
on the proposed plan of the Census
Colonial Office,
Downing Street,
5th June, 1945.
My dear Moore,

Many thanks for your letter of the 1st of A p r i l on the subject of the proposed census of Ceylon.
T h e memorandiun prepared by the Superintendent of the Census has been seen by K u c z y n s k i and others in
the Colonial Office who have special knowledge of the subjects which it is proposed to cover in the census. I enclose
a note, prepared in the office, which sets out a number of suggestions which they have made.
As regards the proposals generally, K u c z y n s k i has expressed the view that, while the proposed population census
is ambitious, if compared with what is done in this country and in nearly all Colonial Territories, it is not more
ambitious than the censuses of I n d i a and of most of the Dominions. In his opinion, the memorandum, which it has
been a pleasure to study, makes it clear that the Superintendent of Census knows his business ; and the proposals
are, in general, so satisfactory that his suggestions are limited to a few technical aspects.
Y o u will see that the note attached contains some special comments regarding the proposed questions about
fertility.
Y o u r s v. sincerely,
{Sgd.) G . H . G A T E R
SIR H E N R Y MOOBE, G.C.M.G.

282
 6. Colonial Office Comments on the Memorandum on the Census of Ceylon
(a) Population Census—
1. T h e Programme is considered excellent and there is agreement with the '' first choice " recommendations
concerning additional particulars to be ascertained. If items I I I (iii) a n d IV (i) were not included it would be im-
possible, in a coimtry where no proper census has been taken since 1921, to analyse population increase and decrease
and to say whether such an increase or decrease occurred in the 1920's, the 1930's or the 1940's. I l l (i) is important
also because it indicates who is married to whom.
2. The answers to I I I (ii) will, it is supposed, be entered by the general enumerators, since they apply equally
to husband and wife, while I I I (iii) and (iv) will be ascertained by special female enumerators. Since I I I (iv) is to be
asked of married females only, it is assumed that this is probably true also of I I I (iii). It would, it is considered,
of course be desirable to include widows in both I I I (iii) and (iv), but the difficxilties which would be involved are
appreciated.
3. It is considered, however, that it m a y be possible to enhance very much the value of the information
secured for married women by adding one question. According to the present plan, the entries will not show whether
the women were married once or more than once and they wiU not show the time elapsed since the date of the first
marriage. A l l that would be necessary in order to obtain this information, would be to insert a question " Date
of first marriage ". If this were done the answers to I I I (iv) would also be more illuminating because they would
tell whether a high age at birth of first child was due to barreimess of previous marriages.
4. It is suggested that, even should the decision be against increasing the number of questions concerning
fertility, it would be desirable to include the question " Date of F i r s t Marriage ". T h i s could be done by foregoing
the distinction between children from the existing marriage and of previous marriages. T h e two questions vinder
I I I (iii) would then be replaced by (1) Date of F i r s t Marriage ; (2) T o t a l number of children (living and dead). It
would then still be possible to obtain a correct and complete picture of the fertility of women married once, and this,
it is suggested, should be the first aim, as wives married once comprise the bulk of the married women.
(b) Agricultural Census—
5. T h e Agricultural Census is certainly an ambitious one, but if the difficulties of carrying it out can be sur-
mounted it will provide most valuable information. F o r m Ag. Cen. 3 asks for information on the costs of production
of nine major and minor products, and F o r m Ag. Cen. 4, the cost of rice production. It has been suggested that the
cost of production is rather a matter for an economic survey than for a Census. Strictly comparable costs are not
always easy to determine and, moreover, costs and prices in 1946 cannot be representative of normal times. B u t
no doubt careful consideration has been or is being, given in Ceylon to the inclusion of these items.
6. Since rice cultivation in Ceylon differs from rice cultivation in most of the major rice producing countries
in that the same piece of rice land in Ceylon m a y be cultivated during two seasons in one year, it seems important
to ascertain not only (a) the acreage of rice land but also (6) crop acreage. F o r m Ag. Cen. 4 will give this information
(re) from item 6 and (6) by calculation from items 11 and 12. It is suggested, however, that it might simplify
matters if under item 10 the area sown (in acres) were stated for the three seasons
(i) maha (munmari kalapogam)
(ii) meda (iddai)
(iii) y a l a (pinmari siropokam)
T h i s may be indeed be the intention, but the specimen form does not make it quite clear.
7. T w o other minor modifications, which would amplify the information collected from the Agricultural
Schedules and enhance its usefulness are also suggested :—
(i) It would be desirable to know the incomes obtained from all types of agriculture, and at present
provision for such returns is made only on the E s t a t e s andP addy L a n d s Schedides. F o r such purposes of estima-
ting the National Income or the standard of living of different groups—and these purposes are related to " the
provision of facilities for the social and economic amelioration of all sections of the community " to which the
Memorandum referred—it is suggested that it would be useful to know what proportion of their foodstuffs was
sold by Small Holders and Chena cultivators and what retained for their own consimiption, and correspondingly
how much was used for subsistence on estates and paddy lands. It ispossible, however, that these details would
burden the census too heavily and that they must be left for the " more intensive survey of selected agricultural
areas" to be held later.
(ii) Since the output of dairy products and eggs varies at different times of year, it is suggested that it
would be better to obtain the average monthly quantity, or the quantity per annum, instead of that for J a n u a r y ,
1946.
(c) Industrial Census—
8. T h e industrial census should be most useful in forming a basis for future industrial development. It is
not, however, clear what information is sought in items 11 and 12 of F o r m I n d . Cen. 1. T h e evaluation of a miscel-
laneous stock of raw materials, both used and manufactured during 1945 may, it is suggested, result in misleading
conclusions being drawn unless a pre-determined basis of calculation is used.
9. No doubt some definition of " Industry " for the purpose of this Census has been agreed upon. It is hoped,
again with a view to fulfilment of such purposes as the estimation of the National Income or the standard of living of
different groups, that the definition will include as much as possible of the business and enterprise in Ceylon, even if
this should mean including smaller imits than has been customary in some other countries.

283
 . APPENDIX 3

Census Schedules and Instructions

1. Population Schedules—
{a) General schedule.
(6) Infirmities schedule.
2. L i s t i n g of Buildings—
(a) Instructions to Village Headmen—Preparation of Lists of (a) buildings, (6) agricultural holdings.
(6) Duties of Chief Heac&nen and Divisional Revenue Officers,
(c) Instructions to Census Officers.
3. Duties of Commissioners.
4. Duties of Chief Supervisors.
5. Instructions to Supervisors.
6. R u l e s re Institutions.
7. R u l e s for filling up schedules of the Census of Population.
8. H o w to fill up the Infirmities Schedule.
9. General Instructions to Enumerators.
10. Instructions to Female Enumerators.
11. R u l e s for the E n u m e r a t i o n of the Outdoor Population.
12. R u l e s for the Preliminary Census of Population.
13. R u l e s relating to the F i n a l Census of Population.
14. Narrative for Testing Enumerators.
15. Eye-sight Testing card.
16. F o r m of Oath or Affirmation.
17. A c t of Appointment of Enumerator.

284
 1. Population Schedules
Do not fold Strictly Confidential
(o) GENERAL SCHEDULE
SCHEDTJLE No.

Obverse

I Census No. of Building

I I Name

Sex . .
R a c e . — I f Sinhalese, state whether K a n d y a n
or Low-country. If T a m i l or Moor, state
whether Ceylon or I n d i a n T a m i l or Moor
3. R e l i g i o n — I f Christian, enter Denomination
4. Whether able to read and write mother
tongue ; if not, what other language
5. Whether able to read and write English .
6. Whether able to speak E n g l i s h
7. Unmarried, Married, Widowed or Divorced
8. Age last birthday
9. B i r t h District or T o w n . .
10. Principal occupation or means of subsistence
of earner
11. If not earner, meaiis of subsistence of person
on whom dependent
12. District Letter and Circle No. *"
13. Book No.*
14. Serial No. of person in Book -f

Reverse

15. Dwelling :—
(1) No. of rooms
(2) Material of roof
(3) Material of walls . .
16. Tenure :—
(1) Is home owned or rented
(2) If owned and mortgaged, race of
mortgagee
17. (1) Relationship to head of household
(2) Whether both parents, or either,
living
(1) Date of marriage
(2) If previously married, date of first
marriage
19. (1) Number of children . .
(2) Age at birth of first child (live or dead)
20. Length of residence in Ceylon :—
(1) Self ..
(2) F a m i l y
21. Whether able to speak Sinhalese and/or
Tamil
22. (1) Industry or business in which engaged or
employed
(2) Whether employer, employee or work-
ing on own account
(3) If employee, salary or wages per
month

* To be inserted by the Enumerator before the Census,

f To be inserted by the Enumerator after the Census.

285
 (/<) INFIRMITIES SCHEDULE
Strictly Confidential.

Revenue District : . Schedule No.

D. R. O.'s Divisions : -.
or Circle No. •
Urban Area : .
Block No.
Village Headman's Division : .
or Name of general E n u m e r a t o r :
T o w n and M^ard : .
Name of female or
VUlage : .
or special E n u m e r a t o r :
Street : . .
L a n e or garden : .
(I) Census No. of Building : .
L a n e or garden : .
( I I ) Name of Person : .

1. Whether (o) blind :

(6) d e a f : •
(c) deaf-mute ;
2. Age when person became blind or totally deaf :
3. Cause of blindness or deafness : .
4. Whether crippled : .
5. Age when person became crippled :
6. Cause of crippling : .

Date : .
Signature of Enumerator.

286
 2. Listing of Buildings
(a) I N S T R U C T I O N S T O V I L L A G E H E A D M E N : P R E P A R A T I O N O F L I S T S O F (o) B U I L D I N G S , —
(b) A G R I C U L T U R A L H O L D I N G S .
1. F o r census purposes each village will be either a " Census Block " or consist of more than one " Census
Block ".
2. By a " Census Block " is meant a group of buildings and agricultural holdings which will be placed in the
charge of an "Enumerator" or person who will be held responsible for the enumeration of all persons in the "Block"
and the recording of the required particulars in the population and agricultural schedules. T h e limits of these
" Blocks " can be finally settled only after the lists of buildings and agricultural holdings have been prepared and
approved. These lists are intended to ensure—
(i) that no habitable building, which may shelter even one single human being on the night of the Census,
is omitted ; and
(ii) that no parcel of land carrying, or which has carried to your knowledge, any k i n d of cultivation
whatsoever is omitted.
3. F o r the purpose of listing buildings and agricultural holdings in the villages in your division you will
be supplied with printed forms :—
(1) L i s t of buildings.
(2) L i s t of Agricultural Holdings.
(3) These instructions.
4. In the L i s t of Buildings you are required to enter all "buildings" and for this purpose you must personally
visit every building in the villages of your division taking with you the forms supplied to you.
5. By " buildings" are meant not only dwelling houses, but also any structures which are used or can be used,
as human habitations or places of rest or shelter.
Thus, an ambalama is a " building " ; so also are carpenters' sheds, or workmen's wadiyas, watch-huts,
or pelas, tents, galas and even ships a n d boats, if anchored or moored for some length of time and used as human
habitations, Resthouses, hotels, club-houses, shops, boutiques, churches, temples, schools, police stations, jails
and others of that sort are, of course, " buildings " and should be entered in the list. Buildings under construction
should also be included in the list. Quarters occupied by Rodiyas, Pallans, Ahikuntakayas, must not be omitted.
Ferries or landing places and halting places for carts and cattle other than galas need not be entered but the number of
each kind should be added at the end of the list of buildings.
6. In visiting the buildings in your villages you must do so, not in a random order, but in a carefully thought-
out sequence. Y o u should bear in mind that the object of the lists is to make it most convenient to the enumerator
to visit each and every one of the buildings on the night of the census in the short time at his disposal.
7. Before you start on your tour through the villages see that you carry with you a sufficient supply of both
sets of printed forms, viz., the L i s t of Buildings and the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings, with the particulars at the top
of the forms filled in, namely, the District, the D. R. O's division, the V. H's division and the village. T h e space for
the Circle and the Block m a y be left blank.
8. Note that you are required to enter in the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings a l l blocks of land in the villages of
your division on which there exists or has previously existed to your knowledge any kind of cultivation. T h u s , a
compound attached to a dwelling house on which there are a few fruit trees or a few flower plants growing in the soil
of the ground (not in tubs and pots) should be entered in the list of Agricultural Holdings. Similarly, a vegetable or
betel Koratuwa in a deniya or owita must not be excluded. Estates of 20 acres or over which are described as " A "
estates and which adjoin a village or villages of your division should not, however, be taken on to your L i s t of
Agricultural Holdings. Y o u m a y obtain a list of such " A " estates from the Divisional Revenue Officer.
9. The L i s t of Agricultural Holdings should be entered simultaneously with the L i s t of Buildings, also in
the same carefully thought-out sequence with the convenience of the enumerator in view. T h u s , in the case of a
building with a cultivated garden attached, the building will be entered in the L i s t ofBuildings, and simultaneously
the garden will be entered in the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings. I f , when you proceed from one building to another,
you pass on the way a block of land which carries some cultivation, you will enter that block next in order in your
L i s t of Agricultural Holdings.
10. In entering up the forms, you must do it neatly, so as to avoid re-copying the particulars, and thereby
wasting time and forms. Use blue or black ink. Neatness and legibility will be important considerations in deter-
mining the amount of your bonus or the character of your certificate of merit. Y o u are therefore requested to pay
special attention to the following detailed instructions as to how each form is to be filled :—
A. List of Buildings :
(i) Column 1—Census Number of Building. Leave this blank to be filled in later, after your D . R . O . has
passed the entries in the other columns.
(ii) Column 2—Situation {Street, Lane or Garden). In this column enter the name of the street or lane,
(if there is one with a special name), or the name of the garden in which the building is situated.
If the buildings stand on an estate of 20 acres or more, which has N O T been classified as an " A "
estate, the name of the estate, its acreage, and main product should be inserted in this column.

287
 (iii) Column 3—Nature of Building. In this column enter the use to which the building is put, e.g.,
house, school, temple, church, resthouse, hotel, club, bank, P . W . D . labourers' lines, estate labourers'
lines, hospital, dispensary, kaohcheri, police station, gansabhawa, post office, railway station,
j a i l , mill (giving kind, e.g., coconut, fibre, oil, &c.), boutique or shop (giving k i n d , e.g., cigar boutique
cloth shop, (fee), arrack tavern, wadiya (giving kind, e.g., cinnamon peelers'), &c. It is important,
that, in the case of buildings used for industrial or commercial purposes the kind of industrial or
conamercial activity should be specifically indicated, as the Census of Industries will, to a large
extent, depend on the accuracy with which this description is given in this column.
(iv) Column 4—o/ chief occupant. If the building is occupied by several families (please see (vii)
below) find out the names of the heads of the different families and enter them in this column.
If the house or building is empty, write " empty " in this column.
(v) Column 5—Number of persons usually sleeping in the Building. To fill this up you should ask the
chief occupant how " h o w many people usually sleep in this building or group of buildings ?"
Persons who usually sleep in the verandahs of the building should be included.
(vi) A l l buildings under different roofs must be entered separately in the hst, except in the case of
" institutions ". Buildings occupied by persons in the real or nominal charge of a person who
knows E n g l i s h well and can be trusted to fill up the Census schedules neatly and correctly in
E n g l i s h , are "institutions", e.g., police stations, police barracks, post offices, railway stations
and premises, hospitals, dispensaries, jails, reformatories, work-houses, asyhuns, hotels, boarding
houses, clubs, engineering and other works, mills, boarding schools and colleges, and bungalows
and dwelling houses, provided the chief occupants know E n g l i s h well. T h i s proviso is important.
A Resthouse, the keeper of which does not know English well, a Sinhalese or T a m i l " hotel "
whose proprietor's or manager's knowledge of English is doubtful, a vernacular boarding school
whose head teacher is not well acquainted with English are not " institutions " for census purposes.
It should also be noted that the conditions are to apply on the night of the Census, e.g., if a m i l l
works only in the day but is closed at night with only a watchman in charge, it is N O T an
" institution ". In the case of " institutions ", separate buildings belonging to it m a y be treated
as a single building for the purposes of entry in the L i s t of Buildings provided, ( l ) t h a t the build-
ings are not distant from each other, and (2) that they are not separated from each other by
buildings not belonging to the " i n s t i t u t i o n " . In such event, the separate buildings, thougli
belonging to one " institution ", should be entered separately.
(vii) Houses, rooms, &c., under the same roof must be entered separately when they are occupied by
different families, but estate labourers' lines under one roof, P . W . D . labourers' lines under one roof,
R a i l w a y Department lines under one roof, con be entered in the L i s t of Buildings as one building.
B. lAst of Agricultural Holdings :
(i) Column 1—Census No. of Holding. L e a v e this blank to be filled in later after your D . R . O . has passed
the entries in the other columns.
(ii) Column 2—Name of Holding. In this column, enter the name by which the particular block of land
is commonly known. If there are more than one name in general use, give them all.
(iii) Column 3—Nature of Holding. In this column state whether the particular block of land is (o) a
" B " E s t a t e , that is an estate of 20 acres and over which is in charge of a person not well acquainted
with the E n g l i s h language and/or does not contain 10 or more resident laboiurers ; or (6) a " Small
Holding ", that is, a holding of less than 20 acres and more than 1 acre on which there exists any
cultivated agricultural product; or (c) a " Village Garden ", that is, a holding of 1 acre and less
with any form of cultivation, usually forming the compound of a dwelling house ; or {d) a "Chena"
or land covered with secondary forest which is cleared and burnt in preparation for cultivation of
food grains ; or (e) a " Paddy land", that is, mud land in which varieties of paddy are cultivated.
D r y land in which H i l l Paddy or Ulvi is grown will not be included as a paddy land, but will be
described as " chena ".
(iv) Column 4—Extent. In this column give the approximate extent in acres and fractions of
acres, not in amunams or lachchams or marakkals or peddis. F o r this purpose you m a y put the
question to the person in charge or chief worker of the holding ; "^NTiat is the exent of this land ? "
It is expected that you have in the discharge of your normal duties acquired the practice of eye-
estimation of extents, and that you will be able to state whether the answer to your question is
reasonably accurate. Y o u must enter in this column the extent as it appears to you, and not the
unverified statement of the person in charge or principal worker. If necessary, you m a y verify
by reference to deeds or plans or other documents of title, if available. As Village Headman
you probably know the practice of the district in converting local Measures to acres ; in Sinhalese
districts one amimam's sowing extent is generally taken to be 2 or i\ acres, in the Jaffna District
16 lachchams make an acre, in certain other T a m i l districts 1 acre equals from 5 to 6 Marakkals
or 2 peddis. If you are in doubt, consult your superior officers. Remember that what must
be entered in this column is the extent in acres and fractions of acres, and not local measures,
(v) Column 5—Name of person in charge or principal holder. E n t e r in this column the name of the
person in charge or principal holder. By " person in charge " is meant the principal person resident
in the holding and who is responsible for the working of the holding By " principal holder " is
not meant the " owner' ' but the chief person, whether owner or not, who according to your
knowledge or information is principally responsible for the working of the holding.
11. When the two lists—the L i s t of Buildings and the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings—with the exception
of column 1 in each case, have been filled up, you should produce them before the D . R . O . of your Division on a date
not later than J u n e 15, 1945. T h e D . R . O . will then take action towards the formation of Census Blocks in accor-
dance •« ith instructions issued to h i m , and give orders for the buildings and holdings to be numbered. F o r this
purpose the two lists will be returned to you.

288
 (6) D U T I E S O F C H I E F H E A D M E N A N D D I V I S I O N A L R E V E N U E O F F I C E R S

1. Y o u will receive with these instructions the following forms :—

(1) Forms of L i s t of Buildings.
(2) F o r m s of L i s t of Agricultural Holdings.
(3) Specimen L i s t s of Buildings filled up in E n g l i s h .
(4) Specimen L i s t s of Buildings filled up in Sinhalese.
(5) Specimen L i s t s of Buildings filled up in T a m i l .
(6) One Register of Lists of Buildings with the Revised L i s t s of Villages in Column 1.
(7) Duplicate Register of L i s t s of Buildings.
(8) One Register of Agricultural Holdings with the Revised L i s t of Villages in Column 1.
(9) Duplicate Register of L i s t s of Agricultural Holdings.
(10) Copies of Instructions to Headmen in E n g l i s h .
(11) Copies of Instruction to Headmen in Sinhalese.
(12) Copies of Instructions to Headmen in Tamil.
(13) L i s t of " A " Estates.

2. Immediately on receipt of these you will cause the quantities of each kind of F o r m to be carefuUy checked
and will inform the Superintendent of Census of the quantities received. If on receipt, or at any later date, it is
found that the quantity of forms sent is insufficient, a statement of furtlier requirements should be sent to the
Superintendent of Census.
3. Y o u will carefully study these instructions and the " Instructions to Village Headmen " so as to be able
to explain to the Headmen what is required of them, and specially that a separate list of buildings and agricultural
holdings is required for each village in his charge.
4. On the earliest Division D a y after the receipt by you of these instructions, or at any prior time convenient
to you for the purpose, you will call up the Village Headmen, one by one, as far as possible in the order of the Village
Headmen's divisions appearing in the first column of the Registers of L i s t s of Buildings and Agricultural Holdings
respectively, which are sent herewith.
5. Y o u will observe that column 2 in each Register refers to the number of " Census B l o c k s " each village
will form. By a " Census Block " is meant a group of buildings and agricultural holdings which will be placed in
the charge of an " Enumerator ", or person who will be held responsible for the enumeration of all persons in the
" Block " and the recording of the required particulars in the population and agricultural schedules. T h i s column
cannot of course be filled in until the sub-division into Blocks has been made.
6. In order to decide into how many Blocks each village should be divided you will find it convenient to
have the lists of all buildings and agricultural holdings in the village made first. Y o u will therefore issue the forms
of L i s t s of Buildings and L i s t s of Agricultural Holdings to the Village Headmen, together with one Specimen L i s t
of Buildings filled in in Sinhalese or T a m i l , as the case m a y be, and one copy of the " Instructions to Headmen ",
also in the appropriate language. T h e quantity of forms that will be issued to each Village H e a d m a n will be in
your discretion subject to the following considerations, (i) that the paramount needs of economy in view of the
acute shortage of paper require that there should be no wastage whatsoever ; (ii) that each village will form a " Block "
or more than one " Block " ; (iii) that each B'orm has room for 64 single lined entries, which m a y be taken as repre-
senting the average niunber of buildings and holdings in a " Block ". An extra supply of F o r m s is sent to meet
possible shortage. If you think that a n y particular Village Headman is likely to spoil a large number of Forms,
you m a y order such H e a d m a n to prepare his lists on plain paper first. If you find that your Division will have
a considerable number of forms of L i s t s of Buildings and/or Lists of Agricultural Holdings to spare, you wiU inform
your Commissioner at the K a c h c h e r i of the fact.
7. It will be an important duty of yours to explain carefully to each Village Headman the " Instructions
to Village Headmen ". F o r this purpose you should arrange to go round a neighbom'ing group of buildings and
agricultural holdings with the Village Headmen and explain to them the application to it of the rules.
8. Note that Municipal, U r b a n Council, and L o c a l Board areas are having their separate organization for
Census purposes. Buildings and Agricultural Holdings in villages or parts of villages falling within the limits of
such local authorities are not therefore to be included in the lists to be prepared by Village Headmen. B u t Sanitary
B o a r d towns have no separate organization, and the Village Headman in whose wasama or division these towns
are situated are expected to include buildings and holdings within Sanitary Board limits in the lists being prepared
by them for the respective villages which comprise in whole or in part the Sanitary B o a r d Towns affected.
9. Y o u should instruct the Village Headmen that the Lists of BuUdings and Agricultural Holdings are to
be returned to you by J u l y 15, 1945, filled in with the exception of column 1. While the Village Headmen are
preparing the L i s t s , you should check their work by personal inspection as often as possible. If you have under
y o u any Headmen occupying an intermediate position between you and the Village Headmen, e.g., Vidane Arachchis,
K o r a l a s , Udayars, &c., you will direct them also to check the work of the village headmen. F o r this purpose, you
should supply such Superior Headmen with copies of the F o r m of L i s t of Agricultural Holdings, Specimen L i s t
of Buildings, Instructions to Headmen in the appropriate language or languages. T h e Superior Headmen should
be required to study these carefully so as to be able to supervise and advise their Village Headmen, and should be
notified that they as well as the Village Headmen will be held responsible for bad work in their Divisions.

289
 10. In instructing village headmen, particular stress should be laid on—
(i) the difference between " A " and " B " Estates ;
(ii) the nature of " institutions " for census purposes ;
(iii) the recording of agricultural extents, not in sowing extents, but in English Measure of Area.
L i s t s of " A " estates should be made available to both Superior Headmen (if any), and Village Headmen, and tho
latter should be instructed to take down the names of " A " E s t a t e s in their respective villages.
11. W h e n the L i s t s of Buildings and Agricultural Holdings, duly filled in, except column 1, are returned
to you by J u l y 15, 1945, you will examine them to see among other things, (i) as far as possible that all buildings
and agricultural holdings have been entered ; (ii) that they have been entered in such an order as to make it possible
to form Blocks as compact as possible, reducing the distance to be travelled by the respective enumerators ; (iii)
that the columns have been correctly filled in, and that blanks have not been left in error ; and (iv) that " B " Estates
are entered and acreage and main product given in column 2 of the L i s t of Buildings.
12. W h e n you are satisfied on these or any other points, you will proceed to the formation of Census Blocks.
No hard and fast rule can be laid down in regard to the size of a block. About 60 or 70 buildings or a population
or 300 m a y be taken as being capable of being formed into a " Block ". T h e F i n a l Reports on particular villages
made by the L a n d Settlement Department may be of assistance in this connexion. T h e test should be whether
you consider that the enumerator in charge of it will be able to go to each building in it, read out 22 entries for each
person in that building, ask the necessary questions for entries to be made for new arrivals, make these entries,
cancel those of the absentees, and without missing a single Building on his Block, do the work in one night between
the hours of 6 p.m., and midnight. T h i s " Block " will inculde within its limits all agricultural holdings comprised
within it, and care should be taken in forming the Blocks that no part of an agricultural holding or holdings extends
beyond the limits of any one Block.
13. W h e n the number of Blocks in each village has been decided upon, you will enter that number in coliman
2 of the two copies of the Register of L i s t s of Buildings and in column 2 of the two copies of the Register of L i s t s
of Agricultural Holdings, and you will return the duplicate copy of each Register to the Superintendent of Census.
Y o u will also direct the Village Headmen to insert the " Block No. " at the top of each L i s t of Buildings, and each
L i s t of Agricultural Holdings. In splitting up the L i s t of Buildings and Holdings into B l o c k L i s t s , you will find that
no adjustments will be necessary if the number of buildings or holdings which go to form a Block is made, where
possible, a multiple of 32, e.g., 64 (32 by 2).
14. T h e next stage is the numbering of the buildings and agricultural holdings and since it is advisable
that the persons responsible for this should have the status of " Census Officers " within the meaning of the Census
Ordinance, the Village and Superior Headmen will receive acts of appointment from the Commissioner as Enumerators
or Supervisors.
15. Instructions to Census Officers regarding the numbering of buildings and agricultural holdings will be
issued separately.

290
 (c) I N S T R U C T I O N S TO CENSUS OFFICERS
1. A " Census officer " has, under the law, a right of access at all reasonable times to any land, house,
enclosure, vessel, or other place, for purposes connected with the census. Among other things, he is entitled to paint,
mark, or affix on or to property such letters, marks or numbers as m a y be considered necessary for the purposes of
the census.

2. A numbering of buildings and agricultural holdings in regular sequence is necessary for the convenience
of tho enumerators who will be entrusted with the duty of recording particulars in the census schedule. Buildings
and agricultural holdings will be separately numbered, each in its own numerical series. T h e agricultiiral series
will invariably bear the E n g l i s h capital letter H prefixed to the numbers.

3. Confusion m a y arise by the adoption for census purposes of assessment numbers in Municipalities,
U r b a n Council and L o c a l Board areas, unless the numbering (1) follows an order convenient for enumerators ; (2) is
marked on all buildings ; (3) is clearly distinguishable. In any case, it will not be possible or convenient to adopt
assessment numbers for the numbering of agricultural holdings. It is, therefore, desirable that the numbering
for census purposes should be done independently.

4. Care must be taken that all buildings and headings in angles between streets, in interior courts or
places, &c., are included. T h e following diagram indicates the manner in which a block containing an interior
court or place should be covered.

STARTING
POINT NORTH

FIRST S T R E E T 03
>
30
o
UJ
A 2
2
CO
<
o
A BARON'S S T R E E T
HOPE" O
c
3D
^ PLACE
I-

" ^ 1

SECOND S T R E E T

NOTE :- That Block " A "musl be fully covered before work is

undertaken in block " B."

5. A l l the buildings and holdings in any one W a r d must be itumbered in one series, that is, the Census
Officer will N O T start from 1 again at the beginning of the second Block in a W a r d , but will carry on from the last
nimiber in the previous Block. B u t he will start afresh from number 1 when he begins to number the buildings
and holdings in a separate W a r d . T h u s if a W a r d with 250 buildings has 3 Blocks of 96, 96, 58 buildings and/or
holdings, those in the first Block will be numbered 1-96 ; in the second Block 97-192 ; in the third Block 193-250.

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 6. Similarly in villages, all the buildings and agricultural holdings in any one village must be numbered
in one series, that is, the Census Officer will N O T start from 1 again at the beginning of the second Block in a village,
but will carry on from the last number in the previous Block. Thus, if a Census Officer is numbering a village
divided into 3 Census Blocks consisting of, say 60 buildings each, those in the first Block will be numbered 1-60 ;
in the second Block 61-120 ; in the third Block 121-180. If the number of agricultural holdings in the respective
Blocks are 50, 30, and 20, they will be numbered H 1 - H 50 ; H 5 1 - H 80 ; and H 8 1 - H 100.

7. T h e numbers—the figures 1, 2, 3, &c.—or the letter H a n d numbers, should be marked with tar, black
paint, pitch, or charcoal on a light ground, and with white paint or lime on a dark ground. Chalk should not
be used. E a c h letter and number should be, at least, 3 inches high and must be neatly marked. T h e marking
should be done on a conspicuous place which is likely to catch the eye of the enumerator, e.i/., the front of the build-
ings, next to or above the doorway, on a front pillar, and in the case of agricultural holdings, on the trunk of a big
tree or on special posts or stakes implanted in the ground. If the mud walls of a building are too uneven to be
written on, a smooth place m a y be made with fresh mud. If the colour of the wall prevents a number from showing
up clearly, a round patch m a y be whitewashed, and the numbers marked thereon. Buildings with cadjan walls,
which m a y be too uneven to mark, may be numbered by tying a numbered piece of plank or cardboard over the
door, strict injunctions being given to the occupant not to remove it. Similar injunctions should be given in respect
of letters and numbers affixed to agricultural holdings, and persons resident in, or operating such, holdings, should
be warned that a m a x i m u m penalty of one month's rigorous imprisonment and a fine of R s . 100 can be imposed
on persons removing or obliterating such letters and numbers.

8. T h e numbers, or the letter H and numbers must be clearly visible to a person coming from the building
or household bearing the previous number. If a group of buildings or holdings is down an alley, way, or lane, a
direction sign should be put up, or marked on a convenient wall, for the guidance of the enumerator, thus :—

215-2.50
H 2 0 0 - H 226

9. As the numbers are marked on, or affixed to each of the buildings or agricultural holdings, the same
number will be entered in column 1 of the L i s t of Buildings a n d of the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings.

10. If after the numbering is finished it is found that some buildings and/or agricultural holdings have been
omitted, they m a y be inserted in the L i s t of Buildings and or/ in the L i s t of Agricultural Holdings, thus : 19A, 19B
would be two buildings between buildings numbered 19 and 20 ; H 19A, H 19B, would be two agricultural holdings
between holdings numbered H 19 a n d H 20. If tliere is no space for the insertion between the lines the entry m a y
be added at the end of the L i s t of Buildings or L i s t of Agricultural Holdings, as the case may be, a note— " see end "
—being made at the place where the insertion should have come in. The numbers corresponding to those appearing
in the L i s t s will be marked or affixed on the omitted buildings or holdings.

11. The numbering should be finished and the L i s t s of Buildings and Agricultural Holdings returned to the
Chief Supervisor for the area by August 15, 1945.

12. After the numbering is finished, Census officers must satisfy themselves, on every opportunity, that
the letters and numbers are not being obliterated or becoming illegible. Obliterated or illegible letters and numbers,
if any, must be re-marked. T h e y should also be on the look-out for the building of new houses, or the cultivation
of new or abandoned areas of land, and see that they are included in the Lists of Buildings or Agricultural Holdings,
as the case m a y be. Where a land already listed is subsequently subdivided into units in separate ownership, the
act should be noted and reported for purposes of sub-numbering. The several subdivided units will be numbered
thus : 19/1, 19/2, 19/3, &c., if the original number was 19.

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 3. Duties of Commissioners
1. In the Commissioners are vested the general supervision and control of the Census arrangements within
their areas. Commissioners should, where possible, satisfy themselves, by personal inspection, or from the reports
of their next senior officers, that the rules have been thoroughly understood, and are being properly carried out, by
the officers to whom they are addressed.
2. To ensure that the work is properly done, it is necessary that the Census Officers should not only read
the rules but should also have the rules explained to them orally. Commissioners and their Assistants should there-
fore explain the rules to the Census Officers next below them, and tell them to master the rules before they explain
them to their subordinates. E a c h Census Officer should follow the same procedure when instructing any officer
subordinate to him.
3. Commissioners should impress upon all the Supervising Officers that great importance will be attached to
the manner in which they attend to the training and instruction of Enumerators. The Commissioners and their
Assistants should personally see that as many such classes are held as are necessary to make all the Enumerators
perform all their duties efficiently.
4. They should hold as many such classes as possible personally. T h e y will thus be able to satisfy themselves
that their subordinate Census Officers understand the rules thoro\ighly. They should see to the appointment and
training of Outdoor Enumerators before the F i n a l Census.
5. As the dates of the Preliminary Census approach, Commissioners should impress on aU Census Officers
that Census work must take precedence of all business other than the most pressing.
Arrangements wiU be made for Census Officers to be relieved as much as possible of judicial and inspection
work at the times of the Preliminary and F i n a l Census. T h e Census operations must be carried out punctually in
order that the arrangements may not be up.sot.
6. Commissioners and their Assistants should see that the Supervising Officers are continually on the move
during the Preliminary Census inspecting the work of the Enumerators. Where possible. Commissioners and their
Assistants should do personal inspections of the work at this time. They should also examine as m a n y of the
Preliminary Census entries as they conveniently can.
7. Where possible, Commissioners and their Assistants should be on circuit on the night of the F i n a l Census
inspecting the work. (They should themselves, in general, be enumerated in their Occupiers' Schedules at their
headquarters.) B u t a responsible Assistant should remain at headquarters to see that the important work of integra-
tion of the different returns is going on rapidly and satisfactorily and that the totals are correctly wired to the Census
Office in good time.
8. A l l Commissioners of Census and their Assistants should remember that they should have taken the oath
of secrecy in the prescribed form before the commencement of the Preliminary Census I h e oath may be taken
before any Census Officer of the rank of Supervisor or abovp.

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 4. Duties of Chief Supervisors
1. Y o u are under an obligation to take an oath of secrecy in the prescribed form. T h e oath should be taken
in the presence of the Commissioner or Assistant Commissioner of your area.
2. Y o u r duties generally will be to supervise the work of the Supervisors of the Circles within your area and
of all enumerators within your area.
3. Y o u are required to study carefully the instructions to Supervisors a n d the instructions to Enumerators,
by which is meant all the literature relating to the preliminary census of population, census of agriculture and the
F i n a l Census of population, and the mode of filling up the census schedules that wiU be issued for collecting the
information required at each census.
4. It will be your duty to see that your Supervisors and Enumerators are properly trained and instructed
for the discharge of their respective duties. In particular, you should see that each Supervisor and Enumerator
has received an A c t of Appointment and has taken an oath of secrecy.
5. It will be your duty to issue to each Supervisor of your area a packet ,which will contain the schedules
and other supplies required for distribution to each enumerator of each Circle. E a c h such packet will contain an
advice note enumerating the quantities issued to each Supervisor. It will be your duty to obtain from each Supervisor
a receipt in acknowledgment of the contents of his packet and forward the same to this office. A copy of each advice
will also be sent to you for your information.
6. Y o u should make it a point to know the location of the Institutions, that is, those marked with a cross
in the lists of buildings within your area.
7. Y o u should see that the Supervisor of the Circle arranges for the issue of trial occupiers' schedules to such
Institutions sometime prior to the preliminary census. These trial occupiers' schedules should be delivered at each
Institution together with the booklet entitled " Rules for filling up the schedules of the census of population by
ocoxipiers of Institutions ". Y o u should carefully instruct the Supervisor of your area on this point.
8. W h e n the trial occupiers' schedules have been collected for scrutiny by the Supervisors you should yourself
go over them carefuUy w i t h the Supervisor concerned in order to discover any errors and omissions. These should
be pointed out by y o u to the Supervisor who should be instructed to call on the chief occupant again for the purpose
of showing in what respects the filled up trial schedule was defective, if at all. In cases where the Supervisor is not
able to read E n g l i s h this duty of scrutiny and correction and interviews should be discharged by you.
9. Should the chief occupant wish to retain the corrected trial occupiers' schedule it should be left with him.
Otherwise it should be taken back by you or the Supervisor. It shoiUd then be forwarded to this office in the
envelope—Census 54 which is intended "to be used when returning trial schedules filled in ". These filled-ia
forms and the mistakes, if any, made therein will be useful for the training of officers at headquarters who will be
entrusted with the duty of scrutinizing the fiUed in census schedules, after the F i n a l Census.
10. During the period of the preliminary census which coincides with the period of the census of agriculture
you should be as much as possible on the move assisting your Supervisors and inspecting the work of the enumerators
within your area. It is particularly important that you should stress on your Supervisors and Enumerators that the
latter should complete at least 1 /10th of the enumeration of each block in a day. Stress should also be laid on the
advisability of Supervisors collecting as soon as possible the filled up schedules of the census of population of each
enumeration block when completed so that he may be in a position to detail special female enumerators, if any,
for duty within the completed block without undue delay.
11. On March 1, 1946, y o u should see that each of your Supervisors enters in the post card provided for the
purpose the total population figures for his circle as recorded at the preUminary census and posts it or delivers it to
the Commissioner of the area. As soon as possible thereafter you should request all your Supervisors to appear
before you with the completed census schedules of population and agriculture. Y o u should take charge of the
enumeration book of the census of agriculture for every block within each circle of your area a n d deliver to each
Supervisor a receipt in acknowledgment thereof.
12. Before taking charge of the enumeration books of the census of agriculture you should see that each
entumerator has filled up the summary of acreage under cultivation in 1946 in the space provided for it on the enumera-
tion book cover, and that the Supervisor concerned has initialled at the proper place on the book cover to indicate
that he has himself tested and revised the schedules. Y o u should yourself test as many of the entries in each enumera-
tion book as you can as a check on the work of both the Supervisors and the Enumerators and should date and initial
in the space provided on the cover. Y o u will thereafter arrange the agricultural census enumeration book of each
circle in niunerical order, pack them in packets of a suitable size sufficiently protected from the weather and despatch
them to the Commissioner by the quickest and safest possible means so as to reach him not later than March 23, 1946.
Although this date is given as the final date on which the Commissioner of your area should expect the
agricultural census enumeration books you are strongly advised to have these books collected, checked a n d despatched
within the first week of March in view of the amount of work that will devolve on you and your Supervisors between
March 1 and March 20, in connexion with the F i n a l Census of population.
13. Y o u should also examine the schedules contained in each population census enumeration book with a
view to testing as many entries as you can as a check on the work done and should date and initial each book cover in
the space provided. Y o u should thereafter return to each Supervisor the population census .enumeration books of
the block within his circle. Y o u should at the same time issue to each Supervisor a fresh supply of blank, general,

294
occupiers', outdoor, infirmities schedules, envelopes, enumeration passes, final census notices, ifec. Y o u should cause
the Supervisor to enterthe number of forms received on page 1 of the enumeration book cover. Y o u will also deliver to
each Supervisor copies of the leaflet entitled " Rules for the F i n a l Census " in the appropriate language for issue to
each enumerator within his circle. Y o u vnU instruct each Supervisor to explain these rules to his enumerators and
to re-issue the required additional schedules and obtain the enumerator's initials to the entries on page 1 of his
enumeration book cover in acknowledgment of the additional supplies of schedules received.
14. Shortly before the date of the F i n a l Census you will test as many as possible of your Supervisors and
Enxmierators in their knowledge of the rules. Y o u will also make sure that an adequate number of " outdoor
enumerators " has been selected from the list of " supernumeraries " and trained for duty on the date of the F i n a l
Census. These " Outdoor Enumerators " should be assigned by the Supervisors for duty out of doors in accordance
with the instructions.
15. On the night of the F i n a l Census, March 19, 1946, you will make your headquarters at a place easily
accessible to all parts of your area, preferably at the headquarters of some Supervisor. Y o u should, however, be on
the move as much as possible inspecting the work of the enumerators but you should also arrange to be at your
headquarters at certain specified hours to deal with any emergencies which may arise.
16. When the F i n a l Census has been completed you should visit the headquarters of as many of your
Supervisors as possible and see that work of checking the schedules and entering the abstracts, &c., is proceeding
according to instructions and as rapidly as possible. Y o u should check the work of your Supervisors and see in
particular that the list of blocks, enumeration abstracts and enumeration books are despatched to the Commissioner
in accordance with paragraph 17 of the " Instructions to Supervisors ".

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 5. Instructions to Supervisors
1. You will be responsible for the supervision of census arrangements and the worli of census enumerators
within your Circle. Y o u will not enter upon your duties until you have received from the Chief Supervisor of your
area or the Commissioner of Census an Act of appointment signed by the Commissioner or the Assistant Commissioner,
and until you have subscribed to an oath of secrecy in the prescribed form which should be attested by your Chief
Supervisor or a higher census Officer.
2. You will work immediately under the direction and guidance of the Chief Supervisor of your area but
instructions m a y be issued to y o u direct by the Commissioner or the Assistant Commissioner of Census and it will
be your duty to comply with them and to notify your Chief Supervisor accordingly.
3. You have authority to summon the enumerators of your Circle for instruction classes or other census work
to any convenient place within your Circle at any reasonable time. It is the legal duty of the enmnerators to attend
on y o u on summons for the purpose of receiving directions and instructions regarding census arrangements. One
of your principal duties before the census will be the holding of instruction classes for the enmnerators. In
order to ensure the m a x i m u m possible accuracy the enumerator should be drilled in the correct method of filling up
schedules. Booklets have been published giving detailed instructions in regard to the filling of each cage in the population
and agricultural schedules and copies of these should be available to you and to your enumerators. It will be your
duty to make yourself quite famiUar with the instructions contained in these booklets. A n y doubtful points should
be referred by you to your Chief Supervisor or the Commissioner or Assistant Commissioner for clarification.
4. You will receive from the Chief Supervisor of your area a packet which will contain the schedules and other
supplies required for distribution to each enumerator within your Circle. It will be your duty in consultation with
each enumerator to ascertain exactly the number and kind of schedules that are required and issue the same to him.
A l l issues should be entered in the relevant columns in the form entitled " Supervisor's Distribution L i s t ".
E a c h E n u m e r a t i o n B l o c k within your Circle should have a serial number assigned to it by you, and have
an enumeration book cover (one for Population, and one for Agriculture) bearing that number. F o r instance, if
there are ten blocks comprising your Circle, your blocks will bear the consecutive numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., up to 10,
and the book covers given to the enumerators of the blocks should bear the numbers given to the Blocks.
5. You should see that each enumerator is thoroughly acquainted with the limits of his enumeration Book.
If necessary you should direct the officer who prepared the lists of buildings and agricultural holdings to proceed
with the enumerators to show them the location of their respective blocks. Y o u should yourself personally make
a tour of yoiu- Circle with the object of getting acquainted with the defined limits of each enumeration block within
your Circle.
6. Each enumerator should be specially instructed to know the location of the instructions (that is those
marked w i t h a cross in the relevant list of buildings) within the block. Some time before the preliminary census
it will be your duty to cause to be served on these institutions " T r i a l Schedules " for the purpose of drilling the
chief occupant in the correct mode of filling up population schedules. Y o u will personally or through your eniunerator
assist the chief occupant in this task. A convenient procedure would be for you to ask the chief occupant to fill
up the T r i a l Schedule for five persons with the aid of the printed instructions and thereafter collect the filled up
T r i a l Schedule and scrutinize it for possible errors and omissions. Thereafter you would call on the chief occupant
again for the purpose of showing in what respect the filled up schedule was the defective, if at all.
7. The preliminary census of population will be held concurrently with census of agriculture between February
18 a n d 28, 1946, inclusive. D u r i n g this period you should be out inspecting the work of your enumerators as much
as possible. A n y enumerator who appears to be unduly slow or slack in the discharge of his duties during this
period should be warned so that both the preliminary census of population a n d the census of agriculture within
each enumeration block should be completed by the 28th of F e b r u a r y , 1946.
8. Besides the general schedules which you will issue to each enumerator within your Circle you will deliver
to h i m a supply of occupiers' schedules which it will be his duty to serve on the chief occupant of each institution
within his enimieration block. T h i s service should be effected when the enumerator is touring his block in cormection
with the recording of particulars on his general schedules. It will be the duty of the enumerator to collect the filled
up occupiers' schedules in all institutions within his enumeration block before February 28, 1946. The enumerator
will see t h a t they are inserted in his enumeration book cover at the end together with any unused occupiers'
schedules which m a y be in his possession.
9. A certain number of special female enumerators will be assigned to each Circle for duties in about six
blocks on the average within the area. Where necessary a female enumerator m a y be called upon to do her work
in more than the number of blocks originally assigned to her. In such a case careful note of the number of blocks
done should be made so that remuneration m a y be adjusted accordingly. If there are no female emmaerators appointed
for the whole or part of your Circle the work they are expected to do should be assigned to the male enmnerators of
the blocks concerned who in such event should be given the requisite special authority and be instructed to complete
all the entries including cages 18 and 19 of the population schedule and to enter the infirmities schedule if required,
at his visit to the building in which the persons concerned are enumerated.
10. It is the duty of each general enumerator when he has completed the enumeration of his block both in
connexion with the census of population and the census of agriculture to bring in the filled up schedules in the res-
pective enumeration book covers to you. A general enumerator need not w a i t till he has completed both census
but m a y bring in to you at different times, if he so wishes, whichever enumeration book has been completed. W h e n

296
the enumerator reports the completion of his work and delivers to you his Population enumeration book together
with the filled up schedules it will be your duty to verify that the schedules in respect of every building including
institutions within the enumeration block have been filled up according to instructions and included within the
Population enumeration book cover pertaining to that block. AH imnsed sched-ules issued to enumerators should
also be found attached within the book cover. Similarly, you should verify that the appropriate schedules in respect
of every agricultural holding within the Block have been filled up and included within the Agricultural Enumeration
Book Cover, together with unused agricultural schedules. Y o u should at this stage get the enumerator to fill up
under your supervision the space provided on the book cover for the siunmaiy of acreage under cultivation in 1946.
11. Rules for the preliminary census of population have been printed and copies of the leaflet should be given
to you by your Chief Supervisor or the Commissioner or Assistant Commissioner. Y o u should carefully study these
rules. T h e y explain the object of the preliminary census which is, in brief, to enumerate the population of the I s l a n d
as at their usual places of abode Particular attention should be paid by you to the examples given in the Rules as
to where certain classes of persons are to be enumerated during this period. Y o u should also instruct the enumerators
within your area carefully on these points. If you do not understand or are in doubt as regards any matter you
should ask your Chief Supervisor or the Commissioner or his Assistant.
12. W h e n you have received the completed schedules of any enumeration block within your Circle you will
cause a list to be prepared in duplicate of the buildings in that block enumerated by the general enumerator in which
there are
(1) Married Women where marriage has been registered or is according to custom, i.e., those against
whom the letters " MR " or " MC " or " W " or " D " appear in cage 7 of the schedule, and
(2) Infirm Persons, i.e., those against whom in the space provided for the purpose on the reverse of each
census schedule there appear the words " B l i n d ' or ' D e a f ' or ' Cripple '•

One copy of this list of buildings with the census number of each such building noted therein will be handed by you
personally to the special female enumerator assigned for the block in question with instructions that she should call
at each building for the purpose of recording (i) particulars against cages 18 and 19 in the population schedule and/or
(ii) the particulars required in the special schedule called the Infirmities Schedule. For this purpose the female
enumerator should be given by you the filled up population schedules in which the other particulars regarding the
persons concerned have been recorded. She will also be given by you the required number of blank Infirmities
Schedules. W h e n detaching from the enumeration book the particular filled up schedules you will take care to
insert a blank sheet in the place of each such schedule with the name of the female enumerator, the census number of
the building and the name of the married woman or infirm person recorded thereon. T h i s blank sheet should be
signed by the female enumerator concerned in yoxir presence in acknowledgment of having received the filled up
schedules in question. It will be the duty of the female enumerator to complete her work within three days of the
receipt by her of the schedules and to return them to you without delay. On receipt of these schedules you will
re-insert the population schedules at the appropriate place in the enumeration book, detach the reference slip, and
attach the Infirmities Schedules at the end of the book within the book cover.
13. T h e custody of all filled up schedules between the conclusion of the preliminary census and there-issue of
them for the final census will be your own personal responsibility. Y o u are warned that you must keep them in
some secure place under lock and key and not take them out except for scrutiny by you or at the instance of your
Chief Supervisor or other higher Census Officer. No item of information recorded on the schedules should be divulged
to any unauthorized person.
On March 1, 1946, you will enter in the post card provided for the purpose the total population figures for your
Circle as recorded at the preliminary census and post it or deliver it to the Commissioner of your area.
14. Sometimes between March 1 and 18, 1946, the Chief Supervisor will request you to appear before him
with the completed census schedules of population and agriculture. Y o u will surrender to him the enumeration
books of the census of agriculture for every block within your area. Eniuneration books of the Census of Population
for each block will be returned to you together with a fresh supply of blank population schedules. The quantity
of these blank schedules that will be issued to you will be determined by the Chief Supervisor in consultation with
you. T h e additional issue should also be recorded in page 1 of the Enumeration Book Cover. T h e Chief Supervisor
will also deliver to you copies of the booklet entitled " Rules for the F i n a l Census " in the appropriate language
which it will be your duty to issue to each enumerator within your Circle. Y o u will st\idy these rules yourself
and explain them to the enumerators at a meeting or meetings arranged at convenient centres within your Circle.
Y o u will thereafter re-issue to each enumerator his Population enumeration book with the filled up schedules together
with such quantity of new schedules as you think he m a y require for the final census.
15. On the night of the final census you will make it a point to be out inspecting the work of your enumerators
as m u c h as possible. Y o u should take with you a supply of outdoor schedules stitched into a Population Enumeration
Book Cover and of enumeration passes in case you m a y meet any person who will require to be questioned and
enumerated on that night. Y o u should particularly satisfy yourself that the following have been enumerated by
your enumerators :—
Churches, Mosques, Temples, places where there are night workmen, markets, stores where there are
watch- men. Clubs, Pavilions, sheds, public parks, ambalams or places where there are seats,
and all other places which might serve as sleeping places for persons without any fixed abode.

Y o u should visit all such places at a late hour after you have gone your rounds and seen all your enumerators at
work.
16. On the morning after the final Census you should be at your headquarters not later than 7 a.m. to receive
the eniunerators' books and forms from the enumerators. Y o u will note that the abstracts must reach the Commis-
sioner by 5 p.m. on the next day. As each enumeration book is received you wiU check from the entry on page 1
of the Eniuneration Book Cover that all the outdoor and occupiers' schedules which were issued to the enumerators

297
have been stitched into the book whether the schedules are used or not. Y o u will read through every additional
entry or alteration made in the schedules at the final census as it is pointed out to you by the enumerator. After
examining all the schedules you will verify that the enumerator has filled in the serial number of the schedules
correctly.
17. W h e n the enumerators' books have been produced you will cause the enumerators' abstracts to be
prepared under your supervision. This abstract appears on page 3 of the Enumeration Books Cover. The
population figures to be entered in the abstract will be those obtained at the final census taken on the night of March
19, 1946,—that is, excluding all entries cancelled and including all new entries made in the course of that night.
W h e n all the abstracts have been prepared you will arrange the books in their numerical order, and from them
fill in the figures of the final population as appearing m the list of blocks. T h e abstract will be detached from the
enumeration book and secured to the list of blocks and the list of blocks with all the abstracts for the Circle attached
must be sent direct to the Commissioner. After despatching the list of blocks and enumerators' abstracts you will
pack the enumeration books in packets of suitable size with suitable protection from the weather. E a c h package
should be securely labelled with the address of the Commissioner, the separate numbers of the enumeration books
being marked on the label and should be despatched to the Commissioner of the area to reach him not later than
four days after the census. The niunber of packages and the number of the books in each must be reported to the
Commissioner at the time of despatch.
18. Y o u must keep a record of the numbers of the abstracts and the enumeration books despatched and
you must see that you receive an acknowledgment for all the se and for the list of blocks. Y o u must also forward
your distribution lists and the balance of forms, &c., to your Commissioner.
19. Y o u will retain one Population enumeration book and about six blank schedules with you for the entry
of particulars for persons who may be found to have been omitted from the census. Advertisements will be published
in the newspapers asking persons who have been omitted to report themselves. Y o u must in addition personally
verify any information you may receive regarding omission of persons from buildings.

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 6. Rules re Institutions
1. F o r census purposes an " Institution " is any building the chief occupant of which is considered to be
able to fill up the census schedules completely and accurately in E n g l i s h and at which such schedules will be left
by a census officer for the purpose of their being filled up by the chief occupier or the person deputed by him to
discharge the duty on his responsibility.
2. It is a legal obligation of the chief occupier or the person deputed by h i m to discharge the duty on his
responsibility to fill such schedules to the best of his knowledge and belief and to deliver the schedules so filled up
and signed to the census officer.
3. Sometime before the date when the preliminary census is due to commence a schedule called the T r i a l
Occupiers' Schedule will be served on each institution together with a booklet entitled " Rules for filling up the
Schedules of the Census of Population by occupiers of Institutions ". T h e chief occupier or the person deputed
by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility will fill up this trial occupiers' schedule w i t h the names of any
five persons who are inmates of his house in accordance with the instructions contained in the booklet referred
to and deliver the same to the census officer who calls for it. T h e census officer will straightway or subsequently
scrutinize it and point out any defects or omissions discovered by him to the chief occupier or the person deputed
by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility. The object of the trial occupiers' schedule is solely for the purpose
of " drilling " the chief occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the d u t y on his responsibility in the
accurate filling up of entries.

4. On or about February 18, 1946, a schedule called the " Occupiers' Schedule " will be delivered to the chief
occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility for the purpose of being filled up
with the particulars of inforraation required in respect of each person who has his habitual home or his usual place
of abode in the " Institution ". T h e persons to be enumerated therein will be such as arc indicated in the " Rules
for the Preliminary Census of Population " issued as Instructions to enumerators. A copy of these rules will be
served along with the occupiers' schedules.
5. If an ' infirm ' person (that is, a blind, deaf or crippled person) has his habitual home or usual place of
abode in the ' Institution ' it will be the duty of the chief occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the
duty on his responsibility to write the words " blind, deaf or crippled " as the case m a y be in the space provided
in the occupier's schedule below cage 22 at the bottom of the column in which the particulars regarding that person
are entered.
6. The occupiers' schedule or schedules should be delivered to the census officer after having been duly
filled up and signed by the chief occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility.
T h e census officer will call for the filled up schedules sometime before March 1, 1946, and himself collect them or
have then collected.
7. During the period of the preliminary census or sometimes thereafter, a census oflScer m a y call at the
Institution to record the particulars in a special schedule entitled the " Infirmities Schedule " in respect of all
persons, if any, in the Institution who have been declared to be deaf, blind or crippled. It is the duty of the chief
occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility to give the census officer every
facility for the purpose of recording accurately the required particulars.
8. On the morning of the 19th March, 1946, or on the evening of the day preceding, the census officer will
re-issue to the chief occupier on the person deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility, the occupiers
schedules which had been filled up in respect of the inmates of the institution at the preliminary census of population
•held between F e b r u a r y 18 and 28, 1946, together with a few blank occupiers' schedules. T h e chief occupier or
the person deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility should bring these schedules up-to-date by
the cancellation of entries In respect of all persons who would not be present at the institution on the night of March
19, 1946. T h e cancellation should be made by drawing a line in ink diagonally across the entry of the person so
that the particulars recorded in respect of that person may still be clearly read. In the case of new arrivals he m a y
find in the Institution on the night of March 19, 1946, the chief occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge
the duty on his responsibility should fill ui the name and the particulars or each person who states that he has not
been enumerated anywhere at the time of the preliminary census held between F e b r u a r y 18 a n d F e b r u a r y 28, 1946.
In the case of a person who declares he was enumerated at the time of the preliminary census, only, his name and
the address on the reverse of the schedule as to the place of his enumeration at the preliminary census and his usual
residence need be recorded. In recording the usual residence the exact place of his residence, that is, the place
where he lived and slept habitually at the time of the preliminary census (between February 18 and 28, 1946) should
be entered. In the case of urban residents, at least the name of the town and street in which the building in which
he usually lived and slept at the time of the preliminary census should be entered. In the case of riu:al residents,
at least the name of the village or hamlet and the Revenue District should be entered.
9. In the event of it becoming necessary for an inmate of the Institution to leave the premises between
6 p.m. and mid-night on March 19, 1946, the chief occupier, or the person deputed by him to discharge the duty
on his responsibility, should make sure that the required particulars in respect of that person have been recorded
prior to his leaving the premises. T h e person so leaving should carry with him an enumeration pass showing that
he has been enumerated on the night in question and he should be instructed to produce it if any enumerator tries

299
to coxmt him. Quantities of the enumeration pass will be supplied to the chief occupier on the morning of the
19th March, 1946, or on the evening of the day preceding together with the occupiers' schedules. No enumeration
pass will be regarded as valid by a census officer unless it has been duly signed by the chief occupier, or the person
deputed by him to discharge the duty on his responsibility. Where the signature is not easily read the name should
be written out in block capitals. On every enumeration pass the census No. of the building from which it is issued
and the W a r d and Street or the Village in which the Institution is situated should be entered.
10. Between 6 p.m. and 12 midnight on March 19, 1946, or on the morning of March 20, 1946, a census
officer will call at the Institution to collect the filled up occupiers' schedules which h a d been brought up-to-date
as indicated in the preceding paragraph. T h e chief occupier or the person deputed by him to discharge the duty
on his responsibility should deliver these schedules duly signed to the census officer.

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 7. Rules for filling up the Schedules of the Census of Population
Please use black or blue ink and write very clearly. Do not hurry but be sure that you know the proper entry
and where it should be made, before making it, so that you may avoid erasures and corrections. Never use ditto
marks or any other mark to avoid repetition.
2. In order to avoid a waste of forms, you are advised that it is unnecessary to use a separate schedule for
each building on your L i s t of Buildings. There is space on each schedule for entries in respect of five persons. One
column will be filled in for each person. If a building contains fewer than five persons, the requisite number of
columns will be used for entries in respect of the persons occupying that building at the time of your visit, and the
balance number of columns on the same schedule will be made use of in respect of the occupants of the next building
or buildings on your L i s t . Similarly, if a building is occupied by more than five persons you will need more than one
schedule, and continue your entries in as many other schedules as are necessary. Great care should be taken to
enter correctly the Census No. of Building (see instructions below) in each column. If a building on your L i s t is
empty, or is an " Institution " one column only need be used, and the only particulars to be recorded will be cages I
and II (see instructions below).
3. Remember that each column which is filled in for a person is continued on the reverse of the form, and
that cages 15 to 22 in that column have to be filled in on that side in respect of the same person.
4. T r y to get a definite answer to each inquiry according to the instructions herein given.

How to fill up the Heading and Cages Heading (Schedule No.)

T h i s is the serial number of the schedule in the Enumeration Book. T h e first schedule in the book will be
numbered 1 against this heading, the second 2, and so on to the end of the book. This heading must be filled in
immediately the schedules are bound into the book.

Cage I (Census No. of Building)

This is the number marked, for the Census, on the building or group of buildings. It also appears in column 1
of the L i s t of Buildings. T h e number must be repeated for each inmate in the same building.
Cage II (Name)
E n t e r in the first column the name of the chief resident member of the family, whether male or female ; and in
the other columns the names of the other members of the family and the names of the resident servants, and at the
F i n a l Census the names of the visitors, if any. If a child has not been named write ' not named ' ; ge names need
not be entered. If the building is ' empty ', write " empty " in this cage. " Institutions " on your L i s t of Buildings
should have the number of the building entered in cage I and the word " Institution " in cage I I .

Cage 1 (Sex)
F o r Males enter M in this cage, and for Females F.
Cage 2 (Race)
E n t e r the race of each person as Low-country Sinhalese, K a n d y a n Sinhalese, Ceylon T a m i l , I n d i a n T a m i l ,
Ceylon Moor, I n d i a n Moor, Malay, English, Scotch, Irish, &c. Do not use general terms such as B r i t i s h , Ceylonese,
&c. As a general rule the offspring of parents of different races will follow the father's race, but Burghers and E u r a -
sians or Euro-Ceylonese should be treated as separate races and described as Burghers and Eurasians or Euro-Ceylonese
according to the statement of the persons themselves. In the case of a Sinhalese, you must state whether the person
is a K a n d y a n Sinhalese or a Low-country Sinhalese. In the case of a T a m i l or Moor you must state whether the
person is a Ceylon T a m i l or Moor, or I n d i a n T a m i l or Moor. In the case of an I n d i a n , who is neither I n d i a n T a m i l nor
I n d i a n Moor, state the particular race, such as Malayalee, Borah, Parsee. Similarly, in the case of an European the
particular race should be stated, whether English, French, German, R u s s i a n , &c. A person from the Dominions or
from the United States may be allowed to describe himself as a Canadian, and AustraUan, a New Zealander, a South
African, or an American, as the case m a y be, if he prefers this to giving his original racial stock. Where a foreigner
has been naturalized as a British Subject, note to add in brackets after his race the letters N. B. S. thus : German
(N. B . S.).

Cage 3 (Religion)
E n t e r in this cage the personal individual religion professed by the person. Examples are Buddhists, H i n d u
Muslim, Zoroastrian, &c. In the case of Christians, enter the Sect thus : Church of Ceylon, R o m a n Catholic, Methodist,
D u t c h Presbyterian, Scotch Presbyterian, Independent Catholic, Salvationist, &c. Write B for Buddhist, C for
Christian (but the name of the Sect should be written in full) H for H i n d u , M for Muslim. Do not use any other
abbreviations and write the names of other reUgions in full. If the person has no religion enter None, or Freethinker,
or Agnostic, &c., according to the person's statement.

Cage 4 (Whether able to read and write mother tongue ; if not what other language)
E n t e r in this cage the language of the race to which his father belongs under each person who can read and write
it. In the case of Ceylon Moors, Burghers and E u r a s i a n s or Euro-Ceylonese, the mother tongue should be regarded
as the normal language of the home, whatever it be. T h e test of ability to read and write should be whether the
person is able to write a short letter a n d read the reply to it. If the person cannot read and write this language, enter

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 " No ", but if he can read and write another language, add the name of that language after the word " No ". T h e
following abbreviations should be used, " E " for E n g l i s h , " S " for Sinhalese, " T " for T a m i l , Do not use any other
abbreviations and write the names of other languages in full. E n t e r " None " in case of inability to read and write
any language.

Cage 5 (Whether able to read and write English)

E n t e r in this case the word " Y e s " if the person can both read and write English ; otherwise enter " No ".
The test of ability to read and write should be the same as the test indicated for cage 4.

Cage 6 (Whether able to speak English)

" Able to speak E n g l i s h " means able to conduct a short conversation or understand and answer questions
put in English. E n t e r " Y e s " if the person satisfies this t e s t ; otherwise enter " No ".

Cage 7 (Unmarried, married, widowed or divorced)

E n t e r each person whether infant, child or adult as either " unmarried " " married " " widowed " or
" divorced ". T h e entry " married " should be made in the case of a person claiming to be " married " according
to custom or repute, though the marriage has not been registered according to law. 'The entry " divorced " should
only be made if a legal divorce has been obtained. Divorced persons who have married again should be entered as
" married " a n d not as " divorced ". A person who is not divorced but legally separated should be entered as
" married ". T h e following abbreviations should be used : — " U " for unmarried, " MR " for married where the
marriage has been registered ; " MC " for marriages according to custom or repute and not registered ; " W " for
widowed. " D " for divorced. Do not use any other abbreviations.

Cage 8 (Age last birthday)

E n t e r the number of years completed at last birthday. T h u s a person whose exact age on the census date is
17 years, 11 months, a n d 25 days should be entered as 17. In many cases persons will report the age in round nmnbers
like 30 or 45, or " about 30 " or " about 45 " when that is not the exact age. Therefore, when an age ending in 0 or 5
is reported, you should ascertain whether it is the exact age. F o r infants less than one year old enter " 0 ". Obviously
absurd replies about age should not be accepted. Y o u should make every effort to find out the correct age of each
person, e.g., by comparing ages of members of a family whose relative ages m a y be known or by reference to some
important pubhc event, &c., a n d enter in this cage what appears to you to be the real age of each person.

Cage 9 (Birth District or Town)

In the case of persons b o m in Ceylon outside a town, enter the name of the Revenue District {not the village)
in which the person was bom. In the case of persons b o m in towns, enter the name of the town in which the person
was born, taking care to differentiate between the town and the district by adding the letter " T " in case where such
differentitation is necessary, e.g., a person born in Colombo T o w n or Puttalam T o w n will have the entry " Colombo T "
or " P u t t a l a m T " against this cage, but a person born in Moratuwa Town will have the entry " Moratuwa " only,
as there is no separate Revenue District by this name. In the case of persons b o m in I n d i a , enter the name of the
District as far as it can be ascertained, e.g., I n d i a , Tiunevelly ; India, Cochin. The district or T a l u k {^gjUmrr)
can be traced if the name of the nearest Post Office to the place where the person was b o m can be given. In the case
of persons born out of Ceylon or I n d i a , enter the name of the country, thus : China, E n g l a n d , F r a n c e , ifec. If the
person was b o m in the District or Town in which he is being enumerated, y o u should use the abbreviation " H ".
In all other cases write the full name of the District or T o w n or country according to the instmotions given above.

ra i n a rt 11 f ( 1 0 ) (Principal occupation or means of subsistence of earner)

uages lu ana ii [^(u) (n not earner, means of subsistence of person on whom dependent)
Cage 10. [Principal occupation or means of subsistence of earner)—This cage must be filled in every column
recording the particulars of a person who is an " earner ". By " earner " is meant not only a worker, but also a
person who derives income from, say, shares, pensions, rente, the work of others, cfec. E n t e r in this cage the occupation
of every person who is gainfully occupied, that is, of every person who earns money or money equivalent by pursuing
an occupation. If a person has more than one such occupation the principal occupation, that is, that which is
regularly followed a n d brings iii the largest income to the earner, should be entered in this cage. If a person is both
gainfully occupied and also possesses other means of subsistence, the occupation only should be entered. The "means
of subsistence '' should be entered in this cage only if the person has no gainful occupation but possesses other means
of subsistence. In such a case the entry should record the person's principal means of subsistence that is that on
which the person depends most for his livelihood. W h e n recording the occupation ormeans of subsistence, enter the
exact occupation or means of subsistence. Do not enter such general terms as "office w o r k e r " " m e c h a n i c "
" l a b o u r e r " , " m e r c h a n t " , " p l a n t e r " , "engineer", " i n s p e c t o r " , " c l e r k " , &c. An "office w o r k e r " may be a
book-keeper, stenographer, messenger, &c. A person who calls himself a " mechanic " may be foimd on further
inquiry to have some more definite occupation, as boiler fireman, steam fitter, machine setter. Similarly, an
" engineer " m a y be a civil engineer, a locomotive engineer, an irrigation engineer, &c. A " planter " running his
own estate should be entered as " proprietary planter in tea or rubber ", &c. A " planter " managing or superin-
tending an estate for someone else and being paid a wage or salary should be recorded as " T e a or rubber estate
Superintendent ", or as the case may be. A " merchant " should be described more definitely as a "rice merchant ",
" piece goods m e r c h a n t " , " general merchant ", &c., by adding the kind of merchandise dealt with by him. A
person who makes the articles he sells should be entered as " maker and seller of baskets, combs, &c. " Remember
that a beggar is an " earner " and his gainful occupation is " begging ". A person temporarily outof employment
a n d seeking employment should be regarded as an " earner " and entered as following the occupation in which he
was last regularly employed, but in such cases the letter "U " should be added at the end in brackets, thus,
" Stenograper ( U ) ". In the case of persons who have been recently demobilized from H i s Majesty's Forces and are

302
imemployed but are seeking employment, the occupation to be entered in this cage should be that followed prior
to joining the Forces, with the letter U in brackets as explained above. A person formerly employed and now
retired with tt pension on aooount of old ago* peimanaat physical diBability or other reason ahouid be entered as
following tho last regular employment with the letter " R " in brackets, thus, " Government General Clerical Servant
( R ) ".
Cage I I . ( / / not earner means of sub sisience of person on whom dependent).—Thiscagedeals with "non-earners "
as cage 10 dealt with "earners ". It must be noted that cages 10 and 11 are exclusive, and cannot be filled up for the
same person. If cage 10 is entered, cage 11 will be blank, and vice versa. A person is a " non-earner " if he neither
follows a gainful occupation nor possesses means of subsistence of his own. T h u s , a woman who does housework in
her own home, without salary or wages, and has no otherregular employment but being responsible for the domestic
management of the home, and has no independent means of subsistence of her own, is a " non-earner ", and cage 11
will be entered in her case. B u t if a woman, in addition to doing housework in her own home, regularly earns money
at some other occupation, whether carried on at her home or outside or derives means of subsistence from her shares
or lands or other property, cage 10 a n d not this cage will be entered for her. A young person or child regularly
attending school or college or working at home merely on general household duties without salary or wages is a "non-
e.i.rner ", and this cage will be entered for such person, if the person has no independent means of subsistence of his
own. I f , however, the person is possessed of such independent means of subsistence, cage 10 and not this cage will
be entered for such persons. E n t e r in this cage the principal occupation or means of subsistence of the person on
whom the " n o n - e a r n e r " is most dependent for his maintenance. A housewife should have the letter " H " in
brackets prefixed to the entry. Thus, a wife of a lawyer who has no independent occupation or means of subsistence,
will have cage 11 filled up for her thus : (H) Advocate or " ( H ) Proctor ", as the case may be. Similarly, students
will be distinguished by the letter " S " in brackets. T h u s , an Advocate's daughter who is attending the University
and has no independent means of subsistence will have this entry recorded in cage 1 1 : " (S) Advocate ".

Cage 12 (District letter and Circle No.)

Y o u should enter here the code letter appropriate to the District in which you are working as shown in the
subjoined table :—
Province District or Municipality Code
letter
Western Province Colombo District A
K a l u t a r a District B
Colombo Municipality C
K a n d y District D
Central Province Matale District E
Nuwara E l i y a F
K a n d y Municipality G
Galle District H
Southern Province Matara District I
Hambantota District J
Galle Municipality K
Jaffna District L
Northern Province Mannar District M
V a v u n i y a District N
Eastern Province Batticaloa District O
Trincomalee District P
North- Western Province Kurunegala District Q
Puttalam District R
Chilaw District S
North-Central Province Anvuradhapura District T
Province of Uva BaduUa District U
Province of Sabaragamuwa R a t n a p u r a District V
Kegalla District
w
Y o u also ask the Supervisor for the Circle No. of and enter it in this cage in each column. T h u s , an Enumerator
working in Horana in Circle No. 5 will enter in this cage " B5 " (fealutara District, Circle No. 5) and repeat it in
each column.

Cage 13 (Booli No.)

In this cage you should enter the Enumeration Book No. as soon as the schedules are stitched into the book,
and you should repeat this number in each column.

Cage 14 (Serial No. of person in Book)

Y o u should fill this in after the F i n a l Census. Then, the first person in the book will be numbered 1, the second
2, and so on, right through to the end of the book without any break for the different schedules.

On the reverse of the Schedule

Cage 15 (Dwelling)
Sub-cage (1) [No. of rooms).—Enter in this sub-cage the total number of rooms occupied in the building by the
household of which the person is a member. T h e following should not be counted as ' rooms ' : bathrooms, closets,
pantries, basements, stables, stalls and rooms used as store-rooms garages, boutiques, or shops. A verandah m a y be
counted as a room if finished off for living purposes at all times.

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 S u b - c a g e (2) (Material o f roof).—Enter i n t h i s s u b - c a g e t h e m a t e r i a l o f c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r o o f o f t h e b u i l d i n g
in w h i c h the person resides. U s e t h e code figures given i n the subjoined table : —

Tile . . .. 1 Single . . . . 4
Thatch . . .. 2 Zinc . . . . 5
Asbestos .. 3 Other . . . . 6

i f t h e r o o f i s c o n s t r u c t e d o f m o r e t h a n o n e m a t e r i a l e n t e r t h e c o d e f i g u r e s i n s e q i i e n c e , e.g., a r o o f o f b o t h t i l e a n d t h a t c h
w i l l be e n t e r e d ' 12 ' : a r o o f r o o f of z i n c a n d t h a t c h w i l l be e n t e r e d ' 25 '.
S u b - c a g e (3) {Material o f walls).—Enter i n t h i s s u b - c a g e t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e o u t e r w a l l s o f t h e b u i l d i n g i n w h i c h
the person resides whether t h e y are built of stone, brick, c a d j a n , &c. U s e t h e code figures g i v e n i n the s u b j o i n e d
table : —

Brick 7 Stone . . . . 12
Cadjan 8 Wood . . . . 13
Concrete 9 Zinc .. . . 14
Mud 10 Other .. 15
Palmyrah 11

I f t h e o u t e r w a l l s a r e o f m o r e t h a n one m a t e r i a l e n t e r t h e c o d e f i g u r e s i n s e q u e n c e . T h u s , if the walls are of

b r i c k a n d wood, the e n t r y w i l l be 713 ; if of m u d a n d wood, the e n t r y will be 1013.

Cage 16 (Tenure)
T h i s cage s h o u l d b e e n t e r e d o n l y i n the c o l u m n r e c o r d i n g t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f the p e r s o n w h o i s the h e a d o f t h e
household.
Sub-cage 1. (Is home o w n e d or rented ?). If the h o m e is owned by the h e a d or some other m e m b e r of t h e
h o u s e h o l d o c c u p y i n g it, enter " O " in t h e c o l u m n of the p e r s o n w h o is the h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d . To be considered
as " o w n e d " it is not necessary t h a t the home be p a i d for in full. T h e home w i l l be considered " as owned " e v e n
if there is a m o r t g a g e on it. I f t h e h o m e i s n o t o w n e d , b u t i s o c c u p i e d o n a lease o r m o n t h l y t e n a n c y o r u s u f r u c t u a r y
mortgage, it should be enumerated as rented by entering " R ". W h e r e a money rent is paid, the monthly rent
in rupees or to the nearest rupee should be entered in brackets. T h u s , if a household occupies a rented home p a y i n g
R s . 100 a m o n t h t h e e n t r y i n t h i s s u b - c a g e t h a t w i l l b e m a d e i n t h e c o l u m n o f t h e p e r s o n w h o i s t h e h e a d o f t h e
h o u s e h o l d is as follows : " R (100) ". O r , i f t h e p e r s o n h a s letised t h e h o m e a t R s . 1,325 a y e a r t h e e n t r y w i l l b e
" R (110) ". If t h e r e n t i n c l u d e s f u r n i t u r e , w r i t e t h e s i m p l e letter F after t h e figure, t h u s , " R (110 F) ". Note
t h a t w h a t is required is information as to the n a t u r e of the tenure of each home. T h u s , if a dwelling is occupied
by two or more households, there w i l l be two or more " homes " in the same dwelling, a n d the information m u s t
be entered in this sub-cage in respect of each household. If the home is occupied free of a n y rent the e n t r y in this
sub-cage should be " FR ".

S u b - c a g e 2. ( / / owned and mortgaged, race of mortgagee).—This s u b - c a g e w i l l be filled in o n l y in r e s p e c t of

a h o m e w h i c h is owned b u t is e n c u m b e r e d w i t h a first or p r i m a r y mortgage. T h e exact race of the mortgagee,
if an individual, should be entered, so far as it can be ascertained. If the mortgagee is a corporation, the place of
incorporation should be entered, so far as it can be ascertained. W r i t e " NK " if this is not k n o w n or cannot be
ascertained.

Cage 17 (1) (Relationship to head o( Household)

In this cage, enter the w o r d ' h e a d ' in the c o l u m n relating to the p a r t i c u l a r s of the person w h o is r e g a r d e d
as the chief o c c u p a n t or the h e a d of t h e household. F o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e h o u s e h o l d w r i t e wife, father, mother,
son, daughter, grandson, daughter-in-law, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, boarder, lodger, servant, tfcc, according to t h e
p a r t i c u l a r relationship w h i c h the person bears to the head of the household. If several unrelated persons share
housekeeping facilities on a p a r t n e r s h i p basis, enumerate one of t h e m as " h e a d " a n d others as " p a r t n e r s ".

Cage 17 (2) (Whether both parents, or either, living).

T h i s s u b - c a g e s h o u l d b e e n t e r e d o n l y f o r y o u n g p e r s o n s a n d c h i l d r e n u n d e r 2 1 y e a r s o f a g e (see c a g e 8 ) . In
t h i s s u b - c a g e w r i t e " B. P. L. " for b o t h p a r e n t s l i v i n g ; " FL " w h e r e the f a t h e r is l i v i n g , b u t the m o t h e r is d e a d
o r h e r w h e r e a b o u t s a r e n o t k n o w n ; " M L " w h e r e the m o t h e r i s l i v i n g b u t the f a t h e r i s d e a d o r w h e r e h i s w h e r e a b o u t s
a r e n o t k n o w n ; " BD " w h e r e b o t h parents are dead ; a n d " NK " where p a r t i c u l a r s are n o t k n o w n . Do not use
a n y other abbreviations.

Cage 18 (1) (Date of marriage)

Cage 18 (2) (If previously married, date of first marriage)
Cage 19 (Number of children and age at birth ol first child live or dead)
E n t r i e s in these cages are to be m a d e o n l y in respect of females, a n d o n l y m a r r i e d , w i d o w e d a n d d i v o r c e d
females entered as such in cage 7. U n l e s s y o u h a v e b e e n specially authorised to enter these cages, y o u s h o u l d ,
l e a v e a b l a n k to be filled up l a t e r by the female e n u m e r a t o r whose d u t y it w i l l be to r e c o r d these p a r t i c u l a r s . If,
however, y o u h a v e this special authority, bear in m i n d the following instructions :—

(1) T r y t o a s c e r t a i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s f r o m t h e f e m a l e c o n c e r n e d o r , f a i l i n g h e r , f r o m h e r h u s b a n d , f a t h e r
mother, or other m a l e or female relative.
(2) " T h e d a t e of m a r r i a g e " w i l l be t h e date of t h e e x i s t i n g m a r r i a g e , a n d s h o u l d be e n t e r e d in c a g e
1 8 (1) b y d a t e , m o n t h a n d j ' e a r , t h u s : " 2 1 s t M a r c h 1 8 9 9 . "

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 Marriage means not only a union of a m a n and w o m a n registered according to law, b u t includes a
union recognised by c u s t o m or repute, a n d the d a t e w i l l be the date on w h i c h t h e e x i s t i n g u n i o n
was first entered into. I f t h e date a n d the m o n t h a r e n o t k n o w n , « n t e r the y e a r , a s a c c u r a t e l y
as y o u c a n ascertain it.
(3) I n the case o f w o m e n w h o h a v e been p r e v i o u s l y m a r r i e d , a n d h a v e either c o n t r a c t e d a s u b s e q u e n t
m a r r i a g e , o r a r e n o w d i v o r c e d , o r w i d o w e d , t h e d a t e o r a t l e a s t t h e y e a r , o f the f i r s t m a r r i a g e s h o u l d
be a s c e r t a i n e d a n d e n t e r e d in c a g e 18 (2).
(4) I n c a g e 19, e n t e r t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n t h e f e m a l e p e r s o n h a s h a d , w h e t h e r s u c h c h i l d r e n a r e
still alive or not, or w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e b o m by h e r in the existing marriage, in a previous one,
or out of wedlock. T h e e n t r y s h o u l d b e ' 0 ' for a w o m a n w h o h a s n e v e r b o r n e c h i l d r e n . Enter
n e x t in brackets the n u m b e r of s i u v i v i n g children. F i n a l l y , e n t e r t h e age ( i n y e a r s ) o f t h e p e r s o n
at the time her first child was b o m . T h e e x a c t age ( c o m p u t e d t o the last c o m p l e t e d y e a r ) s h o u l d
be entered, b u t , if t h i s is n o t k n o w n a n d y o u are obliged to m a k e an estimate, prefix the w o r d
" a b o u t " to t h e e s t i m a t e d age in o r d e r to distinguish s u c h entries f r o m the entries of e x a c t ages.
S i n c e t h e e n t r i e s i n t h i s c a g e w o u l d b e a l l i n f i g u r e s , a d d t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n ' y r s ' t o d e n o t e t h e age
of t h e p e r s o n . A s p e c i m e n e n t r y w o u l d be as f o l l o w s : in s u b - c a g e (1) : " 6. (4) ; " in s u b - c a g e
(2) : " 24 y r s . "
Cage 20 (Length of residence in Ceylon)
Sub-cage 1 (Self).—This s u b - c a g e s h o u l d b e f i l l e d i n r e s p e c t o f e v e r y p e r s o n w h o s e b i r t h p l a c e i s r e c o r d e d
in cage 9 as being outside C e y l o n . It s h o u l d be left b l a n k in the case of all other persons. By the expression " l e n g t h
of residence " is m e a n t the continuous period of residence in C e y l o n from the date of a r r i v a l to the date of census,
less t h e a g g r e g a t e o f a b s e n c e s f r o m C e y l o n w h e r e e a c h s u c h a b s e n c e e x c e e d e d f i v e m o n t h s b u t w a s less t h a n t w e l v e
m o n t h s at a t i m e . C o n t i n u e d absence f r o m the I s l a n d for twelve m o n t h s or m o r e w o u l d be considered a " b r e a k "
in the c o n t i n u o u s p e r i o d of residence, a n d in t h i s case ' the length of residence ' w o u l d be c o m p u t e d f r o m the date of
r e t u r n to the I s l a n d after the last ' break '. E n t e r p e r i o d i n the n u m b e r o f c o m p l e t e d y e a r s only.
Sub-cage 2 [Family).—This s u b - c a g e s h o u l d b e f i l l e d o n l y i n r e s p e c t o f p e r s o n s f o r w h o m s u b - c a g e 1 h a s b e e n
filled, a n d w h o are recorded in cage 7 as ' married, widowed, or divorced '. It will record the length of residence
in the I s l a n d , c o m p u t e d as above, of the wife, or if there is no wife, of the y o u n g e s t dependent c h i l d xmder 21 y e a r s
o f age.
Cage 21 (Whetber able to speak Sinhalese and/or Tamil)
E n t e r " ST " if the person c a n speak both Sinhalese a n d T a m i l , " S " if he can speak Sinhalese only, a n d
" T " if he c a n speak T a m i l only. T h e t e s t o f a b i l i t y t o s p e a k a l a n g u a g e i s w h e t h e r the p e r s o n i s a b l e t o c o n d u c t
o short conversation, or u n d e r s t a n d a n d answer questions put, in t h a t language.

Cage 22 (1) (Industry or business in which engaged or employed)

T h i s c a g e m u s t b e e n t e r e d i n t h e c a s e o f e a c h p e r s o n for w h o m a n e n t r y o f ' o c c u p a t i o n ' h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d
in c a g e 10. T h e p u r p o s e of c a g e s 10 a n d 22 (1) is to b r i n g o u t , on t h e one h a n d , in c a g e 10 t h e s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n
o r w o r k p e r f o r m e d , i f a n y , b y t h e p e r s o n e n u m e r a t e d a n d t h e o t h e r i n c a g e 2 2 (1) t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e i n d u s t r y o r
place in w h i c h s u c h w o r k is performed. I f c a g e 1 0 i s b l a n k , cage 2 2 (1) w i l l a l s o b e l o f t b l a n k . T h e entry in this
cage, w h e n m a d e , s h o u l d be the n a m e of the industry, or the business, or the place in w h i c h the person w o r k s , as
g l a s s f a c t o r y , r u b b e r e s t a t e , i n s u r a n c e office, b a n k , c o p r a s t o r e , & c . N e v e r enter in this cage s u c h indefinite t e r m s
as " f a c t o r y ", " e s t a t e ", " office ", " G r i n d l a y & C o . " , " S t o r e <fcc.

Cage 22 (2) (Whether employer, employee, or working on own account)

Note these definitions carefully :—
(1) A n employer i s one w h o e m p l o y s h e l p e r s , o t h e r t h a n d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s , i n t r a n s a c t i n g h i s own b u s i n e s s .
F o r instance, the t e r m will not include a superintendent or agent, a manager, or other person
employed t o m a n a g e a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t o r b u s i n e s s . A l l s u c h should be entered as employees
b e c a u s e , w h i l e a n y o n e o f t h e m m a y e m p l o y p e r s o n s , n o n e o f t h e m does s o i n t r a n s a c t i n g h i s
ovm b u s i n e s s .
( 2 ) .471 employee i s a p e r s o n w h o w o r k s for a s a l a r y o r w a g e s , a n d i s s a b j e c t t o t h e c o n t r o l a n d d i r e c t i o n
of an employer.
( 3 ) A p e r s o n w i l l be e n t e r e d as working on own account if he h a s a g a i n f u l o c c u p a t i o n a n d is n e i t h e r an
employer nor a salary or wage worker. E x a m p l e s a r e ; — p r o f e s s i o n a l m e n w h o w o r k f o r fees
a n d employ no helpers, s m a l l boutique-keepers who do n o t employ helpers, a n d , generally
speaking, basket-women, pingo-carriers, &c.

U s e " Em " f o r " e m p l o y e r " ; " W " for e m p l o y e e on w a g e s or s a l a r y ; " OA " for w o r k i n g o n o w n a c c o u n t .
Do not use a n y other abbreviations.

Cage 22 (3) (If employee, salary or wages per month)

I f t h e p e r s o n r e c e i v e s a s a l a r y o r w a g e s o n a m o n t h l y b a s i s , e n t e r h e r e i n r u p e e s (to t h e n e a r e s t r u p e e ) t h e
amount of s u c h salary or wages. I f t h e p e r s o n r e c e i v e s a s a l a r y o r w a g e s o n o t h e r t h a n a m o n t h l y b a s i s , for e x a m p l e
on daily pay, convert the amount received to a monthly rate.

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 8. How to Fill up the Infirmities Scliedule
1. On an appointed date y o u will be required to appear before t h e S u p e r v i s o r o f y o u r l o c a l a r e a for t h e
purpose of receiving f r o m h i m a certain n u m b e r of " Infirmities Schedules " w h i c h it w i l l be y o u r d u t y to fill up
w i t h the p a r t i c u l a r s in respect of " infirm persons " resident in buildings w i t h i n the block or blocks assigned to
you. Y o u w i l l a l s o b e g i v e n a n " e y e t e s t " c a r d for t h e p u r p o s e of applying it to persons reported blind.
2. O n r e c e i p t o f t h o s e s c h e d u l e s a n d t h e " e y e t e s t " c a r d y o u w i l l e x a m i n e e a c h o f t h e m t o see t h a t t h e
S u p e r v i s o r h a s filled up the p a r t i c u l a r s of location at the top of the Schedules a n d the b l a n k s against the following :—
(1) Schedule No. ( a t t h e r i g h t h a n d t o p c o r n e r ) . — T h i s r o l e r s t o t h e p o p u l i ; t i o n S c h e d u l e N o . i n t h e g e n e r a l
e n u m e r a t o r ' s book in w h i c h the other p a r t i c u l a r s r e l a t i n g to the i n f i r m p e r s o n h a v e been recorded.
(2) Item (I.) Census No. of Building.—This r e f e r s to t h e n u m b e r a s s i g n e d to t h e b u i l d i n g in w h i c h t h e
i n f i r m person resides.
( 3 ) Item ( I I . ) Name o f Person.—This r e f e r s t o t h e n a m e o f t h e i n f i r m p e r s o n a s r e c o r d e d i n t h e s c h e d u l e
of the general enumerator's book. I f these b l a n k s h a v e n o t been f i l l e d u p y o u w i l l report the fact t o the
S u p e r v i s o r a n d h a v e t h e m accurately filled u p o r f i l l t h e m u p yourself.

3. Y o u w i l l t h e n proceed i n order t o the b u i l d i n g o r buildings i n w h i c h the infirm persons are resident. The
census n u m b e r s assigned to t h e m w i l l give y o u an indication of the most convenient order in w h i c h y o u m a y visit
these buildings.
4. H a v i n g a r r i v e d at a building at w h i c h an i n f i r m person is resident y o u will m a k e a request to the chief
o c c u p a n t t o see t h e i n f i r m p e r s o n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a s k i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y q u e s t i o n s t o f i l l u p t h e " I n f i r m i t i e s
Schedule " in respect of t h a t person.
.ilgamst Jtem / y o u w i l l enter the i n f i r m i t y f r o m w h i c h the person suffers. If blind write " B " ; if deaf write
" D " ; if deaf-mute write " D M " ; if blind and deaf write " BD " ; if blind and deaf-mute write " B D M " ; each
e n t r y in its appropriate sub-cage. Y o u w i l l n o t i n c l u d e a s b l i n d a n y p e r s o n w h o c a n see t o r e a d t h e l e t t e r s i n t h e
" e y e t e s t " c a r d a t a d i s t a n c e o f o n e foot w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f glasses. T h e test in t h e case of c h i l d r e n u n d e r
t e n y e a r s o f age o r o l d e r persona w h o are illiterate m u s t b e w h e t h e r they c a n d i s t i n g u i s h a n d recognize t h e images o n
t h e " e y e t e s t " c a r d a t a d i s t a n c e o f a b o u t t w o feet. Y o u w i l l also n o t i n c l u d e a n y p e r s o n w h o i s b l i n d i n o n e
eye only. Y o u w i l l enter as deaf-mute every person who has been totally deaf from birth a n d every person w h o
cannot hear nor talk.
Against Item 2 ( t h e a g e a t w h i c h t h e p e r s o n b e c a m e b l i n d o r t o t a l l y d e a f ) . T h i s should be given in y e a r s .
F o r t h o s e w h o a r e a f f l i c t e d w i t h i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o r life w r i t e " O " . If the person w a s b o r n blind or deaf write
" AB " (at birth).
Against Item 3 ( c a u s e o f b l i n d n e s s o r d e a f n e s s ) . Y o u w i l l endeavour to obtain a n d record the cause w h i c h
resulted in this person being blind or totally deaf. If from birth write " AB ". If not born blind or deaf the cause
w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e b l i n d n e s s o r deafness s h o u l d b e a s c e r t a i n e d a n d entered, a s for e x a m p l e , measles, m u m p s , old
age, i n j u r y , & c . I f i n j u r y w a s the cause o f the defect t h e occasion o f the i n j u r y should b e stated f u l l y a s w a r , giui
shot, motor accident, & c .
Against Item 4 ( w h e t h e r c r i p p l e d ) w r i t e " C ", only if t h e p e r s o n is c r i p p l e d in b o t h l e g s .
Against Item 5 (age w h e n p e r s o n b e c a m e c r i p p l e d ) . If the person w a s b o r n crippled write " AB ". If the
a f f l i c t i o n w a s o f a l a t e r p e r i o d g i v e t h e age i n y e a r s a t w h i c h t h e p e r s o n b e c a m e c r i p p l e d . W r i t e " O " if the crippling
t o o k p l a c e w i t h i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f life.
Against Item 6 ( c a u s e o f c r i p p l i n g ) . If from birth write " AB ". If not born crippled the cause w h i c h
produced the crippling should be ascertained a n d entered as infantile paralysis, injury, &c. If i n j u r j ' was the cause
of the defect t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e i n j u r y s h o u l d b e s t a t e d a s w a r , m o t o r a c c i d e n t , cScc. In the case of surgical
amputations it is the disease or the circumstance calling for the surgical a m p u t a t i o n t h a t should be stated.

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 9. General Instructions to Enumerators
1. T h e required oath or affirmation should be m a d e a n d subscribed by y o u before y o u enter u p o n the discharge
of y o u r duties as an enimierator. Y o u r Supervisor has authority to administer to y o u the required oath or affirmation.
2. A f t e r t a k i n g the oath, y o u c a n n o t , w i t h o u t sufficient cause, neglect or refuse to p e r f o r m y o u r duties.
I f y o u d o , y o u r e n d e r yoiu-self l i a b l e , u p o n c o n v i c t i o n , t o i m p r i s o r u n e n t a n d f i n e .
3. A l l of your duties are to be performed under the direction a n d control of the Commissioner by w h o m y o u
w e r e a p p o i n t e d , t o w h o m y o u a r e i m m e d i a t e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d w h o h a s a u t h o r i t y t o d i s c h a r g e y o u s u m m a r i l y for
neglect of d u t y , inefficiency, incompetence, or m i s c o n d u c t of a n y sort.
4. Y o u are h e r e b y directed t o observe carefully the rules a n d instructions w h i c h follow. If questions or
difficulties arise w h i c h are not covered by these instructions, y o u s h o u l d a p p l y to y o u r S u p e r v i s o r for further
instructions.
5. W h e n y o u receive the L i s t s o f B u i l d i n g s a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l H o l d i n g s l o c a t e d w i t h i n y o u r B l o c k , y o u s h o u l d
p l a c e t h e f o r m e r inside the P o p u l a t i o n C e n s u s E n u m e r a t i o n B o o k - c o v e r , a n d the l a t t e r inside t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l C e n s u s
E n u m e r a t i o n B o o k - c o v e r , a n d stitch e a c h into its cover w i t h thread i n s u c h a w a y t h a t further f o r m s c a n b e inserted
w i t h i n the cover at a n y time. I f y o u h a v e been assigned more t h a n one B l o c k , y o u s h o u l d use a s e p a r a t e P o p u l a t i o n
C e n s u s c o v e r for each L i s t o f B u i l d i n g s , a n d a separate Agricxitural C e n s u s cover for e a c h L i s t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l H o l d i n g s .
6. Y o u should keep your L i s t s of Buildings, a n d agricultural Holdings m o s t carefully. N o other copies
h a v e b e e n m a d e , a n d i f the lists are lost, y o u w i l l h a v e t o prepare f r e s h lists.
7. T h e s e lists w i l l b e y o u r guide b o t h a t the P r e l i m i n a r y C e n s u s a n d a t the P i n a l C e n s u s . Y o u should go
r o u n d y o u r B l o c k o r B l o c k s s e v e r a l t i m e s before the dates o f the C e n s u s w i t h y o u r L i s t s till y o u k n o w the sequence
of the buildings a n d agricultural holdings thoroughly. A n y d o u b t f u l or difficult points should be referred at once
to your Supervisor.
8. On these p r e l i m i n a r y r o u n d s of inspection, y o u should t a k e care to see t h a t no b u i l d i n g w h i c h is being
used, or c a n be used, as a h u m a n habitation or resting place has been omitted from the L i s t of Buildings, a n d that
n o piece o f l a n d c a r r y i n g a n y f o r m o f c u l t i v a t i o n h a s been omitted f r o m the L i s t o f A g r i c u l t u r a l H o l d i n g s . If a n y
h a v e b e e n o m i t t e d , y o u m u s t i n s e r t t h e m i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l i s t o r l i s t s g i v i n g t h e m the a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b e r s ,
e.g., 1 9 A , 1 9 B f o r t w o o m i t t e d b u i l d i n g s s i t u a t e d b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g s n u m b e r e d 1 9 a n d 2 0 , a n d H 1 9 A , H 1 9 B , f o r t w o
o m i t t e d agricultural holdings situated between holdings n u m b e r H 19 a n d H 20. If the n u m b e r s affixed to a n y
b u i l d i n g s o r h o l d i n g s a r e o b l i t e r a t e d , i t w i l l b e y o u r d u t y t o r e - m a r k t h e m o r h a v e t h e m r e - m a r k e d , a n d t o see t h a t
t h e y a r e n o t obliterated a g a i n before t h e dates o f the C e n s u s .
9. On the inside of the top page of y o u r P o p u l a t i o n Census E n u m e r a t i o n B o o k - c o v e r , y o u w i l l find space for a
tabulated list of Institutions. By " I n s t i t u t i o n s " are m e a n t those b u i l d i n g s w h i c h are m a r k e d w i t h a X opposite
t h e m in c o l u m n 3 of the L i s t of Buildings. Y o u should enter up c o l u m n s 1 a n d 2 of the L i s t of I n s t i t u t i o n s f r o m the
L i s t of B u i l d i n g s in the order in w h i c h the institutions occur therein. I f the space i n t h e list i s insufficient, a d d i t i o n a l
entries on plain paper should be attached to the cover. Y o u will visit these " institutions " d u r i n g y o u r preliminary
r o u n d s o f i n s p e c t i o n o f y o u r a r e a f o r t h e p u r p o s e (i) o f s e r v i n g o n t h e c h i e f o c c u p a n t o r p e r s o n i n c h a r g e a T r i a l S c h e d u l e ,
a n d a c o p y o f " R u l e s f o r I n s t i t u t i o n s " , a n d (ii) o f c o l l e c t i n g s u c h T r i a l S c h e d u l e s w h e n f i l l e d u p .

10. T h e schedules t o b e used b y y o u d u r i n g y o u r envuneration a r e a s follows : —

Population : General Schedule.

Agriculture : " B " E s t a t e s Schedule.
Small Holdings Schedule.
T o w n a n d Village Gardens Schedule.
Chenas Schedule.
A s w e d d u m i z e d P a d d y L a n d s Schedule.

11. I l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e s o f the m e t h o d o f f i l l i n g u p the p o p u l a t i o n schedules a r e g i v e n i n the s p e c i m e n f o r m s

w h i c h y o u r Supervisor w i l l deliver to y o u at the first or subsequent instruction class y o u attend at his request. No
s p e c i m e n s h a v e been p r e p a r e d for t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l schedules, b u t to get the n e c e s s a r y guidance, y o u are a d v i s e d to
s t u d y the " B u l e s for filling up the A g r i c u l t u r a l Schedules ".
12. Y o u h a v e no census duties to perform outside of the B l o c k or B l o c k s assigned to y o u , unless otherwise
instructed. Y o u m u s t b e g i n the e n u m e r a t i o n o f y o u r B l o c k o r B l o c k s o n M o n d a y , the 18th, F e b r u a r y 1946, a n d m u s t
c o m p l e t e i t o n o r b e f o r e W e d n e s d a y , t h e 28, F e b r u a r y 1946.
13. It is your d u t y personally to visit every building (including " institutions ") a n d every agricultural
h o l d i n g (other t h a n a n " A " estate) w i t h i n y o u r B l o c k o r B l o c k s . T h e object o f y o u r v i s i t t o " i n s t i t u t i o n s " diu-ing
t h e p e r i o d c o m m e n c i n g o n F e b r u a r y 18, 1946, a n d e n d i n g o n F e b r u a r y 28, 1946, •will b e s o l e l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
s e r v i n g Occupiers' Schedules on the c h i e f occupant or person-in charge a n d of collecting t h e m w h e n t h e y are filled
up. T h e o b j e c t of y o u r v i s i t to b u i l d i n g s w h i c h a r e n o t " institvitions " w i l l be to o b t a i n a n d r e c o r d in the c e n s u s
schedules the p a r t i c u l a r s of informations required in repect of the i n m a t e s of s u c h buildings. T h e object of y o u r visit
to a g r i c u l t u r a l holdings w i l l be to o b t a i n a n d record in the Census schedules the p a r t i c u l a r s of i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d
w i t h reference to such agricultural holdings. M o r e t h a n one v i s i t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o e n a b l e y o u t o o b t a i n t h e
required information.

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 14. Y o u r r i g h t s a s a n e n u m e r a t o r a r e c l e a r l y l a i d d o w n i n the C e n s u s O r d i n a n c e . Y o u h a v e the right of
a d m i s s i o n t o e v e r y l a n d o r house w i t h i n y o u r local a r e a for the purpose o f o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d for the
census. Y o u h a v e the right to a s k every question that is necessary to enable y o u , from the answer thereto, to enter
or verify the required particulars in the census schedules. Y o u are cautioned, however, not to mention or emphasize
the c o m p u l s o r y feature of the census unless it is necessary.

1!}. I n case y o u r a u t h o r i t y i s disputed, show y o u r a c t o f appointment, w h i c h y o u should c a r r y w i t h y o u .

B u t it is of the utmost imjiortance that your m a n n e r should, under all circumstances, be courteous a n d conciliatory.
I n n o i n s t a n c e s h o u l d y o u lose y o u r t e m p e r o r indulge i n d i s p u t e s o r t h r e a t s . M u c h c a n be done by t a c t a n d
persuasion.

16. S h o u l d a n y person object to answering a n y question upon the schedules, y o u should e x p l a i n t h a t the
i n f o r m a t i o n is s t r i c t l y confidential, t h a t it w i l l not be c o m m u n i c a t e d to a n y person w h a t e v e r , a n d t h a t no use w i l l
be m a d e of it w h i c h c a n in a n y w a y injuriously affect the interests of individuals. After a l l other means h a v e failed,
call the attention of the person refusing to give information to the penalty in section 18 of the Census O r d i n a n c e .
S h o u l d the person still refuse to give the information, enter in the proper c o l u m n or space the words " R e f u s e d to
answer " a n d report the facts to y o u r Supervisor.

17. Y o u h a v e a right not only to an answer, but to a truthful answer. Do not accept a n y statement w h i c h
y o u believe to be false. W h e r e y o u k n o w t h a t the answer given is incorrect, enter upon the schedule the fact as n e a r l y
as y o u c a n ascertain it.

18. Y o u a r e f o r b i d d e n t o c o m m u n i c a t e t o a n y p e r s o n a n y i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i r e d b y y o u for f i l l i n g u p a s c h e d u l e
or a n y particulars entered in a schedule. If y o u do so y o u w i l l render yourself liable u p o n conviction to a fine or
imprisonment or both. Y o u are n o t p e r m i t t e d t o s h o w y o u r schedules, w h e n f i l l e d , o r t o r e t a i n copies o f the s a m e .
I f , a t the close o f the e n u m e r a t i o n , y o u are a s k e d w h a t i s the p o p u l a t i o n o f y o u r a r e a , o r a n y p a r t thereof, r e p l y t h a t
y o u are forbidden by law to answer. A l l s u c h requests, w h e t h e r f r o m n e w s p a p e r s , local officials, o r i n d i v i d u a l s are
to be referred to the Superintendent of Census.

19. Y o u h a v e n o t t h e r i g h t t o o m i t a n y b u i l d i n g , agricultvu-al holding, o r resident i n y o u r a r e a (other t h a n

those expressly e x c l u d e d f r o m y o u r j u r i s d i c t i o n b y direction o f y o u r Supervisor o r higher census a u t h o r i t y ) . You
are also forbidden to enter u p o n a census schedule the n a m e of a n y fictitious person, or of a n y person not entitled
to be enumerated in y o u r a r e a ; or to m a k e a n y fictitious or u n t r u t h f u l statement concerning a n y person or agricultural
holdings enumerated. Y o u a r e s u b j e c t t o p e n a l t i e s f o r w i l f u l f a l s i f i c a t i o n o f returnsS.
20. Y o u m u s t not delegate y o u r authority t o a n y other person.

21. Y o u m u s t n o t p e r m i t a n y o n e t o a c c o m p a n y o r assist y o u i n the p e r f o r m a n c e o f y o u r duties e x c e p t d u l y

a p p o i n t e d census officers t o w h o m a n o a t h o r a f f i r m a t i o n h a s been d u l y a d m i n i s t e r e d .
22. Be p r o m p t a n d expeditious in doing y o u r work. D o n o t lose t i m e o r l o i t e r b y t h e w a y . On entering a
house state y o u r business in a few words, a s k the necessary questions, m a k e the proper entries, a n d then leave the
premises.

23. Y o u w i l l note t h a t p r e l i m i n a r y census o f population a n d the census o f agriculture are t o b e t a k e n con-

currently. B o t h w i l l c o m m e n c e o n F e b r u a r y 18, 1946. Y o u m u s t start f r o m an established starting point and
canvass y o u r enumeration block continuously a n d regularly imtil the work is completed. Y o u are allotted a p e r i o d
of 11 d a y s for t h e c o m p l e t i o n of the w o r k a n d it is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t you s h o u l d finish at least 1 /10th of the n u m b e r
of buildings a n d agricultural holdings each day. R e m e m b e r y o u h a v e not been assigned a q u a n t i t y of w o r k w h i c h
c a n n o t reasonably be expected to be completed w i t h i n the period of time allotted to y o u a n d failure to complete the
w o r k i n due t i m e w i l l reflect a d v e r s e l y o n y o u r efficiency a s a n enunaerator.

24. Y o u r L i s t s o f B u i l d i n g s a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l H o l d i n g s h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d for y o u r g u i d a n c e a n d c o n v e n i e n c e .
I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t y o u s h o u l d s t a r t w i t h the b u i l d i n g o r agricultural holding n u m b e r e d 1 o r H I i n the respective
lists. T h e buildings a n d holdings h a v e been serially n u m b e r e d w i t h the object of y o u r convenience and it is r e c o m m e n d -
ed t h a t in order to ensure t h a t no building or holding is omitted on your r o u n d s y o u should m a k e y o u r tour in the
r e g u l a r sequence s h o w n in the respective lists. It is advisable to do both buildings and holdings concurrently instead
of m a k i n g two or more separate tours. T h u s y o u will enter the particulars of information required in respect of the
i n h a b i t a n t s of building N o . 1 a n d i m m e d i a t e l y follow it up w i t h recording t h e p a r t i c u l a r s of i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d
i n respect o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l h o l d i n g H I w h i c h p r o b a b l y a d j o i n s o r i s situate close t o the b u i l d i n g N o . 1 .
25. T h e f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n required on the agricultural schedules m a y n o t be i m m e d i a t e l y available in c e r t a i n
cases. In s u c h event it w i l l of course be necessary to ascertain the particulars at a subsequent visit or visits. It
i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t y o u m a y n o t b e a b l e t o get p a r t i c u l a r i t e m s o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m p e r s o n s l i v i n g i n o r n e a r t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l holdings a n d t h a t reference m a y be necessary to persons or documents elsewhere. Y o u should endeavour
to o b t a i n this i n f o r m a t i o n before delivering the schedules b a c k to your Supervisor, b u t if after diligent i n q u i r y ,
y o u are u n a b l e to do so, w r i t e the letters " NK " (not k n o w n ) against the cage r e l a t i n g to the p a r t i c u l a r i t e m of
information. Y o u w i l l not h a v e the same difficulty in reguard to the schedules relating to the population census.

26. Finally make sure that you are not omitted from the count either at the Preliminary Census or at the Final
Census. In your case it is unnecessary on the night of the Final Census to cancel the original entry made at the
Preliminary Census in case you are working in a Block outside the Block in which your usual abode is situated.

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 10. Instructions to Female Enumerators
Y o u will not enter upon your duties until y o u have subscribed to an oath of secrecy in the prescribed form
which should be attested by y o u r Supervisor or a higher C e n s u s Officer.
2. Y o u w i l l b e assigned duties i n six C e n s u s E n u m e r a t i o n B l o c k s o n the average w i t h i n a C e n s u s C i r c l e .
W h e r e necessary y o u m a y be called u p o n to do y o u r w o r k in more t h a n the n u m b e r of blocks originally assigned
to y o u .
3. It w i l l be y o u r d u t y to attend on summons f r o m your Supervisor or higher census a u t h o r i t y for the
purpose of receiving directions a n d instructions regarding census arrangements.
4. Y o u r special duties will consist in visiting every building w i t h i n your area in which there a r e —
(1) M a r r i e d w o m e n , a n d
(2) I n f i r m p e r s o n s .

A l i s t o f s u c h b u i l d i n g s w i l l b e g i v e n b y y o u r S u p e r v i s o r s o m e t i m e b e t w e e n F e b r u a r y 1 8 a n d M a r c h 10, 1 9 4 6 , c k i r i n g
w h i c h p e r i o d y o u m u s t h o l d y o u r s e l f i n readiness t o b e caUed for d u t y b y y o u r Supervisor a t a n y reasonable t i m e .
T h e filled up schedules containing the other particulars recorded in respect of these persons w i l l also be h a n d e d to
you. Y o u w i l l sign a r e c e i p t i n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f these f i l l e d u p s c h e d u l e s a n d d e l i v e r the same t o y o u r Supervi.sor.
5. I t w i l l b e y o u r d u t y t o c a l l a t e a c h b u i l d i n g i n t h e L i s t o f B u i l d i n g s for t h e p u r p o s e o f r e c o r d i n g —
(1) P a r t i c u l a r s a g a i n s t c a g e s 1 8 a n d 1 9 i n t h e P o p u l a t i o n S c h e d u l e , a n d / o r
(2) T h e p a r t i c u l a r s r e q u i r e d i n t h e s p e c i a l s c h e d u l e c a l l e d t h e I n f i r m i t i e s S c h e d u l e .

6. E n t r i e s in cages 18 a n d 19 are to be m a d e o n l y in respect of females, a n d only m a r r i e d , widowed a n d

d i v o r c e d females entered as s u c h in cage 7 in the P o p u l a t i o n Schedule.
7. T r y t o a s c e r t a i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s f r o m t h e f e m a l e c o n c e r n e d or, f a i l i n g h e r , f r o m h e r h u s b a n d , f a t h e r ,
mother, or other male or female relative.
8. " T h e date of m a r r i a g e " w i l l be the date of the existing m a r r i a g e , a n d s h o u l d be entered in cage 1 8 ( 1 )
b y d a t e , m o n t h , a n d y e a r , t h u s : " 2 1 s t M a r c h , 1899 " .
Marriage m e a n s not only a union of a m a n a n d w o m a n registered according to law, b u t includes a union
r e c o g n i z e d b y c u s t o m o r r e p u t e , a n d t h e d a t e w i l l b e t h e d a t e o n w h i c h t h e e.^cisting i m i o n w a s f i r s t e n t e r e d i n t o .
I f t h e d a t e a n d t h e m o n t h a r e n o t k n o w n , e n t e r t h e y e a r , eis a c c u r a t e l y a s y o u c a n a s c e r t a i n i t .
9. I n the case o f w o m e n w h o h a v e been previously m a r r i e d , a n d h a v e either contracted a subsequent m a r r i a g e ,
o r a r e n o w d i v o r c e d , o r w i d o w e d , t h e d a t e o r a t l e a s t t h e y e a r o f the first i h a r r i a g e s h o u l d b e a s c e r t a i n e d a n d e n t e r e d
in cage 18 (2).
10. I n c a g e 19, e n t e r t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f c h i l d r e n ( e x c l u s i v e o f s t i l l - b i r t h a ) t h e f e m a l e p e r s o n h a s h a d ,
w h e t h e r s u c h c h i l d r e n a r e s t i l l alive o r n o t , o r w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e b o r n b y her i n the existing m a r r i a g e , i n a p r e v i o u s
one, or out of wedlock. T h e entry should be ' 0 ' for a w o m a n who has never borne children. E n t e r n e x t in brackets
the number of surviving children. F i n a l l y , e n t e r i n s u b - c a g e (2) t h e a g e ( i n y e a r s ) o f the p e r s o n a t t h e t i m e h e r
first child was born. T h e e x a c t age ( c o m p u t e d t o the i M t c o m p l e t e d y e a r ) s h o u l d b e entered, b u t , i f t h i s i s n o t
k n o w n a n d y o u a r e o b h g e d t o m a k e a n e s t i m a t e , p r e f i x t h e w o r d ' a b o u t ' t o t h e e s t i m a t e d age i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h
s u c h entries f r o m the entries of e x a c t ages. Since the entries i n this cage w o u l d b e all i n f i g u r e s , a d d t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n
' y r s . ' to denote the age of the person. A specimen e n t r y w o u l d be as follows :—
I n s u b - c a g e (1) : 6. (4).
I n s u b - c a g e (2) : 24 y r s .

11. T h e record of particulars regarding infirm persons should be made in accordance with the instructions
given in the leaflet entitled " H o w to fill up the I n f i r m i t i e s Schedule " a copy of w h i c h y o u should obtain f r o m y o u r
S u p e r v i s o r together w i t h an " E y e T e s t " c a r d w h i c h y o u should use as instructed.
12. Y o u r w o r k s h o u l d b e completed w i t h i n six d a y s o f the receipt b y y o u o f the schedules a n d y o u s h o u l d
r e t u r n the completed schedules to y o u r Supervisor without undue delay.
13. T h e G e n e r a l I n s t r u c t i o n s to E n u m e r a t o r s a p p l y to your in so f a r as they are applicable to y o u r w o r k
a n d y o u should acquaint yourself w i t h them obtaining a copy thereof from your Supervisor. In particular note
I n s t r u c t i o n N o . 2 1 w h i c h requires t h a t a n y one w h o a c c o m p a n i e s o r assists y o u i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f y o u r duties
m u s t h a v e t a k e n an o a t h or affirmation of secrecy as a C e n s u s Officer.

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 11. Rules for the Enumeration of the Outdoor Population
1. T h e O u t d o o r population is defined as including a l l persons who are travelling on the night of the F i n a l
C e n s u s by c a r t , carriage, m o t o r car, on foot, or otherwise, or by boat on a n y c a n a l , r i v e r , or i n l a n d w a t e n v a y , or
w h o m a y be r e s t i n g or sleeping out of doors or in c a r t s , boats, & c . O c c u p a n t s of galas, a m b a l a m s , tents, &c., are
not to be included in the Outdoor Population, but will be dealt w i t h as p a r t of the General Population.
2. A r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t be made to patrol or w a t c h roads, canals, rivers, &c. W h e r e possible this w i U be
done by the G e n e r a l E n u m e r a t o r . B u t , where frequented cart roads, on w h i c h there m a y be considerable traffic
at night, pass through a village, it m a y be necessary to appoint Outdoor E n i u n e r a t o r s to enumerate travellers.
T h e s e E n u m e r a t o r s m a y either be posted at the j u n c t i o n of roads, or m a y be given beats to patrol not exceeding
7 miles. P o s s i b l y both a p i c k e t a n d a patrol m a y be n e c e s s a r y in some cases. It will be convenient if the patrolling
E n u m e r a t o r c a n do so on a bicycle. O u t d o o r E n u m e r a t o r s w i l l also be r e q u i r e d for the e n u m e r a t i o n of the v a g r a n t
population of the larger towns. A r r a n g e m e n t s m a y be m a d e w i t h the Police to assist in this w o r k . Navigable
r i v e r s , c a n a l s , w a t e r w a y s , &c., c a n b e d e a l t w i t h m u c h i n t h e s a m e w a y a s r o a d s .

3. In general, the Outdoor E n u m e r a t o r will not enumerate any person resting in a building. He will
e n u m e r a t e travellers a n d all persons sleeping or resting in carts, boats, &c. B u t , in p a r t i c u l a r cases as directed by
the S u p e r v i s o r , h e m a y b e r e q u i r e d t o assist the G e n e r a l E n u m e r a t o r i n the e n u m e r a t i o n o f a m b a l a m s , e n c a m p m e n t s ,
&c. If no Outdoor Enumerator is appointed, the General E n u m e r a t o r will enumerate the Outdoor
P o p u l a t i o n i n h i s b l o c k . O u t d o o r S c h e d u l e s a n d E n u m e r a t i o n P a s s e s b e i n g s u p p l i e d t o h i m for t h e p u r p o s e . If
t h e r e i s a n O u t d o o r E n u m e r a t o r for t h e B l o c k , t h e G e n e r a l E n u m e r a t o r w i l l , i n g e n e r a l , e n u m e r a t e o n l y p e r s o n s i n
buildings, b u t he m u s t ask all persons w h o m he meets out of doors to produce their E n u m e r a t i o n Passes. If they
h a v e none, he m u s t find out whether they have been enumerated that night. If not, a n d if f r o m his knowledge
of the probable m o v e m e n t s of the Outdoor E n u m e r a t o r , it seems Ukely t h a t these persons w i l l escape eniuneration,
the G e n e r a l E n u m e r a t o r w i l l enumerate t h e m o n the O u t d o o r Schedules furnished h i m for the purpose a n d give
t h e m passes.

4. T h e O u t d o o r P o p u l a t i o n m u s t be enumerated on the special Outdoor Schedules. E a c h person found

out of doors should be a s k e d , firstly for his n a m e ; secondly, whether he h a d been enmnerated at the P r e l i m i n a r y
C e n s u s , a n d , i f so, w h e r e ; a n d , t h i r d l y , f o r h i s u s u a l p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e , t h a t i s , t h e e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f h i s h o m e , t h e
t o w n a n d street or the district a n d village. T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r s should be recorded at the appropriate places on the
Outdoor Schedules. W h e r e the person denies he w a s e n u m e r a t e d or is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r he w a s e n u m e r a t e d or n o t
at the P r e l i m i n a r y Census, full particulars should be recorded. W h e r e a person found o u t of doors is blind, deaf
or c r i p p l e d , t h e n e c e s s a r y p a r t i c u l a r s s h o u l d also be r e c o r d e d on t h e I n f i r m i t i e s Schedules.
5. E a c h person enmnerated w i l l be given an E n u m e r a t i o n P a s s initialled by the E n u m e r a t o r w i t h instructions
to produce it if a n y other E n u m e r a t o r attempts to enumerate h i m . Before t h e y are e n u m e r a t e d , a l l persons o u t o f
doors m u s t be a s k e d for their emmneration Passes. I f t h e y h a v e none, the E n u m e r a t o r m u s t f i n d out w h e t h e r
they h a v e been enumerated that night. If they have not been enumerated that night, the E n u m e r a t o r should
r e c o r d the r e q u i r e d p a r t i c u l a r s i n accordance w i t h the B u l e s for the F i n a l Census a n d issue t o e a c h person a n
Enumeration Pass.
6. T h e O u t d o o r E n u m e r a t o r should especially w a t c h the u s u a l e m b a r k i n g a n d d i s e m b a r k i n g points for
fishermen proceeding out to sea or r e t u r n i n g , a n d record the required particulars on the n i g h t of the F i n a l Census.
It w i l l doubtless be found t h a t most of t h e m will have been enumerated w i t h their households at the Preliminary-
Census.
7. T h e O u t d o o r E n u m e r a t o r s h o u l d e s p e c i a l l y w a t c h t h e p l a c e s r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e : (a) T h e O u t d o o r
E n u m e r a t o r s m a y w a t c h the usual e m b a r k i n g a n d d i s e m b a r k i n g points carefully, a n d a s k everyone w h o m they
i n t e n d t o e n u m e r a t e t o b e q u i t e s u r e t h a t h e h a s n o t b e e n a l r e a d y c o u n t e d ; (6) T h e G e n e r a l E n u m e r a t o r m a y
i n s t r u c t a l l persons he h a s enimoerated in their homes t h a t they m u s t tell a n y other e n u m e r a t o r a t t e m p t i n g to
enumerate t h e m t h a t they h a v e been already counted. O t h e r steps m a y be necessary u n d e r special circumstances.
8. A l l pilgrims t h a t are on the journey should be requested to halt from noon on the F i n a l Census d a y till
d a w n on the following d a y , a n d to notify the local h e a d m a n of their presence in his village. Notices to this effect
m a y be d i s p l a y e d on the pilgrimage routes.

310
 12. Rules for the Preliminary Census of Population
1. It is essential t h a t y o u s h o u l d realize t h a t the p r e l i m i n a r y C e n s u s is n o t a mere " T r i a l C e n s u s " b u t
is t h e m a i n Census h a v i n g for its object the e n u m e r a t i o n of e a c h person as belonging to the locality in w h i c h he or she
is r e g u l a r l y resident. T h e C e n s u s o n t h e n i g h t o f M a r c h 19, 1946, w i l l b e o n l y i n t h e n a t u r e o f a f i n a l c h e c k u p .
2. At the P r e l i m i n a r y Census y o u should eniunerate in each building only s u c h persons as h a v e therein
t h e i r h a b i t u a l home or u s u a l place of abode. S i n c e it is advisable that y o u s h o u l d get y o u r information, where
possible, direct from the persons y o u e n u m e r a t e , y o u should arrange to visit buildings w h e n all or m o s t of their
i n m a t e s a r e likely to be w i t h i n , s a y between, 6 a . m . a n d 9 a . m . , a n d b e t w e o n 6 p . m . a n d H p . m . b u t y o u are not, of
course, precluded f r o m visiting t h e m at a n y other reasonable time.
3. A person is said to h a v e his h a b i t u a l h o m e or his u s u a l place of abode in a building if it is the place where
h e h a b i t u a l l y o r u s u a l l y sleeps. T h e r e m a y be a certain number of persons having their home or usual place of abode
in a b u i l d i n g b u t w h o w i l l be absent at t h e time of yoiu- visit. These y o u must include and enumerate, obtaining
t h e f a c t s r e g a r d i n g them f r o m t h e i r f a m i l i e s , r e l a t i v e s , a c q u a i n t a n c e s o r o t h e r p e r s o n s a b l e t o g i v e t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n .
T h u s , if, a m e m b e r of a n y household is t e m p o r a r i l y a w a y f r o m h o m e on a visit, or on business, or t r a v e l l i n g for
] ) l e a s u r e , o r a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l o r college, o r s i c k i n h o s p i t a l , s u c h a b s e n t p e r s o n s h o u l d b e e n u m e r a t e d a n d i n c l u d e d
w i t h the other m e m b e r s of the household.
4. In the great m a j o r i t y of cases, however, it is more t h a n likely t h a t the n a m e s of these absent m e m b e r s
of the household will n o t be given y o u by the person furnishing the iiifonmation,\mle8sparticular attention is called
to t h e m . B e f o r e f u r n i s h i n g t h e e n u m e r a t i o n o f a h o u s e h o l d y o u s h o u l d I n a l l c a s e s , t h e r e f o r e , s p e c i f i c a l l y a s k the
question as to whether there are a n y s u c h absent members as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .
5. T h e r e w i l l be, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a c e r t a i n m u n b e r o f p e r s o n s p r e s e n t a n d p e r h a p s l o d g i n g i n a b u i l d i n g
at the t i m e of y o u r v i s i t w h o do not h a v e their h o m e or u s u a l place of abode there. T h e s e y o u s h o u l d NOT e n u m e r a t e
o r i n c l u d e w i t h the m e m b e r s o f the h o u s e h o l d y o u are e n u m e r a t i n g .
6. T h e following examples of h o w to enumerate members of a household, should be studied carefully :—
(a) Persons temporarily a w a y f r o m house on a visit, or business, or travelling f o r pleasure or on pilgrimage :
I n c l u d e w i t h the household.
(6) S t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l o r college a w a y f r o m h o m e : I n c l u d e , w h e t h e r a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l f r o m h o m e ,
o r b o a r d e d a t s c h o o l , college, h o s t e l , o r w i t h o t h e r h o u s e h o l d .
(c) P e r s o n s s i c l i i n h o s p i t a l : I n c l u d e i f a c a s u a l p a t i e n t a t h o s p i t a l . E x c l u d e , if a p e r m a n e n t inmate
of the hospital.
(d) Employees and Servants : I n c l u d e if living a n d sleeping on the premises of the household. Exclude,
if not usually sleeping there.
(e) B o a r d e r s a n d Lodgers : I n c l u d e w i t h the household w h e r e t h e y u s u a l l y b o a r d a n d sleep, e x c e p t
c h i l d r e n or s t u d ents whose h o m e is elsewhere b u t w h o are living or boarding w i t h the household
i n o r d e r t o a t t e n d s c h o o l o r college. E x c l u d e persons who t a k e their meals w i t h the household
b u t u s u a l l y lodge o r s l e e p e l s e w h e r e ,
(y) Visitors or Transients : E x c l u d e .
(g] Soldiers, sailors, a i r m e n , a n d civilian employees of H. M. F o r c e s : E x c l u d e if t h e y are ..reported to be
living in b a r r a c k s , c a m p s , or other W a r D e p a r t m e n t premises. •
{h} Nurses : E x c l u d e hospital nurses l i v i n g a n d sleeping in civil or m i l i t a r y hospitals.
(i) I n m a t e s of H. M. P r i s o n s , A s y l u m s , and other s i m i l a r Institutions : E x c l u d e f r o m h o u s e h o l d , since
these w i l l f o r m separate e n u m e r a t i o n i m i t s .
7. B e f o r e l e a v i n g a b u i l d i n g , b e s u r e t o m a k e a n o t e o f a n y o n e arriong t h e p e r s o n s y o u h a v e e n u m e r a t e d
therein w h o is either blind or totally deaf or a cripple. T h e words " B l i n d ", " D e a f ", or " Cripple ", as the case
m a y be, s h o u l d be w r i t t e n in the space p r o v i d e d below cage 22 at the b o t t o m of the c o l u m n in w h i c h the p a r t i c u l a r s
regarding the person are entered.

311
 13. Rules Relating to the Final Census of Population
1. The final Census of Population w i l l t a k e p l a c e b e t w e e n 6 p.m. and midnight on March 19,1946. I t s g e n e r a l
purpose is to c h e c k up the records obtained at the p r e l i m i n a r y census b u t its procedure will be different. While
the p r e l i m i n a r y census endeavours to relate the population to the locality in w h i c h persons u s u a l l y l i v e d a n d slept,
t h e f i n a l c e n s u s w i l l e n u m e r a t e p e r s o n s a t t h e p l a c e s w h e r e t h e y a r e f o u n d o n t h e n i g h t o f M a r c h , 19, 1 9 4 6 .

2. On the day before the final Census or at such time prior to that date y o u s h o u l d a p p e a r o n s u m m o n s b e f o r e
y o u r supervisor w h o w i l l deliver t o y o u y o u r population enumeration book containing the schedules f i l l e d i n b y y o u
in respect of buildings w i t h i n y o u r B l o c k at the time of the p r e l i m i n a r y census. Y o u w i l l also b e g i v e n a n u m b e r o f
blaiUc general s c h e d u l e s , a n d a s m a l l s u p p l y of O u t d o o r S c h e d u l e s .

3. On the morning of the date of the final Census y o u s h o u l d r e - i s s u e t o e a c h " i n s t i t u t i o n " w i t h i n y o u r B l o c k

the occupiers, schedules w h i c h h a d been filled up at the p r e l i m i n a r y census together w i t h a s u p p l y of b l a n k occupiers'
schedules. Y o u should i n s t r u c t the chief occupier that these schedules s h o u l d be brought up-to-date by the cancel-
l a t i o n o f e n t r i e s i n r e s p e c t o f a l l p e r s o n s w h o w i l l n o t b e p r e s e n t a t t h e " i n s t i t u t i o n " o n t h e n i g h t o f M a r c h 19, 1 9 4 6 .
T h e c a n c e l l a t i o n s h o u l d be m a d e by d r a w i n g a line in i n k d i a g o n a l l y across t h e e n t r y of the person b u t so t h a t t h e
particulars recorded in respect of t h a t person m a y still be clearly read. I n the case o f n e w a r r i v a l s w h o m a y b e
f o u n d i n t h e b u i l d i n g o n t h e n i g h t o f M a r c h 19, 1946, t h e c h i e f o c c u p i e r s h o u l d f i U i n t h e n a m e a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r s
of e a c h person who states t h a t he has not been enumerated eanywhere at the time of the preliminary census held
b e t w e e n F e b r u a r y 1 8 a n d F e b r u a r y 28, 1946. I n t h e case o f a p e r s o n who declares h e w a s e n u m e r a t e d a t the t i m e o f
the p r e l i m i n a r y census only his n a m e a n d the particulars on the reverse of the schedule as to the place of his e n u m e r a -
tion at the p r e l i m i n a r y census a n d his usual residence need be recorded. I n recording the u s u a l residence, the e x a c t
p l a c e o f h i s residence, t h a t is, the place w h e r e h e l i v e d a n d slept h a b i t u a l l y a t the time o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y c e n s u s
( b e t w e e n F e b r u a r y 1 8 a n d 28, 1946) s h o u l d b e a s c e r t a i n e d . I n t h e case o f u r b a n residents, a t least t h e n a m e o f t h e
t o w n a n d street i n w h i c h t h e b u i l d i n g i n w h i c h h e u s u a l l y l i v e d a n d slept a t t h e t i m e o f the p r e l i m i n a r y census s h o u l d
be entered. In the case of r u r a l residents at least the n a m e of the village or h a m l e t and the R e v e n u e D i s t r i t should
be entered.

4. You should re-visit every building within your Blocli on the night of March 19,1946, c o m r a e n c i n g u t 6 p . m .
for t h e purpose o f m a k i n g s i m i l a r e m e n d a t i o n s a n d additions, i f necessary t o t h e record m a d e b y y o u o n the schedules
at the preliminary census. G r e a t stress is l a i d on y o u r cancelling entries n e a t l y , so t h a t the p a r t i c u l a r s recorded in
r e s p e c t o f e v e r y c a n c e l l e d e n t r y m a y b e easily legible. T h i s i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s the follow u p action r e g a r d m g s u c h
entries will thereby be greatly facilitated.

5. Inthecourseof yourTourroundthebuildingsinyour Block y o u m a y m e e t p e r s o n s o u t o f d o o r s o n t h e r o a d s o r

elsewhere. Y o u should m a k e it a point to question e a c h s u c h person who does not show y o u an enumeration pass,
as to his n a m e a n d as to whether he h a d been enumerated at the preliminary census held in F e b r u a r y a n d if so the
place o f e n u m e r a t i o n , a n d his u s u a l residence a n d enter these particulars i n a n Outdoor Schedule. Care should
t a k e n to see—

(1) that no person out of doors is omitted, a n d

( 2 ) that no person is counted twice at the final census.
Y o u should i n p a r t i c u l a r cover a n y ferries o r halting places for carts a n d cattle other t h a n galas o r landing
places a n d other places w h e r e travellers m a y b e h a l t i n g for the n i g h t within y o u r enumeration block.
6. When you have completed the ennumeratlon of your BIocIc y o u s h o u l d d e l i v e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n enumeration
book containing the completed schedules to our Supervisor.

7. At 7 a.m. on March 20, 1946, or as soon as practicable thereafter y o u s h o u l d a t t e n d o n y o u r S u p e r v i s o r

for t h e purpose of preparing your abstract in accordance w i t h the instructions which will be given y o u by the
Supervisor.

312
 14. Narrative for Testing Enumerators
Certsus No. of Building ; S
W . M . L o k u B a n d a , enumerator o f the village o f N a r a m m a l a i n K u r u n e g a l a D i s t r i c t , begins his e n u m e r a t i o n
w i t h the house o f D a s s a n a y a k e M u d i y a n s e l a g e M u t t u B a n d a , situated i n his B l o c k N o . 3 i n Circle N o . I . Questioned
by the enumerator he states t h a t he is a K a n d y a n Sinhalese of the B u d d h i s t religion ; able to read a n d write Sinhalese
b u t not E n g l i s h , though he is able to hold a short conversation in E n g l i s h . He is a widower about 63 years old,
born in N a r a m m a l a . H e i s n o w too o l d t o w o r k b u t o w n s a c o c o n u t e s t a t e o f 3 0 a c r e s w h i c h b r i n g s h i m a f a i r
income. H i s home is his oivn a n d h a s five rooms. It is a tiled b u i l d i n g with b r i c k walls though t h e k i t c h e n w h i c h
i s d e t a c h e d i s o f w a t t l e a n d d a u b a n d h a s a t h a t c h e d roof. F i n a n c i a l difficulties o f late h a d m a d e h i m mortgage
the b u i l d i n g t o the T h a m b y M u d a l a l i w h o r u n s a large b o u t i q u e across the r o a d . He can speak T a m i l . He is
interested in the coconut p l a n t a t i o n a n d employs a conductor w h o looks after his coconut estate.
L i v i n g w i t h h i m are h i s two d a u g h t e r s , one son a n d a s m a l l b o y w h o m h e h a d p i c k e d u p a t i n f a n c y a t the
Kurunegala Hospital. T h e n a m e s o f the two d a u g h t e r s are L e e l a w a t h i e a n d P o d i M e n i k a . Leelawathie went
o u t i n d i g a a n d a m a r r i a g e h a d b e e n registered a t t h e K a c h c h e r i , w i t h a m a n w h o f o u n d e m p l o y m e n t w i t h the
Military a n d is now in the Middle E a s t . S h e i s a l s o a b l e t o r e a d a n d w r i t e S i n h a l e s e a n d also E n g l i s h a s s h e h a d b e e n
schooled i n the K u r u n e g a l a C o n v e n t . S h e w a s 3 8 last D e c e m b e r a n d she h a d been b o m i n N a r a m m a l a . She makes
b e a u t i f u l p i l l o w laces a n d sells this r e g u l a r l y to C e y l o n P r o d u c t s in C o l o m b o . She also receives a f a m i l y allowance
from the Military authorities. S h e h a d also receiv.ed a d o w r y a n d s h e o w n s a h o u s e i n K u n m e g a l a t o w n w h i c h s h e
has rented o u t for R s . 40 a m o n t h . T h e date o f her m a r r i a g e w a s n o t k n o w n b u t i t w a s about t h e t i m e o f the great
d o i n g s a t K a n d y w h e n t h e D u k e o f G l o u c e s t e r a r r i v e d a n d s h e h a d g o n e t o K a n d y t o see the T h r o n e . S h e h a d also
voted a t the t i m e o f the first general election b u t t h e n she w a s u i m i a r r i e d . S h e h a d two c h i l d r e n , both of w h o m
usually lived in the same building w i t h the g r a n d father b u t were a w a y in K u r u n e g a l a attending school. T h e y are
11 a n d 9 years old respectively. As f a r as she is a w a r e her first c h i l d w a s b o r n w h e n she w a s 25. S h e is able to
speak both Sinhalese a n d T a m i l . S h e does n o t g o o u t t o d o a n y j o b o u t s i d e h e r h o m o .
T h e second daughter, P o d i M e n i k a , i s the youngest i n t h e f a m i l y a n d there i s a difference o f m o r e t h a n ten
years between Leelawathie and P o d i Menika. She is i m m a r r i e d a n d helps her father in checking the accounts of the
coconut estate w h e n received. S h e a l s o h e l p s h e r e l d e r s i s t e r i n m a k i n g t h e p i l l o w l a c e b u t she gets n o r e g u l a r p a y m e n t
on this account. S h e also cooks for the whole household.

T h e son w h o calls h i m s e l f E d w i n D a s s a n a y a k e is a clerk in the Village Committee Office. H i s age w a s 3 1

years last J u n e . H e d r a w s a s a l a r y o f B s . 3 0 a m o n t h p l u s w a r a l l o w a n c e w h i c h c o m e s t o a b o u t R s . 18. He speaks,
reads a n d writes E n g l i s h , Sinhalese a n d T a m i l .

T h e little b o y w h o i s called J o h n i s 1 3 y e a r s old. H i s parentage is not known. He h a s n e v e r been schooled

a n d h e i s e m p l o y e d t o d o o d d jobs i n the house i n r e t u r n for h i s food a n d clothing. He is not p a i d a n y wage.

313
 15. Eye Sight Testing Card
To be issued with Leaflet containing Instructions Jor filling up the Infirmities Schedule-!

jiti5isi<sSet,iiTS(&,fi)uj ^ilLajSsssraSsr; jgijuqLb Qurf(njL(B eSl^&csn ^t_iEjSaj

F EOZ D

314
 Census 19
(F 8) ll/4.i
16. Form of Oath or Afflrmatlon

I, swear/*soIemnIy, sincerely a n d truly affinri a n d declare that I will faithfully a n d honestly fulfil
my duties as in conformity w i t h the requirements of the Census O r d i n a n c e ( C h a p t e r 118) a n d a l l r u l e s
m a d e t h e r e u n d e r , a n d t h a t I w i l l not w i t h o u t due a u t h o r i t y i n t h a t b e h a l f p u b l i s h o r c o m m u n i c a t e a n y i n f o r m a t i o n
w h i c h I m a y o b t a i n i n the course o f m y e m p l o y m e n t a s

, 194 .
Before me

(Signature a n d Designation.)

' Strike off what is inapplicable.

3.15
 tiensu9 lU
(F 4) fl/45

17. Act of Appointment of Enumerator

C&isus of Ceylon, 19i6

U n d e r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f " T h e C e n s u s O r d i n a n c e , 1 9 0 0 " , a s a m e n d e d b y t h e C e n s u s (.A.mendment) O r d i n a n c e ,

N o . 6 of 1945.
I hereby appoint a s E n u m e r a t o r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g D i v i s i o n .-—

Coimnissioner of Census.

District/Town.
This d a y of , 194-

• Here insert the name of the vUlage, town, or ward, and Block number of Block (or Blocks) assigned to the Enumerator.

316
 INDEX OF PERSONS

PAGE PAGE

Abeysinghe, A . N . D . 44 (n) Carr-Saunders, Sir A. M. 5 7 , 67 164 ( n )

Adharmistha Deviyo 178 (n) Casie C h i t t y 87 ( n ) , 165 ( n )
Agrabodhi I, K i n g of Ceylon 253 Catherine of Russia 22
Agrabodhi I I I , K i n g o f Ceylon 4 Ohandrabhanu 7
-^hriman 185 Ohandragupta 3
Alagakkonara {See Bhuwonaka Christian I V , K i n g of Denmark 16
Bahu V.) Chung Ho 9
Alugiyawanna 14 Chu Yuan-Chang 9
Ala-uddin 7, 8 Claudius, E m p e r o r 11
-Alexander, the G r e a t 3, 11 Olough, D r . 178 ( n )
Ali 184 Coates, R . H . 40 (n), 208 (n)
Ammian a Colbert 40
Anastasius, E m p e r o r 11 (n) Confucius 39
A r u n a c h a l a m , P. . . 23 ( n ) , 54 ( n ) , Constantino, E m p e r o r 11
74 ( n ) , 197 (n) Coomaraswamy, D r . Ananda K . 32
••Vrjuna 193 Correa, Doraingos 18
Arya Chakravarti. . 7, 9, 10 Conoa, Sim an 15
Asoka, Emperor of India 3, 173, 174 Cosmas Indicopleustes, I I , 180
.'Vsthana B a n d a r a 16 Costa 17
AzHvedo 15, 16 Cyrenins, Goveinor of S y r i a 39

T>a C a m a , V a s c o . . 12
I)'.\ll>erquerque, Jorge Ifi
Bacon, Roger 10
Ounto 10
Barbosa 228
Barbut Dathopatissa, K i n g of Coylon 4
24
David, Kins; of Israel 3i)
B a r n e s , Sir E d w a r d , Governor
Bavie, K. • 69 (n)
Ceylon U , 41, 5.">, 96
D a v i e , ^lajvir 24
Barthelemy St. H i l a i i e 173 (n)
Davy 96 ( n ) , 132, 141 ( n ) ,
Bathluirst 25 (n)
195 (n)
Btttuta, I b n I I , 80, 122
Beal D o A l m e i d a , Lourfinc<i 11, 12
173 (n)
De B o s c h o u w v e r . . 16
Becker 20
Bhalluka De Coulanges, F u s t o l 31 (n)
3
Bhinna Dc Heere, 19
193 (n)
Do la Haye 19
Bhuwenaka B a h u I, K i n g of Ceylon 7
Do M e l l o , D i o g o . , 17
Bhuwenaktt Bahu IV, King of
Denham, E. l i . . . 54 (n)
Ceylon 88
Do Saa, Constantino 10, 17
B h u w e n a k a B a h u \ K i n g of C e y l o n 9, 14
Bhuwenaka Bahu V I , King of De Souza, Martin Alfonso 12, 15
Do Suffren 22
Ceylon 10
Devanampivatissa, K i n g of Ceylon 3 , 173
Bhuwenaka Bahu V I I , K i n g of
De Weert 16
Ceylon 12
Dharmapala, Don Juan 12, 13, 14, 15
Bouquet 178 (n)
Dharmaparakraraa Bahu, King of
Bowley, A . L . 55, 66 ( n )
Ceylon 10, 12
Boyd 22
Dhatusena, K i n g of Ceylon 4
Breasted, J. H. . . 39 (n) •
Diodorous Siculus 193
Brodie, A. O. 168 (n)
Disala 164
Brohier, R. L. . . 1 (n)
Donna Catherina . . 15
Brownrigg, S i r R o b e r t , Governor of
Draupadi 193 (n)
Ceylon 25
Dryden .. ' 19 ( n )
Buddha 3, 87, 173, 174.
Dublin .. 217
179, 224
Dutugemunu, K i n g of Ceylon 3, 54, 102, 2 5 4
Buddhadasa 4
Buddhaghosa 4
Bukka Edirille Bandara . . 15
Edirimanasuriya .. 13
Edward V I I , King 35
Eggerling, J. . . 178 ( n )
Caen, Anthony 17 Ehelapola 25, 84
C a m , Carvalho 17 E l a r a , K i n g of Ceylon 3, 6, 166

317
 PAGE PAGE

F a Hian 36 (n), 173 (n) Konappu Bandara . 14, 90

Falck 2 1 , 22 Krishna . 178
Favioll 34 Kublai Khan . . . 9,40
Figueira 18 Kuczynski, Dr. R. R. . 4 2 , 57 ( n ) , 6 2 ( n ) , 65
Forbes .5.5 Kulasekhara . 6
Freeman, E . A . 31 (n) Kxunara Sinha . . . 17
Freeman, H . R . 157 Kuveni . 164

Gaja Bahu I
Gaj a Bahu II Landis 198 (n)
Galton, Sir Francis 198 (n) Lankapura 6
G a t e r , Sir George 42 Liesching, Louis 151
Geiger 3(n) Livy 39
George I V , K i n g . . 88 Lotka 217 (n)
Gibbon 11 (n), 54 ( n ) , 1 8 0 ( n ) Louis X I V 40
Giles, Lionel 9 (n), 40 (n) Lucasz 17
Gini, Corrado 57 Lyall, A. 0. 179 (n)
Glass. D . V . 61 ( n ) , 6 5 (n)
Glover, D r . T . R . 1
Gomes, Manuel .. 15 Macarthy, W . J . . . 41
Gordon, Sir Arthur, Governor of
Macdowall, General 24
Ceylon, afterwards L o r d Stanmore
Mac Iver, R. M. .. 75 (n)
31 ( n ) , 1 2 9 Madduma Bandara 12
Gunasekera, B . . .. 12 ( n ) , 14 Magha 6, 7
Mahasena 4
Halliday . . . . 3 9 (n) M a h i n d a , son of A s o k i i 3, 174
H a r d y , Spence . . .. 84 (n) Mahinda I V , K i n g c f Ceylon 4
Harihara . . .. 8 Mahinda V, K i n g of Ceylon 4
H a y l e y , F. A. . . . . 155 (n) Maine, Sir Henry 31 (n)
Heliogabalus, E m p e r o r .. 54 Malik K a f u r 7
H e n r y , P r i n c e of P o r t u g a l . . 10 Malthus, T . R . 67
Herodotus . . . . 39 ( n ) Mampitiya Bandara 25
Hippalus ..11 Manabharana 5
H i t l e r , A. . . . . 150 Manamperuma 16
Hobart, Lord . . . . 24 (n) Manavarma 4
Hughes, Sir Henry . . 22 Manu 2
Hulft . . 18 Marco Polo 4 0 (n), 122
H u n g Wu . . . . 9 Mayadunna 12, 13, 14, 140
H u n t e r , W. W. . . . . 174 Mithra 7
Hutton . . . . 209 (n) Modder 193 (n)
Moggalana 4
Ishii, Kyoichi 62 (n) MoUigoda, Adigar 25, 26, 136 .
Moore, S i r H e n r y 4 2 (n)
Moses 39
.Tagad V i j a y a 0
Mukerjee, Rmlhakaiaal 68 ( n ) , 69
.Talestie 28 Muthusamy 24
Jayavira Bandara 15, 10
Jethatissa, K i n g of Coyloii 4
Jivahatthrt 164 Nakula 193
J o h n I I I , K i n g o f Portugal 12, 13 Narenappa Nayakar 20
Julian, Emperor . . 11 Narendra Sinha . . 20
Juvenal 1 Navaratna 19
Navaratna Bandara 15
Kakavanna 54 Noarchus 11
Kandaswamy . . 132 Nell, D r . A . 243 (n)
Kannasamy 24 Neville, H. ' 165 (n)
Karaliadde 13, 15 Nikapitiya Bandara 16
Kartikeya 178 Noronha 13
Kasyapa, K i n g of Ceylon 4 North, Frederic, Governor of
K e i t h , Sir .4rthur 150, 151 Ceylon 24
Keppetipola 2 6 , 129, 178
Kirti 4
K i r t i Nissanka . . Onesicritus 11
K i r t i Sri R a j a Sinha, K i n g of 136 (n) Ormazd 1S5
Ceylon Ove Giedde 16
Knibbs, G. H. . . 20, 22
Knox, Robert . . 41 ( n ) , 209 (n)
19, 69, 1 2 2 , 132 ( n ) , Panchala, King . . 193
140 ( n ) , 152 (n), Pandawa, King . . 2
174, 193, 217 ( n ) , Panditha Parakrama 10
228

318
 PA.OE

Panduwasa, K i n g of Ceylon . . 2 (n3) Solomon, K i n g . . 11

P a r a k r a m a B a h u the Great, King Solon . . 39
of C e y l o n 5, 6, 8, -.-)4, 55, 124, Sona . . 254
130 (n) Soulbury, L o r d . . . . 27
P a r a k r a m a Biihu I I , K i n g of Ceylon 7, 54 Srinaga , , . . 4
P a r a k r a m a B a h u I I I , K i n g o f C e y l o n 7 , 136 (n)
Sri R a h u l a . . . . 10
P a r a k r a m a B a h u I V , K i n g o f Ceylon 1 0
Sri V i j a y a R a j a . . 20
P a r a k r a m a B a h u V I , K i n g o f C e y l o n 9 , 10, 108
P a r k e r , H. . . • • 2 (n) Sri V i k r a m a R a j a S i n h a . . 24, 69
Parvati . . . . 178 St. H e l e n a or Santalena .. 110
Pearl, R a y m o n d . . . . 55 St. T h o m a s .. 180
Percival " . . . . 93 Subramaniya . . 178
Pichegru . . . . 22 Sugala .. 5
Pieris, D r . P . E . . . ..21,38,80 Sundbarg . . 154 (n)
Pieters, Sophia . . . . 41 Suratissa, K i n g of Ceylon . . 3
Pilima Talawa . , . . 2 2 , 24, 25
Pinhao, Simao . . . . 15
Pliny . . . . 11 (n), 217 ( n )
P o u l i e r , R. S. V. . . 2 7 (n) Tacitus .. 39
Prester John . . . . 10 Tennent, Emerson .. 5 5 , 131
Pridhnm . . . . 93 (n) Thwaites, Henry K e n d r i c k . . 252
Ptolemy . . ..11 Tikiri Bandara .. 13
Pybus . . . . 2 1 , 22 Tippoo Sahib .. 22
Pyl . . . . 19 Torrington, Viscount, Governor of
Pyrard . . . . 228 Ceylon .. 81 ( n )
Tuglak, Mohammad Bin .. 8
Turner, L. J. B. . . . . 193 (n)
Tumour, R. L. .. 3(n)

R a j a d h i Raja.singha . . . 2 2 , 24
R a j a R a j a the G r e a t , K i n g o f C h o l a 4
R a j a Sinha I , K i n g o f Ceylon 14, 92, 140, 178 ( n ) U d a y a I I I , K i n g o f Ceylon .. 4
R a j a Sinha I I , K i n g o f Ceylon 17, 19, 6 9 , 88, 9 3 ,
110, 150, 174
Rama . . 113, 178 Valagambahu, K i n g of Ceylon 3, 4
Rameses I I , K i n g of Egypt 39 Valentyn 8 5 ( n ) , 132 ( n )
Ratzel 172 (n) Vahniki 178
Ravana 112, 113 V a n Angelbeek 22
Rembrandt 23 V a n der Graffe 2 2 . 41
Ribeiro, Joao 38 Van E c k 21
Robinson, Sir Hercules, Governor Van Rhee 19
of Ceylon 31 Vasabha, K i n g of Ceylon 4
Russell, Lord John 81 (n) Vidiye Bandara , . 13
V i j a y a , K i n g o f Ceylon 1, 2 ( n ) , 122, 164.
171
V i j a y a B a h u I, K i n g of Ceylon . . 4 5, 10
V i j a y a B a h u I I I , K i n g of Ceylon . . 7
Sahadeva 193 (n) V i j a y a B a h u I V , K i n g o f Ceylon .. 7
Sakalakala W a l l a . . 12 V i j a y a B a h u V I , K i n g of Ceylon . . 12, 1 3
Sakya Pandu 2 (n) V i j a y a - P a l a , Prince . . 93
Samarakoon 15 V i k r a m a B a h u I, K i n g of Ceylon . . 5
Samorin, R a j a h of Calicut 12 Vimala Dharma Suriya I . . 15, 92
Samudra Devi 13 V i m a l a D h a r m a Suriya II . . 19
Samudragupta 8 Vira Bahu .. . 7
Sapumal Kumaraya 10, 108 Vira Pandu . . . 6
Saranankara 2 0 , 21 Vira-Parakrama Bahu . . 10
Schreuder, J a n 2 0 (n) Virarayaven .. . . 108
Schweitzer 186 ( n ) , 208 (n) Vira-Vikrama . . 10, 88
Seleucus Nicator 3 Vira-Vikrama Bahu • • 13
Sena I, K i n g of Ceylon 4 Vishnu . . 178, 179
Sena I I , K i n g of Ceylon 4 Vondel . . . . 23
Senanaj'ake, R t . H o n . D. S. 1
Senerat, K i n g of Ceylon 16, 88
Servius Tullius 39
Simonsz, Johannes 1 9 , 33 ( n ) W a r d , Sir Henry, Governor of
Singariya Chakrawarthi 109 Ceylon . . . . 31, 113
Siri Sangabo 7 Wemyss. General . . . . 24
Sita 113 Wesley, J o h n . . . . 182
Siva 1 7 8 , 179 Westerwold .. ..17
Skanda 178 West Ridgeway, Sir J . , Governor of
Smith, V . A . 1 (n) Ceylon . . . . 35

319
 PAGE

WiUiam V, K i n g of Holland . . 22 Y u , Emperor of China 39

Wissler, Clark . . . . 150 Yudhistira 193 (n)
Yung Lo .. 9

X a v i e r , St. Francis 110, 181

Zoroaster 185

320
 INDEX OF PLACES
PAGE

Abyssinia 10 Burma 5, 15, 19, 37, 58, 174,

Adam's Peak 5. 20, 89, 90, 133, 136 220
Africa 38 Buttala 130
A k k a r a i Pattu ] 14
Alupotha 129
Aluthkade (Ward of Colombo Calicut 11, 12
Municipality) 82, 359 Cambodia o
Alutkviru Korale Nortli A ' 79, 80 Oathay 40 (n)
A l u t k i i r u Korale North ' B ' 79 Canada 27, 40, 48, 58, 208 (n)
Alutkuru Korale South 79 Cape Comorin . .
.Ambalangoda U r b a n Council {See Subject Index) Cape of Good Hope 11
.Axnbalantota 102, 103 Central Proviaco (See Subject Index)
Ambatenna 17 Ceylon (See Subject Index)
-Amboyna 19 Chilaw District (See Subject Iiidex)
America, South 252 Ohilaw U r b a n Council (See Subject Index)
Aniu-adhapura . . G, 16, 20, 4G, 55, 71, China 9, 38, 40
74, 102, 128, 161 Chola 5, 9
Anuradhapura District (See Subject Index) Cinnamon Gardens (Ward
/Vnuradhapura Ui'baa Council (See Subject Index) Colombo Municipality 82
Arabia S, 9 Colombo District (See Subject Index)
Argentine 58 Colombo Mudaliyar's Division 79
Asia 38, 58 Colombo Municipality (See Subject Index)
Assain 252
A t a k a l a n Korale 134
Attampitiya 137
Dambadeni Hatpattiiwa 119, 120
Atiilugam and Panawal Koralei 133, 138, 140
Debarawewa 103
Australia 41, 58, 80, 209, 220
Dehigampal and Lower Bulat-
Avissawella U r b a n Council (.Sec Subject Index)
gama 139
Dehiwala-Mount L a v i n i a Urban
Council (See Subject Index)
Delft 20, 71, 106
Babylon 39 Delhi 7, 78
B a d u l l a District {See Subject Index) Oemala Hatpattuwa- 118, 123
Badulla U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) Dematagoda (Ward of Colombo
Balane 15, 17 Municipality 82
Balangoda U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) Denmark 58, 06
Balapitiya 97 Denver ( U . S. A . ) 80
Bambalapitiya (Ward of Colombo Dewamedi Hatpattiiwa .. 119, 120
Municipality) 82 Devonshire 85
Bandarawela U r b a n Coimcil (See Subject Index) Dimbula Korale 95
Batavia 22 Dondra 18
Batticaloa District (iSee Subject Index) Dumbara
Batticaloa U r b a n Council (See Subject Index)
Belgium 58, 66
Beliatta 102
E a s t Indies U
Bengal 80, 171, 245
E a s t e r n L o w Country 128
Bentota-Walallawiti Korale 98. 100
E a s t e r n Province (See Subject Index)
Beligala 7
Egoda Pattuwa 128
Beligal Korale . . 138
Egypt 36, 39 (n), 62
Beragama 103
E n g l a n d and Wales (See U n i t e d Kingdom)
Beruwala U r b a n Council 45, 9
E r a v u r K o r a l a i Pattu 114
Bintenne 29 (n)
Bintenne P a t t u 114 E r u v i l Porativu and Manmunai
P a t t u South . . 114
Borella (Ward of Colombo Muni-
Ettampitiya 129
cipality
80 Europe 65, 150
Bloemendahl
Brazil 58
Bristol 80
B r i t i s h Isles (See United Kingdom) F o r t (Ward of Colombo Munici-
Bulatgama, Lower 138 pality) . . . . 82
Bulatgama, Upper 88 F o r t Mac Donald . . 129
Bulutota 133 F o u r Gravets (Galle) . - 98, 99

321.
 PAGE PAGE

F o u r Gravels (Nuwara J31iya) . . 95 Jaffna Division . . 106, 107

Tour Gravets and Wellabodn Jaffna U r b a n Council . . (See Subject Index)
Pattuwa (Matara) lOJ Japan . . 27, 38, 57, 58, 62, 64,
F o u r K o rales 136 66, 220
Federated Malay States 58 Jayawardhanapura . . '.), 84
France 22, 58, 66

Galboda and Kinigoda Korales . . 133, 138 Kabul 3

Galagedera 21 Kachchilamadu Ul
Galle District . . (iSee Subject Index) K a d a w a t a and Meda Korales 134
Galle Municipal Council (See Subject Index) Kaddukulam Pattu 116
Gampaha U r b a n Council {See Subject Index) Kadugannawa U r b a n Council . . (See Subject Index)
Gampola U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) K a l a g a m Palata . . 127
Gangaboda P a t t u w a (Galle) i)8 Kalinga 4, 5
Gangaboda P a t t u w a (Matara) . . 101 Kalpitiya 19. 22, 122, 124
Gangasiripura 88, 93 K a l p i t i y a Division 122, 123
Gangawata Korale 91 Ivalutara District (See Subject Index)
Gangetic Valley 2 (n) K a l u t a r a Totamune 86
Gannewa Korale 95 K a l u t a r a Urban Council (Sec Subject Index)
Germany 150 Kammal Pattu 125
Gilinaale Kandaboda P a t t u 101
Giruwa Pattu E a s t 102, 103 Kandukara 29 (n), 129
G i r u w a Pattu West 102, 103 K a n d y District (See Subject Index)
Goa 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 124 K a n d y Municipality (See Subject Index)
Grandpass (Ward of Colombo Kanniyai 115
Municipafity) 82, 159 Karachi 105
Great Britain . . 36 Kataragama 4, 132, 133, 178
Greece 39 Katugampola Hatpattuwa 119, 120
Kayalpatnam 8
Kegalla District (See Subject Index)
Hambantota District (See Subject Index) Kegalla U r b a n Coimcil (See Subject Index)
Hambantota U r b a n Coimcil (<See Subject Index) Kerala 46
Hampshire 78 Kinchigune 103
Hangchow (See Kinsai) Kinsai 40 (n)
Hanwella 21 Kochchikade (Ward of Colombo
Hapitigam Korale 79, 80 Miuiicipality) 82
Harispattuwa . . 88, 90, 91 K o d d i y a r Pattu 116
Hastisailapura 120 Kolonna Korale 134
Hatton-Dickoya U r b a n Council. . (See Subject Index) Kolonnawa U r b a n Council (Sec Subject Index)
Havelock Town (Ward of KoUupitiya (Ward of Colombo
Colombo Municipality) 82 Municipality) 82
K o m a r i , Cape of 113
Henaratgoda 252
Koralai Pattu . . 115
Hendala 33 (n)
77 Kotabowa 129
Hewagam Korale
Hinidum Pattuwa . . 98, 99 Kotahena E a s t (Ward of Colombo
Hiriyala Hatpattuwa Municipalitj' 82
119, 120
Holland 19, 22, 28 Kotahena West (Ward of Colombo
H o r a n a U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) Municipality) . '.
Horton Plains . . 30, 128 Kotmale 88, 95
Hulftsdorp 80 Kotte U r b a n Council (See Subject Index)
Kottiar 16, 19
Himgary 66
K o t t u Kachchiya 123
H u n u p i t i y a (Ward of Colombo
K u k u l Korale . . 134, 135
Municipality) 82
K u l i y a p i t i y a U r b a n Comicil (See Subject Index)
Hurulu-Palata . . 127, 128
Kundasale 20, 21
Kuppiawatte (Ward of Colombo
Municipality 82
India 1, 3, 54, 58, 59, 60,
Kurunegala District (See Subject Index)
66. 130, 134. 141.
Kurunegala Urban Council (See Subject Index)
156, 162, 163 (n).
Kuruwita 136
220, 241, 252
K u r u w i t a Korale 1,34, 135
Indonesian Islands 171
Kuttapitiya 21
Irakkaman 113
Iran 36
Islands Division of J a f f n a 106
Israel 39
Italy 58, 66 Leeds 80
Lisbon 12, 13
London 80
J a - e l a U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) Lower Bulatgama 136, 139
J a f f n a District . , (See Subject Index) Lucknow 80

322
 i?AGB

37 X u w a r a E l i y a District (See Subject Index)

Madagascar (See Subject Index)
Nuwaxa E i i y a U r b a n Council
Madampitiya (Ward of Colombo
82 Nuwara E l i y a Gravets 95
Municipality)
30 Nuwaragam P a l a t a E a s t 127
Madras
2, 1 9 , 2 0 . 2 1 , 157 Nuwaragam Palata West 127
Madura
2 Nuwarakalawiya 105, 126
Madyadosa
55, 102 North-Central Province (See Subject Index)
Magama
102, 103 Northern Province (See Subject Index)
Magam P a t t u . .
122 Norton Bridge 36
Mahauswewa
17^20, 132 North-Western Province (See Subject Index)
Mahiyangana ..
7, 220 Norway 58
Malaya
Maligakanda (Ward of Colombo
Mmiicipality) 82, 159
Maligawatt-e (Ward of Colombo Ostenburg, Tort 22
Municipality) 82
Malwaaa 15
Manmunai P a t t u North 114, 194 Pachchilappalai.Karachchi 106
Manmunai P a t t u South 114 Pakistan 58, 60, 66, 80, 162 (n),
Maonar 18, 22, 37, 71 163
Mannar District (See Subject Index) Pandya 9
Mannar Island . . 108, 109 P a n a d u r a Totamune 86
Mantai 108, 109 Panadura U r b a n Council (S'ee Subject Index)
Maradana (Ward of Colombo Panama Pattu . . 114
Municipality) . . 82 Pannara 17
Maritime P a t t u 113 Paranakuru Korale 133, 138, 140
Maritime Provinces 23,29, 41,71 , 113, Pasdun. Korale E a s t and AVest . . 86
180 Passara 129
Matale District (See. Subject Index) P a t a Bulatgamii 133
Matale E a s t Division 86,87,91,92 Pata Dumbara 88, 91
Matalo North Division 73, 88, 89, 93, 94 P a t a Hewaheta 88
Matale South Division 88, 93, 94 Pekin 9
Matalo Urba.u Council (See vSubject Index) Persia .. 80, 180
Matara District (See Subject Index) Pettiili (Ward of Colombo Muni
Matara U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) cipality) 82, 160
Mawata P a t t u . . 140 Pidurutalagala . . 89
Maya R a t a 54, 124 Pihiti o r R a j a R a t a 54
Medagama 103 Pitigal Korale North and South. 125
Meda Pattuwa . . 128 Point Pedro 19, 22
Mexico 58 Polonnaruwa 55, 71, 126
Middlesex 78 Pomparippu Pattu 122
Milagiriya 80 Portugal 10. 12, 14, 15, 18, 58,
Minuwangoda, L o c a l B o a r d (See Subject Index) 66
Modera (Ward of Colombo Muni. Puliyanti\'-u 17
cipality) 82 Punakari Tunukkai 106
Moluccas 38 Punjab 3
Moratuwa U r b a n Coiinoil (See Subject Index) (See Subject Index)
Puttalam District
Morawak Korale 100, 101 123
Puttalam P a t t u
Mulgirigala 22 (See Subject Index)
Puttalam U r b a n Council
Mullaitivu 105, 111
Musali 109
Mutturaja-wela .. 21
Quebec 40
Mutvval ( W a r d of Colombo Muni-
cipality) 82
Mysore 22, 171
Raja Rata 5, 72, 126
Ramanna 5, 6
Rameswaram 12
Nallur 13 158
11 (n) Ramnad
Nankin 17
134 Randeniwela
Nawadim Korale
(See Subject Index) Rata Hata
Nawalapitiya U r b a n Council
20 Ratgama
Neduntivu 35
Ratmalana
Nagapatam 22 (See Subject Index)
R a t n a p u r a District
Negombo U r b a n Council (See Subject Index) (See Subject Index)
R a t n a p u r a Urban. Council
Netherlands 58, 66 77, 86
New B a z a a r (Ward of Colombo R a y i g a m Korale
Rayigama 12
Municipality) 82
40 R e d Sea 80
New France, Colony of 128
New Hampshire 85 Ritigala
Rochester ( U . S. A . ) SO
New Zealand 58, 212, 217, 220
Rohana-Rata . . 4, 5, 71, 121. 128
Nintavur and K a r a v a k u P a t t u . . 114

323
Rome 39, 54, 181 Totapola 89
Ruanwella 19, 137 Travancore 193
Rugam 113 Trincomaleo District {See Subject Index)
Russia 22 T o w n Division, Trincomaleo 117
Trincomalee U r b a n Council {See Subject Index)
Tumpane 88, 91
Sabaragamuwa Province (.See Subject Index)
Salpiti Korale . . 79, 80
Samanalagala . . 164
Samanturai 114 U d a Bulatgama 88, 90, 91
S a n Sebastian ( W i u d of Colombo U d a Dumbara . . 88,89,90, 91, 165
Municipality) 82, 159, 100 U d a Hewaheta 88. 95, 96
Scotland 58 Uda Palata 88
Seattle 80 Udukinda 130, 131
Sellankandal 168 U d u n u w a r a and Y a t i nuwara S8, 90. 91
Sereudib 11 (n), SO U d u w a Palata . . 139
Seiikhandasela Siriwardhaaa 88 Union of South A f r i c a 62
Seven Korales . . 54, 71, 118 United Kingdom 36, 58, 65, 66, 181,
Sheffield 80 208 (n), 220, 224,
Siam 5, 20, 21, 38 234
Sigiriya 4 United States of America 36, 58, 8.5, 141, 150,
Sitawaka 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. 71, 220
140 U v a , Province of {See Subject Index)
Sivaganga 158
Siyane K o r a l e . . 79, 80
Slave I s l a n d ' ( W a r d of Colombo
Municipality 82
South A f r i c a Vadamaraclichi 106, 107
220 Vakaneri
South Carolina, State of 113
78
Southern Province V a l i k a m a m Bast, West and Noi-th 106, 107
{See Subject I n d e x ) Vanni
South I n d i a 20, 169, 170, 171
113. 157, 218 V a i m i Hatpattu
South-West I n d i a 165
167 V a v u n i y a North
Spain 112
58 V a v u n i y a South
Sri Pada 112
136 V a v u n i y a District
St. P a u l ' s W a r d ( W a r d of Colombo {See Subject Index)
Mxmicipality) Venezuela 62
82, 159, 160
St. Petersburg . . 41, 42, 43
Suez C a n a l 80
Suduwella ( W a r d of Colombo Walapane 88, 95, 129
Municipality) 82 Walasmulla 102
Sweden 58, 64, 06 (n). 209 Walawe 15, 18
Switzerland 58, 66 W a i m i Hatpattuwa 119
Wattala-Mabola-Peliyagoda
U r b a n Council (See Subject Index)
Tabbowa 122, 123 Wattegama U r b a n Council {See Subject Index)
Talawila 124 Wellaboda Pattu 98, 101
Talikota 14 Wellasaa 29 (n), 130, 129
Talpe P a t t u AVeligam Pattuwa 101
Xamankad uwa . . 29 (n), 71, 126, 127, Weligama U r b a n Council {See Subject Index)
128 Wellawatta North (Ward of
Taroblegam . . . . 113 Colombo Mimicipality) 82
Tammana Nuwara .. 122 Wellawatta South (Ward of
Tampalakam Pattu .. 116 Colombo Municipality 82
Tangalla . . . . 71, 102 Wellawaya 130, 131
Tangalla-Beliatta U r b a n Council {See Subject Index) Wekande (Ward of Colombo
Taprobane . . ..11 Mvmicipality 82, 101
Tenmaradchi . . . . 106, 107 Western Province (<See Subject Index)
Thailand . . .. 58 Weudawili Hatpattuwa 119, 120
Timbirigasyaya (Ward of Colombo Wewgam P a t t u 114
Municipality) 82 Wiyaluwa 129, 130
Tirikkonesar 113 Wolfendahl SO
Xirrukovil . . 113
Tissawa 54
Tissamaharama 103 Yapahuwa 7
Torrington Place 81 Yapapatuna 10
Totagamuwa 10 Yatikinda 130, 131, 155

324
 SUBJECT INDEX
ACCOtTNTANCY, • SECaETAllI.\T> XSt) GENERAL CLEKtCAT,
Households, 250
WORK
Literacy, 188, 189, 191
Number engaged in, 229 Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population:
ACTOBS
Number of, 230 E s t a t e , 238
Foreign born, 220
AFGHANS G r o w t h of, 126-128
Niunberof, 162 Predominant occupational activity, 232
Race, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
AcmrcuiTUBE Religion. 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Fostered by D u t c h , 18 Sex ratio, 147
Statistics of. Chapter X V I I I
ANURADHAPURA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS or
A O R I C U L T U R E , BOARD OF, 32 Area, population and density, 77
Growth of population, 128
A G B I C D L T U B E , D E P A R T M E N T OF, 32
A G E , STATISTICS OF, C H . X I APOTHECAKIKS
Employable Group, 212 Numher of, 230
Expectation of Life, 217
Importance of, 208 ARABS
Natural age-groups, 213, 214 Number of, 163
Population above 21 years, 215
Population below 5 years, 210 ARCHITECTS
Population by 5-year groups by Districts, 214 N"umber of, 230
Reasons for misstatements of, 208
ARECANUT
Retired group, 212
School going group, 212 Dutch trade in, 20
Simdbarg's grouping applied to Ceylon, 210 ARTANS
AGNOSTICS Social organisation of, 2
Niunber of, 185 A S O K A N INSCRIPTION, 2 (n)
AHINKXTNTAKAS ASSOCIATED ]NL4RMAOES, 193
Etlmology of, 168 ASTROLOGERS
Jfumber of, 230
AMBALANGODA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
Area, population and density, 76 A I R TRANSPORT W O R K E R S
Dwellings, 249 Number of, 229
Literacy, 189
Sex ratio, 148 AUSTRALIANS
Number of, 163
AMERICANS
Number of, 163 A V I S S A W E L L A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
Area, population and density, 73
A M E R I C A N MISSION Literacy, 190
Work of, 182 Sex ratio, 148

ANCESTRY AYAHS
Importance of, 1 Number of, 230

ANDAMANESE AYURVEDIC PHYSICIANS

Number of, 162 Number of, 230

ANGLICANS
Niunber and regional distribution of, 182, 183 BACHELORS
ANIMISM, 185 District with largest niunber of, 195
ANURADHAPURA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF B A D U L L A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OP
Age, 215, 216 Age, 215, 216
Agriculture, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259 Agriculture 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197 Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197
Cripples, 245 Dwellings, 247, 248, 249
Dwellings, 248 Fertility, 205, 206
Fertility, 205, 206 Literacy, 188, 189, 191

325
BABULLA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF {contd.) R a c e , 153, i54, i56, i58, 159, 161
Religion, 114, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Sex ratio, 147, 148
Orphanhood, 235, 236
BATTICALOA U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS OF
Population: Area, population and density, 76
E s t a t e , 238 Growth of population, 115
Foreign b o m , 219
G r o w t h of, 128-133 BENGALIS
Number of, 162
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
ReUgion, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185 B E R U W A L A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS O F
Sex ratio, 147 Area, population and density, 75
Literacy, 190
B A D U L L A U R B A N Couircn:., STATISTICS O F R a c e , 157
A r e a , population and density, 77 Sex ratio, 148
Growth of population, 131
BHATIAS
BAKERS Number of, 162
Number of, 228
B I C Y C L E REPAERERS
BALANGODA U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS or Number of, 228
A r e a , population and density, 77
B I R T H S (AND B I R T H R A T E S )
L i t e r a c y , 136
Comparison w i t h specified countries, 63
R a c e , 135
Sex ratio, 148 Registration of, 59
Statistics (1921-1940), 61
BALUCHIS B I R T H P L A C E , STATISTICS, C H . X I I
Number of, 162 Foreign-bom population, 219
Ceylon-born population, 221
BANDMASTERS AND M U S I C PLAYERS Countries of nativity, 220
N u m b e r of, 230 Internal migration, 222
B A N D A R A W E L A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP BLACKSMITHS
Area, population and density, 77 Number of, 228
DwelUngs, 247
L i t e r a c y , 189 BOATMEN AND B O A T - O W N E R S
R a c e , 155 Number of, 229
Sex ratio, 148
BOOKIES
Number of, 230
BANIYAS
N u m b e r of, 162 BOOT, SANDAL AND C L O G M A K E R S
B A N K S AND E S T A B L I S H M E N T S OF C R E D I T AND INSURANCE Number of, 228
Number employed i n , 229 BRAHAMANS
Number of, 162
BAPTISTS
Number and regional distribution of, 182, 183, 184 B R I C K AND T I L E M A K E R S
Number of, 228
BARBERS
Number of, 230 B R I T I S H E A S T I N D I A COMPANY
Administration of Ceylon by, 23
BARS, EMPLOYEES IN
N u m b e r of, 230 BRITISH EMPIRE
Ceylon as part of, 26
BASKET W A R E MAKERS
Changing character of, 26
N u m b e r of, 228
BROOM M A K E R S
B A S K E T W O M E N AND P I N G O C A R R I E R S
Number of, 228
Number of, 229
B A T T I C A L O A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF BUDDHISM
Age, 214, 216 Conversion of Asoka to, 3
Agriculture, 252, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259 Conversion of Ceylon to, 3
B l i n d , 242 Doctrine of, 173
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197 Influence of Hinduism on, 8
Cripples, 245 Sinhalese character influenced by, 3
Dwellings, 248
BUDDHISTS
F e r t i l i t y , 205, 206
Number of (1871-1946), 175
L i t e r a c y , 188, 189, 191
Numbers compared with Siidialese population, 175
Orphanhood, 235, 236
Regional distribution, 175, 176, 177
Predominant occupational activity, 232
Population : BUDDHIST MONKS
E s t a t e , 238 • Mediation in Burmese war, 6
Foreign bom, 219 Missions from B u r m a , 5, 15
Growth of, 113-115 Number of, 230

326
BUDDHIST S C R I P T U B E S C H E T T I E S , INDIAN OR NATTUKOTTAI
Preservation of, 3 Ethnology of, 168
Number of, 162
BUKGHEKS
Ethnology of, 167 C H I E F SECRETARY
Origin of, 23 Functions of, 28

B U K G H E B S AND E U R A S I A N S CHILAW D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF

Niunber of (1871-1946), 160 Age, 215, 216
Origin of, 160 Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259
Percentage regional distribution (1921 and 1946), 161 B i r t h and Death Rates, 125
" Triple age grouping ", 160 Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Dwellings, 248, 249
BUILDINGS FertiUty, 205, 206
Census, definition of, 246 L i t e r a c y , 126, 188, 189, 191
Number of (1871-1946), 140 Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population :
B U I L D I N G CONTBACTOBS E s t a t e s , 238
Number of, 228 Foreign bom, 219
Growth of, 124-126
Predominant occupational activity, 232
Race, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
CAD J AN M A K E R S Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185
Number of, 228 Sex R a t i o , 147
CAFFEBINNA, 168 CHILAW U E B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
CANADIANS Area, population a n d density, 76
Number of, 163 Dwellings, 247

CANALS C H I K O T I , 168
Construction by D u t c h , 23 CHILDREN
Average born per mother, 205
CANABESE
Ratio of, to women of child-bearing age, 204
Number of, 163
CHINESE
CATTLE
Imported by D u t c h , 19 Capture of Alagakonnara by, 9
Number of, 163
C E N S U S OF C E Y L O N , 1946
Aimouncemont of results, 48 CHOLIANS
Basis of emuneration, 48 Invasion of Island by, 4, 5
Difficulties of organisation, 44
CHRISTIANITY
F e r t i l i t y data collected for first time, 65
Missionaries asked from Portugal, 12
L i s t of Census circles, and blocks, 45, 46
Spread of, 13
Range of information, 43
Schedules a n d other documents, 49 and appendices CHRISTIANS
Specimen of population card, 52 Regional distribution of, 181
Tabulation of results, 50 Adherents of different sects, 183, 184
Technique of Machine tabulation, 51
CHURCH, C H A P E L O E MISSION S E R V I C E
CENSUSES Number engaged in, 230
F i r s t regular Ceylon Census, 41
In ancient times, 39 CIGAR R O L L E B S
E u r o p e a n revival of, 40 Number of, 228

CENTENARIANS, 217 CINNAMON

D u t c h trade in, 20
C E N T B A L P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS OF
Portuguese treaty for exchange of, 11
A r e a , population and density, 72
Growth of population, 88-97 CINNAMON G E O W E E S
Number of, 227
C E N T R A L AND L O C A L G O V E B N M E N T S E R V I C E S
Number engaged in, 229 CIVIL ENGINEEBS
Number of, 230
C E Y L O N AGHIOULTDRAL S O C I E T Y , 3 2

C E Y L O N - B O R N POPULATION C L U B S AND H O T E L S
Distribution by towns of birth, 222 Number employed in, 230
Distribution by districts of birth, 221 CocHiNESE, See Malayalis
CBYLONESE NATION COCONUT
B i r t h of, 26 Cultivated extents of, 253
Regional distribution of, 254
C H E T T I E S , COLOMBO
Origin of, 168 COCONUT GROWERS
Number of, 163 Number of, 227

327
C o F F B E PLANTATIONS, 5 9
By sex and age groups (1937-1945), 143
Com YARN MAKERS Reduction of, 62
Number of, 228 Statistics (1921-1940), 61

COLOMBO D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS or D E F E N C E SERVICES

Age, 214, 215 Niunber employed in, 229
Agriculture, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197 D B H I W A L A - M T . L A V I N I A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
Cripples, 246 Area, population and density of, 75
Deaf mutes, 245 Growth of population, 84
E s t a t e ? , 79 Literacy, 189
Fertility, 204, 206
L i t e r a c y , 188 D E N S I T Y o r POPULATION
Orphanhood, 235, 23(i Ceylon compared with .selected countries, 66
Populat ion: Crudeness as a measure of population growth, 60
E s t a t e s , 238
Foreign b o m , 21 !• D E V I L DANCERS
Growth of, 78-80 Number of, 230
Predominant occupational activity, 232
IDHOBIES
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 1.57, 159, 161, 166
Religion, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185 Number of, 231
Sex ratio, 147
" DIAMONDS ", MATARA, 37
COLOMBO M U N I C I P A L I T Y , STATISTICS OF DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, 205
A r e a , population and density, by wards, 82
DISPENSERS
Dwellings, 247, 249
L i t e r a c y , 190 Number of, 230
Population :
D I V O R C E , GROUNDS FOR
Foreign born, 220
Under K a n d y a n law, 197
Growth of, 80-84
Under Muslim law, 197
R a c e , 153, 159, 160, 161
Sex ratio, 148
D I V O R C E D PERSONS
COMMERCE AND I N D U S T R I E S Districts having largest number of, 197
Department of, 32 Proportion to total population, 198
Proportionate racial distribution, 200
C o M n n s s i o N A G E N T S , A U C T I O N E E R S AND B R O K E R S Regional distribution, 197
Number of, 229 Small number of, 196
CONGREOATIONALISTS
Number and regional distribution of, 182, 183, 184 DOMESTIC AND P E R S O N A L S E R V I C E
Number engaged in, 226
CONJUGAL CONDITION, STATISTICS OF, C H . X
As subject of Census inquiry, 192 D R Y ZONE
Importance of, 192 Changing pattern of, 260
Marriage and sex ratio, 148, 149 Plans for reclamation of, 260
Moaning of term, 192 Vegetation of, 37
See also Married, U n m a r r i e d , Widowed, Divorced
DUTCH
COOKS Agriculture fostered by, 18
Number of, 230 Canals constructed by, 23, 35
Policy and administration, 23
CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT
Relations with K a n d y a n Kingdom, 20, 21
Development of, 32, 33

COPRA MANUFACTURING D U T C H E A S T INDIA COMPANY, 16, 19, 23

Number engaged in, 228
D U T C H PROTESTANTISM, 22
COTTON D W E L L I N G S , STATISTICS OF, C H . X V I I
Cultivation encouraged by D u t c h , 19 Material of outer walls, 246
Material of roof, 247
COTTON W E A V E R S Number of rooms, 248
Number of, 228 Rentals, 249
Tenure, 248-249
CUSTOMS OF S I N H A L E S E
Guaranteed by Malwaua Convention, 15

E A S T E R N P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS O F
D A L A D A MALIGAWA, 15 Area, population and density, 72
DAKUIS Growth of population, 112-117
Number of, 162
EDUCATION
D E A T H S (AND D E A T H R A T E S ) System of, 33
Comparison with specified countries, 64 Number engaged in, 230

328
E I G H T - F O L D P A T H , See Buddliism, doctrine of G A X L E D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS O F
Age, 214, 216
ELEPHANTS Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
Dutch trade hi, 19, 20 Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Deaf mutes, 245
E L E P H A N T T R A I N E R S AND K E E P E R S Dwellings, 248
Number of, 227 Fertility, 205, 206
Literacy, 188, 189, 191
ENUJIERATORS Orphanhood, 235, 236
Selection and training of, 47 Population :
Number of, 47 Estates, 238
Foreign born, 219
EURASIANS Growth of, 97-100
Origui of, 167 Predominant occupational activity, 232
Races, 99, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
EUROPEANS Religion,- 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185
Ethnology of. 167 Sex ratio, 147
Number of (1921 and 1946), 151
Regional distribution, 162 G A L L E MUNICIPAL COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
" Triple age grouping ", 162 Area, population and density, 76
Dwellings, 249
E X E C U T I V E COMMITTEE Grovrth of population, 99
Functions of, 28 Literacy, 190
R a c e , 99
EXPECTATION OF L I F E Religion, 100
(1921 and 1946), 217 Sex ratio, 99, 148

GAMPAHA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF

Area, population and density, 75
FECUNDITY Literacy, 189
Definition of, 202 Sex ratio, 146
Distinguished from fertility, 62 Migration, 222

F E M A L E S GAINFULLY EMPLOYED GAMPOLA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF

Number and occupations of, 231-232 Area, population and density, 76
Race, 153, 155, 159
FERTILITY GABDBNBRS
AS a measure of population growth, 65 Number of, 230
Definition of, 202
Distinguished from fecundity, 62 G E M DIGGERS
Factors affecting, 205 Number of, 227
U r b a n and rural rates compared, 205
GOLDSMITHS
FINANCIAL SECRETARY Number of, 228
Functions of, 28
GOVERNMENT A G E N T S
FIRST BIRTHS Functions of, 30
Classified by age of mother, 206
Proportion of mothers experiencing, 206 GOVERNMENT SERVANTS AND GOVERNMENT C L E R K S
Number of, 229
FISHERMEN GOVERNESSES
Number of, 227 Number of, 230
F I V E H I N D R A N C E S , See Buddhism, doctrine of GOVERNOR O F C E Y L O N
FOOD, D E A L E R S I N Powers of, 29
Number of, 229
GRASS C U T T E R S
FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION Number of, 227
Countries of nativity, 220 " GROUP MARRIAGE", 193
Length of residence in Ceylon, 221
Regional distribution, 219 GROWTH O P POPULATION, C H . I V
Comparison with selected countries, 58
FORESTRY OCCUPATIONS Economic factors affecting, 59, 60
Forecast of future population, 57, 65, 66
Number engaged in, 227 L i m i t s of expansion, 67, 68
Natural increase (1871-1946), 59
F O U R INTOXICATIONS, See Buddhism, doctrine of
Migration increase (1871-1946), 59
F O U R N O B L E T R U T H S , See Buddhism, doctrine of Numerical increase (1871-1946), 57
Percentage increase (1871-1946), 57
F R E E THINKERS
Population in ancient times, 54, 55
Number of, 185
Points for a population policy, 69, 70
F U R N I T U R E , M A K E R S OP Question of overpopulation, 67
Number of, 228 R i s e and fall in numbers, 55

329
IIAMBANTOTA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF H O T E L S AND RESTAURANTS '
Ago, 104, 214. 216 Number employed in, 230
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256. 257, 258, 2:)9
Conjugal condition, 195, 197 HOUSEHOLDS, C H . X V I I
Deaf mutes, 245 Di.stribution by size, 250
Dwellings, 247
H O U S E PAINTEB.S
Fertility, 205, 206
Number of, 228
L i t e r a c y , 188, 189, 191
Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population :
E s t a t e s , 238 INDIA .ACT (1784), 23
Foreign born, 219
INDIAN R A C E S (Other)
Growth of, 102-105
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Number of, 162
R a c e , 104. 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161 I N F A N T I L E D E A T H S (AND D E A T H R A T E S )
Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185 Statistics of (1937-1945), 142
Sex ratio, 147
HAJIBANTOTA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF INFANTILE MOBTALITY
A r e a , population and density, 76 Reasons for reduction in, 212
Dwellings, 247 ILLITERACY
Races, 161
High percentage of, 186
H A R B O U R W O B K S AND D O C K Y A R D S E R V I C E S ,
I L L I T E B - ^ T E POPULATION
Number engaged in, 229
Regional distribution, 188
H A T T O N - D I C K O Y A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS O F
Area, population and density, 76 I R O N AND H A R D W A R E W O R K E R S
Dwellings, 247 Number of, 228
L i t e r a c y , 189
IRRIGATION
R a c e , 155
Department of, 32
Sex ratio, 148
IRRIGATION W O R K S
H.WVKERS
Destruction by war.'*, 5
Number of, 229
ISLAM
HEADMEN
Sects of, 184
Number of, 229

HEADMEN S Y S T E M , 30, 31
J A E L A URBAN COUNCIL, S T A T I S T I C S OP
H I L L COUNTRY Area, population and density, 75
Opening up of, 34 Literacy, 189
HINDUISM
Connection with Buddhism. I 79 JEWELLERS,
Doctrines of, 178 Nmnbor of, .229
E v o l u t i o n of, 8 •JUSTINIAN,
L i n g a worship, 179 Institutes of, 23
HINDUS J A F F N A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
Number of (1871-1946), 177
-Age, 107, 108, 214, 216
Numbers compared with T a m i l population. ITS
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255. 256, 257, 258, 259
Regional distribution of, 179
BUnd, 242
Saivites, 179
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 107
HINDUSTANIS Cripples, 245
Deaf mutes, 245
Number of, 102 Dwellings. 248
Fertility, 205, 206
H I S T O R Y OP C E Y L O N , C F I . I Literacy, 188, 189, 191
Orphanhood, 235, 236
HOPPER-MAKING
Population :
Nimibor engaged in, 228
Foreign born, 219
H o B A N A U R B A N .COUNCIL. STATISTICS O F
Growth of, 106-108
Area, population and density, 75
Predominant occupational activity, 232
Dwellings, 249
R a c e , 1.53, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
R a c e , 153
Religion, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184. 185
HOESE-BREEDLNG Sex ratio, 147
D u t c h industry in Delft, 20
J A F F N A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
H O S P I T A L O R D E R L I E S AND ATTKNDANTS Area, population and density, 76
Number of, 230 Dwellings, 249
Grott-th of Population, lOS
HOSPITALS Literacy, 1S9
Number of. 33 Race. 157

330
KADUGANNAWA U R B A N COUNCIL, ST.\TISTICS OP Population :
A r e a , population a n d density, 76 E s t a t e , 238
L i t e r a c y , 189 Foreign born, 219
R a c e , 153 Growth of, 136-140
Sex ratio, 148 Predominant occupational activity, 232
Race, 153, 154, 15l>, 158, 159, 161
KAOHCHERIES, 30 Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Sex ratio, 147
KAFFIRS
Ethnology of, 167 K E G A L L A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS O P
Area, population and density, 77
K A L U T A R A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF Growth of population, 140
Age, 214, 215
Agriculture, 251, 253, 254, 255, 250, 257, 258 KINNABAS
B l i n d , 242 Habitat and characteristics o f , 165
Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Fertility, 204, 206 K o L O N N A W A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS O P
L i t e r a c y , 188, 191 Area, population and density, 75
Orphanhood, 235, 236
Physically infirm, 242, 245 K O R A L A S , 31
Population :
K O T T E U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS O F
Estates, 238 A i e a , population and density, 75
Foreign born, 219
Growth of population, 84, 85
Growth of, 85-87
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Kovi/iRS, 166
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 157, 159, 161
Religion, 175, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185 K U L I Y A P I T I Y A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
Sex ratio, 147 Area, population and density, 76
Dwellings, 247
K A L U T A R A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP Growth of population, 120
Area, population and density, 75 Literacy, 121, 189
Growth of population, 87 R a c e , 155
Sox ratio, 14S
K A N D Y D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS O F
Ago, 214, 216 KuppAY.wis, 155
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258
K u R A V A N S , See Ahikimtaktis
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197
Deaf mutes, 242 K U R U N E O A L A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
Dwellmgs, 247, 248, 249, 250 Ago, 214, 210
Fertility, 204, 206 Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
Households, 250 Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Literacy, 188, 191 Deaf mutes, 242, 245
Orphanhood, 235, 236 Dwellings, 247, 248, 250
Population : Fertility, 205, 206
E s t a t e s , 238 Households, 250
Foreign born, 219 Literacy, 188, 1S9, 191
Growth of, 90-93 Orphanhood, 235, 230
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Population :
R a c e , 153. 154, 1.56, 157, 159. 101. Estates, 238
ReUgion, 176, 179, ISO, 181, 183, 185 Foreign born, 210
Sex ratio, 147 Growth of, 118-121
Predominant occupational activity, 232
IVANDY M U N I C I P A L I T Y , STATISTICS OF Race, 163, 154. l&b, 158, 159, 161
Area, population and density, 76 Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Growth of population, 92, 93 Sex ratio, 147
Races, 155
K U R U N E G A L A URBAN COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
K A N D Y A N CONVENTION Area, population and density, 76
Terms of, 26 Growth of population, 120
Literacy, 121
KARJIA Race, 155
Doctrine of, 174

K E G A X L A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS O F
Age, 215, 216
Agriculture, 252, 253. 254, 255, 256, 257. 259 LACE-MAKING
Blind, 242 Number engaged in, 228
Conjugal condition, 195, 197
D e a f mutes, 245 L.vND C U L T I V A T I O N
Dwellings, 249 Number engaged in, 227
Fertility, 205, 200
L i t e r a c y , ISS, 1S9, 191 L.\w
Orphanhood, 235, 230 Number engaged in, 230

331
 L E G A L SECRETARY MARRIAGE
Fimctions of, 28 Influenced by sex ratio, 148, 149
L E T T E R S , A R T S AND S C I E N C E S Between different races, 201
In binna, 193
Number engaged in, 230
In diga, 193
LIFE Recognition of customary marriage, 192
E x p e c t a t i o n of (1921 and 1946). 217 Sociological significance of, 192

L I T E R A C Y , STATISTICS OF, C H . I X .MARRIAGE LAWS

Census definition of, 186 K a n d y a n , Muslim and General, 193
E n g l i s h , 190, 191
G r o w t h of (1881-1946), 186 " M A R R I E D " CONDITION
Mother tongue, 190 Distinction between marriage by custom and
Percentage distribution in urban areas, 189 marriage by registration, 192

L I V E S T O C K INDUSTRY M A R R I E D PERSONS
Numbers engaged in, 227 Proportion by age-groups (1921 and 1946), 199
Proportion by races, 200
L O C A L BOARDS OF H E A L T H AND IMPROVEMENT, 32 Proportion to total population, 198
L O C A L GOVERNMENT SERVICES
M A T A L E D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
Number engaged in, 229
Age, 214, 216
LOGISTIC CURVE Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258
I t s application to Ceylon, 55, 56 Blind, 242
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197
Fertility, 204, 206
Households. 247, 249, 250
MADAGASCARIANS Literacy, 188, 191
Number of, 163 Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population :
MADRAS COUNCIL, 21 Estate, 238
iVlAHRATHIS Foreign bora, 219
Growth of, 93-95
Number of, 162
Predominant occupational activity, 232
MALABARS R a c e , 153, 154, 156. 157, 159, 161
Number of, 162 Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185
Sex ratio, 147
MALARIA
Measures for control of, 33 M A T A L E U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
Area, population and density, 76
M A L A Y A L I S AND COCHINESE
Growth of population, 95
Number of, 162
R a c e , 159
MALAYS MATARA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
Ethnology of, 168 Age, 214, 216
Number of (1921 and 1946), 151 Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
Origin of, 161 Conjugal condition, 195, 197
" Triple age grouping ", 161 Deaf mutes, 245
Fertility, 205, 206
MALWANA CONVENTION Households, 250
T e r m s of, 15 Infirmity, 242
Literacy, 188, 189, 191
MANNAE D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS or
Age, 214, 216 Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population:
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257; 259
Conjugal condition, 195, 197 Estates, 238
F e r t i l i t y , 205, 206 Foreign-bom, 219
Households, 250 Growth of, 100, 102
L i t e r a c y , 188, 189, 191
Predominant occupational activity, 232
Orphanhood, 235. 236
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
Population :
Religion, 176, 179, 180. 181. 183, 185
E s t a t e , 238 Sex ratios, 147
Foreign bom, 219
Growth of, 1 0 8 - 1 U MATARA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
Area, population and density, 76
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Dwellings, 249
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161 Growth of population, 102
Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Sex ratio, 147 MATERNITY BENEFITS, 34
MATERNAL D E A T H S (AND D E A T H R A T E )
M A R K E T G A R D E N CROPS, G R O W E R S O F Influence on sex ratio, 144
Number of, 226 F o r specified countries, 145

332
MAT-WEAVING MOTOR R E P A I R OCCUPATION.S
Number engaged i n , 228 Number engaged in, 228 .
Number of females engaged in, 231
MOTOR T R A E F I C
M E D I C A L S E R V I C E S , 33 Development of, 34
M E D I C A L AND SANITARY S E R V I C E S , D E P A R T M E N T o r , 3 3
JIOTOE TRANSPORT SUPERVISORS AND INSPECTORS, 229
MEDICINE
M U K K U V A B S , 157
Number engaged in, 230
Ethnology of, 168
MEMONS
MUNICIPAL COUNCILS
Number o f , 162
Number of, 31
METAL WORKERS
Number of, 228 MUSIC TEACHERS
Number of, 230
METHODISTS
Number and regional distribution of, 182, 183 MUSLIMS
Number of (1871-1946), 184
MiDWTVES Regional distribution of (1921 and 1946), 185
Number of, 230
M U S L I M P R I E S T S AND ATTENDANTS AT M O S Q U E S E R V I C E
MIGRATION, INTER-REGIONAL Number engaged as. 230
E x t e n t o f , 222

M I L K VENDORS
Number o f , 229 NAGAS, 164
MINING NATIVITY
Foreign b o m population, 218
Number gainfully occupied in, 227
Percentage of population born in Ceylon, 219
M I N E R A L O G Y , DEPAHTMENT OF, 32
NAYARS
M I N E R A L W E A L T H , 37
Number of, 162
M I N I S T E R S , BOARD o r
Powers and composition of, 28 N A W A L A P I T I Y A U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS OF
Proposals for responsible government, 29 Area, population and density, 76
Dwellings, 247
MiNUWANGODA LoCAL BoARD, STATISTICS OF Race, 153
Area, population and density, 75 Sex ratio, 148

MONGOLIANS NEGOMBO U E B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS O F

Number o f , 163 Area, population and density, 75
Growth of population, 85
MOORS Literacy, 189
Settlements in I n d i a , 8
Ubiquity of, 9 N E W ZEALANDEBS
Niunber of, 163
MOORS, C E Y L O N
Colony a t Beruwala, 9 N O R T H - C E N T R A L P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS OF
Ethnology of, 166 Area, population and density, 72
• Number o f (1921 a n d 1946), 151 Growth of population, 126-128
Percentage regional distribution (1921 and 1946), 159
" Triple age-grouping ", 159 N O R T H E R N P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS OF
Area, population and density, 72
MOORS, I N D I A N Growth of population, 105-112
Ethnology of, 167
Number of (1921 and 1946), 151 N O R T H - W E S T E R N P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS O F
" Triple age-grouping ", 160 Area, population and density, 72
Growth of population, 118-i26
MOPLAHS
Number of, 162 NURSES
Number of, 230
M o R A T U W A U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS O F
Area, population a n d density, 7 5 NuwAii^i. E L I Y A D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
Growth of population, 84 Age, 214, 216
Literacy, 189 Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 355, 256, 257, 259
Sox ratio, 148 Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Dwellings, 247, 248, 249, 250
MOTHERS Fertility, 240, 206
Average nmnber of children born to, 203 Households, 250
Conjugal condition and age of, 203 Literacy, 188, 191
Percentage o f children living t o children born t o , 203 Orphanhood, 235. 236

333
NUWABA E L I Y A D I S T R I C T , STATICTICS (contd.) P E O N S AND MESSENGERS
Population: Number of, 2 2 9
Estates, 2 3 8
Foreign born, 2 1 9 PHOTOGRAPHY
Growth of, 9 5 - 9 6 Number engaged in, 2 2 8
Predominant occupational activity, 2 3 2
R a c e , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 5 8 . 1.59, 161 PHYSICALLY INFIRM, C H . X V I
Religion, 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 5
Sex ratio, 1 4 7 PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS, AND REGISTERED MEDICAL
PRACTITIONERS
NUWARA E L I Y A U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS O F Number of, 2 3 0
Area, population and density, 76
Dwellings, 2 4 7 P L A N T I N G INDUSTRY
Growth of population, 97 Labour imported by, 34
Race, 155 Cliaracteristics of estate population, 2 3 7 - 2 4 0

PLUMBAGO M I N I N G
OCCUPATIONS, STATISTICS OF, C H . X I I I Number engaged in, 2 2 7
Agriculture, F i s h i n g and Forestry, 2 2 6
B r o a d occupational groups, 2 2 6 P O L I C E O F F I C E R S AND M E N (INCLUDING A L L E M P L O Y E E S )
Change in a c t i v i t y roles, 2 2 4 Number of, 2 2 9
Comparison w i t h 1 9 2 1 , 2 2 4
Females ganfuUy employed, 2 3 1 POLYANDRY
The temporarily unemployed, 231 L e g a l abolition of, 1 9 3
N » i r type, 1 9 3
OFFICERS OF STATE, 28 Tibetan type, 1 9 3

ORPHANHOOD, C H . X I V POLYGAMY
Legal abolition of, 1 9 3

P A D D Y LANDS, STATISTICS OF POOR L A W

Holdings below one acre (proportionate regional Operation of, 33
distribution), 2 5 7 , 2 5 8
Holdings by size groups (regional distribution) POPULATION OP A N C I E N T L A N K A
257 Estimates from number of villages, 54
Holdings fully owned (regional distribution), 2 5 8 , Estimates from ruins, 5 5
259 Reasons for dechne in population, 5 5 , 57
Regional distribution of holdings (number, total
extent, average size), 2 5 6 PORTUGUESE
Arrival in Ceylon, 11
P A D D Y AND M A R K E T G A R D E N CROPS, GROV^EBS OF Absence of " Colour line '•, 18
Number of, 2 2 6 Landing in the E a s t Indies, 11
Legacy of, 18
PAINTERS
Blanners copied by Sinhalese, 18
Number of, 2 3 0
R u l e in Ceylon, 1 2 - 1 8
PANADUBA U B B A N COUNCIL, ST.^TISTICS OF Voyages of discovery, 10
Area, population and density, 75
Growth of population, 87 P O T T E R Y AND CHINAWABE MAICEES
Race, 1 5 3 Number of, 2 2 8
Literacy, 189
PEESBYTERIANS
PAPEB MAKING Number and regional distribution of, 1 8 2 , 1 8 3
Number engaged in, 2 2 8
P B I N T E E S AND COMPOSITORS
PABAVARS, C E Y L O N , 1 5 7 , 1 6 3 Number of, 2 2 8
P A B A V A E S , INDIANS PROFESSIONAL S E R V I C E
Nimiber of, 1 6 2 Number engaged in, 2 2 6
Ethnology of, 1 6 8
PROVINCES OF C E Y L O N
PABSIS Division i n 1 8 3 3 , 2 9
Number of, 1 6 2
Districts comprising, 3 0
PATHANS
Number of, 1 6 2 PUBLIC ASSISTANCE COMMITTEES, 33
Pu-BLic SEEVICB
P E A R L S (AND P E A R L B A N K S ) Number engaged in, 2 2 6
Disappearance of adult oysters, 38
D u t c h revenue from, 19 P U B L I C W O R K S D E P A R T M E N T OF, 3 2
Fisheries conducted b y D u t c h , 2 2
Recent f i s h e r i e s , 3 7 , 38 " PUN.ALVAN ", See " Group Marriage "

PENTECOSTALISTS PUNJABIS
Number and regional distribution of, 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 4 Niunber of, 1 62

334
PUTT.Vf.A.M D j . S T l i l C T , STATI.STrOS OK REUSIOS, CH. VIII
Age. 215, 216 As subject of demographic study, 172
.Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 2 5 « , 257, 259 See aluo ut'der di^Brenl rnligiona
Conjugal conflition, 195, 197
Deaf mutes, 245 HEPRODUCTION B A T E S
Dwellings, 247, 248, 249, 250 Gcylon Kates compared ^^•ith those of England and
l-'ertility, 205, 206 Wales, 65
Households, 250 Dcfi)\ition of, 65
Literacy, 188, 189, 191 D. V. Glass's comments on, 65 (n)
Orphanhood, 235, 236 Significance of Ceylon Rates, 65
Population : Substitute Reproduction Rates, 65 (n)
Estate, 238
Foreign born, 219 RESTAURANTS. W O R K E R S I N
Growth of, 121-124 Number of, 230
Predominant occupational activity, 232
R a c e , 1.53, 1,54. 156, 158, 1.59. 161
RICE
Religion, 176, 179. ISO. 181, 183. 184, 185 Cultivation promoted by Dutch, 21
Sex ratios, 147 Dealers in, number of. 229
Dutch trade in, 20
PDTTALA-M U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
.'Vrea, population and densitv. 76
RiCE-PoUNDINO AND HuSKING
Dwellings, 247
Number engaged in, 228
Growth of population, 124
R a c e , 124, 153
ROADS
Development of, 34
RACE, CH. VII
Definition of race, 164
Physical types, 168-171 RODIYAS
R a c e groups compared for Census years (1921 and R a c i a l characteristics of, 165
1946), 151 Reasons for non-enumeration as such, 155
Armenoid type, 170
European type, 171 ROMAN CATHOLICS
Inter-mixture of various types, 17 1 Number and regional distribution of, 181. 183
Mediterranean, 170
ROMAN-DUTCH L A W
Melanid type, 170
Mongoloid type, 170 Introduced by D u t c h , 23
Sinhala braoys and dolioo, 169 ROPE-MAKERS
V i j a y a n type, 170 Number of, 228

RAILWAYS RUBBER
Development of, 34 Acreage on " \ " Estates by Districts, 253
Introduction into Ceylon of, 252
R A I L W A Y TRANSPORT WORKERS
Number of, 229
SABABAOAMUW.4. P R O V I N C E . STATISTICS OF
RA.IPUTS Area, population and density, 72
Number of, 162 Population :
Growth of, 133-140
RATE SABHAS, 32
SALT
RATNAPURA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF D u t c h trade in, 20
Age, 215, 216
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259 SALVATIONISTS
B l i n d , 242 Number and regional distribution of, 182, 183. 184
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197
Dwellings, 249, 250 SAMMANHARS
Fertility, 205, 206 Ethnology of, 167
Households. 250
Infirmity, 242, 245 SANIYASIS
Literacy, 188, 189, 191 Number of, 230
Orphanhood, 235, 236
Population : S.IWYERS
Estates, 238 Niunber of. 228
Foreign-bom. 219
SCHOOL T E A C H E R S
Growth of, 133-136
Number of, 231
Predominant occupational activity, 232
R a c e , 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161' SEA FISHERMEN
Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185 Number of, 227
Sex ratio, 147
RATNAPURA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF SEPTUAGENARIANS, 217
Area, population and density, 77
Growth of population, 135 SERICULTURE :
Literacy, 136 Introduced by D u t c h , 19

335
 S E X , STATISTICS OF, C H . V I S T A T E COUNCIL
Causes of disproportion between sexes, 142 Composition of, 28
Deaths of infants by sex (1937-1945), 142
Death rate by sex and age groups (1937-1945), 143 STONE WORICERS
Effect of maternal death rates on sex ratio, 144 Number engaged as, 228
Excess of males, 141
Masculinity in towns, 148 S t J N D B A R O ' s A G E GROUPING I N D E X
Sex ratios by age groups, 143-144 Meaning of, 154 (n)
Sex ratio and marriage, 148 Application to :—
Sex ratios (1871-1946), 141 Burghers and Eurasians, 160
Sex ratios at birth (1937-1945), 142 Ceylon Moors, 159
Sex ratios by districts (1921 and 1946), 147 Ceylon Tamils, 157
Sex ratios of indigenous races and immigrant races Europeans, 162
(1946), 146, 147 Indian Moors, 160
Indian Tamils, 158
SHXITES, 184 Kandyan Sinhalese, 155
SHIPPING SERVICES Low-Country Sinhalese, 154
Number employed in, 229 Malays, 161
SIKHS SUNNITES, 184
Number of, 162
SiNDHIS
Number of, 162 T A I L O R S , M I L L I N E R S , DRESSMAKERS AND DARNERS
Number of, 228
SINHALESE
Arrival of, 164 TAMILS
Aryan culture of, 2 Distinction between " Ceylon " and " Indian ", 155
Ethnology of, 164, 165
Intermingling with Tamils, 8 TAMILS, C E Y L O N
National character of, 3 Development as a separate race group, 8
Numerical superiority of, 1 Entlmologyof, 166
Sub-division into Low-country and Kandyan, 151 Number of (1921 and 1946), 151
Percentage regional distribution(1921 andl946), 156
SINHALESE, KANDYAN " Triple age grouping ", 157
Number of (1921 and 1946), 151 TAMILS, INDIAN
Proportionate regional distribution, 154
" Triple age grouping ", 155 Importation to Ceylon of, 26
Number of (1921 and 1946), 151
SINHALESE KINGDOM Percentage regional distribution of (1921 and 1946),
Early history of, 1-9 157, 158
Relations with the British, 22, 24-26 " Triple age grouping ", 158
Kelations with the Dutch, 18-22
TAMIL INVASIONS
Relations with the Portuguese, 11-18
Effects of, 7, 8
S I N H A L E S E LANGXJAGE
TAMIL LANGUAGE
Afanity with Prakrits, 2
Influenced by Tamil, 8 Influence on Sinhalese language, 8

SINHALESE, LOW-COUNTKY TAMIL WARS

Number of (1921 and 1946), 151 State of coimtry during, 4
Proportionate regional distribution, 153
" Triple age grouping ", 154 TANGALLA-BELIATTA URBAN COUNCIL, STATISTICS OP
Area, population and density, 76
SONAHAES Dwellings, 249
Ethnology of, 167 Sex ratio, 148
SOUTH AFBICANS TEA
Number of, 163 Acreage on "A" Estates by Districts, 251-252
Introduction into Island, 252
SOTJTHEBN P R O V I N C E , S T A T I S T I C S OF
Area, population and density, 72 TELECOMMUNICATION S E R V I C E
Growth of population, 97-105 Number employed in, 229
SPINSTERS TELEOUS
District having largest number of, 195 Number of, 162
SPORTS CLTJBS T E X T I L E WORKERS
Employees in, 230 Number of 228
SPORTS PROFESSIONALS T H E A T R E S , CINEMAS AND C I R C U S E S
Number of, 230 Number employed in, 230
ST. ANNE'S FESTIVAL THESAVALAMAI
Pilgrims enumerated at, 122 Compilation of, 19

336
TOBACCO VAGOEI, 168
OultiTation, encouraged by Dutch, 19
VANNT F O L K
TOBACCO GEOWING Ethnology of, 165
Number engaged in, 227
VAVTTNIYA D I S T R I C T , STATISTICS OF
TODDY DBAWING
Age, 214, 216
Number engaged in, 228
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259
TO MB OS (registers) Conjugal condition, 195, 197
Compiled by Dutch, 20 Dwellings, 250
Fertility, 205, 206
Toji-TOM B E A T E R S
Households, 250
Number of, 230
Literacy, 188, 189, 191
TOOTH REIIC Orphanhood, 235, 236
Bringing of the, 4 Population:
Captured by Pandyajis, 7 Estates, 238
Demanded by Chinese, 9 Foreign born, 219
Installation in shrine at Beligala, 7 Growth of, 111, 112
Placed in Dalada Maligawa, 15 Predominant occupational activity, 2 3 2
Recovered by Parakrama Babu I I I , 7 Race, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
Removal to Kotmale hills, 6
Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Sex ratio, 147
T R A D E AND COMMERCE
Number engaged in, 229
VEDDAHS
TRADE UNIONISM, 3 4 Location and numbers of, 161
Population of (1871-1946), 162
TRAMWAY SERVICE
Number employed in, 229 Ethnology of, 165
Physical characteristics of, 168, 169
T R E A T Y OP P A R I S (1783), 22 .
T B I N C O M A L E E D I S T K I O T , STATISTICS OF
V E G E T A B L E CrrLTrvAxioN
Age, 214, 216 Number engaged in, 227
Agriculture, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 259 VELLALAS, 166
Conjugal condition, 194, 195, 197
Fertility, 205, 206 V E T E R I N A R Y STJRGEONS
Households, 247, 248 Number of, 230
Literacy, 188, 189, 191
Orphanhood, 235, 236 V I L L A G E COMMITTEES
Population: Enlargement of powers and functions of, 31
Estate, 238 Ordinance of 1871, 31
Foreign bom, 219
Growth of, 115-117 VILLAGE HEADMEN
Predominant occupational activity, 232 Functions of, 31
Race, 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 161
Religion, 176, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185
Sex ratio, 147
WADUGAN
TRINOOMALEE U R B A N C O U N C I L , STATISTICS OF_
Area, population and density, 76 Number of, 162
Growth of population, 116, 117
WAGES BOARDS, 34
TTJPASSBS, 18
T E N BONDS, See Buddhism, doctrine of WATCHERS
Number of, 230
WATCH-MAKERS
Number of, 228
UPANISHADS, 174
W A T E R SUPPLY S E R V I C E WORKERS
UPHOLSTERING Number of, 228
Number engaged in, 228
UNEMPLOYED WATTALA-MABOLE-PELIYAGODA URBAN COUNCIL,
Distribution by occupational groups, 231 STATISTICS OF
Area, population and density, 75
UNMARRIED PERSONS Growth of population, 77
Proportion to total population, 19S
Proportion by ago groups (1921 and 1946), 199
WATTEOAMA U R B A N COUNCIL, STATISTICS OF
Proportion by races, 200
Area, population and density, 76
UvA P R O V I N C E , STATISTICS OP Literacy, 189
Area, population and density, 72 Race, 155
Growth of population, 1 2 8 - 1 3 3 Sex ratio, 148

337 L
WELIC:AMA U i i B A N C o u N C i i , STATISTICS or W O H K E H S I N H o K t f , B O N E AND IVORY
Aroa. population and density, 76 Number of, 22S
Dwellings, 2-t'J
Growth of pop\ilat.ion, 102 W O R K E R S IN WOOD
Kaco, 157 Number of, 228
W'ESI^EVAN, See Alethotlists WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION, 34
W E S T E R N PBOVINCE, STATISTICS OF W'OBLD WAR I I
Area, population and density, 72 Effect on Ceylon of, 27
Growth of population, 7 7 - 8 8
W I D O W E D OR D I V O R C E D P E R S O N S
Proportion by age-groups (1921 and 1940), 1 !)9 Y A K K A S , 104

WIDOWED PERSONS YAVANAS, 8

Proportion to total population, lltf)
Proportion by raoos, 200
WIDOWS ZOROASTHIANS
More than widowers, 190 Number of, 1S.">
WOOD C U T T E R S ZOROASTBIANISM
Number of, 227 Doctrine of, 185

338
 AUTHORITIES CITED
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AM13RICAK STATISTICAT. ASSOCIATION JOURXAT. VOL. 18, 55.

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CABR SAUITDERS, A. M. : THE POPULATION PllOB.t.R5l, 07.

CASIEGHITTY : GAZETTEER, 81, 87.

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CENSUS OF CANADA, 1930, 40, 208.

CENSUS or CEYLON, 1901, 23, 54, 59, 74, 124, 197.

CENSUS OP CEYLON, 1911, 54, 167, 243.

CENSUS OP CEYLON, 1921, 79, 193.

CENSUS OF INDIA, 1931, 209.

DAVY : INTERIOR OF CEYLON, 96, 132, 141, 195.

DUBLIN AND LOTKA : LENGTH OF LIFE, 217.

EGGERLINC, J. : HINDUISM, 178.

FORBES : E L E V E N YEAHS IN CEYLON, 55.

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HERODOTUS, 39.

HIAN, FA. : TRAVELS, 36, 173.

IBN BATUTA, 122.

ISHII, KYOICHI : POPULATION PRESSURE AND ECONOMIC LIFE IN JAPAN, 02.

JUVENAL, 1.

KEITH, SIR ARTHUR ; RACIAL SPIRIT AS A FOBCE IN HISTORY, 150.

KNOX, ROBERT : HISTORICAL RELATION, 69, 132, 152, 174, 217.

KUCZYNSKI, B. R. : MEASUREMENT OF POPULATION GROWTH, 62.

KUCZY'NSKI, E. R. : THE WORLD'S FUTURE POPULATION, 57.

LANDIS : POPULATION PROBLEMS, 198.

LIVY, 39.

L Y A i L , A. C. : ASIATIC STUDIES, 179.

339
 MAO IVER, K. M. : SOCIETY, 75,

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MABCO POLO, 122.

MUKEBJEE, B., 68, 69.

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PLERIS, P. B. : CEYLON, THE POETDGUESE ERA, 17.

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BAJABATNAKABAYA, 54.

BAJAWALIYA, 12, 14, 54.

BATZEL : HISTOBY OF MANKIND, 172.

EIBEIEO'S CEILAO, 38, 80.

EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JOUBNAL, VOL. n, 165, 168.

EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JOtTENAL, VOL. VII, 122.

BOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JODBNAX, VOL. Vltt, 122.

BOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JOUBNAL, VOL. XVHI, 9.

EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JOURNAL, VOL. XXI, 166.

EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY JOUBNAL, VOL. XXII, 9.

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SAMUEL n, 39.

SCHWEITZER ; ACCOUNT OF CEYLON, 208.

SESSIONAL PAPEB X I X — 1 9 4 3 , 34.

SESSIONAL PAPEE VII 1947, 33.

SEVUL SANDESAYA, 14.

SMITH, V. A. : OXTOED HISTORY OF INDIA, 1.

SOCIOLOGICAL EEVIEW, JULY 1937, 69.

ST. LUKE, 39.

TACITUS, 39.

TENNENT, E. : CEYLON, 157.

VALENTYN, 85, 132.

WISSLEE : MAN AND CULTURE, 150.

VFISSLBE : PEOBLEMS OF AGEING, 150.

340