MODULE 1

“If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing that person for the past. If you teach a
person how to learn, you are preparing that person for the future.”- Cyril Houle
Most important goal of education: Teach students how to learn on their own. It is vital that
students acquire the skills of how to learn. These skills enable them to learn not just while they
are in school but for a lifetime. This entails 1) a deeper awareness of how one processes
information, 2) the ability to evaluate his own thinking and 3) to think of ways to make his
own learning process more effective. All these involve “metacognition”.
Metacognition was coined by John Flavell. Meta means “after” or “beyond”. Cognition
means mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience and the senses. Metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition simply means “thinking about
thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active
awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.
Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge
that can be used to control cognitive processes.
Flavell’s 3 Categories of Metacognitive Knowledge:
1) Person Variables- knowledge on one’s own learning style. How one views himself as a
learner and thinker. Knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well
as individual knowledge of one’s own learning processes.
Example:
a) You study more effectively in the morning rather than late in the evening.
b) You work better in a quiet place like library rather than at home where there are many
disturbances.
2) Task Variables- heaviness of the work. Knowledge about the nature of the task. Type of
processing demands that it will place upon the individual. Knowing what exactly needs to be
accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you.
Example:
a) Reading and comprehending a book in educational philosophy takes more time than
reading and comprehending a novel.
3) Strategy Variables- plans/ options. Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn
a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective.
Related terms: meta-attention and meta-memory.
Meta-attention- awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on
the topic or task at hand.
Meta-memory- awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
Fang and Cox Researches- showed that metacognitive awareness was evident in pre-schoolers
and in students as young as eight years old.
Challenge to Future Teachers- integrate more activities that would build students’ capacity to
reflect on their own characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task
knowledge) and the strategies that they can use to learn (strategic knowledge).
Metacognition is like any other thing you will teach. It involves knowledge and skills which
you and your students can learn and master.
Teaching Strategies to Develop Metacognition:
1. Monitor (own learning and thinking)
2. Teach Study or Learning Strategies
TQLR- taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a metacognitive strategy before
listening to a story or presentation.
T- is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is
paying attention, and that he is ready to learn.
Q- is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about
what he will soon learn.
L- is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen.
R- is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was
learned.
PQ4R- Usually for older students (intermediate levels and onwards). This strategy is used to
study a unit or chapter.
P- Preview. (Scan, Check the Objectives, Look for Outlines or Advance Organizers,
Read the Summary but do not rely on it alone)
Q- Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about
the topic.
R- Read. Check out sub-headings. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold or
italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker or
colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases.
R- Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R- Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to understand
better.
R- Reflect. Think about what you read.
3. Make Predictions- about information to be presented next based on what they have read.
4. Relate ideas to existing knowledge structures
5. Develop Questions
6. Know when to ask for help
7. Transfer
Novice and Expert Learners
Metacognition is an important factor that separates Novice and Expert Learners. Expert
Learners employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They are more aware of their learning
process as they read, study and do problem solving. Expert Learners monitor their learning and
consequently adjust their strategies to make learning more effective.
MODULE 2
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
- It was introduced to us by the American Psychological Association (APA) in the year
1990.
- At first it was 12 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles and after few years it
became 14 Learner-Centered Principles.
- Learner-centered education uses interactive strategies to engage the students and
develop their abilities. This educational approach helps students develop skills such as
decision making and problem solving, team work, and presentation skills that are
relevant to the current labor needs.
 - It provides framework for developing and incorporating the components of new
designs for schooling. These principles emphasize the active and reflective nature of
learning and learners.
- The 14 learner-centered principles are categorized into four domains
- These categories group the principles into research-validated domains important to
learning: metacognitive and cognitive factors, affective and motivational factors,
developmental and social factors, and individual difference factors.
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
Principle #1 Nature of Learning process
The Learning of the complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process
of constructing meaning from information and experience.
• Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional process that students can use to
construct meaning from information, experience and their own thoughts and beliefs.
Characteristic of Successful Learner
Active
• Students are listening attentively during discussion.
• They are writing notes.
• They participate in recitations and activities and they attend classes regularly.
Goal-Directed
• Can set a short term goal and a long term goal for themselves.
Self-regulating
• A successful learner can monitor their learning progress
• A successful learner has the ability to remain focus in learning.
Principle # 2 Goals of the learning process
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representation of knowledge.
• The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed.
• Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent
with both personal and educational aspiration and interest.
Principle #3 Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
• Knowledge widens and deepens as student continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
• Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of
strategies that have been shown effective with learners of varying abilities.
How can we help students to link their learnings to the new information?
By using:
• KWL Chart - K-W-L is an acronym that stands for “Know,” “Want to Know,” and
“Learned.” The KWL chart is divided into three columns—one for each letter—under
which students record: What they already know about the topic
• Concept Map - A concept map is a way to visually display the relationships between
different concepts, ideas, and pieces of information. Concept maps are hierarchical, with
one main idea or focus question and several sub-topics, key concepts, and related ideas.
• Categorization- allow humans to organize things, objects, and ideas that exist around
them and simplify their understanding of the world.
Principle # 4 Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
• Successful learners use strategic teaching in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving and concept learning.
• Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying
and assessing their strategic skills.

How do we engage our students to use their strategic thinking?

• Give them complex tasks
• Give them group activities
Principle # 5 Thinking about Thinking
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operation facilitate and critical
thing.
• Successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making
sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can regenerate alternative methods to
reach their goal.
Principle #6 Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.
Example: external learning environment including the quality of equipment and facilities and the
training level of the teacher.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
Principle #7 Motivational and emotional influences on learning
- The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure
can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing.
- Student’s belief about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influenced on motivation.
- Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and
information processing as well as individual’s motivation to learn.
- Positive emotions such curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance.
- Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s
attention on a particular task. However intense negative emotions (e.g., worrying about
competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels)
generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning and contribute to low
performance.
Principle #8 Intrinsic motivation to learn
- Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking and creativity are major indicators of the
learner’s intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic
needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
- Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on task that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, meaningful
 appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learner’s abilities, and on which they believe
they can succeed.
- Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on task that is comparable to real world situations
and meets needs for choice and control.
- Educators can encourage and support learner’s natural curiosity and motivation to learn by
attending to individual deference’s in learner’s perception of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
Principle #9 Effects of motivation and effort
- Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investments of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
- Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance
learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.
- Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods increase learners
perception that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
Principle #10: Developmental influence on learning
- As individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and experience different
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into
account.
- the condition that influence emotional, intellectual, social and physical development
from conception to maturity.
- Are the elements that can affect the learnings of the children either positive or negative.
There are 4 factors that can influence the development of child:
• Individual Development – personal development
• Community Factor – influenced by environment
• Parental Involvement – influenced by parents
• Developmental Differences – influenced by developmental stages
Principle #11: Social influences on learning
- Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication
with others.
- Factors that affect thought or behavior in social contexts.
- A group of people who influencing one another through culture and subculture its either
social class or family.
There are 4 factors under the Social Factors:
• Social Interaction – relationship with others
• Quality Personal Relationship – provides positive relationships
• Family Influences – positive and negative relationships
• Positive learning climates – healthy relationships
INDIVDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS
- According to B.F. Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any
measurable aspect of the total personality”
- According to John P. De Cecco “The psychology of individual differences is largely the
study of group differences. This study classifies individuals by age,traits, sex,race, social
class and observes the differences within and between those groups. Physical, mental, social
and cultural differences are being studied, under individual differences”
Individual differences is a universal phenomenon. It is said that no two individuals are exactly
alike. They differ from each other in some way or the other such a similarity or differences
between persons reveals individual differences.
12 Types of Individual Differences:
1. Physical differences
2. Differences in intelligence
3. Differences in attitudes
4. Differences in achievement
5. Differences in motor ability
6. Differences on account of sex
7. Racial differences
8. Differences due to nationality
9. Differences due to economic status
10. Differences in interests
11. Emotional differences
12. Personality differences
Students diversity
- It is simply means recognizing that all the people are unique in thier own way
Factors that bring about students diversity
Socio economic status
 Socioeconomic Status is the social standing or class of an individual or group.
It is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.
Thinking/ learning style
 The proffered way an individual processes information it is considered to be
bipolar dimension
 Sensory preferences
 Visual learners- think in pictures and learn best from visual aids
 Auditory learners- learn best through verbal lectures, discussion, talking
thigs through, and listening to what others have to say
 Tactile or kinesthetic learners- benefits much from a hands-on approach,
actively exploring the physical world around them.
Exceptionalities- in class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension
or in seeing, hearing etc.
Principle #12: Individual differences in learning
 - Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.
Principle #13: Learning and diversity
- Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural and social
backgrounds are taken into account.
Principle #14: Social influences on learning
- Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as
learning progress-including diagnostic process and outcome assessment- are integral
parts of the learning process.
MODULE 3
Freud’s 3 Components of Personality
ID - the aspect of personality allied with the instinct, the ID operated according to the Pleasure
Principle.
EGO - rational aspect of personality, responsible for directing and controlling the instinct
according to the Reality Principle
SUPEREGO - the moral aspect personality, the internalization of parental societal values and
standard.
Freud’s Psycho-sexual Theory
Freud proposed that there were 5 stages of development.
Freud believed that the few people successfully completed all of 5 stages.
5 Psycho-sexual Stages of Development
1. Oral Stage (Birth-2 ). Infants achieve gratification through oral activities such as feeding,
thumb sucking and babbling.
2. Anal Stage (2-3 ). The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society.
3. Phallic Stage (3-7 ). The child learns to realize the differences between males and females
and becomes aware of sexuality. Oedipus and Electra complexes are resolved and
identification with the same sex parents occurs to loss of interest in opposite sex.
4. Latency Stage ( 7-11). During this stage the libido is dormant and no further
psychosexual development takes place
5. Genital Stage ( 11-Adult ). Increasing concern with adult ways of experiencing sexual
pleasure.
Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust. The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an
infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child’s caregivers.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The second stage of Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt. The third stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
takes place during pre-school years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to
assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority. The fourth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion. The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential
 role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person’s life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion
and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and
isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation. Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement
in the world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair. The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is
focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events
of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the
things they did or didn’t do.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:
1. Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years
- The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
- Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking,
and listening.
- Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object
permanence).
- They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
- They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.
2. Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7
- Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
- Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective
of others.
- While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about
things in very concrete terms.
3. Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11
- During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
- They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
- Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
- Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle.
4. Formal Opertional Stage: Ages 12 and up
- At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 - Abstract thought emerges.
- Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues
that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
- Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.
Important Concepts
Schema
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the
world.
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as
assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and
information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation,
which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between
applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage
of thought to the next.
Kohlberg’s 3 Levels and 6 Stages of Moral Development
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until
approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of
morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or breaking their rules.
Stage 1: Obedience - Punishment Orientation
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished,
they must have done wrong.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down
by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is characterized by an
acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most
adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.
Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships
The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others.
Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.
Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order
 The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern
obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality
Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an
individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but
might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
- The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the
greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular
individuals.
- The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of
life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
- People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may
not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone.
Lev Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory - Emphasizes the crucial influence that social inter-
actions and language, embedded within a circular context, have on cognitive development.
Initiative Learning - a person tries to imitate or copy another person.
Instructed Learning - a person remembers the instructions of the teacher uses them to self -
regulate.
Collaborative Learning - a group of person who arrive to understand each other and they work
together to learn specific skills.
Social Interaction - Emphasizing the effective learning happens through participation in social
activities.
Language - It can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture, every culture has the words it
needs for lifestyle, it also open the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already
have.
Private Speech - is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development. The distance between the student’s ability to perform a task
under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem
independently.
Zone of Actual Development - Refer in which child may perform at a certain level of
competency and she/he may not immediately proficient at it.
Scaffolding. Refers to providing support and resources to help a child learn new skills, and then
gradually removing the support as child improves.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-Ecological Systems
The Microsystem. The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory, and is the
things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents,
siblings, teachers and school peers.Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning
the child can be influenced by other people in their environment and is also capable of
changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.
The Mesosystem. The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s
microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between
school peers and siblings. The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not
function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
The Exosystem. The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures,
 which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of
the microsystems.
The Macrosystem. The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development, such as
socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture that individuals are
immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life.
The Chronosystem. The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is
known as the chronosystem. This system consists of all of the environmental changes that
occur over the lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and
historical events.
MODULE 4

Individual Differences (Student Diversity)

1. Factors of Individual Differences

o Socio-Economical status
- This one tackles about on how we differ to other base on our status or base on
what things we have or what we earn.
o Thinking and Learning style
- In thinking and learning style we can determine if how other differs to you in
terms of how they understand or how they take information. This also tackles
about our ways of learning.
o Exceptionalities
2. Benefits of Diversity in Classrooms
oStudents’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity
oStudent diversity contributes to cognitive development
oStudent diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society
oStudent diversity can promote harmony
3. Classroom Strategies for Students Diversity
oEncourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
oIntegrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and
cross-cultural awareness.
oAside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.
oCommunicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups.
oUse varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
oVary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that
are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
oAdapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal
choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they
will learn it.
oDiversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
oPurposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can
form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

MODULE 5
Student diversity
One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.

LEARNING/THINKING STYLES
- the preferred way an individual processes information
- describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem-solving
● Your particular learning/thinking style would lie at a point in a continuum.
● Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a
certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality dimension which
influences your attitudes, values, and social interaction.
Sensory Preferences
Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input, and maintain a
dominance in one of the following types:
1. Visual Learners
●These learners must see their teacher's actions and facial expressions to fully understand
the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their
view. They may think in pictures, and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams,
illustrated text books, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs.
●During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed
notes to absorb the information.
●Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:
1. Visual-iconic- learners who are more interested in visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays or pictures in order to solidify learning
● They usually have a good "picture memory,” aka iconic imagery, and attend to
pictorial detail.
2. Visual-symbolic- learners who feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as
mathematical formula, and would like to read about things than hear about them
● They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means of
learning.
2. Auditory Learners
- learn most effectively by listening
- prefer verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others
have to say
- interpet the underlying meanings of speech through listening to the tone of voice, pitch,
speed, and other nuances
● Studies have shown that the auditory learners are most distracted by background noises
Some Auditory Learning Characteristics:
● Good memory for spoken information
● Eloquent
● Able to understand and process changes in tone
● Works though complex problems by talking out loud
● Good communication abilities
Ways of teaching auditory learners:
● Repetition
● Verbal Discourse
● Multiple learning outlets
● Identifying learning style
● Inclusion of social elements
Auditory Learners Categories:
 1. Listeners- more common type
- they listen and do not talk much because they feel that their ideas must already
be obvious to everyone
- took time to formulate their ideas
- may even carry mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they
learned by reviewing in their heads
2. Talkers- prefer to talk and discuss
- they felt compelled to share whatever ideas they had
- In a class setting when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal
processors tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be
disruptive, and may not even realize they need to talk.
3. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
- benefit much from hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around
them
● They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so much from
the discussion or the written materials, and may become distracted by their need of
activity and exploration.
● Those preferring this form of input move toward active, sensorimotor learning. They
tend to prefer 'learning by doing,’ preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say,
abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination.
Global-Analytic Continuum
1. Analytic
● Analytic thinkers tend toward linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They
tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the 'tree
seers'. They are more comfortable in a world of details and hierarchies of
information.
2. Global
● Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole
pattern rather than particle elements. They are the forest seers who give
attention only to overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Global-Analytic Continuum
● Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain
continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry's model, the left-brained dominant individual is
portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker, while the right-brained
person is one who is viewed ad global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.
● Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies. In an individual, one
side may be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in
approach while the right is described as holistic or global.
● A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn step-by-step sequential format,
beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then
going on to specifics.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)- learning visually and organizing ideas
spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to "see"
things in one's mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
 2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)- learning through the spoken and written world. This
intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom, and in traditional assessments
of intelligence and achievement.
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart)- learning through reasoning and
problem-solving
- ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical or
numerical patterns
● Their strengths are in math, logic, seeing patterns, and problem-solving
● They like to work with numbers, find logical methods to answer questions,
classify, and categorize. They are comfortable working with the abstract.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)- learning style often referred to as ‘learning with the
hands’ or physical learning (or learning through interaction with one's environment)
- people with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can learn more easily by doing,
exploring, and discovering
Some characteristics of a bodily-kinesthetic learner are the following:
1. Have a good muscle memory
2. Do best academically with hands-on learning such as art and science
3. Good with tools
4. Can carry on a detailed conversation when performing a physical task
5. Musical (Music Smart)- earning through patterns, rhythms, tones, and music
● Musical intelligence is dedicated to how skillful an individual is performing, composing,
and appreciating music and musical patterns
● People who are strong in this area enjoy listening to music, as well as making music
● This intelligence has to do with rhythmic tapping, soft humming, original composing,
guitar strumming, tuneless whistling
● Musicians, composers, band directors, disc jockeys and music critics are among those
that Gardner sees as having high musical intelligence.

6. Intrapersonal (Self-Smart)- learning through feelings, values and attitudes students place
value on what they learn and take ownership for their learning.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart)- learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of
children who are simply 'talkative’ or 'overly social’. This intelligence promotes collaboration
and working cooperatively with others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart)- learning through classification, categories, and hierarchies. The
naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of
nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart)- learning by seeing the 'big picture’: 'Why are we here?', 'What is
my role in the world?', 'What is my place in my family, school, and community?'. This
intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and application of learning.
MODULE 6
Learners with Exceptionalities
Exceptional Learners- learners who are different in some way from 'normal’ to
'average’
● The presence of exceptionalities is one of the significant factors that contribute
to student diversity
● This term includes those with special needs related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional
disturbances, and giftedness.
 Disability- The term “disabled” means having a physical or mental impairment that
limits movements, senses or activities. A measurable impairment or limitation that
'interferes with person's ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear or learn. It may refer to a
physical, sensory, or mental condition' (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word
disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word handicap in
federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). IDEA is the law that provides comprehensive service and support for
exceptional learners. Our very own 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2,
uses the word 'disabled’ in paragraph (5) 'Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-
of-school youth with training.
Person has a functional limitation due to his or her impairment.
Handicap- the word does not have the same meaning as disability
A handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. A
person experiences a disadvantage in filling a normal role in life compared to his/her
peers due to the functional limitation caused by the impairments. Example: being
bedridden or confined to home, being unable to use public transport, socially isolated.
Categories of Exceptionalities
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
1. Learning Disabilities- results from a difference in the way a person's brain is 'wired'
(neurological disorder)
● This involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception,
language, memory, or metacognition
● A learning disability can't be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong issue.
Learning Disabilities Examples
1. Dyslexia (reading)
2. Dyscalculia (Number Operations)
3. Dysgraphia (Writing)
4. Language processing disorder
5. Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit
2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder- manifested in either or both of these: (1)
difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive
behavior.
The main signs of hyperactivity and impulsiveness are:
 being unable to sit still, especially in calm or quiet surroundings.
 constantly fidgeting( being nervous).
 being unable to concentrate on tasks.
 excessive physical movement.
 excessive talking.
 being unable to wait their turn.
 acting without thinking.
 interrupting conversations
3. Speech and Communication Disorders
● There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the
sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that
significantly hamper classroom performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
1. Autism- a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests.
 ● Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable
environment. Find things like bright lights or loud noises overwhelming, stressful or
uncomfortable. get anxious or upset about unfamiliar situations and social events. take
longer to understand information. do or think the same things over and over
2. Intellectual Disability (Mental Retardation)- characterized by below-average
intelligence or mental ability and a lack of skills necessary for day-to-day living (IQ
measured as below 70-75)
● Someone with an intellectual disability has limitations in these two areas:
1. Intellectual Functioning (IQ)- the person's ability to learn, reason, make
decisions and solve problems
2. Adaptive behaviors- skills necessary for day-to-day life
Intellectual Disability (Mental Retardation) Causes:
● Fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effect
● Brain damage caused by the use of prescription or illegal drugs during pregnancy
● Brain injury and disease
● Genetic disorders
3. Emotional/Conduct Disorders- involves the presence of emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturb learning and
performance in school
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
1. Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disability, at times profound level. The combination of disabilities makes it
necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.
2. Visual Impairments- conditions where there is malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves
that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses
3. Hearing Impairments. This involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech
4. Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is
unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual ability,
aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing art, or leadership
People First Language
What is 'People First Language’?
Just as the term would imply, this language trend involves putting the first person first, not the
disability (e.g. a person with disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people first language tells
us what conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbach Institute, 1996). This is similar
to saying 'PERSON WITH AIDS, rather than AIDS VICTIM'.
Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include:
● Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to the
mentally retarded)
● Emphasizing abilities, not limitations
For example, say “a man walks with crutches,” not” he is crippled.”
● Avoiding euphemism
MODULE 7
Behaviorism
> Focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior.
> It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement
(reward and punishment).
> Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov,
Thorndike, Watson and Skinner.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (26 September 1849 - 27 February 1936)
> He's a Russian Physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution.
> He trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell which was previously
associated with the sight of food.
> His most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was
measuring the dog's salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled
upon classical conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (The Three Stages of Classical Conditioning)
> Before Conditioning
> During Conditioning
> After Conditioning
Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog.
Placing food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned
response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented
with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced
salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning, a concept developed by Ivan Pavlov, involves associating a neutral
stimulus with an involuntary response. In the context of a classroom, classical conditioning can
be applied to create positive associations, enhance learning, and manage behavior. Here are
some ways you might apply classical conditioning in a classroom setting:
1. Positive Environment Association: Associate the classroom environment with positive
experiences. For example, you could start each class with a brief engaging activity or
fun fact. Over time, students may come to associate the classroom with a positive and
enjoyable atmosphere.
2. Incorporate Rewards: Offer small rewards or positive reinforcements when students
demonstrate desired behavior. This could be as simple as verbal praise, stickers, or small
treats. The positive reinforcement helps associate good behavior with positive outcomes.
3. Use Signals or Cues: Establish specific signals or cues to indicate transitions between
activities. Over time, students will associate these signals with a change in focus,
making transitions smoother.
4. Pairing Concepts with Positive Emotions: Connect new concepts or subjects with
positive emotions. Engage students in activities that evoke curiosity, interest, or
excitement when introducing new topics. This positive association can make learning
more enjoyable.
5. Create a Comfortable Learning Environment: Ensure that the classroom is a
comfortable and safe space. Students are more likely to engage in learning if they feel
secure and at ease.
6. Consistency in Routine: Establish a consistent routine for your classroom. Consistency
helps create a predictable environment, and students may come to associate certain times
or activities with specific expectations.
7. Limit Negative Associations: Be mindful of unintentional negative associations. Avoid
pairing learning activities with stress or fear. For example, if a student is struggling,
offer support rather than creating an association between learning and anxiety.
8. Utilize Technology or Visual Aids: Incorporate technology or visual aids to enhance
the learning experience. Associating learning with visually stimulating materials can
create positive associations with the subject matter.
Remember that while classical conditioning can be a useful tool, it's essential to be ethical and
considerate of individual differences. Positive reinforcement and creating a supportive learning
environment are key elements in applying classical conditioning effectively in a classroom
setting.
Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949)
> He gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology and more than a
hundred years ago he wrote a textbook entitled “Educational Psychology”.
> He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses (R).
> Thorndike's theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.
Theory of Connectionism (Three Primary Laws)
Law of Effect
Law of Exercise
Law of Readiness
Law of Effect - states that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened when
the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the response
is weakened when the consequence is negative. Later on, revised this "law" when he found that
negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly
pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
In this example, the teacher applies the Law of Effect by reinforcing positive behaviors with
positive consequences and addressing negative behaviors with constructive feedback. This
creates a positive and supportive classroom environment, encouraging students to actively
participate in class discussions. Over time, students like Sarah and Alex are more likely to repeat
behaviors that lead to positive outcomes, aligning with the principles of the Law of Effect.
Law of Exercise - tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. "Practice makes perfect'' seem to be associated with this. However, like
the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice
without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
The Law of Exercise, another principle formulated by Edward Thorndike, suggests that the more
a connection between a stimulus and response is practiced, the stronger the connection becomes.
In a classroom setting, this law emphasizes the importance of repetition and practice for
effective learning.
Law of Readiness - states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus made
to respond, it becomes annoying to the person.
The Law of Readiness, a principle introduced by Edward Thorndike, suggests that learning is
more effective when the learner is ready, both physically and mentally, to engage with the
material. Readiness implies a state of preparedness and interest. Here's an example in a
classroom setting:
Burrhus Frederick Skinner
Operant Conditioning- based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in
overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to
events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. When a particular stimulus –
response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is conditioned to
respond.
Elements of the S-R Theory
A. Reinforcement – key element in Skinner’s S-R theory
- Reinforcer- anything that strengthens the desired response.
Positive Reinforcer
 1. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in a
play area to children who behave well during the lesson.
2. Another is a mother who promises a new cellphone for her son who gets good
grades.
3. Other examples include verbal praises, star stamps, and stickers.
Negative Reinforcer
– any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed.
- it is not a punishment; in fact, it is a reward.
B.F. Skinner's Stimulus-Response (S-R) theory, part of behaviorism, posits that behaviors are
learned through the association of a stimulus with a response. Skinner emphasized the
importance of reinforcing desired behaviors to strengthen them. Here's an example of S-R theory
in a classroom setting:
MODULE 8
Neo-Behaviorism - is a behavior which cannot be fully understood simply in terms of
observable stimuli and reactions. Neo behaviorism introduces mediating variables into the
behaviorist stimulus-response scheme.
Edward Tolman's PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM - has also been referred to as sign Learning Theory and is
often seen as the link between behaviorism and Cognitive Theory. Tolman believed that
learning is a cognitive process. Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learning
by pursuing a goal learning is also acquired through meaningful behavior.
Purposive behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes the purpose or goal of
behavior and suggests that behavior is motivated by the anticipation of future events or
outcomes. In a classroom setting guided by purposive behaviorism, the focus is on
understanding and shaping behavior based on the purpose or goal behind it. Here are some key
aspects to consider:
1. Clear Learning Objectives:
o Clearly define and communicate learning objectives to students. Make sure they
understand the purpose and goals of the activities and lessons.
2. Goal-Oriented Instruction:
o Align instructional strategies with specific learning goals. Design activities and
assignments that encourage students to work toward achieving these goals.
3. Motivational Techniques:
o Recognize and utilize motivational techniques to engage students. Emphasize
the relevance of the material to their personal goals and future success.
4. Feedback and Rewards:
o Provide constructive feedback that helps students understand how their behavior
aligns with the learning goals. Use positive reinforcement, such as praise or
rewards, to encourage desired behaviors.
5. Student Involvement in Goal Setting:
o Involve students in setting their own learning goals. This empowers them to take
ownership of their education and motivates them to work toward achieving
those goals.
6. Individual Differences:
o Recognize and accommodate individual differences in students' goals, interests,
and learning styles. Tailor instruction to meet the diverse needs of the students
in the classroom.
 7. Real-World Application:
o Emphasize the real-world applications of the knowledge and skills being taught.
Help students understand how what they are learning is relevant to their future
endeavors.
8. Problem-Solving Activities:
o Incorporate problem-solving activities that require students to apply their
knowledge and skills to achieve specific outcomes. This promotes a purposeful
approach to learning.
9. Self-Regulation and Reflection:
o Encourage self-regulation by guiding students to monitor and regulate their own
learning behaviors. Provide opportunities for reflection on the purpose and
effectiveness of their strategies.
10. Collaborative Learning:
o Foster collaboration among students, allowing them to work together to achieve
shared goals. This promotes a sense of community and shared purpose within
the classroom.
Goal-directedness in the classroom refers to the emphasis on setting clear learning objectives,
fostering a purposeful approach to education, and encouraging students to work towards specific
academic, personal, or skill-based goals. Here are some strategies to promote goal-directedness
in a classroom setting:
1. Clear Learning Objectives:
o Clearly articulate learning objectives at the beginning of each lesson or unit.
This helps students understand what they are expected to learn and achieve.
2. Relevance to Real-World Goals:
o Relate classroom content to real-world applications and future goals. Help
students see the practical value and relevance of what they are learning.
3. Student Goal Setting:
o Involve students in the goal-setting process. Encourage them to set both short-
term and long-term academic and personal goals. This promotes a sense of
ownership and motivation.
4. Individualized Learning Plans:
o Recognize and accommodate individual differences by developing personalized
learning plans that align with each student's goals and abilities.
5. Progress Tracking:
o Implement systems for students to track their own progress. This could include
setting milestones, keeping journals, or using progress charts to visually
represent achievements.
6. Feedback and Assessment:
o Provide timely and constructive feedback that aligns with learning objectives.
Assessments should not only measure performance but also guide students on
how to improve and meet their goals.
7. Reflection and Self-Assessment:
o Integrate reflection activities and self-assessment into the learning process.
Encourage students to reflect on their progress, identify areas for improvement,
and adjust their strategies accordingly.
8. Goal-Driven Assignments:
 o Design assignments that require students to apply their knowledge and skills
toward achieving specific goals. This could include projects, presentations, or
problem-solving tasks.
9. Celebrate Achievements:
o Acknowledge and celebrate individual and collective achievements. This
positive reinforcement reinforces the connection between effort, goal
attainment, and success.
10. Collaborative Goal Setting:
o Foster a collaborative learning environment where students can set and pursue
goals together. This encourages teamwork and shared responsibility for reaching
common objectives.
11. Teacher-Student Conferences:
o Conduct regular one-on-one conferences with students to discuss their goals,
progress, and challenges. This personalized approach allows for targeted support
and guidance.
12. Incorporate Goal-Setting Skills:
o Teach students the skill of setting SMART goals (Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound). This framework helps them create goals
that are clear and attainable.
Cognitive maps are mental representations of spatial information or knowledge about a
particular environment. In the context of education, cognitive maps can be applied in the
classroom to help students organize and understand information more effectively. Here are some
ways to incorporate cognitive maps in a classroom setting:
1. Concept Mapping:
o Use concept mapping as a visual tool to represent relationships between
concepts or ideas. This helps students see the bigger picture and understand how
different pieces of information are connected.
2. Mind Mapping:
o Encourage the use of mind maps as a brainstorming and organizational tool.
Students can create mind maps to outline topics, summarize information, or plan
projects.
3. Spatial Arrangement of Content:
o Organize physical classroom space in a way that reflects the structure of the
curriculum. For example, you can arrange learning stations or materials to
correspond with different topics or subjects.
4. Interactive Whiteboards and Visual Displays:
o Utilize interactive whiteboards or visual displays to create and share cognitive
maps collaboratively. This can be particularly effective for illustrating complex
concepts or processes.
5. Virtual Learning Environments:
o Integrate cognitive maps into virtual learning environments. Online tools and
platforms can allow students to create, share, and collaborate on digital maps,
fostering a sense of connection between concepts.
6. Field Trips and Experiential Learning:
o Take advantage of field trips or experiential learning opportunities to help
students build cognitive maps of real-world environments. This enhances their
spatial understanding and connects theoretical knowledge with practical
experience.
 7. Storytelling and Narratives:
o Incorporate storytelling and narratives into lessons. Narratives help students
create mental images and develop cognitive maps of events, timelines, or
historical periods.
8. Interactive Simulations:
o Use interactive simulations or virtual reality experiences that allow students to
explore and navigate virtual environments. This can enhance their understanding
of spatial relationships and concepts.
9. Timeline Construction:
o Construct timelines to help students visualize the chronological order of
historical events. This chronological mapping aids in understanding the
sequence and relationships between different periods.
10. Graphic Organizers:
o Implement various types of graphic organizers, such as charts, diagrams, and
tables, to help students organize information spatially. These organizers can
serve as cognitive maps for understanding complex topics.
11. Collaborative Mapping Projects:
o Assign collaborative mapping projects where students work together to create
comprehensive cognitive maps of a particular topic. This promotes teamwork
and shared understanding.
12. Reflective Activities:
o Integrate reflective activities where students review and update their cognitive
maps as they acquire new knowledge. This process helps reinforce learning and
adapt their mental representations.
Latent learning is a concept that was initially explored by psychologist Edward Tolman,
referring to learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement and is not immediately
expressed in behavior. In a classroom setting, educators can leverage latent learning principles to
enhance students' understanding and retention of information. Here are some strategies to
incorporate latent learning in the classroom:
1. Provide Meaningful Context:
o Present information in a meaningful context that relates to students' lives or
interests. This can create a sense of relevance, making it more likely that latent
learning will occur.
2. Encourage Exploration:
o Allow students to explore topics beyond the required curriculum. Provide
additional resources, reading materials, or multimedia content related to the
subject matter, encouraging curiosity and self-directed learning.
3. Independent Research Projects:
o Assign independent research projects that allow students to delve into topics of
personal interest. This promotes self-guided exploration and can lead to latent
learning as students acquire knowledge outside the formal curriculum.
4. Real-World Applications:
o Emphasize the real-world applications of concepts being taught. Help students
see how the information can be used in practical situations, fostering a deeper
understanding that may not be immediately apparent.
5. Socratic Questioning:
 o Use Socratic questioning to encourage critical thinking and exploration of ideas.
Allow students to discover solutions or connections on their own, promoting
latent learning through self-discovery.
6. Project-Based Learning:
o Implement project-based learning experiences that require students to apply
knowledge in a hands-on and creative way. This approach can stimulate latent
learning as students encounter and solve real-world problems. Implementing
project-based learning (PBL) experiences in the classroom involves designing
and facilitating activities that allow students to explore real-world problems,
work collaboratively, and apply their knowledge and skills in meaningful ways.
7. Flexible Learning Paths:
o Offer flexible learning paths to accommodate diverse learning styles and paces.
This allows students to explore topics at their own speed, potentially uncovering
latent learning as they engage with the material more deeply.
8. Discussion and Debate:
o Facilitate class discussions and debates to encourage students to think critically
about different perspectives. This promotes latent learning as students
internalize and process information in the context of lively conversations.
9. Inquiry-Based Learning:
o Use inquiry-based learning strategies where students pose questions and actively
seek answers. This approach encourages curiosity and exploration, leading to
latent learning as students discover solutions on their own.
10. Reflection and Journaling:
o Incorporate reflection and journaling activities where students can articulate
their thoughts, questions, and insights. This helps reinforce latent learning by
encouraging students to process information on a deeper level.
11. Gamification and Simulations:
o Integrate educational games or simulations that challenge students to problem-
solve and think critically. This interactive approach can facilitate latent learning
as students navigate complex scenarios.
12. Open-Ended Assignments:
o Assign open-ended projects or assignments that allow for multiple
interpretations and solutions. This encourages students to explore various
avenues of understanding, promoting latent learning.
By incorporating these strategies, educators can create a classroom environment that fosters
latent learning, allowing students to acquire knowledge in a more self-directed and meaningful
manner.
In psychology and education, intervening variables refer to factors or processes that come
between an independent variable (the variable manipulated by the researcher) and a dependent
variable (the outcome being measured). In a classroom setting, intervening variables can
influence the relationship between teaching strategies or interventions and student outcomes.
Here are some examples of intervening variables in a classroom setting:
1. Student Motivation:
o Motivation can be an intervening variable that affects how students engage with
instructional materials and activities. A teacher's approach, the relevance of the
content, or the learning environment can influence students' motivation,
impacting their academic performance.
2. Cognitive Processes:
 o Cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills, can
act as intervening variables. These processes mediate how students process and
internalize information, affecting their ability to learn and apply knowledge.
3. Parental Involvement:
o The level of parental involvement can be an intervening variable that influences
student success. Supportive home environments, communication between
parents and teachers, and parental engagement in a child's education can impact
academic outcomes.
4. Emotional Well-being:
o Emotional well-being acts as an intervening variable that can influence student
behavior and academic performance. Factors such as stress, anxiety, or a
positive emotional climate in the classroom can impact how students engage
with learning materials.
5. Learning Styles:
o Individual learning styles can be considered as intervening variables. Students
may have different preferences for how they process information (visual,
auditory, kinesthetic), and aligning instructional methods with their learning
styles can affect how well they grasp concepts.
6. Prior Knowledge:
o Students' prior knowledge and experiences serve as intervening variables that
shape how they understand and integrate new information. Teachers need to
consider and build upon students' existing knowledge to facilitate effective
learning.
7. Social Interaction:
o Peer interactions and group dynamics can act as intervening variables.
Collaborative learning, peer support, or social relationships in the classroom can
impact students' understanding and engagement with the material.
8. Teaching Methods:
o The effectiveness of teaching methods or instructional strategies can be
influenced by intervening variables. Factors such as the clarity of instruction,
teacher-student rapport, and the adaptability of methods to diverse learning
styles can impact outcomes.
9. Access to Resources:
o Resource availability, including access to educational materials, technology, and
extracurricular activities, can be intervening variables. Disparities in resource
access may affect student performance and opportunities.
10. Classroom Environment:
o The classroom environment, including factors like classroom management,
physical layout, and overall atmosphere, can serve as an intervening variable. A
positive and inclusive environment can enhance the learning experience.
11. Technology Integration:
o The integration of technology in the classroom can be an intervening variable.
Technology can influence how students interact with content, collaborate, and
access information, impacting their learning outcomes.
Understanding these intervening variables is essential for educators to design interventions and
instructional strategies that effectively address the complexity of the learning process. It allows
for a more nuanced analysis of the factors influencing student outcomes and helps in tailoring
educational approaches to individual and diverse needs.
Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory, also known as Social Cognitive Theory,
emphasizes the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in shaping human
behavior. Bandura proposed this theory as an extension of traditional behaviorism, suggesting
that cognitive processes play a crucial role in learning and behavior. The Social Learning Theory
introduces several key concepts:
1. Observational Learning:
o Central to Bandura's theory is the idea of observational learning, where
individuals acquire new behaviors and knowledge by observing and imitating
the actions of others. This process is often referred to as modeling or vicarious
learning.
2. Modeling:
o Modeling involves the demonstration of a behavior by a role model or another
individual. The observer learns by observing the model's actions, consequences,
and the reactions of others.
3. Reciprocal Determinism:
o Bandura proposed that behavior, the environment, and personal factors (such as
thoughts and emotions) interact in a dynamic and reciprocal manner. This
concept is known as reciprocal determinism, suggesting that individuals
influence and are influenced by their environment.
4. Cognitive Mediation:
o Unlike traditional behaviorism, Bandura emphasized the role of cognitive
processes in learning. He introduced the concept of cognitive mediation, where
mental processes such as attention, perception, and memory play a crucial role
in how individuals learn from their observations.
5. Attention:
o To learn from a model, individuals must pay attention to the model's behavior.
Factors influencing attention include the model's characteristics, the complexity
of the behavior, and the observer's level of interest and motivation.
6. Retention:
o Retention involves the ability to remember the observed behavior. This process
is influenced by the observer's cognitive abilities and rehearsal. Individuals are
more likely to imitate behavior that they can easily recall.
7. Reproduction:
o Reproduction refers to the individual's ability to reproduce or mimic the
observed behavior. This is influenced by the observer's physical capabilities and
the perceived difficulty of the behavior.
8. Motivation:
o Motivation is a critical factor in determining whether an observer will imitate a
behavior. The observer assesses the consequences of the behavior and evaluates
the rewards or punishments associated with it. Positive reinforcement increases
the likelihood of imitation.
9. Reinforcement and Punishment:
o Bandura acknowledged the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping
behavior. Positive reinforcement strengthens the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated, while punishment decreases the likelihood. Observational learning can
occur even without direct reinforcement.
10. Self-Efficacy:
 o Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's
belief in their ability to perform a specific task or behavior successfully. High
self-efficacy is associated with increased motivation and persistence in learning.
11. Vicarious Reinforcement:
o Vicarious reinforcement occurs when an individual observes the consequences
of another person's behavior. If the model is rewarded, the observer is more
likely to imitate the behavior. Conversely, if the model faces punishment, the
observer may be less inclined to imitate the behavior.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory has been influential in various fields, including education,
psychology, and communication. It has practical applications in understanding how individuals
learn from media, role models, and social interactions. The theory also underscores the
importance of considering cognitive processes and environmental factors in explaining human
behavior.
Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observational
learning, imitation, and modeling in the process of human development. There are four key
principles associated with Bandura's Social Learning Theory:
1. Observational Learning:
o Definition: People learn by observing others and the consequences of their
actions.
o Explanation: Individuals can acquire new behaviors and information by
watching the actions and experiences of others. This learning occurs through
modeling, where individuals imitate the behaviors they observe in others.
2. Modeling or Imitation:
o Definition: Individuals learn by imitating the behaviors of others.
o Explanation: Modeling involves observing and replicating the actions of a
model. The model can be someone in real life, such as a parent or peer, or it can
be someone portrayed in media. Bandura emphasized that individuals are more
likely to imitate behaviors they perceive as rewarded or positively reinforced.
3. Reciprocal Determinism:
o Definition: The relationship between an individual, their behavior, and the
environment is bidirectional.
o Explanation: Bandura proposed that behavior, personal factors, and the
environment continually influence each other. Individuals not only learn from
their environment but also shape their environment through their actions. This
bidirectional interaction contributes to the complexity of human behavior and
development.
4. Self-Regulation:
o Definition: Individuals can monitor and control their own behavior through
self-regulation.
o Explanation: Bandura highlighted the role of self-regulation in social learning.
This involves setting personal standards, evaluating one's own performance, and
adjusting behavior accordingly. Self-regulation is influenced by internal factors,
such as personal goals and values, as well as external factors, including
feedback and consequences from the environment.
These principles collectively form the foundation of Bandura's Social Learning Theory, which
underscores the importance of social interaction, observation, and cognitive processes in the
learning and development of individuals.
Modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning, is a crucial concept in Albert
Bandura's Social Learning Theory. It refers to the process by which individuals learn by
observing and imitating the behaviors of others. Here are some key points related to modeling in
Bandura's theory:
1. Role of Models:
o Definition: Models are individuals whose behavior is observed and imitated by
others.
o Explanation: Models can be real-life people, such as parents, peers, teachers, or
other significant figures. They can also be symbolic models, such as characters
in movies, television shows, or even in literature. The effectiveness of modeling
depends on the perceived competence and relevance of the model to the
observer.
2. Attention:
o Definition: Observers must pay attention to the model's behavior for effective
learning to occur.
o Explanation: Individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors that they actively
pay attention to. Factors influencing attention include the model's
characteristics, the complexity of the behavior, and the observer's level of
interest or motivation.
3. Retention:
o Definition: Observers must be able to remember or retain the observed
behavior.
o Explanation: Retention involves the encoding and storage of information about
the modeled behavior in the observer's memory. This process is influenced by
the observer's cognitive abilities, rehearsal, and the complexity of the behavior
being modeled.
4. Reproduction:
o Definition: Individuals must be capable of reproducing the observed behavior.
o Explanation: For modeling to be effective, observers need the physical and
cognitive ability to replicate the behavior. This may involve motor skills,
comprehension of the steps involved, and the ability to translate the observed
behavior into their own actions.
5. Motivation:
o Definition: Observers are more likely to imitate a behavior if they are motivated
to do so.
o Explanation: Motivation is a critical factor in modeling. Individuals are more
likely to imitate behaviors that they believe will lead to desirable outcomes or
rewards. The anticipated consequences of the behavior, whether positive or
negative, influence the observer's motivation to imitate.
6. Reinforcement:
o Definition: The consequences of the imitated behavior influence the likelihood
of its recurrence.
o Explanation: Positive reinforcement, such as praise or rewards, increases the
likelihood that the observed behavior will be repeated. On the other hand,
negative consequences may reduce the likelihood of imitation. The role of
reinforcement is crucial in shaping behavior through modeling.
In summary, modeling is a dynamic process in which individuals learn by observing,
remembering, and imitating the behaviors of others. The effectiveness of modeling is influenced
by factors such as attention, retention, reproduction capabilities, motivation, and reinforcement.

Albert Bandura proposed four key conditions that contribute to effective modeling in his
Social Learning Theory. These conditions play a crucial role in determining whether
observational learning and imitation will occur. The four conditions are:
1. Attention:
o Description: Observers must pay attention to the model.
o Explanation: For effective modeling to take place, individuals need to actively
focus on and attend to the model's behavior. This involves directing cognitive
resources to the relevant aspects of the observed behavior, which can be
influenced by factors such as the model's characteristics, the complexity of the
behavior, and the observer's level of interest.
2. Retention:
o Description: Observers must be able to remember the observed behavior.
o Explanation: Retention involves the ability to store and retrieve information
about the modeled behavior. Observers must encode the details of the behavior
in memory and be able to recall it later. Factors influencing retention include the
observer's cognitive capabilities, rehearsal of the learned behavior, and the
complexity of the behavior being modeled.
3. Reproduction:
o Description: Observers must be capable of reproducing the observed behavior.
o Explanation: For effective modeling, individuals need the physical and
cognitive ability to replicate the behavior they have observed. This includes
possessing the necessary motor skills, understanding the steps involved, and
having the confidence to translate the observed behavior into their own actions.
4. Motivation:
o Description: Observers must be motivated to imitate the behavior.
o Explanation: Motivation plays a critical role in determining whether an
individual will imitate a behavior. The anticipated consequences of the behavior,
whether positive or negative, influence the observer's motivation. Individuals
are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe will lead to desirable
outcomes or rewards. Motivation is closely tied to the concept of reinforcement.
These four conditions collectively influence the likelihood of effective modeling and
observational learning. The process involves actively attending to the model, retaining the
observed information, having the capability to reproduce the behavior, and being motivated by
the anticipated consequences of the behavior. Successful modeling can lead to the acquisition of
new behaviors, skills, or information by the observer.
MODULE 9
Gestalt Psychology (Gestaltism/Configurationism)
Psychologists involved in the development of the Gestalt Theory:
 Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
- founder of Gestalt Movement in 1910
- 1st gestalt psychologist

 Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1887-1941)

 - Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka carry on what Wertheimer started at Frank
University.
- Koffka developed laws of perception while worked with apes on insight
- They concluded that learners were not passive, but rather active. They
suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively
process and restructure data in order to understand it. They called it as
Perceptual process.
Gestalt Principles of Design
- These are the important set of ideas for any designer to learn, and their
implementation can greatly improve not just the aesthetics of design, but also its
functionality and user-friendliness.
There are Six (6) Individual Principles Commonly Associated with Gestalt Theory:
Law of Proximity
Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object.
Explanation: It refers to how close elements are in one another. The strongest proximity
relationships are those between overlapping subjects, but just grouping objects into a single area
can also have a strong proximity effect.
Example:

Law of Proximity
Related concepts or lessons should be taught aligned or closely to each other. This is the reason
why subtraction is taught after addition, multiplication after subtraction then division after
multiplication
Law of Closure - We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive. We enclose a
space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure. Explanations: This is one of the
coolest gestalt principles. It is the idea that the brain will fill in the missing parts of a design or
image to create a whole. Closure is quite often used in logo design. Examples:
By incorporating the concept of closure in a classroom setting, educators help students organize
their learning experiences and make connections between different pieces of information. This
not only enhances comprehension but also contributes to a more holistic understanding of the
subject matter. Encourage students to ask questions and seek clarification. This interactive
process can help address any lingering uncertainties and provide closure to the lesson by
ensuring that students have a clear understanding of the material.
Law of Good Continuation
Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern
establish an implied direction.
Explanation: Continuation posits that the human eye will follow the smoothest path when
viewing lines, regardless of how the lines were actually drawn.
Examples:

Lessons should be presented in such a way that learners will see these as connected and
continuous. Now you know why we have the "review" part of the lesson plan. This way,
students will realize that their new lesson actually has continuity and is related to what they
already know or to the previous lesson.
Law of Good Form (Law of Pragnanz)
As “pragnanz”, this German word means “good-figure”
The stimulus will be organized into as good figure as possible.
Explanation: which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that, is regular,
orderly, symmetric, and simple our perceptions are influenced by our past experiences.
Examples:
When using visual aids, such as presentations, diagrams, or charts, adhere to principles of
simplicity and clarity. Avoid clutter and unnecessary details that may distract from the main
message. Emphasize key points and use visuals that are easy to understand.
Law of Figure/Ground
We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be
perceived as separate from its ground.
People distinguish between figure and ground in terms of: blurriness, contrast, size and
separation.
Explanation: similar to the closure principal in that it takes advantage of the way the brain
processes negative space.
Examples:

In a classroom, clarity in communication is essential. Teachers can apply the figure/ground

principle by presenting key information or main concepts (figure) prominently, making them
stand out against the background of supplementary or supporting details. This helps students
focus on the most important elements.
Law of Similarity
Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.
Explanation: In Gestalt, like elements are visually grouped, regardless of their proximity to
each other. They can be grouped by color, shape, or size. Similarity can be used to tie together
elements that might not be right next to each other in a design.
Examples:
Similar lessons or contents should be grouped together to make learners develop understanding
more efficiently and effectively. This is the reason why lessons are grouped into units: Unit I is
for human body, Unit II is for energy and motion, So on and so forth.
Gestalt Principles and The Teaching-Learning Process
The six Gestalt Principles not only influence perception but they also impact on learning. Other
psychologists like Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) expounded on Gestalt psychology. His theory
focusing of “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and
outer forces that affect his perception and also his learning.
Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may include the
attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmate. All these forces interact and impact on the
person’s learning.
RELEVANCE OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY TO EDUCATION
Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of Gestalt psychology to
education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It
considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in the
complexity of experience without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that
emerges.
It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning.
It appreciates the affections and meaning that we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is
conceived as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to needs,
purposes and meanings.
It asserts that learning is not accumulation but re-modelling or insight. Autonomy and freedom
of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary for assimilation and for cognitive
and existential remodeling is respected. The contact experience between teachers and students is
given value: an authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF GESTALT THEORY
From Whole to Parts- the teacher should present the subject matter as a whole to facilitate
insight learning.
Integrated Approach- while planning curriculum, gestalt principles should be given due
consideration. A particular subject should not be treated as the mere collection of isolated parts.
It should be closely integrated into a whole.
Importance of Motivation- the teacher should arouse the child’s curiosity, interest and
motivation. He should gain the full attention of the whole class before teaching.
Emphasis on Understanding- it has made learning an intelligent task requiring mental abilities
than stimulus- response association. So,the learner must be given opportunities for using his
mental abilities.
Problem Solving Approach- this theory emphasis that as the learner is able to solve problems
by his insight, meaningful learning, learning by understanding, reasoning and etc. must be
encouraged in the school.
Checking of Previous Experiences- as insight depends upon the previous experiences of the
learner, the teacher must check the previous experiences of the child and relate them with the
new learning situation.
Goal Orientation- as learning is a purposeful and goal-oriented task, the learner has to be well
acquainted with these objectives. He should be fully familiar with the goals and purposes of
every tasks.