Technical Guide No.

Direct Torque Control

- the world's most advanced AC drive technology
 Contents

1 Introduction .............................................................. 5
General ...................................................................... 5
This Manual’s Purpose .............................................. 5
Using this Guide ......................................................... 5

2 Evolution of Direct Torque Control ....................... 6

What is a Variable Speed Drive? ............................... 6
Summary .................................................................... 6
DC Motor Drives ........................................................ 7
Features ................................................................. 7
Advantages ............................................................ 7
Drawbacks ............................................................. 8
AC Drives - Introduction ............................................. 8
AC Drives - Frequency Control using PWM .............. 9
Features ................................................................. 9
Advantages ........................................................... 10
Drawbacks ............................................................ 10
AC Drives - Flux Vector Control using PWM ............ 10
Features ................................................................ 10
Advantages ........................................................... 11
Drawbacks ............................................................ 11
AC Drives - Direct Torque Control ............................ 12
Controlling Variables ............................................. 12
Comparison of Variable Speed Drives ...................... 13

3 Questions and Answers ......................................... 15

General ..................................................................... 15
Performance ............................................................. 16
Operation .................................................................. 22

4 Basic Control Theory ............................................. 26

How DTC Works ....................................................... 26
Torque Control Loop ................................................. 27
Step 1 Voltage and Current Measurements .......... 27
Step 2 Adaptive Motor Model ................................ 27
Step 3 Torque Comparator and Flux Comparator 28
Step 4 Optimum Pulse Selector ............................ 28
Speed Control ........................................................... 29
Step 5 Torque Reference Controller ..................... 29
Step 6 Speed Controller ........................................ 29
Step 7 Flux Reference Controller .......................... 29

5 Index ........................................................................ 30
4 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General Direct Torque Control - or DTC - is the most advanced AC

drive technology developed by any manufacturer in the world.

This manual’s The purpose of this Technical Guide is to explain what DTC
purpose is; why and how it has evolved; the basic theory behind its
success; and the features and benefits of this new technology.

While trying to be as practical as possible, this guide does

require a basic understanding of AC motor control principles.

It is aimed at decision makers including designers, specifiers,

purchasing managers, OEMs and end-users; in all markets
such as the water, chemical, pulp and paper, power
generation,material handling, air conditioning and other
industries.

In fact, anyone using variable speed drives (VSD) and who

would like to benefit from VSD technology will find this
Technical Guide essential reading.

Using this This guide has been designed to give a logical build up as to
guide why and how DTC was developed.

Readers wanting to know the evolution of drives from early

DC techniques through AC to DTC should start at Chapter 2
(page 6).

For those readers wanting answers about DTC’s performance,

operation and application potential, please go straight to
Chapter 3 (page 15) Questions & Answers.

For an understanding of DTC’s Basic Control Theory, turn to

page 26.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 5

 Chapter 2 - Evolution of Direct Torque Control

What is a To understand the answer to this question we have to

variable understand that the basic function of a variable speed drive
(VSD) is to control the flow of energy from the mains to the
speed drive? process.

Energy is supplied to the process through the motor shaft.

Two physical quantities describe the state of the shaft: torque
and speed. To control the flow of energy we must therefore,
ultimately, control these quantities.

In practice, either one of them is controlled and we speak of

“torque control” or “speed control”. When the VSD operates
in torque control mode, the speed is determined by the load.
Likewise, when operated in speed control, the torque is
determined by the load.

Initially, DC motors were used as VSDs because they could

easily achieve the required speed and torque without the need
for sophisticated electronics.

However, the evolution of AC variable speed drive technology

has been driven partly by the desire to emulate the excellent
performance of the DC motor, such as fast torque response
and speed accuracy, while using rugged, inexpensive and
maintenance free AC motors.

Summary In this section we look at the evolution of

DTC, charting the four milestones of
variable speed drives, namely:

• DC Motor Drives 7
• AC Drives, frequency control, PWM 9
• AC Drives, flux vector control, PWM 10
• AC Drives, Direct Torque Control 12

We examine each in turn, leading to a total picture that

identifies the key differences between each.

6 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Evolution of Direct Torque Control

DC Motor
Drives

Figure 1: Control loop of a DC Motor Drive

Features • Field orientation via mechanical commutator

• Controlling variables are Armature Current
and Field Current, measured DIRECTLY from the motor
• Torque control is direct

In a DC motor, the magnetic field is created by the current

through the field winding in the stator. This field is always at
right angles to the field created by the armature winding. This
condition, known as field orientation, is needed to generate
maximum torque. The commutator-brush assembly ensures
this condition is maintained regardless of the rotor position.

Once field orientation is achieved, the DC motor’s torque is

easily controlled by varying the armature current and by
keeping the magnetising current constant.

The advantage of DC drives is that speed and torque - the

two main concerns of the end-user - are controlled directly
through armature current: that is the torque is the inner
control loop and the speed is the outer control loop (see
Figure 1).

Advantages • Accurate and fast torque control

• High dynamic speed response
• Simple to control

Initially, DC drives were used for variable speed control

because they could easily achieve a good torque and speed
response with high accuracy.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 7

Evolution of Direct Torque Control

A DC machine is able to produce a torque that is:

• Direct - the motor torque is proportional to the armature

current: the torque can thus be controlled directly and
accurately.
• Rapid - torque control is fast; the drive system can have
a very high dynamic speed response. Torque can be
changed instantaneously if the motor is fed from an ideal
current source. A voltage fed drive still has a fast
response, since this is determined only by the rotor’s
electrical time constant (i.e. the total inductance and
resistance in the armature circuit)
• Simple - field orientation is achieved using a simple
mechanical device called a commutator/brush assembly.
Hence, there is no need for complex electronic control
circuitry, which would increase the cost of the motor
controller.

Drawbacks • Reduced motor reliability

• Regular maintenance Customer
• Motor costly to purchase Location
• Needs encoder for feedbackApplication
Equipment Supplied
The main drawback of this technique is the reduced reliability
of the DC motor; the fact that brushes and commutators
How it Workswear down and need regular servicing; that DC motors can
be costly to purchase; and that they require encoders for
speed and position feedback.

While a DC drive produces an easily controlled torque from

zero to base speed and beyond, the motor’s mechanics are
more complex and require regular maintenance.

AC Drives - • Small size

Introduction • Robust
• Simple in design
• Light and compact
• Low maintenance
• Low cost

The evolution of AC variable speed drive technology has been

partly driven by the desire to emulate the performance of
the DC drive, such as fast torque response and speed
accuracy, while utilising the advantages offered by the
standard AC motor.

8 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Evolution of Direct Torque Control

AC Drives -
frequency
control using
PWM

Figure 2: Control loop of an AC Drive with frequency control

using PWM

Features • Controlling variables are Voltage and Frequency

• Simulation of variable AC sine wave using
modulator
• Flux provided with constant V/f ratio
• Open-loop drive
• Load dictates torque level

Unlike a DC drive, the AC drive frequency control technique

uses parameters generated outside of the motor as controlling
variables, namely voltage and frequency.

Both voltage and frequency reference are fed into a modulator

which simulates an AC sine wave and feeds this to the motor’s
stator windings. This technique is called Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) and utilises the fact that there is a diode
rectifier towards the mains and the intermediate DC voltage
is kept constant. The inverter controls the motor in the form
of a PWM pulse train dictating both the voltage and frequency.

Significantly, this method does not use a feedback device

which takes speed or position measurements from the motor’s
shaft and feeds these back into the control loop.

Such an arrangement, without a feedback device, is called

an “open-loop drive”.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 9

Evolution of Direct Torque Control

Advantages • Low cost

• No feedback device required - simple

Because there is no feedback device, the controlling principle

offers a low cost and simple solution to controlling economical
AC induction motors.

This type of drive is suitable for applications which do not

require high levels of accuracy or precision, such as pumps
and fans.

Drawbacks • Field orientation not used

• Motor status ignored
• Torque is not controlled
• Delaying modulator used

With this technique, sometimes known as Scalar Control, field

orientation of the motor is not used. Instead, frequency and
voltage are the main control variables and are applied to the
stator windings. The status of the rotor is ignored, meaning
that no speed or position signal is fed back.

Therefore, torque cannot be controlled with any degree of

accuracy. Furthermore, the technique uses a modulator which
basically slows down communication between the incoming
voltage and frequency signals and the need for the motor to
respond to this changing signal.

AC Drives -
flux vector
control using
PWM

Figure 3: Control loop of an AC Drive with flux vector control

using PWM

Features • Field-oriented control - simulates DC drive

• Motor electrical characteristics are simulated
- “Motor Model”
• Closed-loop drive
• Torque controlled INDIRECTLY

10 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Evolution of Direct Torque Control

To emulate the magnetic operating conditions of a DC motor,

i.e. to perform the field orientation process, the flux-vector
drive needs to know the spatial angular position of the rotor
flux inside the AC induction motor.

With flux vector PWM drives, field orientation is achieved by

electronic means rather than the mechanical commutator/
brush assembly of the DC motor.

Firstly, information about the rotor status is obtained by feeding

back rotor speed and angular position relative to the stator
field by means of a pulse encoder. A drive that uses speed
encoders is referred to as a “closed-loop drive”.

Also the motor’s electrical characteristics are mathematically

modelled with microprocessors used to process the data.

The electronic controller of a flux-vector drive creates electrical

quantities such as voltage, current and frequency, which are
the controlling variables, and feeds these through a modulator
to the AC induction motor. Torque, therefore, is controlled
INDIRECTLY.

Advantages • Good torque response

• Accurate speed control
• Full torque at zero speed
• Performance approaching DC drive

Flux vector control achieves full torque at zero speed, giving

it a performance very close to that of a DC drive.

Drawbacks • Feedback is needed

• Costly
• Modulator needed

To achieve a high level of torque response and speed accuracy,

a feedback device is required. This can be costly and also
adds complexity to the traditional simple AC induction motor.

Also, a modulator is used, which slows down communication

between the incoming voltage and frequency signals and the
need for the motor to respond to this changing signal.

Although the motor is mechanically simple, the drive is

electrically complex.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 11

Evolution of Direct Torque Control

AC Drives -
Direct Torque
Control

Figure 4: Control loop of an AC Drive using DTC

Controlling With the revolutionary DTC technology developed by ABB,

Variables field orientation is achieved without feedback using advanced
motor theory to calculate the motor torque directly and without
using modulation. The controlling variables are motor
magnetising flux and motor torque.

With DTC there is no modulator and no requirement for a

tachometer or position encoder to feed back the speed or
position of the motor shaft.

DTC uses the fastest digital signal processing hardware

available and a more advanced mathematical understanding
of how a motor works.

The result is a drive with a torque response that is typically

10 times faster than any AC or DC drive. The dynamic speed
accuracy of DTC drives will be 8 times better than any open
loop AC drives and comparable to a DC drive that is using
feedback.

DTC produces the first “universal” drive with the capability to

perform like either an AC or DC drive.

The remaining sections in this guide highlight the features

and advantages of DTC.

12 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Evolution of Direct Torque Control

Comparison Let us now take a closer look at each of these control

of variable blocks and spot a few differences.
speed drives

Figure 1: Control loop of a Figure 2: Control loop with

DC Drive frequency control

Figure 3: Control loop with Figure 4: Control loop of an

flux vector control AC Drive using DTC

The first observation is the similarity between the control block

of the DC drive (Figure 1) and that of DTC (Figure 4).

Both are using motor parameters to directly control torque.

But DTC has added benefits including no feedback device is

used; all the benefits of an AC motor (see page 8); and no
external excitation is needed.

Table 1: Comparison of control variables

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 13

Evolution of Direct Torque Control

As can be seen from Table 1, both DC Drives and DTC drives

use actual motor parameters to control torque and speed.
Thus, the dynamic performance is fast and easy. Also with
DTC, for most applications, no tachometer or encoder is
needed to feed back a speed or position signal.

Comparing DTC (Figure 4) with the two other AC drive

control blocks (Figures 2 & 3) shows up several differences,
the main one being that no modulator is required with DTC.

With PWM AC drives, the controlling variables are frequency

and voltage which need to go through several stages before
being applied to the motor. Thus, with PWM drives control is
handled inside the electronic controller and not inside the
motor.

14 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Chapter 3 - Questions & Answers

General What is Direct Torque Control?

Direct Torque Control - or DTC as it is called - is the very

latest AC drive technology developed by ABB and is set to
replace traditional PWM drives of the open- and closed-loop
type in the near future.

Why is it called Direct Torque Control?

Direct Torque Control describes the way in which the control

of torque and speed are directly based on the electromagnetic
state of the motor, similar to a DC motor, but contrary to the
way in which traditional PWM drives use input frequency and
voltage. DTC is the first technology to control the “real” motor
control variables of torque and flux.

What is the advantage of this?

Because torque and flux are motor parameters that are being
directly controlled, there is no need for a modulator, as used
in PWM drives, to control the frequency and voltage. This, in
effect, cuts out the middle man and dramatically speeds up
the response of the drive to changes in required torque. DTC
also provides precise torque control without the need for a
feedback device.

Why is there a need for another AC drive technology?

DTC is not just another AC drive technology. Industry is

demanding more and existing drive technology cannot meet
these demands.

For example, industry wants:

• Better product quality which can be partly achieved with

improved speed accuracy and faster torque control.
• Less down time which means a drive that will not trip
unnecessarily; a drive that is not complicated by expensive
feedback devices; and a drive which is not greatly
affected by interferences like harmonics and RFI.
• Fewer products. One drive capable of meeting all application
needs whether AC, DC or servo. That is a truly “universal”
drive.
• A comfortable working environment with a drive that
produces much lower audible noise.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 15

Questions and Answers

These are just some of the demands from industry. DTC can
deliver solutions to all these demands as well as bringing
new benefits to many standard applications.

Who invented DTC?

ABB has been carrying out research into DTC since 1988
foll owing the publication of the theory in 1971 and 1985 by
German doctor Blaschke and his colleague Depenbrock. DTC
leans on the theory of field oriented control of induction
machines and the theory of direct self control. ABB has spent
over 100 man years developing the technology.

Performance What are the main benefits of DTC technology over

traditional AC drive technology?

There are many benefits of DTC technology. But most

significantly, drives using DTC technology have the following
exceptional dynamic performance features, many of which
are obtained without the need for an encoder or tachometer
to monitor shaft position or speed:

• Torque response: - How quickly the drive output can reach

the specified value when a nominal 100% torque reference
step is applied.
For DTC, a typical torque response is 1 to 2ms below 40Hz
compared to between 10-20ms for both flux vector and
DC drives fitted with an encoder. With open loop PWM
drives (see page 9) the response time is typically well over
100ms. In fact, with its torque response, DTC has achieved
the natural limit. With the voltage and current available,
response time cannot be any shorter. Even in the newer
“sensorless” drives the torque response is hundreds
of milliseconds.

• Accurate torque control at low frequencies, as well as

full load torque at zero speed without the need for a
feedback device such as an encoder or tachometer. With
DTC, speed can be controlled to frequencies below 0.5Hz
and still provide 100% torque right the way through to zero
speed.

• Torque repeatability: - How well the drive repeats its output

torque with the same torque reference command.
DTC, without an encoder, can provide 1 to 2% torque
repeatability of the nominal torque across the speed range.
This is half that of other open-loop AC drives and equal to
that of closed-loop AC and DC drives.

16 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Questions and Answers

• Motor static speed accuracy: - Error between speed

reference and actual value at constant load.
For DTC, speed accuracy is 10% of the motor slip, which
with an 11kW motor, equals 0.3% static speed accuracy.
With a 110kW motor, speed accuracy is 0.1% without
encoder (open-loop). This satisfies the accuracy requirement
for 95% of industrial drives applications. However, for the
same accuracy from DC drives an encoder is needed.

In contrast, with frequency controlled PWM drives, the static

speed accuracy is typically between 1 to 3%. So the potential
for customer process improvements is significantly higher
with standard drives using DTC technology.

A DTC drive using an encoder with 1024 pulses/revolution

can achieve a speed accuracy of 0.01%.

• Dynamic speed accuracy: - Time integral of speed

deviation when a nominal (100%) torque speed is applied.
DTC open-loop dynamic speed accuracy is between 0.3 to
0.4%sec. This depends on the gain adjustment of the
controller, which can be tuned to the process requirements.

With other open-loop AC drives, the dynamic accuracy is

eight times less and in practical terms around 3%sec.
If we furnish the DTC controller with an encoder, the dynamic
speed accuracy will be 0.1%sec, which matches servo
drive performance.

What are the practical benefits of these performance

figures?

• Fast torque response: - This significantly reduces the

speed drop time during a load transient, bringing much
improved process control and a more consistent product
quality.

• Torque control at low frequencies: - This is particularly

beneficial to cranes or elevators, where the load needs to
be started and stopped regularly without any jerking. Also
with a winder, tension control can be achieved from zero
through to maximum speed. Compared to PWM flux
vector drives, DTC brings the cost saving benefit that no
tachometer is needed.

• Torque linearity: - This is important in precision applications

like winders, used in the paper industry, where an accurate
and consistent level of winding is critical.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 17

Questions and Answers

• Dynamic speed accuracy: - After a sudden load change,

the motor can recover to a stable state remarkably fast.

FEATURE RESULT BENEFIT

Good motor speed Allows speed to be Investment cost
accuracy without controlled better than savings. Increased
tachometer. 0.5% accuracy. No reliability. Better
tachometer needed in process control.
95% of all applications. Higher product
quality. Leads to a
true universal drive.
Excellent torque Drive for demanding Similar performance
control without applications. Allows to DC but without
tachometer. required torque at all tachometer. Reduced
times. Torque mechanical failures
repeatability 1%. for machinery. Less
Torque response time downtime. Lower
less than 5ms. investment.
Full torque at zero No mechanical brake Investment cost
speed with or without needed. Smooth saving. Better load
tachometer/encoder. transition between control. Can use AC
drive and brake. drive and motor
Allows drive to be instead of DC.
used in traditional DC Standard AC motor
drive applications. means less
maintenance and
lower cost.
Control down to zero Servo drive Cost effective, high
speed and position performance. performance torque
with encoder. drive; provides
position control and
better static
accuracy. High
accuracy control
with standard AC
motor.

Table 2: Dynamic performance features and benefits offered by

DTC technology

Apart from excellent dynamic performance figures, are

there any other benefits of DTC drive technology?

Yes, there are many benefits. For example, DTC drives do

not need a tachometer or encoder to monitor motor shaft
speed or position in order to achieve the fastest torque
response ever from an AC drive. This saves initial cost.

18 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Questions and Answers

FEATURE RESULT BENEFIT

Rapid control DC link Power loss ride through. Drive will not trip. Less
voltage. down time. Avoids
process interruptions.
Less waste in
continuous process.
Automatic start Starting with motor Can start into a motor
(Direct restart). residual inductance that is running without
present. No restarting waiting for flux to decay.
delay required. Can transfer motor from
line to drive. No restart.
No interruptions on
process.

Automatic start Synchronises to No process

(Flying start). rotating motor. interruptions. Smooth
control of machinery.
Resume control in all
situations.

Flux braking. Controlled braking Investment cost

between two speed savings. Better process
points. control. No delay
required as in DC
braking. Can be used
for decelerating to other
than zero speed.
Reduced need for brake
chopper and resistor.

Flux optimisation. Motor losses minimised. Controlled motor.

Less motor noise.

Self identification/ Tuning the motor to Easy and accurate set-

Auto-tuning. drive for top up. No parameter tuning
performance. required. Less
commissioning time.
Guaranteed starting
torque. Easy retrofit for
any AC system.

No predetermined Low noise. No fixed Cost savings in

switching pattern of carrier, therefore acoustic barriers in
power devices. acoustic noise noise sensitive
reasonable due to applications. No harmful
“white” noise spectrum. mechanical resonances.
Lower stresses in
gearboxes, fans, pumps.

No limits on maximum Can accelerate and Better process control.

acceleration and decelerate in quickest
deceleration rate. time possible without
mechanical constraints.

Table 3: User features and benefits offered by DTC technology

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 19

Questions and Answers

Also a DTC drive features rapid starting in all motor

electromagnetic and mechanical states. The motor can be
started immediately without delay.

It appears that DTC drives are most advantageous for

high performance or demanding drive applications. What
benefits does DTC bring to standard drives?

Standard applications account for 70% of all variable speed

drives installed throughout industry. Two of the most common
applications are in fans and pumps in industries like Heating,
Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HeVAC), water and food and
drinks.

In these applications, DTC provides solutions to problems

like harmonics and noise.

For example, DTC technology can provide control to the drive

input line generating unit, where a conventional diode bridge
is replaced with a controlled bridge.

This means that harmonics can be significantly reduced with

a DTC controlled input bridge. The low level current distortion
with a DTC controlled bridge will be less than a conventional
6-pulse or 12-pulse configuration and power factor can be as
high as 0.99.

For standard applications, DTC drives easily withstand huge

and sudden load torques caused by rapid changes in the
process, without any overvoltage or overcurrent trip.

Also, if there is a loss of input power for a short time, the

drive must remain energised. The DC link voltage must not
drop below the lowest control level of 80%. To ensure this,
DTC has a 25 microseconds control cycle.

What is the impact of DTC on pump control?

DTC has an impact on all types of pumps. Because DTC

leads to a universal drive, all pumps, regardless of whether
they are centrifugal or constant torque type (screw pumps)
can now be controlled with one drive configuration, as can
aerators and conveyors. DTC technology allows a drive to
adjust itself to varying application needs.

For example, in screw pumps a drive using DTC technology

will be able to adjust itself for sufficient starting torque for a
guaranteed start.

20 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Questions and Answers

Improved power loss ride through will improve pumping

availability during short power breaks.

The inherent torque control facility for DTC technology allows

the torque to be limited in order to avoid mechanical stress
on pumps and pipelines.

What is the impact of DTC technology on energy savings?

A feature of DTC which contributes to energy efficiency is a

development called motor flux optimisation.

With this feature, the efficiency of the total drive (that is

controller and motor) is greatly improved in fan and pump
applications.

For example, with 25% load there is up to 10% total energy

efficiency improvement. At 50% load there can be 2% total
efficiency improvement.

This directly impacts on operating costs. This feature also

significantly reduces the motor noise compared to that
generated by the switching frequency of a traditional PWM
drive.

Has DTC technology been used in many installations?

Yes, there are hundreds of thousands of installations in use.

For example, one of the world's largest web machine
manufacturers tested DTC technology for a winder in a film
finishing process.

The Requirement:
Exact torque control in the winder so as to produce high
quality film rolls.

The Solution:
Open-loop DTC drives have replaced traditional DC drives
and latter flux vector controlled AC drives on the centre drives
in the rewind station.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 21

Questions and Answers

The Benefits:
Winder station construction simplified and reliability increased.
The cost of one tachometer and associated wiring equals
that of one 30kW AC motor. This provides significant
investment cost savings.

Operation What is the difference between DTC and traditional PWM

methods?

• Frequency Control PWM and Flux Vector PWM

Traditional PWM drives use output voltage and output

frequency as the primary control variables but these need to
be pulse width modulated before being applied to the
motor.

This modulator stage adds to the signal processing time and

therefore limits the level of torque and speed response
possible from the PWM drive.

Typically, a PWM modulator takes 10 times longer than DTC

to respond to actual change.

• DTC control

DTC allows the motor’s torque and stator flux to be used as

primary control variables, both of which are obtained directly
from the motor itself. Therefore, with DTC, there is no need
for a separate voltage and frequency controlled PWM
modulator. Another big advantage of a DTC drive is that no
feedback device is needed for 95% of all drive applications.

Why does DTC not need a tachometer or position encoder

to tell it precisely where the motor shaft is at all times?

There are four main reasons for this:

• The accuracy of the Motor Model (see page 27).

• Controlling variables are taken directly from the motor
(see page 27).
• The fast processing speeds of the DSP and Optimum
Pulse Selector hardware (see page 28).
• No modulator is needed (see page 12).

22 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Questions and Answers

When combined to form a DTC drive, the above features

produce a drive capable of calculating the ideal switching
voltages 40,000 times every second. It is fast enough to
control individual switching pulses. Quite simply, it is the
fastest ever achieved.

Once every 25 microseconds, the inverter’s semiconductors

are supplied with an optimum switching pattern to produce
the required torque. This update rate is substantially less
than any time constants in the motor. Thus, the motor is now
the limiting component, not the inverter.

What is the difference between DTC and other sensorless

drives on the market?

There are vast differences between DTC and many of the

sensorless drives. But the main difference is that DTC
provides accurate control even at low speeds and down to
zero speed without encoder feedback. At low frequencies
the nominal torque step can be increased in less than 1ms.
This is the best available.

How does a DTC drive achieve the performance of a

servo drive?

Quite simply because the motor is now the limit of

performance and not the drive itself. A typical dynamic speed
accuracy for a servo drive is 0.1%s. A DTC drive can reach
this dynamic accuracy with the optional speed feedback from
a tachometer

How does DTC achieve these major improvements over

traditional technology?

The most striking difference is the sheer speed by which

DTC operates. As mentioned above, the torque response is
the quickest available.

To achieve a fast torque loop, ABB has utilised the latest

high speed signal processing technology and spent 100 man
years developing the highly advanced Motor Model which
precisely simulates the actual motor parameters within the
controller.

For a clearer understanding of DTC control theory, see

page 26.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 23

Questions and Answers

Does a DTC drive use fuzzy logic within its control loop?

No. Fuzzy logic is used in some drives to maintain the

acceleration current within current limits and therefore prevent
the drive from tripping unnecessarily. As DTC is controlling
the torque directly, current can be kept within these limits in
all operating conditions.

A drive using DTC technology is said to be tripless. How

has this been achieved?

Many manufacturers have spent years trying to avoid trips

during acceleration and deceleration and have found it
extraordinarily difficult. DTC achieves tripless operation by
controlling the actual motor torque.

The speed and accuracy of a drive which relies on

computed rather than measured control parameters can
never be realistic. Unless you are looking at the shaft,
you are not getting the full picture. Is this true with DTC?

DTC knows the full picture. As explained above, thanks to

the sophistication of the Motor Model and the ability to carry
out 40,000 calculations every second, a DTC drive knows
precisely what the motor shaft is doing. There is never any
doubt as to the motor’s state. This is reflected in the
exceptionally high torque response and speed accuracy
figures quoted on pages 16 and 17.

Unlike traditional AC drives, where up to 30% of all switchings

are wasted, a drive using DTC technology knows precisely
where the shaft is and so does not waste any of its switchings.

DTC can cover 95% of all industrial applications. The

exceptions, mainly applications where extremely precise
speed control is needed, will be catered for by adding a
feedback device to provide closed loop control. This device,
however, can be simpler than the sensors needed for
conventional closed loop drives.

Even with the fastest semiconductors some dead time

is introduced. Therefore, how accurate is the auto-tuning
of a DTC drive?

Auto-tuning is used in the initial identification run of a DTC

drive (see page 27). The dead time is measured and is taken
into account by the Motor Model when calculating the actual
flux. If we compare to a PWM drive, the problem with PWM is
in the range 20-30Hz which causes torque ripple.

24 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Questions and Answers

What kind of stability will a DTC drive have at light loads

and low speeds?

The stability down to zero speed is good and both torque and
speed accuracy can be maintained at very low speeds and
light loads. We have defined the accuracies as follows:

Torque accuracy: Within a speed range of 2-100% and a

load range of 10-100%, the torque accuracy is 2%.

Speed accuracy: Within a speed range of 2-100% and a

load range of 10-100%, the speed accuracy is 10% of the
motor slip. Motor slip of a 37kW motor is about 2% which
means a speed accuracy of 0.2%.

What are the limitations of DTC?

If several motors are connected in parallel in a DTC-controlled

inverter, the arrangement operates as one large motor. It has
no information about the status of any single motor. If the
number of motors varies or the motor power remains below
1/8 of the rated power, it would be best to select the scalar
control macro.

Can DTC work with any type of induction motor?

Yes, any type of asynchronous, squirrel cage motor.

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 25

 Chapter 4 - Basic Control Theory

How DTC Figure 5, below, shows the complete block diagram for Direct
Torque Control (DTC).
works
Walk around the block

Figure 5: DTC comprises two key blocks: Speed Control and

Torque Control

The block diagram shows that DTC has two fundamental

sections: the Torque Control Loop and the Speed Control Loop.
Now we will walk around the blocks exploring each stage and
showing how they integrate together.

Let’s start with DTC’s Torque Control Loop.

26 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Basic Control Theory

Torque
Control Loop

Step 1 Voltage In normal operation, two motor phase currents and the DC
and current bus voltage are simply measured, together with the inverter’s
measurements switch positions.

Step 2 Adaptive The measured information from the motor is fed to the
Motor Model Adaptive Motor Model.

The sophistication of this Motor Model allows precise data

about the motor to be calculated. Before operating the DTC
drive, the Motor Model is fed information about the motor,
which is collected during a motor identification run. This is
called auto-tuning and data such as stator resistance, mu-
tual inductance and saturation coefficients are determined along
with the motor’s inertia. The identification of motor model pa-
rameters can be done without rotating the motor shaft. This
makes it easy to apply DTC technology also in the retrofits.
The extremely fine tuning of motor model is achieved when
the identification run also includes running the motor shaft for
some seconds.

There is no need to feed back any shaft speed or position with

tachometers or encoders if the static speed accuracy require-

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 27

Basic Control Theory

ment is over 0.5%, as it is for most industrial

applications. This is a significant advance over all other AC
drive technology. The Motor Model is, in fact, key to DTC’s
unrivalled low speed performance.

The Motor Model outputs control signals which directly

represent actual motor torque and actual stator flux. Also shaft
speed is calculated within the Motor Model.

Step 3 Torque The information to control power switches is produced in the

Comparator and Torque and Flux Comparator.
Flux Comparator
Both actual torque and actual flux are fed to the comparators
where they are compared, every 25 microseconds, to a torque
and flux reference value. Torque and flux status signals are
calculated using a two level hysteresis control method.

These signals are then fed to the Optimum Pulse Selector.

Step 4 Optimum Within the Optimum Pulse Selector is the latest 40MHz
Pulse Selector digital signal processor (DSP) together with ASIC hardware
to determine the switching logic of the inverter. Furthermore,
all control signals are transmitted via optical links for high
speed data transmission.

This configuration brings immense processing speed such

that every 25 microseconds the inverter’s semiconductor
switching devices are supplied with an optimum pulse for
reaching, or maintaining, an accurate motor torque.

The correct switch combination is determined every control

cycle. There is no predetermined switching pattern. DTC has
been referred to as “just-in-time” switching, because, unlike
traditional PWM drives where up to 30% of all switch changes
are unnecessary, with DTC each and every switching is
needed and used.

This high speed of switching is fundamental to the success of

DTC. The main motor control parameters are updated 40,000
times a second. This allows extremely rapid response on the
shaft and is necessary so that the Motor Model (see Step 2)
can update this information.

It is this processing speed that brings the high performance

figures including a static speed control accuracy, without
encoder, of ±0.5% and the torque response of less than 2ms.

28 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 Basic Control Theory

Speed Control

Step 5 Within the Torque Reference Controller, the speed control

Torque Reference output is limited by the torque limits and DC bus voltage.
Controller
It also includes speed control for cases when an external
torque signal is used. The internal torque reference from this
block is fed to the Torque Comparator.

Step 6 The Speed Controller block consists both of a PID controller

Speed Controller and an acceleration compensator. The external speed
reference signal is compared to the actual speed produced
in the Motor Model. The error signal is then fed to both the
PID controller and the acceleration compensator. The output
is the sum of outputs from both of them.

Step 7 An absolute value of stator flux can be given from the Flux
Flux Reference Reference Controller to the Flux Comparator block. The ability
Controller to control and modify this absolute value provides an easy
way to realise many inverter functions such as Flux
Optimisation and Flux Braking (see page 19).

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 29

 Chapter 5 - Index
A E
AC drive 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, electrical time constant 8
15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 28 electronic controller 11, 14
AC drive using DTC 12, 13 elevators 17
AC drive with flux vector control 10 encoders 8, 11, 12, 14, 18, 22,
AC drive with frequency control 9 23, 27, 28
AC induction motor 10, 11 energy savings 21
AC motor 5, 6, 8, 13, 18 external speed reference 29
AC variable speed drive 6, 8 external torque signal 29
acceleration compensator 29 F
accuracy control 18 fan 10, 19, 20, 21
aerators 20 feedback device 9, 10, 11, 13, 15,
air condition 5, 20 16, 22, 24
angular position 11 field current 7
armature current 7 field orientation 7, 8, 10, 11, 12
armature windings 7 field oriented control 16
ASIC 28 film finishing 21
auto-tuning 19, 24, 27 flux braking 19, 29
B flux comparator 28, 29
Blaschke 16 flux optimisation 19, 21, 29
braking 19, 29 Flux Reference Controller 29
C flux vector 6, 10, 11, 13, 16, 21,
closed-loop 10, 11, 15, 16 22
closed-loop drives 10, 11 flux vector control 6, 10, 11, 13
commissioning 19 flux vector PWM drives 11
commutator-brush assembly 7 food 20
control cycle 28 frequency control 6, 9, 13, 22
control loop 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 24, fuzzy logic 24
26, 27, 29 G
control variables 10, 13, 15, 22 gearbox 19
controlled input bridge 20 H
controlling variables 9, 11, 12, 14, harmonics 15, 20
22 heating 20
conveyors 20 HeVAC 20
costs 8, 10, 11, 18, 19, 21 hysteresis control 28
D I
DC bus voltage 27, 29 inertia 27
DC drive 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, initial cost 18
14, 18 input frequency 15
DC link voltage 19, 20 L
DC motor 6, 7, 8, 11, 15 load torque 16, 20
DC Motor Drive 6 loss of input power 20
Depenbrock 16 low frequencies 16, 17, 23
digital signal processing 12 M
diode bridge 20 magnetising current 7
diode rectifier 9 maintenance 6, 8, 18
Direct Torque Control 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, mechanical brake 18
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 26 modulator 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 22
drive input line generating unit 20 motor controller 8
DSP 22, 28 motor flux optimisation 21
DTC 5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, motor magnetising flux 12
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, Motor Model 10, 22, 23, 24, 27,
27, 28 28, 29
dynamic speed accuracy 12, 17, motor noise 19, 21
18, 23 Motor static speed 17
dynamic speed response 8 motor torque 8, 12, 28
mutual inductance 27

30 Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control

 N start 5, 19, 20, 26
noise 15, 19, 20, 21 starting 19, 20
nominal torque step 23 static accuracy 18
O static speed accuracy 17, 27
OEMs 5 stator 7, 9, 10, 11, 22, 27, 28, 29
open-loop drive 9 stator field 11
open loop AC drives 12 stator flux 22, 28, 29
operating cost 21 stator resistance 27
optical link 28 stator winding 9, 10
Optimum Pulse Selector 28 stress 19, 21
output frequency 22 switching pattern 19, 23, 28
output voltage 22 switching pulses 23
P T
paper industry 17 tachometer 12, 14, 16, 17, 18,
PID controller 29 22, 23, 27
pipelines 21 time constant 8, 23
position control 18 torque 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,
position encoder 12, 22 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
position feedback 8 24, 25, 26, 28, 29
power factor 20 - control 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 18, 21,
power loss ride through 19, 21 26
predetermined switching pattern - control at low frequencies 16
19, 28 - full load at zero speed 16
Pulse Width Modulation 9 - linearity 17
pump 10, 19, 20, 21 - loop 23
PWM 6, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, - repeatability 18
21, 22, 24, 28 - response 6, 8, 11, 12, 18, 23, 24,
PWM AC drive 11, 14, 21, 22, 28
24, 28 - ripple 24
R Torque and Flux Comparator 28
reliability 8, 18 Torque Comparator 28, 29
restart 19 Torque Control Loop 26
retrofit 19 Torque Reference Controller 29
RFI 15 trip 15, 19, 20, 24
rotor 7, 8, 10, 11 U
rotor flux 11 universal 12, 15, 18, 20
rotor position 7 V
rotor speed 11 variable speed drives 5, 6, 13, 20
S ventilating 20
saturation coefficient 27 voltage 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16,
scalar control 10, 25 19, 20, 22, 23, 27, 29
sensorless 23 voltage fed drive 8
servicing 8 VSD 5, 6
servo drive 18, 23 W
signal processing 12, 22, 23 water 5, 20
signal processing time 22 web machine 21
speed 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, winder 17, 21, 22
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, Z
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 zero speed 11, 16, 18, 19, 23, 25
speed accuracy 6, 8, 11, 12, 15,
17, 18, 23, 24, 25, 27
speed control 6, 7, 24, 26, 28, 29
Speed Control Loop 26
speed control output 29
Speed Controller 29
speed response 7, 8, 22
stability 25

Technical Guide No.1- Direct Torque Control 31

 Specifications subject to change without notice
3AFE 58056685 REV B EN 26.04.2002

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 2

EU Council Directives and

Adjustable Speed Electrical
Power Drive Systems
2 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives
 Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................. 7
This guide’s purpose ...................................................... 7
How to use this guide .................................................... 8
Responsibilities and actions ...................................... 8
Tickboxes ................................................................... 8
Cross-referencing ...................................................... 8
Key Points .................................................................. 8

2 General questions and answers ................................ 9

What is all the fuss about? ............................................ 9
What are these EU Council Directives? .................... 9
How does EMC affect me? ....................................... 9
What is EMC? ......................................................... 10
What is an electromagnetic environment? .............. 10
How does electromagnetic interference show up? . 10
What emissions can drives cause? ......................... 11
How is this emission seen? ..................................... 11
How do I avoid electromagnetic interference? ........ 11
Drive manufacturers must comply with EMC
standards then? ....................................................... 11
If a drive is CE Marked, I need not worry. True? ..... 11

3 CE Marking ................................................................. 13
What is CE Marking and how relevant is it for drives? 13
What is CE Marking for? ............................................. 14
Is CE Marking a quality mark? ................................ 14
What is the legal position regarding CE Marking? .. 14
What is the importance of CE Marking for
purchasers of drives? .............................................. 14
If I buy a CE marked drive, will I meet the
technical requirements of the Directives? ............... 14
What happens if, as an End User, I put together a
system - do I have to put CE Marking on? .............. 15
What about spare parts that I buy for a drive? Do I
negate the CE Mark if I replace a component? ...... 15
If drives are classed as components, they cannot
be EMC certified or carry a CE Mark, is this true? . 15
In Summary ................................................................. 16
Component .............................................................. 16
Components with direct function ............................. 16
Components without direct function ........................ 17
Apparatus ................................................................ 17
Systems ................................................................... 17
Installation ............................................................... 17

4 Purchasing decisions for PDSs ............................... 18

What you need to know and do ................................... 18
If you are a Machine Builder buying a PDS ................ 22

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 3

 Actions you must take ............................................. 23
If you are a System Designer buying a PDS ............... 26
Path 1 ...................................................................... 26
Actions you must take ............................................. 27
Path 2 ...................................................................... 27
Actions you must take ............................................. 27
Path 3 ...................................................................... 28
Actions you must take ............................................. 28
If you are an End-User buying a CDM/BDM or PDS .. 28
You have the following responsibilities .................... 29
Actions you must take ............................................. 29
If you are a Panelbuilder buying a CDM/BDM ............. 30
Additional actions .................................................... 32
If you are a Distributor buying a CDM/BDM ................ 32
If you are an Installer buying a CDM/BDM or PDS ..... 32

5 Terminology ............................................................... 34
Technical Construction File (TCF) ............................... 34
What is a Technical Construction File? ................... 34
When do I use a TCF? ............................................ 34
Why is a TCF deemed to be important? ................. 34
Will customers always receive a TCF copy? ........... 35
What is the shelf life of a TCF? ............................... 35
Is there any way I can avoid the TCF? .................... 35
How do I ensure that tests are always carried out? 35
Can drive manufacturers help more? ...................... 35
How to make up a TCF ................................................ 36
1. Description of the product ................................... 36
2. Procedures used to ensure product conformity .. 37
3. A report or certificate from a Competent Body ... 37
4. Actions by the Competent Body .......................... 38
Technical File (for mechanical safety aspects) ............ 38
What is a Technical File? ......................................... 38
How to make up a Technical File ................................. 39
Drawings and diagrams ........................................... 39
Health and safety ..................................................... 39
Machine design ....................................................... 39
Other certificates required ....................................... 39
Technical File (for electrical safety aspects) ................ 40
What is a Technical File? ......................................... 40
How to make up a Technical File ................................. 40
Drawings and diagrams ........................................... 40
Standards ................................................................ 40
Electrical Safety Aspect .......................................... 40
Other requirements ................................................. 40
Certificate of Adequacy ............................................... 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain a Certificate of Adequacy ..................... 41
Technical Report or Certificate .................................... 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain the Technical Report or Certificate ....... 41

4 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Report .......................................................................... 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain a Report ................................................ 42
Declaration of Conformity (for EMC and electrical
safety aspects) ............................................................ 42
How to obtain a Declaration of Conformity .................. 42
Declaration of Conformity (for mechanical
safety aspects) ............................................................ 43
How to obtain a Declaration of Conformity .................. 43
Declaration of Incorporation ........................................ 43
What is a Declaration of Incorporation? .................. 43
Is there no way out of this type of Declaration? ...... 44
What a Declaration of Incorporation contains ............. 44
Type Certification ......................................................... 45
How to obtain Type Certification .................................. 45

6 Authorities and Bodies ............................................. 46

Competent Authority .................................................... 46
Competent Body .......................................................... 46
Notified Body ............................................................... 46

7 Standards and Directives ......................................... 47

Directive or Standard? ................................................. 47
Harmonised Standards for PDSs ................................ 47
How to recognise a European Standard ................. 48
Your questions answered ............................................. 48
Which standards directly relate to drives? .............. 48
What are the issues of EN 61800-3 and drives? .... 49
What are the solutions to radiated emissions? ....... 49
Do I have to conform to the standards? .................. 49
Can I be fined for not conforming? .......................... 50
The Product Specific Standard EN 61800-3 ............... 50
Mode 1 ..................................................................... 50
Mode 2 ..................................................................... 50
Mode 3 ..................................................................... 51
Mode 4 ..................................................................... 51
Applications of different Modes ................................... 51
Machinery Directive 98/37/EC ..................................... 52
How does the Machinery Directive affect my drive? 52
Where can I obtain a Machinery Directive copy? .... 53
Low Voltage Directive .................................................. 53
How does the LVD affect my drive? ........................ 53
Why is the Declaration of Conformity important? ... 54
EMC Directive .............................................................. 54
How does the EMC Directive affect my drive? ........ 54
Who has the responsibility to ensure CE Marking? 55
Summary of responsibilities .................................... 56
Achieving conformity with EC Safety Directives ..... 57

8 Installation ................................................................. 58
General installation concerns ...................................... 58

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 5

 Technical requirements of the legislation .................... 58
How can EMC be improved? ................................... 59
General installation practice ........................................ 60
Cabling ..................................................................... 60
Relay Outputs .......................................................... 60
Earthing ................................................................... 61
Shielding .................................................................. 62
Filtering .................................................................... 63
Testing and installation ............................................ 64
Your technical concerns answered .............................. 65
What is the affect of varying impedance? ............... 65
What are the effects of multiple drives? .................. 65
Large installations with many drives can take up
to 3 months and be costly. What can we do? .......... 65

9 Index ........................................................................... 66

6 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 1 - Introduction

This guide's The aim of this Technical Guide No.2* is to give a straightforward
purpose explanation of how the various EU Council Directives relate to
Power Drive Systems (PDSs). For an explanation of the
terminology of PDSs, see pages 18 and 19.

While Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the subject of

most concern within the industry, it must be realised that the
EMC Directive is only part of the overall EU initiative on
common safety standards.

It is the intention of this Guide to offer users of AC or DC

power drive systems - whether Machine Builders, System
Designers, Distributors, OEMs, End-Users or Installers - some
clear practical guidelines and courses of action.

*Notes

1 The content of this Technical Guide is ABB Industry Oy's

interpretation of events as of November 1999. However,
we reserve the right to develop and evolve these
interpretations as more details become available from
Competent Bodies (see Chapter 6), Competent
Authorities (see Chapter 6), organisations and from our
own tests.

2 Other Technical Guides available in this series include:

Technical Guide No.1 -

Direct Torque Control
(3BFE 58056685 R0125 REV B).

Technical Guide No.3 -

EMC Compliant Installation and Configuration for a
Power Drive System
(3BFE 61348280 R0225).

Technical Guide No.4 -

Guide to Variable Speed Drives
(3BFE 61389211 R0125 REV A).

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 7

How to Use The Guide is divided into 9 Sections.
this Guide
Section 4 looks at Purchasing Decisions for PDSs. Please
note the following about the structure of this section:

Responsibilities Each type of purchaser is offered an explanation of their

and actions Responsibilities. This is for awareness. No action is needed.

Following the Responsibilities is a set of Actions. If the

purchaser follows these Actions, step-by-step, then
conforming to the relevant Directives will be straightforward.

Tickboxes Alongside the Actions are tickboxes. Purchasers can

photocopy the relevant pages and use them as a checklist
with each item being ticked off as it is achieved.

Cross-referencing Because of the complexity of conforming to each Directive,

this Guide inevitably carries a lot of cross-references to other
sections. In the margin you will come across:

Defined on page XX
You are advised to turn to the page number reference.

You will also notice other references within the text. These
can be referred to if the item is unclear but is not essential for
achieving compliance.

KEY POINTS: Within the text you will see:

Key Point
These are key observations that must be observed.

8 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 2 - General questions and answers

What is all the I have had no problems with drives in the past so why
fuss about? do I need to be concerned with EMC now?

Beware! Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is only one of

a number of EU Council Directives relating to common safety
standards for electrically powered equipment like Power Drive
Systems.

KEY POINT: It is very important that users of PDSs fully understand all
the various rules and regulations and how they apply to PDSs.
That is the purpose of this Guide.

What are these It is important to realise that EMC cannot be divorced from
EU Council other European legislation. So before answering this question,
Directives? we need to look at the other legislation and how it affects the
purchase and installation of drives.
Quite simply there are three Directives that mainly affect
a drive’s safety against risks and hazards. These are:

Directive Applicable Mandatory Page

Machinery Directive 1993-01-01 1995-01-01 pg 52

Low Voltage Directive 1995-01-01 1997-01-01 pg 53
EMC Directive 1992-01-01 1996-01-01 pg 54

But more on each of these Directives later. Let us first explain

EMC and look at some concerns of the industry.

How does EMC From January 1, 1996 the EU Council’s Electromagnetic

affect me? Compatibility Directive (89/336/EEC) has been compulsory.
It applies to all electrical and electronic equipment sold within
the EU and affects virtually all manufacturers and importers
of electrical and electronic goods.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 9

 KEY POINT: Electrical equipment that does not conform to the regulations
may not be sold anywhere in the EEA (European Economic
Area).

What is EMC? EMC stands for Electromagnetic Compatibility. It is the ability

of electrical/electronic equipment to operate problem-free
within an electromagnetic environment. Likewise, the
equipment must not disturb or interfere with any other products
or systems within its locality.

What is an The electromagnetic environment is everywhere but it varies

electromagnetic from place to place. The reason is that there are many different
environment? sources of disturbance which can be natural or man-made.

Natural sources consist of electrical discharge between

clouds, lightning or other atmospheric disturbances. While we
cannot influence these sources we can protect our products
and systems from their effects (see Installation, page 58).

Man-made disturbances are those generated by, for

example, electrical contacts and semiconductors, digital
systems like microprocessors, mobile radio transmitters,
walkie-talkies, portable car telephones and Power Drive
Systems (see page 18).

Such a variety of equipment, each with its own emission

characteristics, is often used so near to other electrical
equipment that the field strengths they create may cause
interferences.

KEY POINT: It is important that all PDSs are immune to these natural and
man-made disturbances. While drives manufacturers strive
to make their products immune, the Directive lays down
minimum standards for immunity, thereby ensuring all
manufacturers achieve the same basic level.

How does Electromagnetic interference shows up in a variety of ways.

electromagnetic Typical examples of interference include a poorly suppressed
interference automobile engine or dynamo; an electric drill causing
show up? patterning on the TV screen; or crackling from an AM radio.

The microprocessor and power electronic component, switch

rapidly and therefore, can cause interference at high
frequencies, unless proper precautions are taken.

10 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 What emissions The normal operation of any drive involves rapid switching of
can drives high voltages and this can produce radio frequency emission.
cause? It is this radiation and emission that have been seen to have
the potential to disturb other circuits at frequencies below
200 MHz.

Modern equipment contains considerable communications

and other digital electronics. This can cause considerable
emissions at frequencies above 200MHz.

How is this The main emission is via conduction to the mains. Radiation
emission seen? from the converter and conducting cables is another type of
emission and it is especially demanding to achieve the radiated
emission limits.

How do I avoid You need to ensure two things:

electromagnetic
interference? • that the equipment generates minimum emission.

• that the equipment is immune to outside effects.

KEY POINT: In the case of Power Drive Systems, a lot hinges on the quality
of the installation. See Installation, page 58, for more details.

Electromagnetic interference needs to be conducted to earth

(ground potential) and no system can work unless it is properly
connected.

Drives Unfortunately, the process is not that simple. Virtually everyone

manufacturers in the supply chain has a responsibility to ensure a product, a
must comply with system and an installation complies with the essential
EMC standards requirements of the EMC Directive.
then?
The key is to clearly understand who has responsibility for
what. In the forthcoming pages we take a look at various
types of purchasers and examine the steps each should take
to meet all three Directives mentioned on page 9.

Everyone from manufacturer to installer to user has a

responsibility in complying with EMC rules.

If a drive is CE Again this is a big misconception. Just because a drive has

Marked, I need CE Marking does not necessarily mean it meets the EMC
not worry. True? Directive.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 11

 KEY POINT: This will all become clear by referring to the section
Purchasing Decisions for PDSs, page 18.

CE Marking according to the EMC-Directive cannot normally

be applied to a module that is no more than a chassis with
exposed terminals.

12 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 3 - CE Marking

What is CE CE Marking, shown below, is the official signature of the

Marking and Declaration of Conformity (see pages 42 and 43) as
governed by the European Commission. It is a very specific
how relevant
graphic symbol and must be separated from other marks.
is it for
drives?

CE Marking is a system of self-certification to identify

equipment that complies with the relevant applicable
Directives.

If a drive is the subject of several directives and, for example,

conforms with the Low Voltage Directive (see page 53), then,
from 1997, it is compulsory that it shows CE Marking. That
marking shall indicate that the drive also conforms to the EMC
Directive (page 54). CE marking shall indicate conformity
only to the directive(s) applied by the manufacturer.

KEY POINT: NOTE: If the standards route is used, then there must be a
Technical File supporting the Declaration of Conformity.
However, if standards cannot be complied with then a
Technical Construction File (TCF) needs to be compiled.

For more on Technical Construction Files and Technical

Files, please refer to pages 34 and 40.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 13

What is CE CE Marking is mainly for the benefit of Authorities throughout
Marking for? the EU and EEA countries who control the movement of
goods. CE Marking shows that the product complies with the
essential requirements of all relevant Directives, mainly in the
area of technical safety and conformity assessment. There
are three Directives that are relevant to drives, but CE Marking
may be attached to indicate compliance with one (see the
previous page).

Is CE Marking a Most definitely not. As CE Marking is self certification, you

quality mark? can be assured that certification has been carried out.

What is the legal Anyone applying CE Marking is legally liable and must be
position regarding able to prove the validity of his actions to the authorities. CE
CE Marking? Marking confirms compliance with the Directives listed in the
Declaration of Conformity (see pages 42 and 43).

What is the As far as a purchaser of a drive is concerned, anything that

importance of CE carries the CE Mark must have a functional value to him.
Marking for
purchasers of Thus, a complete drive product, which can be safely cabled
drives? and powered up on its own, may carry the CE marking.

If I buy a CE In practice, you will see drive products with CE Marking. But
marked drive, will it is important to understand just why the product was given
I meet the CE Marking in the first place.
technical
requirements of Basically a drive has no functional value. It is only of practical
the Directives? use when connected to, say, a motor which in turn is connected
to a load.

Therefore, as far as the Machinery Directive is concerned a

drive cannot have CE Marking unless it is part of a “process”
comprising the drive, motor and load.

As for the EMC Directive, the equipment that make up a

“process” include cabling, drives and motor. CE Marking can
only be affixed if all items forming such a “process” conform
to the requirements of the Directive.

However, in the eyes of the Low Voltage Directive, a built

drive does have functionality. That is, through the drive's
Parameters you can program the drive and obtain an input
and output signal. Thus, if a drive conforms to the Low Voltage
Directive it can carry CE Marking. Refer to pages 52, 53
and 54 for explanations of the three Directives.

14 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 What happens if, Yes. Anyone putting together a system and commissioning it
as an End-User, I is responsible for the appropriate CE Marking.
put together a
system - do I
have to put CE
Marking on?

KEY POINT: Turn to page 29 for more details about the End-User's
responsibilities.

What about spare Equipment supplied before the application of the Directives,
parts that I buy can be repaired and supplied with spare parts to bring it back
for a drive? Do I to the original specification. However, it cannot be enhanced
negate the CE or reinstalled without meeting the Directives.
Mark if I replace a
component? For equipment supplied after the application of the Directives,
the use of the manufacturer's spare parts should not negate
the CE Marking. However, the manufacturer or supplier should
be consulted about upgrading, as some actions could affect
the CE Marking criteria.

If drives are You need to first understand the terminology now being applied
classed as to drives. See below and page 18 for this.
components,
they cannot be A Complete Drive Module (CDM) is normally a component in
EMC certified or a system and as such has no functional value unless it is
carry a CE Mark. connected to the motor when it becomes a PDS.
Is this true?
The CDM shall be CE-marked if it is to be installed with simple
connections and adjustments that do not require any EMC-
knowledge.

If awareness of the EMC implication is needed in order to

install a CDM, it is not considered as an apparatus. Thus, it
shall not be CE-marked according to the EMC-directives.

If a CDM or BDM is intended for incorporation in PDS by

professional manufacturers only (panel builders, machine
builders), it shall not be CE-marked, nor is declaration of
conformity given by the CDM/BDM manufacturer. Instead
installation instructions shall be supplied in order to help the
professional manufacturers.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 15

In Summary Under the Directives, Components with direct function
available without further adjustment other than simple ones,
Apparatus and Systems have to be CE marked. Components
with direct function not available without simple adjustments
and Components without direct function and Installations,
while required to satisfy various elements of the Directives, shall
not be CE marked.

Component In this context the interpretation of component can be divided

into two main categories. The component can either deliver a
‘direct function’ or not.

Direct function:
Any function of the component itself, which fulfils the intended
use, specified by the manufacturer in the instruction for use
for an end user.

Components with Components with a direct function can be divided into two
direct function sub-groups:

1) The direct function is available without further adjustment

or connections other than simple ones, which can be
performed by any person not fully aware of the EMC
implications. Such a component is an ‘apparatus’ and it is
subjected to all provisions of the EMC Directive.

2) The direct function is not available without further

adjustment or connections other than simple ones, which
can be performed by any person not fully aware of the
EMC implications. Such a component is not an ‘apparatus’.
The only requirement for such a component is to provide
it with instructions for use for the professional assembler
or manufacturer of the final apparatus into which the
component will be incorporated. These instructions should
help him to solve any EMC problems with his final
apparatus.

If a component performs a direct function without further

adjustment other than simple ones, the component is
considered equivalent to apparatus. Some variable speed
power drive products fall into this category, e.g. a drive installed
into a cabinet or drive with enclosure and sold as a complete
unit (CDM). All provisions of the EMC Directive apply.

If a component performs a direct function that is not available

without further adjustment other than simple ones, it is
considered as a component. Some variable speed power drive
products fall into this category, e.g. basic drive module (BDM).
These are meant to be assembled by a professional assembler

16 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 (e.g. panel builder or system manufacturer) into a cabinet not
in the scope of delivery of the manufacturer of the BDM.
According to the EMC Directive, the requirement for the BDM
supplier is instructions for installation and use.

According to the EMC Directive the system manufacturer or

panel builder is resonsible for CE-mark, Declaration of
Conformity and Technical Construction File.

Components Components with no direct function are not considered as

without direct apparatus within the meaning of the EMC Directive. The EMC
function Directive does not apply to these. These components include
resistors, cables, terminal blocks, etc.

Apparatus A finished product containing electrical and/or electronic

components and intended to be placed on the market and/or
taken into service as a single commercial unit.

Systems Several items of apparatus combined to fulfil a specific

objective and intended to be placed on the market as a single
functional unit.

Installation A combination of items of apparatus, equipment and/or

components put together at a given place to fulfil a specific
objective but not intended to be placed on the market as a
single functional unit.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 17

 Chapter 4 - Purchasing decisions for PDSs

What you Starting on page 20, we offer a step-by-step guide

need to know relating to your purchasing requirements for Power
and do Drive Systems.

KEY POINT: Before turning to page 20, you need to know the following
IEC terms for PDSs and their component parts, which may
be unfamiliar to many users.

TERMS THAT YOU MUST KNOW

1. Basic Drive Module (BDM) consists of the converter
section and the control circuits needed for torque or speed.
A BDM is the essential part of the Power Drive System taking
electrical power from a 50 Hz constant frequency supply and
converting it into a variable form for an electric motor.

2. Complete Drive Module (CDM) consists of the drive

system without the motor and the sensors mechanically
coupled to the motor shaft. The CDM also includes the Basic
Drive Module (BDM) and a feeder section. Devices such as
an incoming phase-shift transformer for a 12-pulse drive are
considered part of the CDM.

3. Power Drive System, or PDS, is a term used throughout

this Technical Guide. A PDS includes the frequency converter
and feeding section (the CDM and BDM), motors, sensors,
all cabling, filters, panels and any other components needed
to make the PDS work effectively.

Note: The load is not considered part of the PDS, but the
CDM can incorporate the supply sections and ventilation.

18 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 HOW THE TERMS
FIT TOGETHER

Installation or part of installation

Power Drive System (PDS)

CDM
(Complete Drive Module)

System contr ol and sequencing

control

BDM (Basic Drive

Module)
Control section
Converter section

Feeder section
Field supply
Auxiliaries
Others

Motor & sensors

Driven equipment
or load

Now we strongly advise you turn to page 20, to discover the type
of person you are.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 19

 To make this Technical Guide easy to use, we have also
identified certain types of people who will be involved
in the purchasing of drives.

Please identify the type nearest to your job function and turn
to the relevant section.

WHO ARE YOU?

IF THIS IS
YOU, TURN
NOW TO
PAGE.....
Machine Builder
is a person who buys either a PDS, CDM or BDM and
other mechanical or electrical component parts, such as
22
a pump, and assembles these into a machine.
Note: A machine is defined as an assembly of linked
parts or components, at least one of which moves. It
includes the appropriate actuators, control and power
circuits joined together for a specific application, in
particular for processing, treatment, moving or
packaging of a material.

System Designer
carries out all the electrical design of the Power Drive 26
System, specifying all component parts which comprise
a PDS.

End-User
is the final customer who will actually use the machine, 28
PDS or CDM/BDM.

Panelbuilder
constructs enclosures into which a panelbuilder will 30
install a variety of components, including a CDM/BDM
and sometimes the motor. However, the built enclosure
does not constitute a machine.

20 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 WHO ARE YOU?
IF THIS IS
YOU, TURN
NOW TO
PAGE........
Distributor
acts as the sales distribution channel between the CDM/ 32
BDM manufacturer and the End-User, Machine Builder,
OEM, Panelbuilder or System Designer.

Installer
carries out the entire electrical installation of the PDS. 32

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)

For the purposes of purchasing drives, an OEM will
normally fall into the category of a Machine Builder, 22
System Designer or Panelbuilder. Therefore, if you
identify yourself as an OEM, refer to the relevant pages 26
for each of these job functions. 30

Drive Manufacturer

System Distributor -
Designer p.26 p.32
Machine
Builder
Panelbuilder Panelbuilder -
or OEM -
p.30 p.30
p.22
Installer - p.32 Installer - p.32

End-User - page 28

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 21

 NOTE: Before reading this section we strongly urge
you to familiarise yourself with the terms explained on
pages 16-19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Machine
1. Because you are building a complete machine, which
Builder buying includes coupling up the motors to the PDS and providing
a PDS... the mechanical guarding and so on, you are liable for the
total mechanical and electrical safety of the machine as
specified in the Machinery Directive.

Therefore, the PDS is ultimately your responsibility. You

need to ensure that the entire PDS meets the Machinery
Directive. Only then can CE Marking be applied to the
whole machine.

2. You are also responsible for the electrical safety of all

parts of the PDS as specified in the Low Voltage
Directive.

3. You must ensure electrical parts are manufactured in

accordance with the EMC Directive. The manufacturer
of these parts is responsible for EMC for that particular
part. Nevertheless you are responsible for EMC for the
machine. You may choose electrical par ts not in
accordance with the EMC directive, but then you have
the responsibility for compliance of parts.

Note: Be aware that combining CE-marked sub-

assemblies may not automatically produce an apparatus
that meets the requirements.

4. You must ensure that the PDS or its component parts

carry Declarations of Conformity in accordance with
the electrical safety requirements of the Low Voltage
Directive.

5. You must be able to assure a Competent Authority and

customers that the machine has been built according to
the Machinery Directive, the Low Voltage Directive and
the EMC Directive. It may be necessary to issue a
Technical File and a Technical Construction File to
demonstrate compliance. You must keep in mind that you
and only you have responsibility for compliance with
directives.

6. A Declaration of Conformity according the directives

above must be issued by the Machine Builder and CE
Marking must then be affixed to the machine or system.

22 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 7. Any machine that does not comply must be withdrawn
from the market.

Actions you must 1. To meet the Machinery Directive (see page 52) you need to:
take
a. Comply with the following mechanical safety checklist.
The aim is to eliminate any risk of accident throughout
the machinery’s life. This is not a complete list, the detailed
list is contained within the Machinery Directive:

Eliminate risk as far as possible, taking the necessary

protective measures if some risks cannot be eliminated.

Inform users of the residual risks; indicate whether any

training is required and stress the need for personal
protective equipment.

Machinery design, construction and instructions must

consider any abnormal use.

Under the intended conditions of use, the discomfort,

fatigue and stress of the operator must be reduced.

The manufacturer must take account of the operator’s

constraints resulting from the use of personal protective
equipment.

Machiner y must be supplied with all essential

equipment to enable it to be used without risk.

Detailed instructions relating to materials, lighting, controls,

protection devices are given in Annex 1 of the Machinery
Directive.

b. Comply with the following electrical safety checklist:

To ensure the electrical safety of all parts of the PDS as
specified in the Low Voltage Directive (refer to page 53)
you need to comply with the following safety checklist,
which is not necessarily complete.

Note: the detailed list is given in EN 60204-1. This can be

obtained from CENELEC or the National Standardisation
Association.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 23

 The electricity supply should be equipped with a hand-
operated disconnecting device and with emergency
devices for switching off the supply in the event of an
unexpected start-up.

The equipment shall provide protection of persons

against electric shock from direct or indirect contact.

The equipment is protected against the effects of:

overcurrent arising from a short circuit.

overload current.

abnormal temperatures.

loss of, or reduction in, the supply voltage.

overspeed of machines/machine elements.

The electrical equipment is equipped with an

equipotential bonding circuit consisting of the:

• PE terminal.
• conductive structural parts of the electrical
equipment and the machine.
• protective conductors in the equipment or the
machine.

The control circuits and control functions ensure safe

operation including the necessary interlockings,
emergency stop, prevention of automatic re-start, etc.

Defined on page 38

c. Compile a Technical File for the machine,

including the PDS.

24 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 KEY POINT: Generally, must carry CE Marking and have a Declaration
of Conformity.

For machines that pose a high risk of accident, a Type

Certification (see page 45) is required from a Notified Body
(see page 46). Such machinery is included in Annex IV of the
Machinery Directive.

The Type Certificate issued should be included in the

Technical File for the Machine or Safety Component. Refer
now to page 38.

2. Declarations of Conformity from each of the

component suppliers whose products make up the
PDS and incorporate them into the Technical File,
referring to all three Directives. If buying a PDS from
a System Designer (see below), he should be able
to provide all Declarations. If system designer or
component supplier cannot provide Declaration of
Conformity, the responsibility of demonstrating
compliance according to EMC Directive or Low
Voltage Directive lies on Machine Builder. Refer to
pages 30-32 in this case.

3. Pass this Technical File to a Competent Body

(refer to page 46). The Machine Builder SHOULD
NOT pass the File on to an End-User. Based on
the Technical File, obtain a Certificate of
Adequacy or Technical Report from a Competent
Body.

Defined on pages 42 and 43

4. Issue a Declaration of Conformity for the entire

machine. Only then can you apply CE Marking
(see page 13).

5. Pass the Declaration of Conformity related to all

three directives on to the End-User of the
machine (refer to page 28).

6. Apply CE Marking to the machine.

7. Congratulations! You have successfully complied

with the main requirements for safe and efficient
operation of a machine.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 25

 NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly
urge you to familiarise yourself with the terms
explained on pages 16 - 19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

System
1. The PDS is a complex component of the machine.
Designer Therefore, the Machinery Directive has to be complied
buying a with by issuing a Declaration of Incorporation.
PDS...
2. Because a PDS is not a machine, the only Directives
which need to be complied with are the Low Voltage
Directive and the EMC Directive.

3. The responsibility for Declaration of Conformity and

applying CE Marking rests with both the System Designer
and the supplier of the component parts which make up
the Power Drive System.

The System Designer has to decide if he is going to place

his delivery on the market as a single functional unit or not

• if the answer is YES, the delivery shall be classified as a

system (refer to page 16 - 17).

• if the answer is NO , the delivery shall be classified as an

installation (refer to page 16 - 17).

A. If the delivery is classified as a system, the system designer

has to choose one of two paths to follow:

Path 1 All components have EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is based on a component's

performance.

2. Responsibility lies with the Component Suppliers for

CE Marking of individual complex components

3. PDS is an System according to the EMC Directive (as

placed on the market as a single funtional unit).

4. The Declaration of Conformity as well as the

instructions for use must refer to the system as whole.
The system designer assumes responsibility for
compliance with the Directive.

Note 1: The system designer is responsible for producing

the instructions for use for the particular system as whole.

26 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Note 2: Be aware that combining two or more CE-marked
sub-assemblies may not automatically produce a system
that meets the requirements.

5. No CE Marking is required for a system as whole, as

long as each part bears the CE-mark.

Actions you must 1. Follow all Installation Guidelines issued by each

take of the component suppliers.

2. Issue instructions for use in order to operate

the system.

3. Issue a Technical Construction File for the System.

4. Issue a Declaration of Conformity.

5. DO NOT issue a CE Mark.

Path 2 Components without EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is designed at the system level (no

accumulated cost by device specific filters etc).

2. Responsibility lies with the System Designer who decides

the configuration (place or a specific filter etc).

3. PDS is a System according to the EMC Directive (as

placed on the market as a single functional unit).

4. Declaration of Conformity and CE Marking are required

for the System.

Actions you must 1. Follow the Installation Guidelines issued by each

take of the component suppliers.

2. Optimise the construction of the installation to

ensure the design meets the required EMC
behaviour, i.e. the location of filters.

Defined on pages 34 - 40

3. Issue instructions for use in order to operate

the system.

4. Issue a Technical Construction File for the

System.

5. Issue a Declaration of Conformity and CE

Mark.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 27

 B. If the delivery is an installation, the system designer has
one path to follow:

Path 3 All components have EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is based on a component's performance.

2. Responsibility lies with the Component Suppliers for CE

Marking of individual complex components.

3. PDS is an Installation according to the EMC Directive.

4. No Declaration of Conformity or CE Marking is required

for a fixed Installation, (such as an outside broadcast radio
station) DOC and CE marking are needed.

Actions you must 1. Follow all Installation Guidelines issued by each

take of the component suppliers.

2. Transfer all Installation Guidelines and Declaration

of Conformity (see page 42) for each of the
components, as issued by suppliers, to the Machine
Builder.

3. DO NOT issue a Declaration of Conformity or CE

Marking as this is not allowed for fixed installations.

NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly urge

you to familiarise yourself with the terms explained on pages
16 - 19.

If you are an
End-User
buying a CDM/
BDM or PDS

KEY POINT: An End-User can make an agreement with the drive's supplier
so that the supplier acts as the Machine Builder. However,
the End-User is still responsible for the machine's safety.

The supplier who acts as the Machine Builder will issue a

Declaration of Conformity when the work is complete.

Once an intermediary Panelbuilder incorporates a CDM/BDM

into a panel, he creates a part of a PDS.

28 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 The Panelbuilder then has the same responsibilities as the
drive’s manufacturer.

...You have the 1. For the total mechanical and electrical safety of the
following machine of which the drive is part of, as specified in the
responsibilities Machinery Directive (see page 52).

2. For the electrical safety of the drive as specified in the

Low Voltage Directive (see page 53).

3. To ensure the drive carries a Declaration of Conformity

in accordance with the electrical safety requirements of
the Low Voltage Directive.

4. To be able to demonstrate to the Authorities that the

machine to which the drive is being fitted has been built
to both the Machinery Directive and Low Voltage
Directive.

5. The manufacturer of the drive is responsible for

determining the EMC behaviour of the drive.

6. The resulting EMC behaviour is the responsibility of the

assembler of the final product, by following the
manufacturer’s recommendations and guidelines.

Actions you must The following needs to be completed by either the End-User
take directly or the third party engaged to build the machine.

1. To meet the Machinery Directive (refer to page 52) you

need to follow the Actions listed for a Machine Builder
on pages 22-25.

2. Follow installation instruction issued by manufacturers in

order to fulfill the requirements of the EMC Directive and
the Low Voltage Directive.

3. Ensure that equipment (CDM/BDM/PDS) is operated

according to manufacturer's instruction in order to
guarentee right way of operation.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 29

 NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly urge
you to familiarise yourself with the terms explained on
pages 16 - 19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Panelbuilder
buying a CDM/ 1. The Panelbuilder has two options:
BDM Option A - To buy non-CE marked components

This could save the Panelbuilder money because he buys

components which are not tested for EMC. However, the
responsibility for EMC is then the Panelbuilder's and this
will incur considerable costs as the entire panel needs to be
tested.

If the Panelbuilder buys non-CE marked components, the

drive may be made to conform without further testing if the
components themselves have been tested. However, tested
components do not carry the CE mark but must carry
suitable instructions for installation. It is these instructions
which must be demonstrably met.

Option A - Actions to meet these responsibilities

1. Follow the Installation Guidelines issued by

each of the component suppliers.

2. Optimise the construction of the installation to

ensure the design meets the required EMC
behaviour, i.e. the location of filters.

3. Issue a Technical Construction File for the

System.

Defined on pages 47 to 54

4. If you choose to test yourself you must make

reference to EMC Directives:

89/336/EEC;
91/263/EEC;
92/31/EEC;
93/68/EEC.

Harmonised standard:

EN 61800-3.

30 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Defined on pages 34-40

5. Once testing is completed, the results need to be

included in the Technical Construction File
(TCF) for the panel.

6. If testing is incomplete or full compliance cannot

be demonstrated, a TCF must be created and
results included for approval by a Competent Body.

7. You must then issue the Declaration of

Conformity and CE Marking for the panel (refer
to page 13).

Option B - To buy CE marked components

Option B - Actions to meet these responsibilities

1. Buying CE marked components creates a system

or an apparatus (refer to page 16-17) depending
on the nature of the panel.

2. Although the Panelbuilder does not have to carry

out tests, he must ensure he conforms to the
installation guidelines given by each of the
component manufacturers.
Note: Be aware that combining two or more CE-
marked components may not automatically
produce a system, which meets the requirements.

3. Beware! These guidelines could differ greatly from

those given for normal installation purposes
because the components will be in close proximity
to each other.

4. Issue instructions for use in order to operate

the system or apparatus.

5. Issue a Technical Construction File.

6. Issue a Declaration of Conformity.

7. Apply CE Marking to your panel in the case of an

apparatus. In the case of a system DO NOT apply
CE Marking.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 31

Additional actions The Panel can be either sold on the open market or use as
part of a machine. For each option there is a different
requirement:

1. If you know that the panel is to be used as part of a

machine then you must request from the CDM/BDM
manufacturer a Declaration of Incorporation.

2. The Declaration of Incorporation must be supplied

with the panel to the Machine Builder, but CE
Marking MUST NOT be affixed. This is because
CE Marking always needs a Declaration of
Conformity.

KEY POINT: The Declaration of Incorporation CANNOT be used to

apply CE Marking.

3. The Machine Builder will need this Declaration

of Incorporation because he has to construct a
Technical Construction File (TCF) for the
machine and in that file all the declarations need
to be included.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Distributor
1. If a Distributor is selling boxed products, like CDM/BDMs
buying a CDM/ (drives), direct from the manufacturer, his only
BDM... responsibility is to pass on the Installation Guidelines
to the End-user, Machine Builder or System Designer.
In addition, the Declaration of Conformity must be
passed to the Machine Builder or System Designer.

2. Both the Installation Guidelines and the Declaration

of Conformity are available from the manufacturer.

Actions you must take to meet these responsibilities

1. Pass all Installation Guidelines and Declaration of

Conformities to either the End-User, Machine Builder
or System Designer.
If you are an
Installer ...You have the following responsibilities:
buying a CDM/ 1. You must ensure that the Installation Guidelines of the
BDM or PDS... Machine Builder and/or System Designer are adhered
to.

32 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Actions you must take to meet these responsibilities

1. Follow Machinery Builder and/or System Designer

Installation Guidelines.

2. Turn to page 58, Chapter 8 for recommended installation

guidelines.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 33

 Chapter 5 - Terminology

Technical APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

Construction
RESPONSIBILITY: Electrical Equipment Manufacturer
File (TCF)
REQUIRED BY: EMC Directive

What is a Technical A Technical Construction File (TCF) must be provided for

Construction File? the entire equipment or system and if required is to show a
Competent Authority that you have met the essential
requirements of the EMC Directive (see page 54).

The TCF consists of three parts:

1. A description of the product.

2. Procedures used to ensure conformity of the product to

the requirements.

3. A report or certificate from a Competent Body.

KEY POINT: The full contents of the TCF are given on pages 36-38.

When do I use A TCF is needed if you are:

a TCF?
a. claiming compliance without necessarily meeting the
standards.

b. or where suitable standards do not exist.

c. or where the system may be complex and involve the

inclusion of more than one equipment.

d. or where the Equipment can have several variants.

Why is a TCF Anyone placing a product onto the market within the EU must
deemed to be be able to show that the product meets the requirements of
important? the appropriate EU Council Directive and must be able to
demonstrate this to a Competent Authority without further
testing.

This may be by a Technical File to show that the standards

route has been complied with (see page 38). Alternatively
the Technical Construction File (TCF) route is necessary.

A TCF allows the appropriate Declaration of Conformity to

be drawn up.

34 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 If there is any doubt in the manner of compliance, the TCF is
the preferred route.

Will customers The content of the TCF file is meant for the Authorities, and
always receive a thus the electrical equipment manufacturer does not have to
TCF copy? give the TCF or any part of it to the customer.

However, as the customer needs to know whether the product

is in conformance, he will obtain this assurance from the
documentation delivered with the product. It is not required to
supply a declaration of conformity with the product, but the
end-user may ask for this from the manufacturer.

What is the shelf Any TCF must be accessible to the appropriate Authorities
life of a TCF? for 10 years from the last relevant product being delivered.

Is there any way I Yes. Use the standards route to compliance.

can avoid the TCF?
Although TCFs may appear onerous and time consuming
there is often no way of avoiding their use. Even soft starters,
PLCs, intelligent motor protection relays and a host of other
microprocessor based devices are subject to TCFs, if the
manufacturer opts for that route.

How do I ensure The whole system is based on self certification and good
that tests are faith. In various parts of Europe the methods of ensuring
always carried compliance will vary. Supervision of these regulations is
out? achieved through market control by a Competent Authority. If
the equipment fails to meet the requirements of the EMC-
directive, Competent Authorities can use the safeguard clause
of the EMC-directive (withdraw the product from the market,
take legal action).

Can drive Manufacturers accept that there is a need to work more closely
manufacturers with OEMs and Machine Builders where the converter can
help more? be mounted on the machine. A standard assembly or design
should be achieved so that the TCF does not have to be
repeated.

However, the idea of mounting drives in motor control centres

(MCCs) must be much more carefully thought out by system
specifiers.

For a straightforward single drive application, it may well be

possible to demonstrate compliance by the standards route
and evidence of type tests using specified types and lengths
of cable with fixing methods and segregation.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 35

 Technical Construction File (TCF)

This would only need a Technical File (see page 38),

otherwise the Technical Construction File route is still
needed.

However, the concept of mounting several drives in a motor

control centre must be more carefully thought out, as the
summing of high frequency emissions to determine the effects
at the MCC terminals is a complex issue and the possibilities
of cross coupling are multiplied.

How to make
up a TCF

1. Description of (Note: You can photocopy these pages and use as a tickbox
the product checklist)

i. identification of product

a. brand name.

b. model number.

c. name and address of manufacturer or agent.

d. a description of the intended function of the

apparatus.

e. any limitation on the intended operating

environment.

ii. a technical description

a. a block diagram showing the relationship

between the different functional areas of the product.

b. relevant technical drawings, including circuit

diagrams, assembly diagrams, parts lists, installation
diagrams.

c. description of intended interconnections with

other products, devices, etc.

d. description of product variants.

36 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 2. Procedures i. details of significant design elements
used to ensure
product a. design features adopted specifically to address EMC
conformity problems.

b. relevant component specifications (e.g. the use of

cabling products known to minimise EMC problems).

c. an explanation of the procedures used to control

variants in the design together with an explanation
of the procedures used to assess whether a
particular change in the design will require the
apparatus to be re-tested.

d. details and results of any theoretical modelling of

performance aspects of the apparatus.

e. A list of standards applied in whole or part.

f. The description of the solution adopted in order to

comply with the directive.

ii. test evidence where appropriate

a. a list of the EMC tests performed on the product,

and test reports relating to them, including details of
test methods, etc.

b. an overview of the logical processes used to decide

whether the tests performed on the apparatus were
adequate to ensure compliance with the directive.

c. a list of the tests performed on critical sub-

assemblies, and test reports or certificates relating
to them.

3. A report or This will include:

certificate from a
Competent Body i. reference to the exact build state of the apparatus
assessed, cross-referencing with Part I of the basic
requirements of a TCF.

ii. comment on the technical rationale.

iii. statement of work done to verify the contents and

authenticity of the design information in the TCF,
cross referenced with part 2 (ii) of the basic
requirements of a TCF.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 37

 iv. comment, where appropriate, on the procedures
used to control variants, and on environmental,
installation and maintenance factors that may be
relevant.
Technical File
v. an analysis of the tests performed either by the
manufacturer, an authorised third party, or the
Competent Body itself, and the results obtained.
This analysis will determine whether the tests show
that the apparatus should comply with the essential
requirements of the directive.

4. Actions by the The Competent Body (see page 46) will study the TCF and
Competent Body issue the Technical Report or the Certificate and this should
be included in the TCF.

Note:
When compiling the TCF you may need all Declarations from
suppliers, i.e. Declaration of Conformity and Declaration
of Incorporation depending on the parts, to ensure they carry
CE Marking.

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Machines and Safety Components

FILE (for
mechanical RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder/ System Designer
safety aspects)
REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What is a A Technical File is the internal design file which should show
Technical File? how and where the standards are met and is all that is needed
if self certifying the equipment by the standards compliance
route.

If a Declaration of Incorporation (see page 43) is included

in a set of papers and this claims to meet the appropriate
parts of the standards and simply instructs the user to meet
the standards with other parts of his machine, it is possible to
use this as a part of a Technical File.

38 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 How to make
up a Technical
File
Drawings and 1. Overall drawings of the machine.
diagrams
2. Control circuit diagrams.

Health and safety 1. All drawings, calculations and test results used to check
the machine’s conformity with essential health and safety
requirements.

Machine design 1. Lists of the essential health and safety requirements,

Harmonised Standards, other standards and technical
specifications used when designing the machine.

2. Description of methods used to eliminate hazards

presented by the machine.

Other certificates 1. A technical report or certificate issued by a Notified Body

required (see page 46) - if required.

2. If required by a Harmonised Standard (see page 47) to

which conformity is declared, a technical report is issued
by a Competent Body (see page 46). This technical report
shall include test results.

3. A copy of the instructions for the machine.

4. For series produced machines, the control measures that

are used to ensure that subsequent manufacture remains
in conformity with the Directive.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 39

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment
FILE (for
RESPONSIBILITY: Drive Manufacturer/System
electrical Designer/Panelbuilder/OEM/ Installer
safety aspects)
REQUIRED BY: Low Voltage Directive

What is a A Technical File is the internal design file which should show
Technical File? how and where the standards are met and is all that is needed
if self certifying the equipment by the standards compliance
route.

If a Declaration of Conformity (see page 42) is included in

a set of papers and this claims to meet the appropriate parts
of the standards and simply instructs the user to meet the
standards with other parts of his equipment, it is possible to
use this as a part of a Technical File.

How to make
up a Technical
File
Drawings and 1. A general description of the electrical equipment, or
diagrams electrical equipment of machines.

2. Conceptual design and manufacturing drawings and

schemes of components, sub-assemblies, circuits, etc.,

3. Descriptions and explanations necessar y for the

understanding of said drawings and schemes and the
operation of the electrical equipment.

Standards 1. A list of the standards applied in full or in part, and

descriptions of the solutions adopted to satisfy the safety
aspects of this Directive where standards have not been
applied.

Electrical Safety 1. Description of methods used to eliminate hazards

Aspect
2. Results of design calculations made, examinations carried
out, etc

3. Test reports

4. A technical report issued by a Notified Body or

Competent Body (see page 46) - if used.

Other 1. For series produced equipment, the control measures that

requirements are used to ensure that subsequent manufacture remains
in conformity with the Directive.

40 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

CERTIFICATE APPLIED TO: Machines/Safety Components
OF ADEQUACY
RESPONSIBILITY: Notified Body/Machine Builder

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What if standards In this case the adequacy of the Technical File (see page
cannot be wholly 38) is proved by a Certificate of Adequacy issued by a
implemented? Competent Body.

How to obtain The Certificate of Adequacy is a document drawn up by a

a Certificate of Competent Body (see page 46). Once the Body has
established that the Technical File contains all the necessary
Adequacy
information, the Certificate of Adequacy will be issued.

KEY POINT: The Certificate of Adequacy provided should be included in

the Technical File.

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

REPORT OR
RESPONSIBILITY: Competent Body
CERTIFICATE
REQUIRED BY: EMC Directive

What if standards In this case the adequacy of the Technical Construction

cannot be wholly File (see page 34) is proved by a Technical Report or
implemented? Certificate issued by a Competent Body.

How to obtain The Technical Report or Certificate is a document drawn

the Technical up by a Competent Body (see page 46). Once the Body has
established that the Technical Construction File contains
Report or all the necessary information, the Technical Report or
Certificate Certificate will be issued.

KEY POINT: The Technical Report or Certificate provided should be

included in the Technical Construction File.

REPORT APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

RESPONSIBILITY: Notified Body/Competent Body

REQUIRED BY: Low Voltage Directive

What if standards In the event of a challenge the manufacturer or importer may

cannot be wholly submit a Report issued by a Notified Body. This report is
implemented? based on the Technical File (see page 38).

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 41

How to obtain The Report is a document drawn up by a Notified Body
(see page 46). Once the Body has established that the
a Report Technical File contains all the necessary information and
the equipment fulfils the requirements of the Low Voltage
Directive, the Report will be issued.

KEY POINT: The Report provided should be included in the Technical

File.

DECLARATION APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment and electrical

OF CONFORMITY equipment of machines
(for EMC and RESPONSIBILITY: Equipment manufacturer
electrical safety
aspects) REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive, Low Voltage
Directive and EMC Directive

How to obtain As a Machine Builder, you must ensure you obtain all the
a Declaration Declarations of Conformity from each equipment supplier.
The Declaration of Conformity must contain:
of Conformity
1. Manufacturer's details and/or his authorised EU
representative.

2. Equipment description including name, type and

serial number.

3. Safety function offered by the component, if not

obvious from the description.

4. Details of the Competent Body and number of Type

Certification - if required.

5. Details of the Competent Body to which the

Technical File was sent - if required.

6. Details of the Notified Body which carried out the

verification - if required.

7. A list of Harmonised Standards, other standards

and specifications used.

8. Details of the person authorised to sign on behalf of

the responsible person.

42 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

DECLARATION APPLIED TO: Machines
OF CONFORMITY
RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder
(for mechanical
safety aspects) REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

How to obtain You need to provide the following:

a Declaration
of Conformity 1. Name and address of the responsible person.

2. Machinery description including the name, type and

serial number.

3. All regulations complied with including, if appropriate,

a statement of conformity with the relevant health
and safety requirements or with the example that
underwent Type Certification.

4. Details of any Competent Body used and number

of Type certification.

5. Details of the Competent Body holding the

Technical File - if required.

6. Details of the Competent Body which has drawn

up a Certificate of Adequacy - if required.

7. A list of Harmonised Standards used or the other

standards and technical specifications used.

8. Identification of the Authorised signatory.

DECLARATION OF APPLIED TO: Machines or equipment intended for

INCORPORATION incorporation into other machinery

RESPONSIBILITY: Drives Manufacturer/Machine

Builder/Panelbuilder

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What is a Drives manufacturers must meet the appropriate parts of the

Declaration of Machinery Directive and provide a Declaration of
Incorporation? Incorporation which states that the drive does not comply
on its own and must be incorporated in other equipment.

This Declaration will show the standards that have been applied
to the parts of the system within the manufacturer’s scope.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 43

 This Declaration includes a statement restricting the user from
putting the equipment into service until the machinery into
Declaration of Conformity which it is to be incorporated, or of which it is to be a
component, has been found, and declared, to be in conformity
with the provisions of the Machinery Directive and the
national implementing legislation, i.e. as a whole including
the equipment referred to in this Declaration.

The Declaration then lists the standards relating to the

Machinery and Low Voltage Directives which the
manufacturer has met.

It concludes that the entire equipment must meet the

provisions of the Directive.

Quite simply, the manufacturer passes on the responsibility

to the machine or system builder.

Is there no way out No. You must understand that because the manufacturer may
of this type of be supplying only one part in a machinery, such as the inverter,
Declaration? the manufacturer is legally obliged to ensure that whoever
puts the system together must check that it is safe.

Only then can the Machine or System Builder use the

Declaration of Incorporation in his Technical File of the
machine.

KEY POINT: Most manufacturers will include a Declaration of

Incorporation covering the Machinery Directive for all built
PDS products.

What a 1. Name and address of the responsible person.

Declaration of
2. Machine description.
Incorporation
contains 3. Details of the Notified Body and the number of the
Type Certification - if required.

4. Details of the Notified Body to which the Technical

File has been sent - if required.

5. Details of the Notified Body which has drawn up a

Certificate of Adequacy - if required.

6. A list of the Harmonised Standards (see page 47)

used - if required.

44 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 7. A warning that the machinery must not be put into
use unless the machine into which it is to be
Declaration of Incorporation
incorporated is the subject of a Declaration of
Conformity.

8. Details of the person authorised to sign on behalf of

the responsible person.

TYPE APPLIED TO: Machines and Safety Components

CERTIFICATION
RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder/Approved Body

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

How to Type Certification is carried out by an Notified Body (see

obtain Type page 46) who will establish that the unit supplied, along with
a Technical File, may be used safely and that any Standards
Certification have been correctly applied.

Once the Type Certification has established this, a Type

Examination Certificate will be issued.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 45

 Chapter 6 - Authorities and Bodies

The responsibility for product conformity is given to the

manufacturer. If there is any doubt about conformity, then
the Authorities can demand technical documentation to show
that a product complies with the directives concerning the
product.

When assessing product conformity, a manufacturer can use

a third party to examine the conformity.

The following types of Authorities and Bodies exist:

Competent A Competent Authority in any EU or EEA countr y

Authority supervises markets to prevent hazardous products being sold
and marketed. They can also withdraw such products from
markets.

To find a suitable Competent Authority or Notified Body

you can contact: EU Commission, Rue de la Loi 200,b,
1049 Brussels
Ph: +32 2 296 45 51

Competent A Competent Body is a third party which can be used to

Body assess a product’s conformity. They also issue the Technical
Report or the Certificate for the product’s Technical
Construction File (see page 34).

To find a suitable Competent Body contact your local

Competent Authority or:
EU Commission, Rue de la Loi 200,b, 1049 Brussels
Ph: +32 2 296 45 51

Notified Body A Notified Body issues Type Certificates for products, which
have their own Directives and/or require type testing.

46 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 7 - Standards and Directives

The use of standards is voluntary, but compliance with

Directives without the use of Harmonised Standards is
extremely difficult.

There are two ways to show that a Power Drive System or

part of it conform:

• Use of Harmonised Standards (EN).

• By way of a Technical Construction File when no

Harmonised Standards exist, or if all parts of a
Harmonised Standard cannot be applied.

KEY POINT: It is recommended to use a TCF even when standards are

harmonised as it makes it easier to show conformity
afterwards, if required by Authorities.

Directive or The legislation of the European Union is defined by different

Directives.
Standard?
The Directives concerning Power Drive Systems are known
as New Approach Directives, which means that they do not
include exact figures or limits for products. What they do
include is essential requirements mainly for Health and Safety
which make the application of the relevant Harmonised
Standards mandatory.

The requirements of Directives are firmly established in

Standards. Standards give exact figures and limits for
products.

The responsibility for defining standards in Europe rests with

three committees: CEN, for areas of common safety,
CENELEC, for electrical equipment and ETSI, for
telecommunications.

Harmonised To remove technical barriers to trade in EU or EEA countries,

the standards are Harmonised in Member States.
Standards for
PDSs In the harmonisation procedure, all Member States are
involved in developing the Committee's proposals for their
own national standard. A standard becomes harmonised
when published in the Official Journal of the EU.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 47

 The idea is that if a product conforms to the Harmonised
Standard, it is legally manufactured and when placed onto
the market in one country, it must be freely marketed in other
member countries.

How to recognise Harmonised Standards come in the following format:

a European
Standard XX EN 60204-1

where

XX = the national prefix (eg BS = UK; SFS = Finland)

EN = the abbreviation of Euronorm
60204-1 = an example of a standard number

The first number in each standard index tells the origin of the
standard:

2 = standards based on ISO

40 = standards from CENELEC
50 = standards from CISPR
(a committee dealing with radio interference)
60 = IEC based standards

There is also some clue as to a standard's status:

prEN 50082-2 = proposal for standard sent to Member

States
ENV 50 = pre-standard which is in force for 3 years
to obtain practical experience from
Member States.

Your
questions
answered
Which standards At the moment, there is a Product Specific Standard (see
directly relate to page 50) covering EMC from Power Drive Systems.
drives?
The important standard for PDSs is EN 60204-1, Electrical
Equipment of Machines, which, in addition to being a Low
Voltage Directive standard for all electrical equipment, is also
an electrical safety standard under the Machinery Directive.
Other important standards are EN 50178 according to Low
Voltage Directive and EN 61800-2, which gives rating
specifications for Power Drive Systems.

48 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 What are the For emissions there are two main aspects to consider:
issues of
EN 61800-3 and Conducted emissions: these are seen on the power supply
drives? cables and will also be measured on the control connections,
while radiated emissions are air borne.

Conducted emissions at low frequencies are known as

harmonics which have been a familiar problem to many users
of a PDS. Where harmonics are concerned EN 61800-3 refers
to EN 61000-3-2 which does apply for equipment under 16 A
per phase and after 1.1.2001.

At the moment two groups can be separated

• Professional, over 1kW => No limits.

• Other > The limits specified.

Conformity with conducted emissions can be helped by good

product design and is readily achieved, in most situations,
using filters, providing this is for a single drive.

Radiated emissions: These are more problematic. While it

is possible to make the drive enclosure into a Faraday cage
and thereby have all radiation attenuated to earth, in practice
it is the outgoing connections where inadequate cabling
radiates emissions and cross couples with other cables in
the vicinity. Important attenuation methods are shielded cables
and 360o earthing.

What are the The most important solutions are good installation practice,
solutions to tight enclosure, shielded cables and 360o earthing. (See page
radiated 58 for tips and advice).
emissions?

Do I have to The use of standards is voluntary, but compliance with a

conform to the Directive without the use of Harmonised Standards is difficult
standards? in the majority of cases.

There are two ways to show that a Power Drive System

conforms:

• use of Harmonised Standards - EN 61800-3.

• if the Harmonised Standards cannot be applied, it is

necessary to use a TCF. This does, however, involve third
party (Competent Body) scrutiny of the file and a Certificate
or a Technical Report from this body, which will incur
additional costs (See pages 34-38 for a full explanation of
how to use TCFs).

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 49

 It is recommended to use the TCF where the Harmonised
Standards are applied as it makes it easier to show conformity
afterwards if required by the authorities.

Can I be fined for Yes. Failure to comply with any of the Directives will be a
not conforming? criminal offence.

The Product This standard defines the required emission and immunity
Specific levels of PDSs and the test methods to measure the levels.
Standard In Europe, the standard takes precedence over all generic
EN 61800-3 EMC standards previously applicable.

The standard defines two modes of sales distribution and

applies them to the PDS. It puts PDSs and their component
par ts into four modes depending on the functional
characteristics.

Mode 1: A PDS with unrestricted distribution

Complex component (PDS/CDM) sold “as built” to the
End-User

Description
Placed on the market. Free movement based on compliance
with the EMC Directive. EC Declaration of Conformity
required. CE Marking required.

The PDS manufacturer is responsible for EMC behaviour of

the PDS under specified conditions. Additional EMC measures
are described in an easy-to-understand way and can be
implemented by a layman.

When PDS/CDM is going to be incorporated with another

product, the resulting EMC behaviour of that product is the
responsibility of the assembler of the final product, by following
the manufacturer's recommendations and guidelines.

Mode 2: Restricted distribution

A PDS (or CDM/BDM) sold to be incorporated into an
apparatus, system or installation.

Description:
Intended only for professional assemblers who have the level
of technical competence of EMC necessary to install a PDS
(or CDM/BDM) correctly. The manufacturer of the PDS (or
CDM/BDM) is responsible for providing Installation
Guidelines. The EC Declaration of Conformity and CE
Marking are required.

When a PDS/CDM is to be incorporated with another product,

50 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 the resulting EMC behaviour of that product is the responsibility
of the assembler of the final product.

Standard assembly:
The manufacturer restricts the supply of equipment to
suppliers, manufacturers or users who separately or jointly
have technical competence of the EMC requirements for the
application of drives.

Mode 3: Installation
One or more PDSs, either Restricted or Unrestricted,
brought together at a given place, in or with an apparatus,
system or other components.

Description:
Not intended to be placed on the market as a single functional
unit. Each apparatus or system included is subject to the
provisions of the EMC Directive. No Declaration of
Conformity or CE Marking of the installation. The
manufacturer of the PDS (or CDM/BDM) is responsible for
the provision of Installation Guidelines. Resulting EMC
behaviour is the responsibility of the Installer (e.g. by following
an appropriate EMC plan). Essential protection requirements
of the EMC Directive apply regarding the neighbourhood of
the installation.

Mode 4: Apparatus or system

Includes one or more PDS(s) (or CDM/BDM).

Description:
Has an intrinsic function for the final user and placed on the
market as a single commercial unit. EC Declaration of
Conformity and CE Marking required (for the apparatus or
system). Resulting EMC behaviour is the responsibility of the
manufacturer of the apparatus or system.

Applications 1. BDM used in domestic or industrial premises, sold without

of different any control of the application.
The manufacturer is responsible that sufficient EMC will
Modes
be achieved even by a layman. Although components are
excluded from the Directive, it states that when sold without
any control over the application (Unrestricted
components), components must have a sufficient degree
of EMC. Thus, if members of the public (End-Users) buy
a component off the shelf, they will not have to worry about
compliance when they fit it to their machine. Therefore,
the responsibility for CE Marking such components under
EMC lies with the manufacturer.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 51

 2. PDS or CDM/BDM for domestic or industrial purposes.
This is sold as a sub-assembly to a professional assembler
who incorporates it into a machine, apparatus or system.

Conditions of use are specified in the manufacturer’s

documentation. Exchange of technical data allows
optimisation of the EMC solutions.

Inverters come under the second category of components

- Restricted distribution. On their own they do not have
an intrinsic function for the End-User, but are sold to
professional Installers who incorporate them into a
machine, apparatus or system. They are not on sale
directly to the End-User.

3. PDS for use in installations.

The conditions of use are specified at the time of the
order, consequently an exchange of technical data
between supplier and client is possible. It can consist of
different commercial units (PDS, mechanics, process
control etc).

The combination of systems in the installation should be

considered in order to define the mitigation methods to
be used to limit emissions. Harmonic compensation is an
evident example of this, both for technical and economical
reasons.

4. PDS combined with application device (machine) such

as a vacuum cleaner, fan, pump or such like, i.e. ready to
use apparatus.

Machinery
Directive
98/37/EC
How does the 89/392/EEC modified by 91/368/EEC, 93/44/EEC and 93/
Machinery 68/EEC has been replaced by a new numbering scheme
Directive affect which simply refers to 98/37/EC
my drive?
This Directive concerns all combinations of mechanically
joined components, where at least one part is moving and
which have the necessary control equipment and control and
power input circuits.

The Directive concerns all machines but not those like lifts,
which have a specific Directive.

52 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 KEY POINT: As far as drives are concerned, the new version of EN 60204-
1 will be in force after 1st October, 2000.

On its own, the Complete Drive Module (CDM) does not have
a functional value to the user. It always needs its motor coupled
to the driven load before it can function effectively. Thus, it
cannot carry the CE Marking based on the Machinery
Directive.

Where can I To obtain a copy of the Machinery Directive you can contact
obtain a a local Competent Authority or EU Commission, Rue de la
Machinery Loi 200, b-1049 Brussels.
Directive copy?

Low Voltage
Directive
How does the 73/23/EEC, modified by 93/68/EEC
LVD affect my
drive? This Directive concerns all electrical equipment with nominal
voltages from 50V to 1kV AC and 75V to 1.5kV DC.

The aim of the Directive is to protect against electrical,

mechanical, fire and radiation hazards. It tries to ensure only
inherently safe products are placed on the market.

All parts of a PDS from converters and motors to control

gear must conform with the Low Voltage Directive.

To guarantee that a product complies, the manufacturer must

provide a Declaration of Conformity. This is a Declaration
that the product conforms to the requirements laid down within
this Directive.

If a product conforms to the Directive and has a Declaration

of Conformity, then it must carry the CE Marking (for more
on CE Marking, see page 13).

In the case of a Power Drive System, the Declaration of

Conformity is needed for each of its component parts. Thus,
the Declaration of Conformity for the Complete Drive
Module (CDM) (see pages 18 and 19) and for the Motor have
to be given separately by the manufacturer of each product.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 53

 KEY POINT: Most manufacturers will include a Declaration of Conformity
covering the Low Voltage Directive for all built PDS/CDMs.
These are drives built into an enclosure, which can be wired
up to the supply and switched on without any further work
being undertaken. This is in contrast to an open chassis
(BDM), which is a component and needs an enclosure.

Why is the
Declaration of
Conformity
important?

KEY POINT: Without the Declaration of Conformity the CDM could not
carry the CE Marking and therefore it could not be used
legally in any system.

EMC Directive
How does the 89/336/EEC modified by 91/263/EEC, 92/31/EEC and 93/
EMC Directive 68/EEC
affect my drive?
The intention of the EMC Directive is, as its name implies, to
achieve EMC compatibility with other products and systems.
The Directive aims to ensure emissions from one product
are low enough so as not to impinge on the immunity levels
of another product.

There are two aspects to consider with the EMC Directive:

• the immunity of the product.

• the emissions from that product.

Although the Directive expects that EMC should be taken

into account when designing a product, in fact EMC cannot
be designed - it can only be measured quantitively.

KEY POINT: CE Marking CANNOT be given automatically on the basis of

this Directive. This is because the drive is not a final functional
product to the customer, but is always part of a machine or
process.

The Machine Builder, therefore, has the final responsibility

to ensure that the machine including any VSD and other
electrical devices, meets the EMC requirements.

At each stage of the manufacturing process, from component

to system, each manufacturer is responsible for applying the
appropriate parts of the Directive. This may be in the form of

54 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 instructions on how to install or fit the equipment without
causing problems. It does not imply that there is a string of
Declarations of Conformity to be compiled into a manual.

Who has the A frequency converter is likely to be only a part of a Power

responsibility to Drive System.
ensure CE
Marking? Yet it is the entire system or machinery that must meet the
requirements of the EMC Directive.

So, drives manufacturers are in a position to choose whether

to put CE Marking on to a frequency converter to indicate
compliance with the EMC Directive or to deliver it as a
component without CE marking.

KEY POINT: It is the responsibility of the person who finally implements

the system to ensure EMC compliance.

Either the Machine Builder or System Supplier has the

final responsibility that the machine or system including the
drive and other electrical and electronic devices will meet the
EMC requirements.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 55

 Summary of Summary of Manufacturer's responsibilities in the
responsibilities application of EC Directives to systems containing a PDS:

Warnings & Guide

Power Drive System

Machinery Directive Low Voltage EMC Directive

Directive
Any safety relevant EN 60529, EN 61800-3
standard such as EN 60204-1
EN 60204-1 etc EN 50178

TECHNICAL FILE TECHNICAL FILE TECHNICAL FILE or

TECHNICAL
CONSTRUCTION
FILE

Apply Harmonised Apply Harmonised Competent Body to

Standards as far as Standards review TCF or apply
possible Harmonised
Standards

Declaration of EU Declaration of EU Declaration of

Incorporation Conformity Conformity

No CE Marking as CE Mark applied CE Mark applied

the PDS is a
component of the
machine

If some of the Directives result in CE Marking, the PDS (or CDM or

BDM) can be CE marked with the corresponding Declaration of
Conformity.

An analogue of this procedure occurs for each end product which is

to be combined with a PDS. However, check all Directives applicable
to the end product.

56 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Achieving
conformity with
EC Safety
Directives

Machine Compliance by Declaration

Application of of
Technical File Standards Conformity

PDS

TCF Report
* Competent
of *
for Body
EMC Certificate

*
Competent Authority

* Only if required during market surveillance.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 57

 Chapter 8 - Installation

General The aim of this section is to provide general installation

installation guidelines to ensure the Power Drive System functions in
accordance with the legislation detailed previously.
concerns It is worth highlighting some of the problems which industry
now faces as a result of the EMC legislation. For example,

• To avoid EMC problems it is now important that motor cables

should be terminated in the inverter - not at a terminal board
in a motor control centre. They certainly must not be run in
parallel with unshielded conductors where some pick up is
inevitable.

• Implementing features like by-passes becomes difficult to

prevent cross-coupling.

• Where a panel builder puts a converter into a secondary

enclosure, the ventilation louvres can quite easily become
waveguides, if poorly designed or finished.

• In theory, every small installation needs a Technical

Construction File (TCF) (see pages 34-38) to confirm
compliance with the EMC Directive and a Technical File
for the LVD. This means that the idea of mounting drives
into motor control centres must be much more carefully
thought out by system specifiers.

• Testing on site is likely to be needed on large installations.

• In theory, the manufacturer can deliver, in conjunction with

a Machine Builder, a perfectly good CE marked system
which can be installed, and due to site problems we can
still get problems of radiation blotting out someone’s radio.

Technical There are several technical requirements of the proposed

requirements legislation:
of the There must be an on-load disconnecting device in each
legislation supply, unless an auxiliary contact switches off the load
(except for units up to 3kW/16A where a plug and
socket connection is used). The isolator must be
between 600 and 1900mm from the floor.

58 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Means of preventing unexpected start, for example
during maintenance, is required, i.e. padlocking the
isolator in the off position.

Electrical equipment has to be protected against direct

and indirect contact. Doors must be locked by a tool or
IP2X protection fitted internally with warning labels.

The voltage inside must be below 60V after 5 seconds

from switching off, otherwise special labels stating the
time must be fitted (i.e. for DC-link capacitors).

Every machine must be equipped to allow stopping by

removing voltage from a circuit unless it is dangerous
to do this. Programmable electronic equipment shall
not be used for this function.

The Stop and Emergency Stop function has to be

selected by a risk assessment of the machine.

Drawings must use standard IEC formats and symbols.

Motors must comply with IEC 34-1/EN 60034-1

standards.

Warning flash symbols shall be fitted to covers to show

they contain electrical equipment.

How can EMC

be improved?

KEY POINT: The best way is to follow good installation practice and to
thoroughly read the Product Specific Manuals.

This way you can be assured that the motor drive installation
is within the limits of EN 61800-3.

There are four main approaches to improving the

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of drives and thereby
reduce the emissions of susceptible equipment. These are :

• good general installation practices.

• good earthing.

• good shielding.

• good filtering.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 59

General
installation
practice
Cabling Motor cabling is a source of interference. Other cables also
become sources if they run parallel with motor cables.
Therefore, separate motor cables from other cables by 500mm.
Otherwise, the use of the RFI filter is almost useless.

Power and signal cables should cross each other at right

angles.

Relay Outputs Relays, contactors and magnetic valves must be equipped

with spark suppressors.

This is also necessary when these parts are mounted outside

the frequency converter cubicle.

Varistor

Device
e.g. 230 VAC
converter
RC-filter

230 VAC

Diode

+
24 VDC
-

60 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Earthing You need to note that, just because there is a good safety
earth at DC or at power frequencies, this does not imply a
good earth at radio frequencies. There are several steps to
ensuring good earthing improves EMC:

Follow all local safety regulations on earthing.

The largest possible area should be used as the earth

conductor, e.g. the cabinet wall construction.

The parts of the earth system should be connected

together using low impedance connections. Flat braided
wires have a much lower high frequency impedance
than round wires. Earth connections should be kept as
short as possible.

Choose one central earthing point to which the wires

can be star-connected.

Paint or other insulating coatings must be removed from

the area of the bond to achieve a low impedance
connection.

Low impedance earthing bonds should be checked as

part of standard maintenance and service procedures.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 61

 Shielding The principle of Faraday Cage is an attempt to provide a shield
around a system to prevent radiated signals from entering or
leaving. For a drive, this shield consists of three elements:

a. the tight drive cabinet.

b. shielded supply, motor and signal cables with 360o

earthing.

c. the motor housing.

To make the Faraday Cage effective, all these elements must

be connected together to form one shield. This means that:

There should be no breaks in the cable shields.

The shield connections should have low impedance in

the MHz range.

The separate panels of the cabinet should be bonded

together and have low impedance at high frequencies.

To achieve low impedance bonding it may be necessary

to use additional screws, remove paint from the surface
of cabinets or use EMC gaskets.

The cable between the drive and the motor must be

shielded. This cable carries more conducted noise than
the input cabling of the drive and although it is a closed
loop, it will act as an excellent transmitting aerial.

Ensure that the shield is intact along the full length of

the cable and that each end is bonded to earth through
360o terminations.

Circuit diagram of a typical High frequency filter

L
Line R C L Load
Input Output
Terminals R C L Terminals

C
C
Earth Earth

62 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Filtering Filters are installed on the drive's power supply lines to prevent
interference currents reaching the mains and affecting other
equipment. You cannot achieve first environment
(domestic) levels without using a filter on the line
terminals.

Many drives incorporate filter components as part of their

basic design. Other drives have filters as standard options
and these should avoid any problems of installation.

Here are a few tips to improve your filtering:

A good quality filter must be mounted as close as

possible to the drive input (Refer to the RFI filter
manufacturer's instructions).

Before mounting the filter, remove any paint or other

protective coating from the area of the panel that will
be in direct contact with the filter.

Bond the filter to the same conductive panel as the

drive.

Always segregate the input and output cabling of the

filter and drive.

In installations incorporating multiple drives in one

enclosure, filters should be fixed to each drive. Also, a
general purpose filter should be fitted at the housing
cable to attenuate any additional coupled signals.

Also note that a static shield between the windings of a

transformer provides a very effective RF shielding and will
help provide de-coupling between the conducted RF in
interconnected circuits.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 63

 Testing and There are basically two items that need to be tested when
installation the electrical equipment is fully connected to the machine:

1.Electrical safety aspects

a) Continuity of the protective bonding circuit for example,

according to IEC 60364-6-61.

b) Insulation resistance test.

c) Voltage test (2 x Unom, 1s).

d) Protection against residual voltages.

e) Functional tests.

2.Electromagnetic Compatibility - these tests must be carried

out in accordance with the product specific EMC-standard
of the machine or in accordance with generic EMC-
standards. The levels of interference used shall be selected
in accordance with the environment in which the machine
is intended to be used.

Note: EMC for large complex machines cannot always be

tested with the complete system working. In this case it is
possible to test sub-assemblies of the system before they
are mounted together.

It may not be necessary to do the tests in 1(c) and 1(d) above

if the machine is tested in sections.

64 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Your technical
concerns
answered

What is the affect You can reduce the conducted emissions by reducing the
of varying source impedance. The impedance of the connection cables
impedance? has some “filter effect” (1,5uH) but this is usually not enough
to reduce the conducted emission. Therefore, extra reactors
and filters are required.

What are the The higher the number of drives in parallel, the higher the
effects of multiple emissions. Filtering of the conducted emissions is
drives? recommended at the point of common supply input. The
common panel of the multiple drives must be bonded together
as one Faraday Cage and the shields of all cables in and out
of the panel must be bonded to the panel.

Large The practical approach should be agreed with a Competent

installations with Body. This should be such that the worst case of larger panels
many drives can are tested. The results shall be evaluated by the manufacturer.
take up to 3 The basis of evaluation shall be assessed by a Competent
months and be Body. The same procedure and methods can then be used
costly. What can for the easier and smaller units.
we do?

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 65

 Chapter 9 - Index

12-pulse drive 19 Drives manufacturer 10, 11, 43, 55

A E
ABB Automation Group 7 earthing 49, 59, 61, 62
abnormal temperatures 24 EEA 10, 14, 46, 47
apparatus 16, 17, 36, 37, 38, 50, electrical safety 22, 23, 29, 48, 64
51, 52 Electromagnetic Compatibility
authorised EU representative 42 (EMC) 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
B 16, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34,
Basic Drive Module (BDM) 16, 17, 35, 37, 42, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55,
19, 20, 28, 30, 32, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64
C EMC Directive 16, 17, 28
cables 17 Emergency Stop function 59
CE Mark 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, EN 61800-2 48
17, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, EN 61800-3 30, 49, 50, 59
38, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58 EN 50178 48
CE Marking 28, 31, 32 EN 60204-1.2 23
CEN 47 EN 61000-3-2 49
CENELEC 23, 47, 48 End-User 7, 15, 16, 20, 25, 28, 29,
Certificate of Adequacy 25, 41, 43, 32, 35, 50, 51, 52
44, 46, 49 equipotential bonding circuit 24
Competent Authority 7, 22, 34, 35, ETSI 47
46, 53, 57 European Union (EU) 1, 7, 9, 10,
Competent Body 7, 25, 31, 34, 37, 13, 14, 34, 35, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 57
38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 49, 56, 57, 65 EU Council Directives 1, 7, 9
Complete Drive Module (CDM) 15, F
16, 19, 20, 28, 30, 32, 50, 51, 52, Faraday cage 49, 65
53, 54, 57 filter 19, 27, 30, 49, 59, 60, 63, 65
component 17, 28, 31 frequency converter 19, 55, 60
component supplier 25, 26, 27, 30 H
Components with direct function harmonics 49
16 Harmonised Standard 30, 39, 42,
Components without direct function 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 57
16 I
conducted emissions 49, 65 IEC 18, 48, 59, 64
conducted noise 62 indirect contact 24, 59
contactors 60 input cabling 62
Control circuit diagrams 39 Installation 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 19,
cross-coupling 58 20, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 38,
D 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 59, 63, 64
DC- link capacitors 59 Installation Guidelines 27, 30, 32,
Declaration of Conformity 13, 14, 33, 58
15, 17, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, installation instructions 15
32, 34, 35, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, Installer 7, 11, 20, 32, 51, 52
51, 53, 54, 55, 57 Insulation resistance test 64
Declaration of Incorporation 26, isolator 58, 59
32, 38, 43, 44, 45, 57 L
direct function 16, 17 Low Voltage Directive 9, 13, 14,
Direct Torque Control 7 22, 23, 26, 29, 44, 48, 53, 54, 57
Distributor 7, 20 M
Drive 1, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, Machine Builder 7, 15, 20, 22, 25,
20, 26, 29, 30, 35, 43, 47, 49, 53, 28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 38, 41, 42, 43,
54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63 45, 54, 55, 58

66 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Machinery Directive 9, 14, 22, 23, System Designer 7, 20, 25, 26, 27,
25, 26, 29, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 28, 32, 33, 38
48, 52, 53, 57 Systems 16
magnetic valves 60 T
Member State 47, 48 Technical Construction File (TCF)
microprocessor 10, 35 13, 17, 22, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36,
mobile radio transmitters 10 37, 38, 46, 47, 49, 50, 57, 58
motor 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 36, 53, Technical File 13, 22, 24, 25, 34,
58, 59, 60, 62 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,
motor control centre 35, 36, 58 57, 58
motor protection relays 35 terminal blocks 17
N Type Certificate 25, 46
National Standardisation Type Certification 25, 42, 43, 44, 45
Association 23 Type Examination Certificate 45
New Approach Directive 47 U
Notified Body 25, 39, 41, 42, 44, unrestricted distribution 50
45, 46 unshielded conductors 58
O User Manual 59
OEM 7, 20, 35 V
overcurrent 24 Variable Speed Drive 7
overload current 24 W
P walkie-talkies 10
Panelbuilder 15, 16, 17, 20, 28, 29, warning labels 59
30, 31, 43, 58
Parameters 14
PE terminal 24
phase-shift transformer 19
PLCs 35
portable car telephones 10
Power Drive System (PDS) 1, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 19, 20, 22,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 44, 47,
48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,
57, 58
R
Relays 60
resistors 17
Restricted distribution 50, 52
RFI 60
S
Safety Component 25, 38, 41, 45
shield 62, 63
shielding 59
self-certification 13, 35
sensor 19
shielded cable 49
short circuit 24
single commercial unit 17
single functional unit 17
soft starters 35
spark suppressors 60
Standards 7, 9, 10, 13, 34, 35, 37,
38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49,
50, 57, 59
star-connected 61
System Builder 44

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 67

 copyright© ABB Automation Group Ltd, 2000 3BFE 61253980 REV C Specifications subject to change without notice
EN 01.12.2000

ABB Industry Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 222 000
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 2

EU Council Directives and

Adjustable Speed Electrical Power
Drive Systems
2 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives
 Contents

1 Introduction ......................................................... 7
This guide’s purpose .................................................... 7
How to use this guide .................................................. 8
Responsibilities and actions..................................... 8
Tickboxes ................................................................. 8
Cross-referencing .................................................... 8
Key Points ................................................................ 8

2 General questions and answers ........................... 9

What is all the fuss about? ........................................... 9
What are these EU Council Directives? .................... 9
How does EMC affect me? ...................................... 9
What is EMC? ........................................................ 10
What is an electromagnetic environment? ............. 10
How does electromagnetic interference show up? 10
What emissions can drives cause? ........................ 11
How is this emission seen? .................................... 11
How do I avoid electromagnetic interference? ...... 11
Drive manufacturers must comply with EMC
standards then? ..................................................... 11
If a drive is CE Marked, I need not worry. True? ..... 11

3 CE Marking ........................................................ 13
What is CE Marking and how relevant is it for drives? 13
What is CE Marking for? ............................................ 14
Is CE Marking a quality mark? ............................... 14
What is the legal position regarding CE Marking? . 14
What is the importance of CE Marking for
purchasers of drives? ............................................. 14
If I buy a CE marked drive, will I meet the
technical requirements of the Directives? .............. 14
What happens if, as an End User, I put together a
system - do I have to put CE Marking on? ............. 15
What about spare parts that I buy for a drive? Do I
negate the CE Mark if I replace a component? ...... 15
If drives are classed as components, they cannot
be EMC certified or carry a CE Mark, is this true? . 15
In Summary ................................................................ 16
Component ............................................................ 16
Components with direct function ........................... 16
Components without direct function ...................... 17
Apparatus .............................................................. 17
Systems ................................................................. 17
Installation .............................................................. 17

4 Purchasing decisions for PDSs .......................... 18

What you need to know and do ................................. 18
If you are a Machine Builder buying a PDS ............. 22

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 3

 Actions you must take ........................................... 23
If you are a System Designer buying a PDS ............... 26
Path 1 ..................................................................... 26
Actions you must take ........................................... 27
Path 2 ..................................................................... 27
Actions you must take ........................................... 27
Path 3 ..................................................................... 28
Actions you must take ........................................... 28
If you are an End-User buying a CDM/BDM or PDS .. 28
You have the following responsibilities ................... 29
Actions you must take ........................................... 29
If you are a Panelbuilder buying a CDM/BDM ............ 30
Additional actions .................................................. 32
If you are a Distributor buying a CDM/BDM ............... 32
If you are an Installer buying a CDM/BDM or PDS ..... 32

5 Terminology ....................................................... 34
Technical Construction File (TCF) ............................... 34
What is a Technical Construction File? .................. 34
When do I use a TCF? ............................................ 34
Why is a TCF deemed to be important? ................ 34
Will customers always receive a TCF copy? .......... 35
What is the shelf life of a TCF? .............................. 35
Is there any way I can avoid the TCF? ................... 35
How do I ensure that tests are always carried out? 35
Can drive manufacturers help more? ..................... 35
How to make up a TCF .............................................. 36
1. Description of the product ................................. 36
2. Procedures used to ensure product conformity . 37
3. A report or certificate from a Competent Body .. 37
4. Actions by the Competent Body ........................ 38
Technical File (for mechanical safety aspects) ........... 38
What is a Technical File? ........................................ 38
How to make up a Technical File ............................... 39
Drawings and diagrams ......................................... 39
Health and safety ................................................... 39
Machine design ...................................................... 39
Other certificates required ..................................... 39
Technical File (for electrical safety aspects) ............... 40
What is a Technical File? ........................................ 40
How to make up a Technical File ............................... 40
Drawings and diagrams ......................................... 40
Standards ............................................................... 40
Electrical Safety Aspect ......................................... 40
Other requirements ................................................ 40
Certificate of Adequacy ............................................. 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain a Certificate of Adequacy ................... 41
Technical Report or Certificate ................................... 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain the Technical Report or Certificate ..... 41

4 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Report ........................................................................ 41
What if standards cannot be wholly implemented? 41
How to obtain a Report .............................................. 42
Declaration of Conformity (for EMC and electrical
safety aspects) ........................................................... 42
How to obtain a Declaration of Conformity ................ 42
Declaration of Conformity (for mechanical
safety aspects) ........................................................... 43
How to obtain a Declaration of Conformity ................ 43
Declaration of Incorporation ...................................... 43
What is a Declaration of Incorporation? ................. 43
Is there no way out of this type of Declaration? ..... 44
What a Declaration of Incorporation contains ............ 44
Type Certification ....................................................... 45
How to obtain Type Certification ................................ 45

6 Authorities and Bodies ....................................... 46

Competent Authority .................................................. 46
Competent Body ........................................................ 46
Notified Body ............................................................. 46

7 Standards and Directives ................................... 47

Directive or Standard? ............................................... 47
Harmonised Standards for PDSs ............................... 47
How to recognise a European Standard ................ 48
Your questions answered ........................................... 48
Which standards directly relate to drives? ............. 48
What are the issues of EN 61800-3 and drives? .... 49
What are the solutions to radiated emissions? ...... 49
Do I have to conform to the standards? ................ 49
Can I be fined for not conforming? ........................ 50
The Product Specific Standard EN 61800-3 ............... 50
Mode 1 ................................................................... 50
Mode 2 ................................................................... 50
Mode 3 ................................................................... 51
Mode 4 ................................................................... 51
Applications of different Modes ................................. 51
Machinery Directive 98/37/EC .................................... 52
How does the Machinery Directive affect my drive?52
Where can I obtain a Machinery Directive copy? ... 53
Low Voltage Directive ................................................. 53
How does the LVD affect my drive? ....................... 53
Why is the Declaration of Conformity important? .. 54
EMC Directive ............................................................ 54
How does the EMC Directive affect my drive? ....... 54
Who has the responsibility to ensure CE Marking? 55
Summary of responsibilities ................................... 56
Achieving conformity with EC Safety Directives .... 57

8 Installation ......................................................... 58
General installation concerns ..................................... 58

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 5

 Technical requirements of the legislation ................... 58
How can EMC be improved? ................................. 59
General installation practice ....................................... 60
Cabling ................................................................... 60
Relay Outputs ........................................................ 60
Earthing .................................................................. 61
Shielding ................................................................ 62
Filtering .................................................................. 63
Testing and installation ........................................... 64
Your technical concerns answered ............................ 65
What is the affect of varying impedance? .............. 65
What are the effects of multiple drives? ................. 65
Large installations with many drives can take up
to 3 months and be costly. What can we do? ........ 65

9 Index ................................................................. 66

6 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 1 - Introduction

This guide's The aim of this Technical Guide No.2* is to give a straight-
purpose forward explanation of how the various EU Council Directives
relate to Power Drive Systems (PDSs). For an explanation
of the terminology of PDSs, see pages 18 and 19.

While Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the subject

of most concern within the industry, it must be realised
that the EMC Directive is only part of the overall EU initiative
on common safety standards.

It is the intention of this Guide to offer users of AC or DC

power drive systems - whether Machine Builders, System
Designers, Distributors, OEMs, End-Users or Installers -
some clear practical guidelines and courses of action.

*Notes

1 The content of this Technical Guide is ABB Oy's, Drives

interpretation of events as of November 1999. However,
we reserve the right to develop and evolve these
interpretations as more details become available from
Competent Bodies (see Chapter 6), Competent
Authorities (see Chapter 6), organisations and from our
own tests.

2 Other Technical Guides available in this series include:

Technical Guide No.1 -

Direct Torque Control (3AFE 58056685).

Technical Guide No.3 -

EMC Compliant Installation and Configuration for a
Power Drive System (3AFE 61348280).

Technical Guide No.4 -

Guide to Variable Speed Drives (3AFE 61389211).

Technical Guide No.5 -

Bearing Currents in Modern AC Drive Systems
(3BFE 64230247)

Technical Guide No.6 -

Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives (3AFE 64292714)

Technical Guide No.7 -

Dimensioning of a Drive system (3AFE 64362569)

Technical Guide No.8 -

Electrical Braking (3BFE 64362534)

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 7

How to Use The Guide is divided into 9 Sections.
this Guide
Section 4 looks at Purchasing Decisions for PDSs.
Please note the following about the structure of this
section:

Responsibilities Each type of purchaser is offered an explanation of their

and actions Responsibilities. This is for awareness. No action is needed.

Following the Responsibilities is a set of Actions. If the

purchaser follows these Actions, step-by-step, then
conforming to the relevant Directives will be straightforward.

Tickboxes Alongside the Actions are tickboxes. Purchasers can

photocopy the relevant pages and use them as a checklist
with each item being ticked off as it is achieved.

Cross- Because of the complexity of conforming to each Directive,

referencing this Guide inevitably carries a lot of cross-references to
other sections. In the margin you will come across:

Defined on page XX
You are advised to turn to the page number reference.

You will also notice other references within the text. These
can be referred to if the item is unclear but is not essential
for achieving compliance.

KEY POINTS: Within the text you will see:

Key Point
These are key observations that must be observed.

8 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 2 - General questions and answers

What is all the I have had no problems with drives in the past so why
fuss about? do I need to be concerned with EMC now?

Beware! Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is only one

of a number of EU Council Directives relating to common
safety standards for electrically powered equipment like
Power Drive Systems.

KEY POINT: It is very important that users of PDSs fully understand all
the various rules and regulations and how they apply to
PDSs. That is the purpose of this Guide.

What are these It is important to realise that EMC cannot be divorced from
EU Council other European legislation. So before answering this
question, we need to look at the other legislation and how
Directives? it affects the purchase and installation of drives.
Quite simply there are three Directives that mainly affect
a drive’s safety against risks and hazards. These are:

Directive Applicable Mandatory Page

Machinery Directive 1993-01-01 1995-01-01 pg 52

Low Voltage Directive 1995-01-01 1997-01-01 pg 53
EMC Directive 1992-01-01 1996-01-01 pg 54

But more on each of these Directives later. Let us first

explain EMC and look at some concerns of the industry.

How does EMC From January 1, 1996 the EU Council’s Electromagnetic

affect me? Compatibility Directive (89/336/EEC) has been compulsory.
It applies to all electrical and electronic equipment sold
within the EU and affects virtually all manufacturers and
importers of electrical and electronic goods.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 9

KEY POINT: Electrical equipment that does not conform to the
regulations may not be sold anywhere in the EEA (European
Economic Area).

What is EMC? EMC stands for Electromagnetic Compatibility. It is the

ability of electrical/electronic equipment to operate
problem-free within an electromagnetic environment.
Likewise, the equipment must not disturb or interfere with
any other products or systems within its locality.

What is an The electromagnetic environment is everywhere but it

electromagnetic varies from place to place. The reason is that there are
many different sources of disturbance which can be natural
environment? or man-made.

Natural sources consist of electrical discharge between

clouds, lightning or other atmospheric disturbances. While
we cannot influence these sources we can protect our
products and systems from their effects (see Installation,
page 58).

Man-made disturbances are those generated by, for

example, electrical contacts and semiconductors, digital
systems like microprocessors, mobile radio transmitters,
walkie-talkies, portable car telephones and Power Drive
Systems (see page 18).

Such a variety of equipment, each with its own emission

characteristics, is often used so near to other electrical
equipment that the field strengths they create may cause
interferences.

KEY POINT: It is important that all PDSs are immune to these natural
and man-made disturbances. While drives manufacturers
strive to make their products immune, the Directive lays
down minimum standards for immunity, thereby ensuring
all manufacturers achieve the same basic level.

How does Electromagnetic interference shows up in a variety of ways.

electromagnetic Typical examples of interference include a poorly
suppressed automobile engine or dynamo; an electric drill
interference
causing patterning on the TV screen; or crackling from an
show up? AM radio.

The microprocessor and power electronic component,

switch rapidly and therefore, can cause interference at high
frequencies, unless proper precautions are taken.

10 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

What The normal operation of any drive involves rapid switching
emissions can of high voltages and this can produce radio frequency
emission. It is this radiation and emission that have been
drives cause?
seen to have the potential to disturb other circuits at
frequencies below 200 MHz.

Modern equipment contains considerable communications

and other digital electronics. This can cause considerable
emissions at frequencies above 200MHz.

How is this The main emission is via conduction to the mains. Radiation
emission from the converter and conducting cables is another type
seen? of emission and it is especially demanding to achieve the
radiated emission limits.

How do I avoid You need to ensure two things:

electromagnetic
• that the equipment generates minimum emission.
interference?
• that the equipment is immune to outside effects.

KEY POINT: In the case of Power Drive Systems, a lot hinges on the
quality of the installation. See Installation, page 58, for
more details.

Electromagnetic interference needs to be conducted to

earth (ground potential) and no system can work unless it
is properly connected.

Drives Unfortunately, the process is not that simple. Virtually

manufacturers everyone in the supply chain has a responsibility to ensure
a product, a system and an installation complies with the
must comply
essential requirements of the EMC Directive.
with EMC
standards The key is to clearly understand who has responsibility for
then? what. In the forthcoming pages we take a look at various
types of purchasers and examine the steps each should
take to meet all three Directives mentioned on page 9.

Everyone from manufacturer to installer to user has a

responsibility in complying with EMC rules.

If a drive is CE Again this is a big misconception. Just because a drive

Marked, I need has CE Marking does not necessarily mean it meets the
EMC Directive.
not worry.
True?

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 11

KEY POINT: This will all become clear by referring to the section
Purchasing Decisions for PDSs, page 18.

CE Marking according to the EMC-Directive cannot

normally be applied to a module that is no more than a
chassis with exposed terminals.

12 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 3 - CE Marking

What is CE CE Marking, shown below, is the official signature of the

Marking and Declaration of Conformity (see pages 42 and 43) as
governed by the European Commission. It is a very specific
how relevant is graphic symbol and must be separated from other marks.
it for drives?

CE Marking is a system of self-certification to identify

equipment that complies with the relevant applicable
Directives.

If a drive is the subject of several directives and, for

example, conforms with the Low Voltage Directive (see
page 53), then, from 1997, it is compulsory that it shows
CE Marking. That marking shall indicate that the drive
also conforms to the EMC Directive (page 54). CE marking
shall indicate conformity only to the directive(s) applied
by the manufacturer.

KEY POINT: NOTE: If the standards route is used, then there must be a
Technical File supporting the Declaration of Conformity.
However, if standards cannot be complied with then a
Technical Construction File (TCF) needs to be compiled.

For more on Technical Construction Files and Technical

Files, please refer to pages 34 and 40.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 13

What is CE CE Marking is mainly for the benefit of Authorities
Marking for? throughout the EU and EEA countries who control the
movement of goods. CE Marking shows that the product
complies with the essential requirements of all relevant
Directives, mainly in the area of technical safety and
conformity assessment. There are three Directives that are
relevant to drives, but CE Marking may be attached to
indicate compliance with one (see the previous page).

Is CE Marking Most definitely not. As CE Marking is self certification,

a quality mark? you can be assured that certification has been carried out.

What is the legal Anyone applying CE Marking is legally liable and must be
position regarding able to prove the validity of his actions to the authorities.
CE Marking confirms compliance with the Directives listed
CE Marking?
in the Declaration of Conformity (see pages 42 and 43).

What is the As far as a purchaser of a drive is concerned, anything

importance of that carries the CE Mark must have a functional value
to him.
CE Marking for
purchasers of Thus, a complete drive product, which can be safely
drives? cabled and powered up on its own, may carry the CE
marking.

If I buy a CE In practice, you will see drive products with CE Marking.

marked drive, But it is important to understand just why the product was
given CE Marking in the first place.
will I meet the
technical Basically a drive has no functional value. It is only of
requirements practical use when connected to, say, a motor which in
of the turn is connected to a load.
Directives?
Therefore, as far as the Machinery Directive is concerned
a drive cannot have CE Marking unless it is part of a
“process” comprising the drive, motor and load.

As for the EMC Directive, the equipment that make up a

“process” include cabling, drives and motor. CE Marking
can only be affixed if all items forming such a “process”
conform to the requirements of the Directive.

However, in the eyes of the Low Voltage Directive, a built

drive does have functionality. That is, through the drive's
Parameters you can program the drive and obtain an input
and output signal. Thus, if a drive conforms to the Low
Voltage Directive it can carry CE Marking. Refer to pages
52, 53 and 54 for explanations of the three Directives.

14 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

What happens if, Yes. Anyone putting together a system and commissioning
as an End-User, it is responsible for the appropriate CE Marking.
I put together a
system - do I
have to put CE
Marking on?
KEY POINT: Turn to page 29 for more details about the End-User's
responsibilities.

What about Equipment supplied before the application of the

spare parts Directives, can be repaired and supplied with spare parts
to bring it back to the original specification. However, it
that I buy for a
cannot be enhanced or reinstalled without meeting the
drive? Do I Directives.
negate the CE
Mark if I For equipment supplied after the application of the
replace a Directives, the use of the manufacturer's spare parts
should not negate the CE Marking. However, the
component? manufacturer or supplier should be consulted about
upgrading, as some actions could affect the CE Marking
criteria.

If drives are You need to first understand the terminology now being
classed as applied to drives. See below and page 18 for this.
components,
A Complete Drive Module (CDM) is normally a component
they cannot be in a system and as such has no functional value unless it
EMC certified is connected to the motor when it becomes a PDS.
or carry a CE
The CDM shall be CE-marked if it is to be installed with
Mark. Is this
simple connections and adjustments that do not require
true? any EMC-knowledge.

If awareness of the EMC implication is needed in order to

install a CDM, it is not considered as an apparatus. Thus,
it shall not be CE-marked according to the EMC-directives.

If a CDM or BDM is intended for incorporation in PDS by

professional manufacturers only (panel builders, machine
builders), it shall not be CE-marked, nor is declaration of
conformity given by the CDM/BDM manufacturer. Instead
installation instructions shall be supplied in order to help
the professional manufacturers.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 15

In Summary Under the Directives, Components with direct function
available without further adjustment other than simple
ones, Apparatus and Systems have to be CE marked.
Components with direct function not available without
simple adjustments and Components without direct
function and Installations, while required to satisfy
various elements of the Directives, shall not be CE marked.

Component In this context the interpretation of component can be

divided into two main categories. The component can
either deliver a ‘direct function’ or not.

Direct function:
Any function of the component itself, which fulfils the
intended use, specified by the manufacturer in the
instruction for use for an end user.

Components Components with a direct function can be divided into two

with direct sub-groups:
function 1) The direct function is available without further
adjustment or connections other than simple
ones, which can be performed by any person not fully
aware of the EMC implications. Such a component
is an ‘apparatus’ and it is subjected to all provisions
of the EMC Directive.

2) The direct function is not available without further

adjustment or connections other than simple ones,
which can be performed by any person not fully aware
of the EMC implications. Such a component is not an
‘apparatus’. The only requirement for such a
component is to provide it with instructions for use
for the professional assembler or manufacturer of
the final apparatus into which the component will
be incorporated. These instructions should help him
to solve any EMC problems with his final apparatus.

If a component performs a direct function without further

adjustment other than simple ones, the component is
considered equivalent to apparatus. Some variable speed
power drive products fall into this category, e.g. a drive
installed into a cabinet or drive with enclosure and sold as a
complete unit (CDM). All provisions of the EMC Directive apply.

If a component performs a direct function that is not available

without further adjustment other than simple ones, it is
considered as a component. Some variable speed power drive
products fall into this category, e.g. basic drive module (BDM).
These are meant to be assembled by a professional assembler

16 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 (e.g. panel builder or system manufacturer) into a cabinet
not in the scope of delivery of the manufacturer of the BDM.
According to the EMC Directive, the requirement for the
BDM supplier is instructions for installation and use.

According to the EMC Directive the system manufacturer

or panel builder is resonsible for CE-mark, Declaration of
Conformity and Technical Construction File.

Components Components with no direct function are not considered

without direct as apparatus within the meaning of the EMC Directive.
The EMC Directive does not apply to these. These
function components include resistors, cables, terminal blocks, etc.

Apparatus A finished product containing electrical and/or electronic

components and intended to be placed on the market and/
or taken into service as a single commercial unit.

Systems Several items of apparatus combined to fulfil a specific

objective and intended to be placed on the market as a
single functional unit.

Installation A combination of items of apparatus, equipment and/or

components put together at a given place to fulfil a specific
objective but not intended to be placed on the market as
a single functional unit.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 17

 Chapter 4 - Purchasing decisions for PDSs

What you need Starting on page 20, we offer a step-by-step guide

to know and do relating to your purchasing requirements for Power
Drive Systems.

KEY POINT: Before turning to page 20, you need to know the following
IEC terms for PDSs and their component parts, which may
be unfamiliar to many users.

TERMS THAT YOU MUST KNOW

1. Basic Drive Module (BDM) consists of the converter
section and the control circuits needed for torque or
speed. A BDM is the essential part of the Power Drive
System taking electrical power from a 50 Hz constant
frequency supply and converting it into a variable form
for an electric motor.

2. Complete Drive Module (CDM) consists of the drive

system without the motor and the sensors mechanically
coupled to the motor shaft. The CDM also includes the
Basic Drive Module (BDM) and a feeder section. Devices
such as an incoming phase-shift transformer for a 12-
pulse drive are considered part of the CDM.

3. Power Drive System, or PDS, is a term used

throughout this Technical Guide. A PDS includes the
frequency converter and feeding section (the CDM and
BDM), motors, sensors, all cabling, filters, panels and
any other components needed to make the PDS work
effectively.

Note: The load is not considered part of the PDS, but

the CDM can incorporate the supply sections and
ventilation.

18 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 HOW THE TERMS
FIT TOGETHER

Installation or part of installation

Power Drive System (PDS)

CDM
(Complete Drive Module)

System control and sequencing

control

BDM (Basic Drive

Module)
Control section
Converter section

Feeder section
Field supply
Auxiliaries
Others

Motor & sensors

Driven equipment
or load

Now we strongly advise you turn to page 20, to discover the type of person you are.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 19

 To make this Technical Guide easy to use, we have
also identified certain types of people who will be
involved in the purchasing of drives.

Please identify the type nearest to your job function and

turn to the relevant section.

WHO ARE YOU?

IF THIS IS
YOU, TURN
NOW TO
PAGE.....
Machine Builder
is a person who buys either a PDS, CDM or BDM and
other mechanical or electrical component parts, such as
22
a pump, and assembles these into a machine.
Note: A machine is defined as an assembly of linked
parts or components, at least one of which moves. It
includes the appropriate actuators, control and power
circuits joined together for a specific application, in
particular for processing, treatment, moving or
packaging of a material.

System Designer
carries out all the electrical design of the Power Drive 26
System, specifying all component parts which comprise
a PDS.

End-User
is the final customer who will actually use the machine, 28
PDS or CDM/BDM.

Panelbuilder
constructs enclosures into which a panelbuilder will 30
install a variety of components, including a CDM/BDM
and sometimes the motor. However, the built enclosure
does not constitute a machine.

20 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 WHO ARE YOU?
IF THIS IS
YOU, TURN
NOW TO
PAGE........
Distributor
acts as the sales distribution channel between the CDM/ 32
BDM manufacturer and the End-User, Machine Builder,
OEM, Panelbuilder or System Designer.

Installer
carries out the entire electrical installation of the PDS. 32

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)

For the purposes of purchasing drives, an OEM will
normally fall into the category of a Machine Builder, 22
System Designer or Panelbuilder. Therefore, if you
identify yourself as an OEM, refer to the relevant pages 26
for each of these job functions. 30

Drive Manufacturer

System Designer Distributor -

- p.26 p.32
Machine
Builder
Panelbuilder - Panelbuilder -
or OEM -
p.30 p.30
p.22

Installer - p.32 Installer - p.32

End-User - page 28

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 21

 NOTE: Before reading this section we strongly urge
you to familiarise yourself with the terms explained
on pages 16-19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Machine
1. Because you are building a complete machine, which
Builder buying includes coupling up the motors to the PDS and
a PDS... providing the mechanical guarding and so on, you are
liable for the total mechanical and electrical safety of
the machine as specified in the Machinery Directive.

Therefore, the PDS is ultimately your responsibility. You

need to ensure that the entire PDS meets the
Machinery Directive. Only then can CE Marking be
applied to the whole machine.

2. You are also responsible for the electrical safety of all

parts of the PDS as specified in the Low Voltage
Directive.

3. You must ensure electrical parts are manufactured in

accordance with the EMC Directive. The manufacturer
of these parts is responsible for EMC for that particular
part. Nevertheless you are responsible for EMC for the
machine. You may choose electrical parts not in
accordance with the EMC directive, but then you have
the responsibility for compliance of parts.

Note: Be aware that combining CE-marked sub-

assemblies may not automatically produce an
apparatus that meets the requirements.

4. You must ensure that the PDS or its component parts

carry Declarations of Conformity in accordance with
the electrical safety requirements of the Low Voltage
Directive.

5. You must be able to assure a Competent Authority

and customers that the machine has been built
according to the Machinery Directive, the Low
Voltage Directive and the EMC Directive. It may be
necessary to issue a Technical File and a Technical
Construction File to demonstrate compliance. You must
keep in mind that you and only you have responsibility
for compliance with directives.

6. A Declaration of Conformity according the directives

above must be issued by the Machine Builder and
CE Marking must then be affixed to the machine or
system.

22 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 7. Any machine that does not comply must be withdrawn
from the market.

Actions you 1. To meet the Machinery Directive (see page 52) you
must take need to:

a. Comply with the following mechanical safety checklist.

The aim is to eliminate any risk of accident throughout
the machinery’s life. This is not a complete list, the
detailed list is contained within the Machinery
Directive:

Eliminate risk as far as possible, taking the necessary

protective measures if some risks cannot be
eliminated.

Inform users of the residual risks; indicate whether

any training is required and stress the need for
personal protective equipment.

Machinery design, construction and instructions

must consider any abnormal use.

Under the intended conditions of use, the

discomfort, fatigue and stress of the operator must
be reduced.

The manufacturer must take account of the

operator’s constraints resulting from the use of
personal protective equipment.

Machinery must be supplied with all essential

equipment to enable it to be used without risk.

Detailed instructions relating to materials, lighting, controls,

protection devices are given in Annex 1 of the Machinery
Directive.

b. Comply with the following electrical safety checklist:

To ensure the electrical safety of all parts of the PDS
as specified in the Low Voltage Directive (refer to
page 53) you need to comply with the following safety
checklist, which is not necessarily complete.

Note: the detailed list is given in EN 60204-1. This can be

obtained from CENELEC or the National Standardisation
Association.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 23

 The electricity supply should be equipped with a
hand-operated disconnecting device and with
emergency devices for switching off the supply in
the event of an unexpected start-up.

The equipment shall provide protection of persons

against electric shock from direct or indirect contact.

The equipment is protected against the effects of:

overcurrent arising from a short circuit.

overload current.

abnormal temperatures.

loss of, or reduction in, the supply voltage.

overspeed of machines/machine elements.

The electrical equipment is equipped with an

equipotential bonding circuit consisting of the:

• PE terminal.
• conductive structural parts of the electrical
equipment and the machine.
• protective conductors in the equipment or the
machine.

The control circuits and control functions ensure safe

operation including the necessary inter-lockings,
emergency stop, prevention of automatic re-start,
etc.

Defined on page 38

c. Compile a Technical File for the machine,

including the PDS.

24 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

KEY POINT: Generally, must carry CE Marking and have a Declaration
of Conformity.

For machines that pose a high risk of accident, a Type

Certification (see page 45) is required from a Notified
Body (see page 46). Such machinery is included in Annex
IV of the Machinery Directive.

The Type Certificate issued should be included in the

Technical File for the Machine or Safety Component.
Refer now to page 38.

2. Declarations of Conformity from each of the

component suppliers whose products make up
the PDS and incorporate them into the Technical
File, referring to all three Directives. If buying a
PDS from a System Designer (see below), he
should be able to provide all Declarations. If
system designer or component supplier cannot
provide Declaration of Conformity, the
responsibility of demonstrating compliance
according to EMC Directive or Low Voltage
Directive lies on Machine Builder. Refer to pages
30-32 in this case.

3. Pass this Technical File to a Competent Body

(refer to page 46). The Machine Builder SHOULD
NOT pass the File on to an End-User. Based on
the Technical File, obtain a Certificate of
Adequacy or Technical Report from a
Competent Body.

Defined on pages 42 and 43

4. Issue a Declaration of Conformity for the entire

machine. Only then can you apply CE Marking
(see page 13).

5. Pass the Declaration of Conformity related to

all three directives on to the End-User of the
machine (refer to page 28).

6. Apply CE Marking to the machine.

7. Congratulations! You have successfully complied

with the main requirements for safe and efficient
operation of a machine.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 25

 NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly
urge you to familiarise yourself with the terms
explained on pages 16 - 19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

System
1. The PDS is a complex component of the machine.
Designer Therefore, the Machinery Directive has to be complied
buying a with by issuing a Declaration of Incorporation.
PDS...
2. Because a PDS is not a machine, the only Directives
which need to be complied with are the Low Voltage
Directive and the EMC Directive.

3. The responsibility for Declaration of Conformity and

applying CE Marking rests with both the System
Designer and the supplier of the component parts
which make up the Power Drive System.

The System Designer has to decide if he is going to place

his delivery on the market as a single functional unit or not

• if the answer is YES, the delivery shall be classified as

a system (refer to page 16 - 17).

• if the answer is NO, the delivery shall be classified as

an installation (refer to page 16 - 17).

A. If the delivery is classified as a system, the system

designer has to choose one of two paths to follow:

Path 1 All components have EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is based on a component's

performance.

2. Responsibility lies with the Component Suppliers for

CE Marking of individual complex components

3. PDS is an System according to the EMC Directive

(as placed on the market as a single funtional unit).

4. The Declaration of Conformity as well as the instruc-

tions for use must refer to the system as whole. The
system designer assumes responsibility for compliance
with the Directive.

Note 1: The system designer is responsible for

producing the instructions for use for the particular
system as whole.

26 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Note 2: Be aware that combining two or more CE-
marked sub-assemblies may not automatically produce
a system that meets the requirements.

5. No CE Marking is required for a system as whole, as

long as each part bears the CE-mark.

Actions you 1. Follow all Installation Guidelines issued by each

must take of the component suppliers.

2. Issue instructions for use in order to operate the

system.

3. Issue a Technical Construction File for the System.

4. Issue a Declaration of Conformity.

5. DO NOT issue a CE Mark.

Path 2 Components without EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is designed at the system level

(no accumulated cost by device specific filters etc).

2. Responsibility lies with the System Designer who

decides the configuration (place or a specific filter etc).

3. PDS is a System according to the EMC Directive

(as placed on the market as a single functional unit).

4. Declaration of Conformity and CE Marking are

required for the System.

Actions you 1. Follow the Installation Guidelines issued by each

must take of the component suppliers.

2. Optimise the construction of the installation to

ensure the design meets the required EMC
behaviour, i.e. the location of filters.

Defined on pages 34 - 40

3. Issue instructions for use in order to operate the

system.

4. Issue a Technical Construction File for the

System.

5. Issue a Declaration of Conformity and CE Mark.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 27

 B. If the delivery is an installation, the system designer has
one path to follow:

Path 3 All components have EMC compliance

1. EMC behaviour is based on a component's performance.

2. Responsibility lies with the Component Suppliers for

CE Marking of individual complex components.

3. PDS is an Installation according to the EMC Directive.

4. No Declaration of Conformity or CE Marking is

required for a fixed Installation, (such as an outside
broadcast radio station) DOC and CE marking are needed.

Actions you 1. Follow all Installation Guidelines issued by each

must take of the component suppliers.

2. Transfer all Installation Guidelines and

Declaration of Conformity (see page 42) for each
of the components, as issued by suppliers, to the
Machine Builder.

3. DO NOT issue a Declaration of Conformity or

CE Marking as this is not allowed for fixed
installations.

NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly

urge you to familiarise yourself with the terms
explained on pages 16 - 19.

If you are an
End-User
buying a CDM/
BDM or PDS

KEY POINT: An End-User can make an agreement with the drive's

supplier so that the supplier acts as the Machine Builder.
However, the End-User is still responsible for the machine's
safety.

The supplier who acts as the Machine Builder will issue a

Declaration of Conformity when the work is complete.

Once an intermediary Panelbuilder incorporates a CDM/

BDM into a panel, he creates a part of a PDS.

28 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 The Panelbuilder then has the same responsibilities as the
drive’s manufacturer.

...You have the 1. For the total mechanical and electrical safety of the
following machine of which the drive is part of, as specified in
the Machinery Directive (see page 52).
responsibilities
2. For the electrical safety of the drive as specified in the
Low Voltage Directive (see page 53).

3. To ensure the drive carries a Declaration of Conformity

in accordance with the electrical safety requirements
of the Low Voltage Directive.

4. To be able to demonstrate to the Authorities that the

machine to which the drive is being fitted has been built
to both the Machinery Directive and Low Voltage
Directive.

5. The manufacturer of the drive is responsible for

determining the EMC behaviour of the drive.

6. The resulting EMC behaviour is the responsibility of the

assembler of the final product, by following the
manufacturer’s recommendations and guidelines.

Actions you The following needs to be completed by either the End-

must take User directly or the third party engaged to build the
machine.

1. To meet the Machinery Directive (refer to page 52)

you need to follow the Actions listed for a Machine
Builder on pages 22-25.

2. Follow installation instruction issued by manufacturers

in order to fulfill the requirements of the EMC Directive
and the Low Voltage Directive.

3. Ensure that equipment (CDM/BDM/PDS) is operated

according to manufacturer's instruction in order to
guarentee right way of operation.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 29

 NOTE: Before reading the next section, we strongly
urge you to familiarise yourself with the terms
explained on pages 16 - 19.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Panelbuilder
1. The Panelbuilder has two options:
buying a CDM/
BDM Option A - To buy non-CE marked components

This could save the Panelbuilder money because he buys

components which are not tested for EMC. However, the
responsibility for EMC is then the Panelbuilder's and this
will incur considerable costs as the entire panel needs to
be tested.

If the Panelbuilder buys non-CE marked components, the

drive may be made to conform without further testing if
the components themselves have been tested. However,
tested components do not carry the CE mark but must
carry suitable instructions for installation. It is these
instructions which must be demonstrably met.

Option A - Actions to meet these responsibilities

1.Follow the Installation Guidelines issued by

each of the component suppliers.

2.Optimise the construction of the installation to

ensure the design meets the required EMC
behaviour, i.e. the location of filters.

3.Issue a Technical Construction File for the

System.

Defined on pages 47 to 54

4.If you choose to test yourself you must make

reference to EMC Directives:

89/336/EEC;
91/263/EEC;
92/31/EEC;
93/68/EEC.

Harmonised standard:

EN 61800-3.

30 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Defined on pages 34-40

5. Once testing is completed, the results need to be

included in the Technical Construction File
(TCF) for the panel.

6. If testing is incomplete or full compliance cannot

be demonstrated, a TCF must be created and
results included for approval by a Competent
Body.

7. You must then issue the Declaration of

Conformity and CE Marking for the panel (refer
to page 13).

Option B - To buy CE marked components

Option B - Actions to meet these responsibilities

1. Buying CE marked components creates a system

or an apparatus (refer to page 16-17) depending
on the nature of the panel.

2. Although the Panelbuilder does not have to carry

out tests, he must ensure he conforms to the
installation guidelines given by each of the
component manufacturers.
Note: Be aware that combining two or more CE-
marked components may not automatically
produce a system, which meets the requirements.

3. Beware! These guidelines could differ greatly from

those given for normal installation purposes
because the components will be in close proximity
to each other.

4. Issue instructions for use in order to operate

the system or apparatus.

5. Issue a Technical Construction File.

6. Issue a Declaration of Conformity.

7. Apply CE Marking to your panel in the case of an

apparatus. In the case of a system DO NOT apply
CE Marking.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 31

Additional The Panel can be either sold on the open market or use as
actions part of a machine. For each option there is a different
requirement:

1. If you know that the panel is to be used as part of

a machine then you must request from the CDM /
BDM manufacturer a Declaration of Incorporation.

2. The Declaration of Incorporation must be

supplied with the panel to the Machine Builder,
but CE Marking MUST NOT be affixed. This is
because CE Marking always needs a Declaration
of Conformity.

KEY POINT: The Declaration of Incorporation CANNOT be used to

apply CE Marking.

3. The Machine Builder will need this Declaration

of Incorporation because he has to construct a
Technical Construction File (TCF) for the
machine and in that file all the declarations need
to be included.

If you are a ...You have the following responsibilities:

Distributor
1. If a Distributor is selling boxed products, like CDM
buying a CDM/ BDMs (drives), direct from the manufacturer, his only
BDM... responsibility is to pass on the Installation Guidelines
to the End-user, Machine Builder or System
Designer. In addition, the Declaration of Conformity
must be passed to the Machine Builder or System
Designer.

2. Both the Installation Guidelines and the Declaration

of Conformity are available from the manufacturer.

Actions you must take to meet these responsibilities

1. Pass all Installation Guidelines and Declaration of

Conformities to either the End-User, Machine
Builder or System Designer.

If you are an ...You have the following responsibilities:

Installer buying
1. You must ensure that the Installation Guidelines of
a CDM/BDM the Machine Builder and/or System Designer are
or PDS... adhered to.

32 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Actions you must take to meet these responsibilities

1. Follow Machinery Builder and/or System Designer

Installation Guidelines.

2. Turn to page 58, Chapter 8 for recommended installation

guidelines.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 33

 Chapter 5 - Terminology

Technical APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

Construction
RESPONSIBILITY: Electrical Equipment Manufacturer
File (TCF)
REQUIRED BY: EMC Directive

What is a A Technical Construction File (TCF) must be provided

Technical for the entire equipment or system and if required is to
show a Competent Authority that you have met the
Construction essential requirements of the EMC Directive (see page
File? 54).

The TCF consists of three parts:

1. A description of the product.

2. Procedures used to ensure conformity of the product

to the requirements.

3. A report or certificate from a Competent Body.

KEY POINT: The full contents of the TCF are given on pages 36-38.

When do I use A TCF is needed if you are:

a TCF?
a. claiming compliance without necessarily meeting the
standards.

b. or where suitable standards do not exist.

c. or where the system may be complex and involve the

inclusion of more than one equipment.

d. or where the Equipment can have several variants.

Why is a TCF Anyone placing a product onto the market within the EU
deemed to be must be able to show that the product meets the
requirements of the appropriate EU Council Directive and
important? must be able to demonstrate this to a Competent
Authority without further testing.

This may be by a Technical File to show that the standards

route has been complied with (see page 38). Alternatively
the Technical Construction File (TCF) route is necessary.

A TCF allows the appropriate Declaration of Conformity

to be drawn up.

34 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 If there is any doubt in the manner of compliance, the TCF
is the preferred route.

Will customers The content of the TCF file is meant for the Authorities,
always receive a and thus the electrical equipment manufacturer does not
have to give the TCF or any part of it to the customer.
TCF copy?
However, as the customer needs to know whether the
product is in conformance, he will obtain this assurance
from the documentation delivered with the product. It is
not required to supply a declaration of conformity with the
product, but the end-user may ask for this from the
manufacturer.

What is the shelf Any TCF must be accessible to the appropriate Authorities
life of a TCF? for 10 years from the last relevant product being delivered.

Is there any way Yes. Use the standards route to compliance.

I can avoid the
Although TCFs may appear onerous and time consuming
TCF?
there is often no way of avoiding their use. Even soft
starters, PLCs, intelligent motor protection relays and a
host of other microprocessor based devices are subject
to TCFs, if the manufacturer opts for that route.

How do I ensure The whole system is based on self certification and good
that tests are faith. In various parts of Europe the methods of ensuring
compliance will vary. Supervision of these regulations is
always carried achieved through market control by a Competent Authority.
out? If the equipment fails to meet the requirements of the EMC-
directive, Competent Authorities can use the safeguard
clause of the EMC-directive (withdraw the product from
the market, take legal action).

Can drive Manufacturers accept that there is a need to work more

manufacturers closely with OEMs and Machine Builders where the
converter can be mounted on the machine. A standard
help more? assembly or design should be achieved so that the TCF
does not have to be repeated.

However, the idea of mounting drives in motor control

centres (MCCs) must be much more carefully thought out
by system specifiers.

For a straightforward single drive application, it may well

be possible to demonstrate compliance by the standards
route and evidence of type tests using specified types and
lengths of cable with fixing methods and segregation.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 35

 This would only need a Technical File (see page 38),
otherwise the Technical Construction File route is still
needed.

However, the concept of mounting several drives in a motor

control centre must be more carefully thought out, as the
summing of high frequency emissions to determine the
effects at the MCC terminals is a complex issue and the
possibilities of cross coupling are multiplied.

How to make
up a TCF

1. Description (Note: You can photocopy these pages and use as a

of the product tickbox checklist)

i. identification of product

a. brand name.

b. model number.

c. name and address of manufacturer or agent.

d. a description of the intended function of the

apparatus.

e. any limitation on the intended operating

environment.

ii. a technical description

a. a block diagram showing the relationship between

the different functional areas of the product.

b. relevant technical drawings, including circuit

diagrams, assembly diagrams, parts lists,
installation diagrams.

c. description of intended interconnections with

other products, devices, etc.

d. description of product variants.

36 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

2. Procedures i. details of significant design elements
used to ensure
a. design features adopted specifically to address
product EMC problems.
conformity
b. relevant component specifications (e.g. the use of
cabling products known to minimise EMC
problems).

c. an explanation of the procedures used to control

variants in the design together with an explanation
of the procedures used to assess whether a
particular change in the design will require the
apparatus to be re-tested.

d. details and results of any theoretical modelling of

performance aspects of the apparatus.

e. a list of standards applied in whole or part.

f. the description of the solution adopted in order to

comply with the directive.

ii. test evidence where appropriate

a. a list of the EMC tests performed on the product,

and test reports relating to them, including details
of test methods, etc.

b. an overview of the logical processes used to

decide whether the tests performed on the
apparatus were adequate to ensure compliance
with the directive.

c. a list of the tests performed on critical sub-

assemblies, and test reports or certificates relating
to them.

3. A report or This will include:

certificate from
i. reference to the exact build state of the apparatus
a Competent assessed, cross-referencing with Part I of the basic
Body requirements of a TCF.

ii. comment on the technical rationale.

iii. statement of work done to verify the contents and

authenticity of the design information in the TCF,
cross referenced with part 2 (ii) of the basic
requirements of a TCF.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 37

 iv. comment, where appropriate, on the procedures
used to control variants, and on environmental,
installation and maintenance factors that may be
relevant.

v. an analysis of the tests performed either by the

manufacturer, an authorised third party, or the
Competent Body itself, and the results obtained.
This analysis will determine whether the tests show
that the apparatus should comply with the essential
requirements of the directive.

4. Actions by The Competent Body (see page 46) will study the TCF
the Competent and issue the Technical Report or the Certificate and
this should be included in the TCF.
Body
Note:
When compiling the TCF you may need all Declarations
from suppliers, i.e. Declaration of Conformity and
Declaration of Incorporation depending on the parts, to
ensure they carry CE Marking.

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Machines and Safety Components

FILE (for
RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder/ System Designer
mechanical
safety aspects) REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What is a A Technical File is the internal design file which should

Technical File? show how and where the standards are met and is all that
is needed if self certifying the equipment by the standards
compliance route.

If a Declaration of Incorporation (see page 43) is included

in a set of papers and this claims to meet the appropriate
parts of the standards and simply instructs the user to
meet the standards with other parts of his machine, it is
possible to use this as a part of a Technical File.

38 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

How to make
up a Technical
File

Drawings and 1. Overall drawings of the machine.

diagrams
2. Control circuit diagrams.

Health and 1. All drawings, calculations and test results used to check
safety the machine’s conformity with essential health and
safety requirements.

Machine 1. Lists of the essential health and safety requirements,

design Harmonised Standards, other standards and technical
specifications used when designing the machine.

2. Description of methods used to eliminate hazards

presented by the machine.

Other 1. A technical report or certificate issued by a Notified

certificates Body (see page 46) - if required.
required 2. If required by a Harmonised Standard (see page 47)
to which conformity is declared, a technical report is
issued by a Competent Body (see page 46). This
technical report shall include test results.

3. A copy of the instructions for the machine.

4. For series produced machines, the control measures

that are used to ensure that subsequent manufacture
remains in conformity with the Directive.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 39

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment
FILE (for
RESPONSIBILITY: Drive Manufacturer/System
electrical Designer/Panelbuilder/OEM/ Installer
safety aspects)
REQUIRED BY: Low Voltage Directive

What is a A Technical File is the internal design file which should

Technical File? show how and where the standards are met and is all that
is needed if self certifying the equipment by the standards
compliance route.

If a Declaration of Conformity (see page 42) is included

in a set of papers and this claims to meet the appropriate
parts of the standards and simply instructs the user to
meet the standards with other parts of his equipment, it is
possible to use this as a part of a Technical File.
How to make
up a Technical
File
Drawings and 1. A general description of the electrical equipment, or
diagrams electrical equipment of machines.

2. Conceptual design and manufacturing drawings and

schemes of components, sub-assemblies, circuits, etc.,

3. Descriptions and explanations necessary for the

understanding of said drawings and schemes and the
operation of the electrical equipment.

Standards 1. A list of the standards applied in full or in part, and

descriptions of the solutions adopted to satisfy the
safety aspects of this Directive where standards have
not been applied.

Electrical 1. Description of methods used to eliminate hazards

Safety Aspect
2. Results of design calculations made, examinations
carried out, etc

3. Test reports

4. A technical report issued by a Notified Body or

Competent Body (see page 46) - if used.

Other 1. For series produced equipment, the control measures

requirements that are used to ensure that subsequent manufacture
remains in conformity with the Directive.

40 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

CERTIFICATE APPLIED TO: Machines/Safety Components
OF ADEQUACY
RESPONSIBILITY: Notified Body/Machine Builder

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What if standards In this case the adequacy of the Technical File (see page
cannot be wholly 38) is proved by a Certificate of Adequacy issued by a
Competent Body.
implemented?
How to obtain The Certificate of Adequacy is a document drawn up by
a Certificate of a Competent Body (see page 46). Once the Body has
established that the Technical File contains all the
Adequacy necessary information, the Certificate of Adequacy will
be issued.

KEY POINT: The Certificate of Adequacy provided should be included

in the Technical File.

TECHNICAL APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

REPORT OR
RESPONSIBILITY: Competent Body
CERTIFICATE
REQUIRED BY: EMC Directive

What if standards In this case the adequacy of the Technical Construction

cannot be wholly File (see page 34) is proved by a Technical Report or
Certificate issued by a Competent Body.
implemented?
How to obtain The Technical Report or Certificate is a document drawn
the Technical up by a Competent Body (see page 46). Once the Body
has established that the Technical Construction File
Report or
contains all the necessary information, the Technical
Certificate Report or Certificate will be issued.

KEY POINT: The Technical Report or Certificate provided should be

included in the Technical Construction File.

REPORT APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment

RESPONSIBILITY: Notified Body/Competent Body

REQUIRED BY: Low Voltage Directive

What if standards In the event of a challenge the manufacturer or importer

cannot be wholly may submit a Report issued by a Notified Body. This
report is based on the Technical File (see page 38).
implemented?

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 41

How to obtain a The Report is a document drawn up by a Notified Body
Report (see page 46). Once the Body has established that the
Technical File contains all the necessary information and
the equipment fulfils the requirements of the Low Voltage
Directive, the Report will be issued.

KEY POINT: The Report provided should be included in the Technical

File.

DECLARATION APPLIED TO: Electrical equipment and electrical

OF CONFORMITY equipment of machines
(for EMC and RESPONSIBILITY: Equipment manufacturer
electrical safety
aspects) REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive, Low Voltage
Directive and EMC Directive

How to obtain a As a Machine Builder, you must ensure you obtain all the
Declaration of Declarations of Conformity from each equipment
supplier. The Declaration of Conformity must contain:
Conformity
1. Manufacturer's details and/or his authorised EU
representative.

2. Equipment description including name, type and

serial number.

3. Safety function offered by the component, if not

obvious from the description.

4. Details of the Competent Body and number of

Type Certification - if required.

5. Details of the Competent Body to which the

Technical File was sent - if required.

6. Details of the Notified Body which carried out the

verification - if required.

7. A list of Harmonised Standards, other standards

and specifications used.

8. Details of the person authorised to sign on behalf

of the responsible person.

42 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

DECLARATION APPLIED TO: Machines
OF CONFORMITY
(for mechanical RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder
safety aspects) REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

How to obtain a You need to provide the following:

Declaration of
1. Name and address of the responsible person.
Conformity
2. Machinery description including the name, type
and serial number.

3. All regulations complied with including, if

appropriate, a statement of conformity with the
relevant health and safety requirements or with
the example that underwent Type Certification.

4. Details of any Competent Body used and number

of Type certification.

5. Details of the Competent Body holding the

Technical File - if required.

6. Details of the Competent Body which has drawn

up a Certificate of Adequacy - if required.

7. A list of Harmonised Standards used or the other

standards and technical specifications used.

8. Identification of the Authorised signatory.

DECLARATION APPLIED TO: Machines or equipment intended for

OF incorporation into other machinery
INCORPORATION RESPONSIBILITY: Drives Manufacturer/Machine
Builder/Panelbuilder

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

What is a Drives manufacturers must meet the appropriate parts of

Declaration of the Machinery Directive and provide a Declaration of
Incorporation which states that the drive does not comply
Incorporation? on its own and must be incorporated in other equipment.

This Declaration will show the standards that have been

applied to the parts of the system within the manufacturer’s
scope.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 43

 This Declaration includes a statement restricting the user
from putting the equipment into service until the machinery
into which it is to be incorporated, or of which it is to be a
component, has been found, and declared, to be in
conformity with the provisions of the Machinery Directive
and the national implementing legislation, i.e. as a whole
including the equipment referred to in this Declaration.

The Declaration then lists the standards relating to the

Machinery and Low Voltage Directives which the
manufacturer has met.

It concludes that the entire equipment must meet the

provisions of the Directive.

Quite simply, the manufacturer passes on the responsibility

to the machine or system builder.

Is there no way No. You must understand that because the manufacturer
out of this type may be supplying only one part in a machinery, such as
the inverter, the manufacturer is legally obliged to ensure
of Declaration? that whoever puts the system together must check that it
is safe.

Only then can the Machine or System Builder use the

Declaration of Incorporation in his Technical File of
the machine.

KEY POINT: Most manufacturers will include a Declaration of

Incorporation covering the Machinery Directive for all
built PDS products.

What a 1. Name and address of the responsible person.

Declaration of
2. Machine description.
Incorporation
contains 3. Details of the Notified Body and the number of
the Type Certification - if required.

4. Details of the Notified Body to which the

Technical File has been sent - if required.

5. Details of the Notified Body which has drawn up

a Certificate of Adequacy - if required.

6. A list of the Harmonised Standards

(see page 47) used - if required.

44 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 7. A warning that the machinery must not be put into
use unless the machine into which it is to be
incorporated is the subject of a Declaration of
Conformity.

8. Details of the person authorised to sign on behalf

of the responsible person.

TYPE APPLIED TO: Machines and Safety Components

CERTIFICATION
RESPONSIBILITY: Machine Builder/Approved Body

REQUIRED BY: Machinery Directive

How to Type Certification is carried out by an Notified Body

obtain Type (see page 46) who will establish that the unit supplied,
along with a Technical File, may be used safely and that
Certification any Standards have been correctly applied.

Once the Type Certification has established this, a Type

Examination Certificate will be issued.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 45

 Chapter 6 - Authorities and Bodies

The responsibility for product conformity is given to the

manufacturer. If there is any doubt about conformity, then
the Authorities can demand technical documentation to
show that a product complies with the directives
concerning the product.

When assessing product conformity, a manufacturer can

use a third party to examine the conformity.

The following types of Authorities and Bodies exist:

Competent A Competent Authority in any EU or EEA country

Authority supervises markets to prevent hazardous products being
sold and marketed. They can also withdraw such products
from markets.

To find a suitable Competent Authority or Notified Body

you can contact: EU Commission, Rue de la Loi 200,b,
1049 Brussels
Ph: +32 2 296 45 51

Competent A Competent Body is a third party which can be used to

Body assess a product’s conformity. They also issue the
Technical Report or the Certificate for the product’s
Technical Construction File (see page 34).

To find a suitable Competent Body contact your local

Competent Authority or:
EU Commission, Rue de la Loi 200,b, 1049 Brussels
Ph: +32 2 296 45 51

Notified Body A Notified Body issues Type Certificates for products,

which have their own Directives and/or require type testing.

46 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Chapter 7 - Standards and Directives

The use of standards is voluntary, but compliance with

Directives without the use of Harmonised Standards is
extremely difficult.

There are two ways to show that a Power Drive System or

part of it conform:

• Use of Harmonised Standards (EN).

• By way of a Technical Construction File when no

Harmonised Standards exist, or if all parts of a
Harmonised Standard cannot be applied.

KEY POINT: It is recommended to use a TCF even when standards are

harmonised as it makes it easier to show conformity
afterwards, if required by Authorities.

Directive or The legislation of the European Union is defined by different

Standard? Directives.

The Directives concerning Power Drive Systems are known

as New Approach Directives, which means that they do
not include exact figures or limits for products. What they
do include is essential requirements mainly for Health and
Safety which make the application of the relevant
Harmonised Standards mandatory.

The requirements of Directives are firmly established in

Standards. Standards give exact figures and limits for
products.

The responsibility for defining standards in Europe rests

with three committees: CEN, for areas of common safety,
CENELEC, for electrical equipment and ETSI, for
telecommunications.

Harmonised To remove technical barriers to trade in EU or EEA

Standards for countries, the standards are Harmonised in Member
States.
PDSs
In the harmonisation procedure, all Member States are
involved in developing the Committee's proposals for their
own national standard. A standard becomes harmonised
when published in the Official Journal of the EU.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 47

 The idea is that if a product conforms to the Harmonised
Standard, it is legally manufactured and when placed onto
the market in one country, it must be freely marketed in
other member countries.

How to Harmonised Standards come in the following format:

recognise a
XX EN 60204-1
European
Standard where

XX = the national prefix (eg BS = UK; SFS = Finland)

EN = the abbreviation of Euronorm
60204-1 = an example of a standard number

The first number in each standard index tells the origin of

the standard:

2 = standards based on ISO

40 = standards from CENELEC
50 = standards from CISPR
(a committee dealing with radio interference)
60 = IEC based standards

There is also some clue as to a standard's status:

prEN 50082-2 = proposal for standard sent to Member

States
ENV 50 = pre-standard which is in force for 3 years
to obtain practical experience from
Member States.

Your questions
answered

Which At the moment, there is a Product Specific Standard

standards (see page 50) covering EMC from Power Drive Systems.
directly relate The important standard for PDSs is EN 60204-1, Electrical
to drives? Equipment of Machines, which, in addition to being a Low
Voltage Directive standard for all electrical equipment, is
also an electrical safety standard under the Machinery
Directive. Other important standards are EN 50178
according to Low Voltage Directive and EN 61800-2, which
gives rating specifications for Power Drive Systems.

48 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

What are the For emissions there are two main aspects to consider:
issues of
Conducted emissions: these are seen on the power
EN 61800-3 and supply cables and will also be measured on the control
drives? connections, while radiated emissions are air borne.

Conducted emissions at low frequencies are known as

harmonics which have been a familiar problem to many
users of a PDS. Where harmonics are concerned EN 61800-
3 refers to EN 61000-3-2 which does apply for equipment
under 16 A per phase and after 1.1.2001.

At the moment two groups can be separated

• Professional, over 1kW => No limits.

• Other > The limits specified.

Conformity with conducted emissions can be helped by

good product design and is readily achieved, in most
situations, using filters, providing this is for a single drive.

Radiated emissions: These are more problematic. While

it is possible to make the drive enclosure into a Faraday
cage and thereby have all radiation attenuated to earth, in
practice it is the outgoing connections where inadequate
cabling radiates emissions and cross couples with other
cables in the vicinity. Important attenuation methods are
shielded cables and 360o earthing.

What are the The most important solutions are good installation practice,
solutions to tight enclosure, shielded cables and 360o earthing. (See
page 58 for tips and advice).
radiated
emissions?

Do I have to The use of standards is voluntary, but compliance with a

conform to the Directive without the use of Harmonised Standards is
difficult in the majority of cases.
standards?
There are two ways to show that a Power Drive System
conforms:

• use of Harmonised Standards - EN 61800-3.

• if the Harmonised Standards cannot be applied, it is

necessary to use a TCF. This does, however, involve third
party (Competent Body) scrutiny of the file and a
Certificate or a Technical Report from this body, which
will incur additional costs (See pages 34-38 for a full
explanation of how to use TCFs).

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 49

 It is recommended to use the TCF where the Harmonised
Standards are applied as it makes it easier to show
conformity afterwards if required by the authorities.

Can I be fined for Yes. Failure to comply with any of the Directives will be a
not conforming? criminal offence.
The Product This standard defines the required emission and immunity
Specific levels of PDSs and the test methods to measure the levels.
Standard In Europe, the standard takes precedence over all generic
EN 61800-3 EMC standards previously applicable.

The standard defines two modes of sales distribution and

applies them to the PDS. It puts PDSs and their component
parts into four modes depending on the functional
characteristics.

Mode 1: A PDS with unrestricted distribution

Complex component (PDS/CDM) sold “as built” to the
End-User

Description
Placed on the market. Free movement based on
compliance with the EMC Directive. EC Declaration of
Conformity required. CE Marking required.

The PDS manufacturer is responsible for EMC behaviour

of the PDS under specified conditions. Additional EMC
measures are described in an easy-to-understand way and
can be implemented by a layman.

When PDS/CDM is going to be incorporated with another

product, the resulting EMC behaviour of that product is
the responsibility of the assembler of the final product, by
following the manufacturer's recommendations and
guidelines.

Mode 2: Restricted distribution

A PDS (or CDM/BDM) sold to be incorporated into an
apparatus, system or installation.

Description:
Intended only for professional assemblers who have the
level of technical competence of EMC necessary to install
a PDS (or CDM/BDM) correctly. The manufacturer of the
PDS (or CDM/BDM) is responsible for providing
Installation Guidelines. The EC Declaration of
Conformity and CE Marking are required.

50 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 When a PDS/CDM is to be incorporated with another product,
the resulting EMC behaviour of that product is the
responsibility of the assembler of the final product.

Standard assembly:
The manufacturer restricts the supply of equipment to
suppliers, manufacturers or users who separately or jointly
have technical competence of the EMC requirements for
the application of drives.

Mode 3: Installation
One or more PDSs, either Restricted or Unrestricted,
brought together at a given place, in or with an
apparatus, system or other components.

Description:
Not intended to be placed on the market as a single
functional unit. Each apparatus or system included is
subject to the provisions of the EMC Directive. No
Declaration of Conformity or CE Marking of the
installation. The manufacturer of the PDS (or CDM/BDM)
is responsible for the provision of Installation Guidelines.
Resulting EMC behaviour is the responsibility of the
Installer (e.g. by following an appropriate EMC plan).
Essential protection requirements of the EMC Directive
apply regarding the neighbourhood of the installation.

Mode 4: Apparatus or system

Includes one or more PDS(s) (or CDM/BDM).

Description:
Has an intrinsic function for the final user and placed on
the market as a single commercial unit. EC Declaration
of Conformity and CE Marking required (for the apparatus
or system). Resulting EMC behaviour is the responsibility
of the manufacturer of the apparatus or system.

Applications of 1. BDM used in domestic or industrial premises, sold

different without any control of the application.
The manufacturer is responsible that sufficient EMC
Modes
will be achieved even by a layman. Although
components are excluded from the Directive, it states
that when sold without any control over the application
(Unrestricted components), components must have a
sufficient degree of EMC. Thus, if members of the public
(End-Users) buy a component off the shelf, they will
not have to worry about compliance when they fit it to
their machine. Therefore, the responsibility for CE
Marking such components under EMC lies with the
manufacturer.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 51

 2. PDS or CDM/BDM for domestic or industrial purposes.
This is sold as a sub-assembly to a professional assembler
who incorporates it into a machine, apparatus or system.

Conditions of use are specified in the manufacturer’s

documentation. Exchange of technical data allows
optimisation of the EMC solutions.

Inverters come under the second category of components

- Restricted distribution. On their own they do not have
an intrinsic function for the End-User, but are sold to
professional Installers who incorporate them into a
machine, apparatus or system. They are not on sale
directly to the End-User.

3. PDS for use in installations.

The conditions of use are specified at the time of the
order, consequently an exchange of technical data
between supplier and client is possible. It can consist
of different commercial units (PDS, mechanics, process
control etc).

The combination of systems in the installation should

be considered in order to define the mitigation methods
to be used to limit emissions. Harmonic compensation
is an evident example of this, both for technical and
economical reasons.

4. PDS combined with application device (machine) such

as a vacuum cleaner, fan, pump or such like, i.e. ready
to use apparatus.

Machinery
Directive
98/37/EC

How does the 89/392/EEC modified by 91/368/EEC, 93/44/EEC and

Machinery 93/68/EEC has been replaced by a new numbering
scheme which simply refers to 98/37/EC
Directive affect
my drive? This Directive concerns all combinations of mechanically
joined components, where at least one part is moving and
which have the necessary control equipment and control
and power input circuits.

The Directive concerns all machines but not those like lifts,
which have a specific Directive.

52 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

KEY POINT: As far as drives are concerned, the new version of EN
60204-1 will be in force after 1st October, 2000.

On its own, the Complete Drive Module (CDM) does not

have a functional value to the user. It always needs its
motor coupled to the driven load before it can function
effectively. Thus, it cannot carry the CE Marking based
on the Machinery Directive.

Where can I To obtain a copy of the Machinery Directive you can

obtain a contact a local Competent Authority or EU Commission,
Rue de la Loi 200, b-1049 Brussels.
Machinery
Directive copy?

Low Voltage
Directive
How does the 73/23/EEC, modified by 93/68/EEC
LVD affect my
This Directive concerns all electrical equipment with nominal
drive? voltages from 50V to 1kV AC and 75V to 1.5kV DC.

The aim of the Directive is to protect against electrical,

mechanical, fire and radiation hazards. It tries to ensure
only inherently safe products are placed on the market.

All parts of a PDS from converters and motors to control

gear must conform with the Low Voltage Directive.

To guarantee that a product complies, the manufacturer

must provide a Declaration of Conformity. This is a
Declaration that the product conforms to the requirements
laid down within this Directive.

If a product conforms to the Directive and has a

Declaration of Conformity, then it must carry the CE
Marking (for more on CE Marking, see page 13).

In the case of a Power Drive System, the Declaration of

Conformity is needed for each of its component parts.
Thus, the Declaration of Conformity for the Complete
Drive Module (CDM) (see pages 18 and 19) and for the
Motor have to be given separately by the manufacturer of
each product.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 53

KEY POINT: Most manufacturers will include a Declaration of
Conformity covering the Low Voltage Directive for all
built PDS/CDMs. These are drives built into an enclosure,
which can be wired up to the supply and switched on
without any further work being undertaken. This is in
contrast to an open chassis (BDM), which is a component
and needs an enclosure.
Why is the
Declaration of
Conformity
important?

KEY POINT: Without the Declaration of Conformity the CDM could

not carry the CE Marking and therefore it could not be
used legally in any system.

EMC Directive

How does the 89/336/EEC modified by 91/263/EEC, 92/31/EEC and

EMC Directive 93/68/EEC
affect my
The intention of the EMC Directive is, as its name implies,
drive? to achieve EMC compatibility with other products and
systems. The Directive aims to ensure emissions from one
product are low enough so as not to impinge on the
immunity levels of another product.

There are two aspects to consider with the EMC Directive:

• the immunity of the product.

• the emissions from that product.

Although the Directive expects that EMC should be taken

into account when designing a product, in fact EMC cannot
be designed - it can only be measured quantitively.

KEY POINT: CE Marking CANNOT be given automatically on the basis

of this Directive. This is because the drive is not a final
functional product to the customer, but is always part of a
machine or process.

The Machine Builder, therefore, has the final responsibility

to ensure that the machine including any VSD and other
electrical devices, meets the EMC requirements.

At each stage of the manufacturing process, from component

to system, each manufacturer is responsible for applying the

54 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 appropriate parts of the Directive. This may be in the form of
instructions on how to install or fit the equipment without
causing problems. It does not imply that there is a string of
Declarations of Conformity to be compiled into a manual.

Who has the A frequency converter is likely to be only a part of a Power

responsibility Drive System.
to ensure CE Yet it is the entire system or machinery that must meet the
Marking? requirements of the EMC Directive.

So, drives manufacturers are in a position to choose

whether to put CE Marking on to a frequency converter
to indicate compliance with the EMC Directive or to deliver
it as a component without CE marking.

KEY POINT: It is the responsibility of the person who finally implements

the system to ensure EMC compliance.

Either the Machine Builder or System Supplier has the

final responsibility that the machine or system including
the drive and other electrical and electronic devices will
meet the EMC requirements.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 55

Summary of Summary of Manufacturer's responsibilities in the
responsibilities application of EC Directives to systems containing a PDS:

Warnings & Guide

Power Drive System

Machinery Directive Low Voltage EMC Directive

Directive
Any safety relevant EN 60529, EN 61800-3
standard such as EN 60204-1
EN 60204-1 etc EN 50178

TECHNICAL FILE TECHNICAL FILE TECHNICAL FILE or

TECHNICAL
CONSTRUCTION FILE

Apply Harmonised Apply Harmonised Competent Body to

Standards as far as Standards review TCF or apply
possible Harmonised
Standards

Declaration of EU Declaration of EU Declaration of

Incorporation Conformity Conformity

No CE Marking as CE Mark applied CE Mark applied

the PDS is a
component of the
machine

If some of the Directives result in CE Marking, the PDS (or CDM or

BDM) can be CE marked with the corresponding Declaration of
Conformity.

An analogue of this procedure occurs for each end product which is

to be combined with a PDS. However, check all Directives applicable
to the end product.

56 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

Achieving
conformity
with EC Safety
Directives

Machine Compliance by Declaration

Application of of
Technical File Standards Conformity

PDS

TCF Report
* Competent
of *
for Body
EMC Certificate

*
Competent Authority

* Only if required during market surveillance.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 57

 Chapter 8 - Installation

General The aim of this section is to provide general installation

installation guidelines to ensure the Power Drive System functions in
accordance with the legislation detailed previously.
concerns It is worth highlighting some of the problems which
industry now faces as a result of the EMC legislation. For
example,

• To avoid EMC problems it is now important that motor

cables should be terminated in the inverter - not at a
terminal board in a motor control centre. They certainly
must not be run in parallel with unshielded conductors
where some pick up is inevitable.

• Implementing features like by-passes becomes difficult

to prevent cross-coupling.

• Where a panel builder puts a converter into a secondary

enclosure, the ventilation louvres can quite easily
become waveguides, if poorly designed or finished.

• In theory, every small installation needs a Technical

Construction File (TCF) (see pages 34-38) to confirm
compliance with the EMC Directive and a Technical
File for the LVD. This means that the idea of mounting
drives into motor control centres must be much more
carefully thought out by system specifiers.

• Testing on site is likely to be needed on large installations.

• In theory, the manufacturer can deliver, in conjunction

with a Machine Builder, a perfectly good CE marked
system which can be installed, and due to site problems
we can still get problems of radiation blotting out
someone’s radio.

Technical There are several technical requirements of the proposed

requirements legislation:
of the
There must be an on-load disconnecting device in
legislation each supply, unless an auxiliary contact switches
off the load (except for units up to 3kW/16A where
a plug and socket connection is used). The isolator
must be between 600 and 1900 mm from the floor.

58 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 Means of preventing unexpected start, for example
during maintenance, is required, i.e. padlocking the
isolator in the off position.

Electrical equipment has to be protected against

direct and indirect contact. Doors must be locked
by a tool or IP2X protection fitted internally with
warning labels.

The voltage inside must be below 60V after 5

seconds from switching off, otherwise special labels
stating the time must be fitted (i.e. for DC-link
capacitors).

Every machine must be equipped to allow stopping

by removing voltage from a circuit unless it is
dangerous to do this. Programmable electronic
equipment shall not be used for this function.

The Stop and Emergency Stop function has to be

selected by a risk assessment of the machine.

Drawings must use standard IEC formats and

symbols.

Motors must comply with IEC 34-1/EN 60034-1

standards.

Warning flash symbols shall be fitted to covers to

show they contain electrical equipment.

How can EMC

be improved?
KEY POINT: The best way is to follow good installation practice and to
thoroughly read the Product Specific Manuals.

This way you can be assured that the motor drive

installation is within the limits of EN 61800-3.

There are four main approaches to improving the

electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of drives and thereby
reduce the emissions of susceptible equipment. These are:

• good general installation practices.

• good earthing.

• good shielding.

• good filtering.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 59

General
installation
practice

Cabling Motor cabling is a source of interference. Other cables

also become sources if they run parallel with motor cables.
Therefore, separate motor cables from other cables by
500 mm. Otherwise, the use of the RFI filter is almost
useless.

Power and signal cables should cross each other at right

angles.

Relay Outputs Relays, contactors and magnetic valves must be equipped

with spark suppressors.

This is also necessary when these parts are mounted

outside the frequency converter cubicle.

Varistor

Device
e.g. 230 VAC
converter
RC-filter

230 VAC

Diode

+
24 VDC
-

60 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

Earthing You need to note that, just because there is a good safety
earth at DC or at power frequencies, this does not imply a
good earth at radio frequencies. There are several steps
to ensuring good earthing improves EMC:

Follow all local safety regulations on earthing.

The largest possible area should be used as the earth

conductor, e.g. the cabinet wall construction.

The parts of the earth system should be connected

together using low impedance connections. Flat
braided wires have a much lower high frequency
impedance than round wires. Earth connections
should be kept as short as possible.

Choose one central earthing point to which the wires

can be star-connected.

Paint or other insulating coatings must be removed

from the area of the bond to achieve a low impedance
connection.

Low impedance earthing bonds should be checked

as part of standard maintenance and service
procedures.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 61

Shielding The principle of Faraday Cage is an attempt to provide a shield
around a system to prevent radiated signals from entering or
leaving. For a drive, this shield consists of three elements:

a. the tight drive cabinet.

b. shielded supply, motor and signal cables with 360o

earthing.

c. the motor housing.

To make the Faraday Cage effective, all these elements must

be connected together to form one shield. This means that:

There should be no breaks in the cable shields.

The shield connections should have low impedance

in the MHz range.

The separate panels of the cabinet should be bonded

together and have low impedance at high frequencies.

To achieve low impedance bonding it may be

necessary to use additional screws, remove paint
from the surface of cabinets or use EMC gaskets.

The cable between the drive and the motor must be

shielded. This cable carries more conducted noise than
the input cabling of the drive and although it is a closed
loop, it will act as an excellent transmitting aerial.

Ensure that the shield is intact along the full length

of the cable and that each end is bonded to earth
through 360o terminations.

Circuit diagram of a typical High frequency filter

L
Line R C L Load
Input Output
Terminals R C L Terminals

C
C
Earth Earth

62 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

Filtering Filters are installed on the drive's power supply lines to
prevent interference currents reaching the mains and
affecting other equipment. You cannot achieve first
environment (domestic) levels without using a filter
on the line terminals.

Many drives incorporate filter components as part of their

basic design. Other drives have filters as standard options
and these should avoid any problems of installation.

Here are a few tips to improve your filtering:

A good quality filter must be mounted as close as

possible to the drive input (Refer to the RFI filter
manufacturer's instructions).

Before mounting the filter, remove any paint or other

protective coating from the area of the panel that
will be in direct contact with the filter.

Bond the filter to the same conductive panel as the

drive.

Always segregate the input and output cabling of

the filter and drive.

In installations incorporating multiple drives in one

enclosure, filters should be fixed to each drive. Also,
a general purpose filter should be fitted at the
housing cable to attenuate any additional coupled
signals.

Also note that a static shield between the windings of a

transformer provides a very effective RF shielding and will
help provide de-coupling between the conducted RF in
interconnected circuits.

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 63

Testing and There are basically two items that need to be tested when
installation the electrical equipment is fully connected to the machine:

1. Electrical safety aspects

a) Continuity of the protective bonding circuit for

example, according to IEC 60364-6-61.

b) Insulation resistance test.

c) Voltage test (2 x Unom, 1s).

d) Protection against residual voltages.

e) Functional tests.

2. Electromagnetic Compatibility - these tests must be

carried out in accordance with the product specific
EMC-standard of the machine or in accordance with
generic EMC-standards. The levels of interference used
shall be selected in accordance with the environment
in which the machine is intended to be used.

Note: EMC for large complex machines cannot always be

tested with the complete system working. In this case it is
possible to test sub-assemblies of the system before they
are mounted together.

It may not be necessary to do the tests in 1(c) and 1(d)

above if the machine is tested in sections.

64 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

Your technical
concerns
answered

What is the You can reduce the conducted emissions by reducing the
affect of varying source impedance. The impedance of the connection
cables has some “filter effect” (1,5uH) but this is usually
impedance? not enough to reduce the conducted emission. Therefore,
extra reactors and filters are required.

What are the The higher the number of drives in parallel, the higher the
effects of emissions. Filtering of the conducted emissions is
recommended at the point of common supply input. The
multiple drives? common panel of the multiple drives must be bonded
together as one Faraday Cage and the shields of all cables
in and out of the panel must be bonded to the panel.

Large The practical approach should be agreed with a

installations Competent Body. This should be such that the worst case
of larger panels are tested. The results shall be evaluated
with many by the manufacturer. The basis of evaluation shall be
drives can take assessed by a Competent Body. The same procedure and
up to 3 months methods can then be used for the easier and smaller units.
and be costly.
What can we
do?

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 65

 Chapter 9 - Index

12-pulse drive 19 Drive 1, 7, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19,

20, 26, 29, 30, 35, 43, 47, 49, 53,
A 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63
ABB Automation Group 7 Drives manufacturer 10, 11, 43, 55
abnormal temperatures 24
apparatus 16, 17, 36, 37, 38, 50, E
51, 52 earthing 49, 59, 61, 62
authorised EU representative 42 EEA 10, 14, 46, 47
electrical safety 22, 23, 29, 48, 64
B Electromagnetic Compatibility
Basic Drive Module (BDM) 16, 17, (EMC) 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
19, 20, 28, 30, 32, 50, 51, 52, 54, 57 16, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34,
35, 37, 42, 48, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55,
C 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64
cables 17 EMC Directive 16, 17, 28
CE Mark 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, Emergency Stop function 59
17, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, EN 61800-2 48
38, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58 EN 61800-3 30, 49, 50, 59
CE Marking 28, 31, 32 EN 50178 48
CEN 47 EN 60204-1.2 23
CENELEC 23, 47, 48 EN 61000-3-2 49
Certificate of Adequacy 25, 41, End-User 7, 15, 16, 20, 25, 28, 29,
43, 44, 46, 49 32, 35, 50, 51, 52
Competent Authority 7, 22, 34, equipotential bonding circuit 24
35, 46, 53, 57 ETSI 47
Competent Body 7, 25, 31, 34, 37, European Union (EU) 1, 7, 9, 10,
38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 49, 56, 57, 65 13, 14, 34, 35, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 57
Complete Drive Module (CDM) EU Council Directives 1, 7, 9
15, 16, 19, 20, 28, 30, 32, 50, 51,
52, 53, 54, 57 F
component 17, 28, 31 Faraday cage 49, 65
component supplier 25, 26, 27, 30 filter 19, 27, 30, 49, 59, 60, 63, 65
Components with direct function 16 frequency converter 19, 55, 60
Components without direct
function 16 H
conducted emissions 49, 65 harmonics 49
conducted noise 62 Harmonised Standard 30, 39, 42,
contactors 60 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 57
Control circuit diagrams 39
cross-coupling 58 I
IEC 18, 48, 59, 64
D indirect contact 24, 59
DC- link capacitors 59 input cabling 62
Declaration of Conformity 13, 14, Installation 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16,
15, 17, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 19, 20, 26, 27, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36,
32, 34, 35, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, 38, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 59, 63, 64
51, 53, 54, 55, 57 Installation Guidelines 27, 30, 32,
Declaration of Incorporation 26, 33, 58
32, 38, 43, 44, 45, 57 installation instructions 15
direct function 16, 17 Installer 7, 11, 20, 32, 51, 52
Direct Torque Control 7 Insulation resistance test 64
Distributor 7, 20 isolator 58, 59

66 Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives

 L S
Low Voltage Directive 9, 13, 14, Safety Component 25, 38, 41, 45
22, 23, 26, 29, 44, 48, 53, 54, 57 shield 62, 63
shielding 59
M self-certification 13, 35
Machine Builder 7, 15, 20, 22, 25, sensor 19
28, 29, 32, 33, 35, 38, 41, 42, 43, shielded cable 49
45, 54, 55, 58 short circuit 24
Machinery Directive 9, 14, 22, 23, single commercial unit 17
25, 26, 29, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, single functional unit 17
48, 52, 53, 57 soft starters 35
magnetic valves 60 spark suppressors 60
Member State 47, 48 Standards 7, 9, 10, 13, 34, 35, 37,
microprocessor 10, 35 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49,
mobile radio transmitters 10 50, 57, 59
motor 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 36, 53, star-connected 61
58, 59, 60, 62 System Builder 44
motor control centre 35, 36, 58 System Designer 7, 20, 25, 26,
motor protection relays 35 27, 28, 32, 33, 38
Systems 16
N
National Standardisation T
Association 23 Technical Construction File (TCF)
New Approach Directive 47 13, 17, 22, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36,
Notified Body 25, 39, 41, 42, 44, 37, 38, 46, 47, 49, 50, 57, 58
45, 46 Technical File 13, 22, 24, 25, 34,
36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,
O 57, 58
OEM 7, 20, 35 terminal blocks 17
overcurrent 24 Type Certificate 25, 46
overload current 24 Type Certification 25, 42, 43, 44, 45
Type Examination Certificate 45
P
Panelbuilder 15, 16, 17, 20, 28, U
29, 30, 31, 43, 58 unrestricted distribution 50
Parameters 14 unshielded conductors 58
PE terminal 24 User Manual 59
phase-shift transformer 19
PLCs 35 V
portable car telephones 10 Variable Speed Drive 7
Power Drive System (PDS) 1, 7, 8,
9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, W
24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 32, 44, 47, 48, 49, walkie-talkies 10
50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58 warning labels 59

R
Relays 60
resistors 17
Restricted distribution 50, 52
RFI 60

Technical Guide No.2- EU Council Directives 67

 Ad agency Piirtek#11063
3AFE 61253980 REV C EN 27.6.2003 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 3

EMC Compliant Installation

and Configuration for a
Power Drive System
2 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Contents

1 Introduction ...................................................... 5
General ...................................................................... 5
This guide’s purpose ................................................. 5
The Directives concerning drives ......................... 5
Who is the manufacturer? .................................... 5
The responsibility of the manufacturer ................ 5
OEM customer as a manufacturer ....................... 5
3
Panel builder or system integrator
as a manufacturer ................................................. 6
Definitions ............................................................. 6
Practical installations and systems ...................... 6
Earthing principles ................................................ 6
Product-specific manuals ..................................... 7

2 Definitions ........................................................ 8
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) of PDS ......... 8
Immunity ................................................................ 8
Emission ................................................................ 8
Power Drive System ................................................. 8
Types of equipment ................................................ 9
Component .......................................................... 10
Components with direct function ....................... 10
Components without direct function ................. 11
Apparatus & systems .......................................... 11
Installation ........................................................... 11
CE marking for EMC ........................................... 11
Installation environments ........................................ 11
First Environment ................................................ 12
Second Environment .......................................... 12
Propagation ......................................................... 12
The drive’s route to market .................................... 12
Unrestricted distribution ..................................... 13
Restricted distribution ........................................ 13
EMC emission limits ............................................... 13
EMC plan ............................................................. 13

3 EMC solutions ................................................. 15

General .................................................................... 15
Solutions for EMC compatibility ............................. 15
Emissions ............................................................ 15
Conducted emission ........................................... 15
Radiated emission .............................................. 16
Clean and dirty side ............................................ 17
RFI filtering .......................................................... 17

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 3
 Selecting the RFI filter ........................................ 18
Installation of the RFI filter ................................. 18
Drives in IT-networks .......................................... 19
Arc suppressors .................................................. 19
Selection of a secondary enclosure ................... 19
Holes in enclosures ............................................. 21
360O HF earthing ................................................... 22
HF earthing with cable glands ............................ 22
HF earthing with conductive sleeve ................... 23
360O earthing at motor end ................................. 24
Conductive gaskets with control cables ............ 24
Installation of accessories .................................. 25
Internal wiring ...................................................... 26
Control cables and cabling ................................. 27
Power cables ....................................................... 28
Transfer impedance ............................................ 30
Use of Ferrite rings ............................................. 30

4 Practical Examples ......................................... 32

Simple installation ................................................... 32
Example of By-pass system <100kVA ................... 33
Typical example of a 12-pulse drive ....................... 34
Example of common DC bus fed sectional drive .. 36

5 Bibliography .................................................... 37

6 Index ............................................................... 38

4 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General This guide assists design and installation personnel when

trying to ensure compliance with the requirements of the EMC
Directive in the user’s systems and installations when using
AC drives.

This guide’s The purpose of this guide is to guide Original Equipment

Manufacturers (OEM), system integrators and panelbuilders
3
purpose
in designing or installing AC drive products and their auxiliary
components into their own installation and systems. The
auxiliaries include contactors, switches, fuses, etc. By following
these instructions it is possible to fulfil EMC requirements
and give CE marking when necessary.

The Directives There are three directives which concern variable speed
concerning drives. They are the Machinery Directive, Low Voltage
Directive and EMC Directive. The requirements and
drives principles of the Directives and use of CE marking is
described in Technical Guide No. 2 “EU Council
Directives and Variable Speed Drives”. This document
deals only with the EMC Directive.

Who is the The European Commission has published guidelines on the

manufacturer? application of the EMC Directive. These guidelines give the
following definition of a manufacturer: “This is the person
responsible for the design and construction of an
apparatus covered by the Directive with a view to placing it
on the EEA market on his own behalf. Whoever modifies
substantially an apparatus resulting in an “as-new” apparatus,
with a view to placing it on the EEA market, also becomes the
manufacturer.”

The According to EMC Directive (89/336/EEC) article 10 part

responsibility of 1, the manufacturer is responsible for attaching the CE-
mark to each unit. According to part 2 the manufacturer is
the manufacturer responsible for writing and updating the Technical
Construction File (TCF), if the TCF route is used.

OEM It is well known that OEM customers sell equipment using

customer as a own trade marks or brand labels. Changing the trademark,
brand label or the type marking is an example of modification
manufacturer resulting in “as new” equipment.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 5
Introduction

Frequency converters sold as OEM products shall be

considered components (Complete Drive Module CDM or
Basic Drive Module BDM). Apparatus is an entity and
includes any documentation (manuals) intended for the
final customer. Thus, the OEM-customer has sole and
ultimate responsibility concerning EMC of equipment,
and he shall issue a Declaration of Conformity and
Technical Construction File for the equipment.

ABB Oy offers services to help OEM customers to issue a

TCF and a DoC in order to CE mark the product according
to the EMC Directive.

Panel builder or According to the EMC Directive, a system is defined as a

system combination of several types of equipment, finished
products, and/or components combined, designed and/
integrator as a or put together by the same person (system
manufacturer manufacturer) intended to be placed on the market for
distribution as a single functional unit for an end-user
and intended to be installed and operated together to
perform a specific task.

A panel builder or system integrator typically undertakes

this kind of work. Thus, the panel builder or system
integrator has sole and ultimate responsibility concerning
EMC of the system. He cannot pass this responsibility to
a supplier.

In order to help panel builder/system integrator, ABB Oy

offers installation guidelines related to each product as
well as general EMC guidelines (this document).

Definitions The EMC Product Standard for Power Drive Systems,

EN 61800-3 (or IEC 61800-3) is used as the main standard
for variable speed drives. The terms and definitions defined
in the standard are also used in this guide.

Practical This guide gives practical EMC examples and solutions

installations which are not described in product specific manuals. The
solutions can be directly used or applied by the OEM or
and systems panelbuilder.

Earthing The earthing and cabling principles of variable speed drives

principles are described in the manual “Grounding and cabling of
the drive system”, code 3AFY 61201998. It also includes
a short description of interference phenomena.

6 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Introduction

Product-specific Detailed information on the installation and use of

manuals products, cable sizes etc. can be found in the product
specific manuals. This guide is intended to be used
together with product specific manuals.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 7
 Chapter 2 - Definitions

Electromagnetic EMC stands for Electromagnetic Compatibility. It is the ability

Compatibility of electrical/electronic equipment to operate without problems
within an electromagnetic environment. Likewise, the equipment
(EMC) of PDS must not disturb or interfere with any other product or
system within its locality. This is a legal requirement for all
equipment taken into service within the EEA. The terms
used to define compatibility are shown in figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1 Immunity and emission compatibility.

As variable speed drives are described as a source of

interference, it is natural that all parts which are in electrical
or airborne connection within the PDS are part of the EMC
compliance. The concept that a system is as weak as its
weakest point is valid here.

Immunity Electrical equipment should be immune to high-frequency and

low-frequency phenomena. High-frequency phenomena
include electrostatic discharge (ESD), fast transient burst,
radiating electromagnetic field, conducting radio frequency
disturbance and electrical surge. Typical low-frequency
phenomena are mains voltage harmonics, notches and
imbalance.

Emission The source of high-frequency emission from frequency

converters is the fast switching of power components such
as IGBTs and control electronics. This high-frequency
emission can propagate by conduction and radiation.

Power Drive The parts of a variable speed drive controlling driven equipment
System as a part of an installation are described in EMC Product
Standard EN 61800-3. A drive can be considered as a Basic
Drive Module (BDM) or Complete Drive Module (CDM)
according to the standard.

8 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

It is recommended that design and installation

responsible personnel have this standard available and
be familiar with this standard. All standards are available
from the national bodies on standardisation and from
CENELEC, rue de Stassart, 35, 1050 Bruxelles.

Systems made by an OEM or panelbuilder can consist

more or less of the PDS parts alone, or there can be many
PDSs in a configuration.

The solutions described in this guide are used within the

3
definition of Power Drive System, but the same solutions
can, or in some cases, should, be extended to all
installations. This guide gives principles and practical EMC
examples which can be applied to a user’s system.

System control and

sequencing
Basic Drive Module BDM
Control, Converter and
Protection

Feeding section
Auxiliaries and others

Motor and Sensors

Driven Equipment

Figure 2-2 Abbreviations used in Drives.

Types of The EMC Directive applies to “all electrical and electronic

equipment appliances together with installations containing electrical and/
or electronic components liable to cause electromagnetic
disturbance or the performance of which is liable to be affected
by such disturbance”. The interpretation of the EMC Directive
for different configuration in the area of drives can be divided
into several levels:

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 9
Definitions

Component In this context the interpretation of component can be

divided into two main categories. The component can
either deliver a ‘direct function’ or not.

Direct function:
Any function of the component itself, which fulfils the
intended use, specified by the manufacturer in the
instruction for use for an end user.

Components Components with a direct function can be divided into

with direct two sub-groups:
function 1) The direct function is available without further adjustment
or connections other than simple ones, which can be
performed by any person not fully aware of the EMC
implications. Such a component is an ‘apparatus’ and
it is subjected to all provisions of the EMC Directive.

2) The direct function is not available without further

adjustment or connections other than simple ones,
which can be performed by any person not fully aware
of the EMC implications. Such a component is not an
‘apparatus’. The only requirement for such a component
is to provide it with instructions for use for the professional
assembler or manufacturer of the final apparatus into
which the component will be incorporated. These instruc-
tions should help him to solve any EMC problems with
his final apparatus.

If a component performs a direct function without further

adjustment other than simple ones, the component is
considered equivalent to apparatus (Case 1). Some variable
speed power drive products fall into this category, e.g. a
drive installed into a cabinet or drive with enclosure and
sold as a complete unit (CDM). All provisions of the EMC
Directive apply (CE-mark, Declaration of Conformity).

If a component performs a direct function that is not

available without further adjustment other than simple
ones, it is considered as a component (Case 2). Some
variable speed power drive products fall into this category,
e.g. basic drive module (BDM). These are meant to be
assembled by a professional assembler (e.g. panel builder
or system manufacturer) into a cabinet not in the scope of
delivery of the manufacturer of the BDM. According to the
EMC Directive, the requirement for the BDM supplier is
to deliver instructions for installation and use.

According to the EMC Directive the system manufacturer

or panel builder is resonsible for CE-mark, Declaration of
Conformity and Technical Construction File.

10 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

Components Components with no direct function are not considered

without direct as apparatus within the meaning of the EMC Directive.
The EMC Directive does not apply to these. These
function components include resistors, cables, terminal blocks, etc.

Apparatus and A finished product containing electrical and/or electronic

systems components and intended to be placed on the market and/
or taken into service as a single commercial unit.

Several items of apparatus combined to fulfil a specific 3

objective and intended to be placed on the market as a
single functional unit.

Installation A combination of items of apparatus, equipment and/or

components put together at a given place to fulfil a specific
objective but not intended to be placed on the market as
a single functional unit.

CE marking A component with a direct function without further adjustment

for EMC than simple ones needs to carry CE marking for EMC (Case 1).

A component with a direct function that is not available

without further adjustment than simple ones does not need
to carry CE marking for EMC (Case 2).

Note: The products may carry CE marking for other

directives than EMC.

Apparatus and systems must be CE marked.

Installations are required to satisfy various parts of the

Directives, but are not required to be CE marked.

Figure 2-3 The CE mark.

Installation The PDSs can be connected to either industrial or public

environments power distribution networks. The environment class depends
on the way the PDS is connected to power supply. The
environment classes are First and Second Environment.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 11
Definitions

First “The First Environment includes domestic premises. It

Environment also includes establishments directly connected without
intermediate transformer to a low-voltage power supply
network which supplies buildings used for domestic purposes.”

Second “Second Environment includes all establishments other than

Environment those directly connected to a low-voltage power supply
network which supplies buildings used for domestic purposes"
Medium voltage network

Propagation of conducted emissions

Public low-voltage network Industrial low-voltage network

Point of measurement
for conducted emission Point of measurement

1st Environment 2nd Environment

Boundary of
installation

10 m

Point of measurement for

radiated emission, see figure 2-5
Equipment PDS
(victim) (emitter)

Figure 2-4 Illustration of Environment Classes and propagation of

disturbances.

Propagation “For PDSs in the second environment, the user shall ensure
that excessive disturbances are not induced into low-
voltage network, even if propagation is through a medium
voltage network.”

Note: Figure 2-4 shows the case when a victim is

in a First Environment. The situation is the same
if a victim is in a Second Environment in another
installation. The measurements are carried out
only in case of dispute (see figure 2-5).

The drive’s The EMC Product Standard for PDS divides the drive’s
route to routes to the market into Unrestricted and Restricted sales
distribution classes.
market

12 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

Unrestricted “Unrestricted distribution is a mode of sales distribution

distribution in which the supply of equipment is not dependent on the
EMC competence of the customer or user for the
application of drives".

Goods can be placed in service by a person skilled in the

operation of goods, but without any specific EMC experience.

Restricted “Restricted distribution is a mode of sales distribution in

distribution which the manufacturer restricts the supply of equipment 3
to suppliers, customers or users who separately or jointly
have technical competence in the EMC requirements of
the application of drives.”

This means that the goods require EMC competence to

be put into service.

EMC emission The EMC emission limits for PDS depend on the installation
limits environment, type of power supply network and power of
the drive. Limits for certain conditions can be selected by
using the following flow chart (see Figure 2-5).

EMC Plan The appropriate limits of the PDSs of the restricted

distribution class in the second environment may not be
met due to technical reasons.

“These applications are:

• IT networks in complex systems
• Current above 400 A
• Voltage above 1000 V
• Where the required dynamic performances are limited
because of filtering

… the user and the manufacturer shall agree on an EMC

plan to meet the EMC requirements of the intended
application.”

This means that the manufacturer and the user make the
EMC Plan in cooperation.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 13
Definitions

EN 61800-3
EMC Product Standard for PDS

1st Environment 2nd Environment

(public low-voltage network) (industrial network)

Either Unrestricted
Unrestricted Restricted or Restricted Distr .
Distribution Distribution

I < 100A I > 100A

Disturbance
in power port
dBuV
C 100 150
O 79 80 quasi-peak 130 quasi-peak
N 73 125
115
D 66
56
60 quasi-peak
110
U 100
quasi-peak
C 40 90
86
T 20 70 See also EMC Plan
E
0
D 0.15 0.5 1 5 10 30
50
0.15 0.5 1 5 10 30
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Disturbance
dBuV/m
50 70
R Restricted (10 m), quasi-peak
10 m, quasi-peak
A 47
45 60
D 50
40
I Unrestricted (10 m), quasi-peak 40
A 37
35
T 30

E 30 20 See also EMC Plan

D 25 10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
30 230 30 230
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
DISPUTE
The polluter solves

Figure 2-5 Emission limits for PDS.

14 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 3 - EMC Solutions

General The solutions used to fulfil immunity and both radiated

and conducted emission requirements are described in this
chapter.

Solutions for There are some basic principles which have to be followed when
EMC designing and using drive systems incorporating AC drive
products. These same principles were used when these
3
compatibility products were initially designed and constructed, where
such issues as printed circuit board layout, mechanical
design, wire routing, cable entries and other special points
were all considered in great detail.

This all is referred to as fully integrated EMC.

Emissions Drive products are normally immune to a majority of

disturbances, otherwise they would be affected by their
own disturbances. So in this context only emissions need
to be handled.

The emissions can be divided into two parts, the conducted

emission and the radiated emission. The disturbances can
be emitted in various ways as the following figure shows:

Figure 3-1 Emissions.

Conducted Conducted disturbances can propagate to other equipment

emission via all conductive parts including cabling, earthing and the
metal frame of an enclosure.

Conductive emissions can be reduced in the following way:

• By RFI filtering for HF disturbances

• Using sparking suppressors in relays, contactors, valves,
etc. to attenuate switching sparks
• Using ferrite rings in power connection points

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 15
EMC Solutions

Radiated To be able to avoid disturbance through air, all parts of the

emission Power Drive System should form a Faraday Cage against
radiated emissions. The PDS includes cabinets, auxiliary
boxes, cabling, motors, etc.

Some methods for ensuring the continuity of the Faraday

Cage are listed as follows:

Enclosure:

• The enclosure must have an unpainted non-corroding

surface finish at every point that other plates, doors, etc.
make contact.
• Unpainted metal to metal contacts shall be used
throughout, with conductive gaskets, where appropriate.
• Use unpainted installation plates, bonded to common
earth point, ensuring all separate metal items are firmly
bonded to achieve a single path to earth.
• Use conductive gaskets in doors and covers. Covers
should be secured at not more than 100 mm intervals
where radiation could escape.
• Separate radiative i.e. “dirty” side from the “clean side”
by metal covers and design.
• Holes in enclosure should be minimised.
• Use materials with good attenuation e.g. plastic with
conductive coating, if a metal enclosure cannot be used.

Cabling & Wiring:

• Use special HF cable entries for high frequency earthing

of power cable shields.
• Use conductive gaskets for HF earthing of control cable
shield.
• Use shielded power and control cables. See product
specific manuals.
• Route power and control cables separately.
• Use twisted pairs to avoid disturbances.
• Use ferrite rings for disturbances, if necessary.
• Select and route internal wires correctly.

Installation:

• Auxiliaries used with CDMs should be CE marked products

to both EMC & Low Voltage Directives, NOT ONLY to LV-
directive, unless they are not concerned, e.g. being with
a component without a direct function.
• Selection and installation of accessories in accordance
with manufacturers’ instructions.
• 360° earthing at motor end. See product specific manuals.
• Correct internal wiring methods.
• Special attention must be given to earthing.

16 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

Note: When selecting equipment for a config-

uration it is essential to check that both radiated
and conducted emissions have been taken into
account.

Clean and dirty The circuit before the point where supply power is
side connected to the CDM and where the filtering starts, is
referred to as the clean side. The parts of the BDM which
can cause disturbances are described as the dirty side.
3
Enclosed wall mounted drives are designed so that the circuit
followed by output connection is the only dirty part. That is
the case if the installation instructions of the drive are followed.

To be able to keep the clean side “clean” the dirty parts

are separated into a Faraday Cage. This can be done either
with separation plates or with cabling.

When using separation plates the rules for enclosure holes

are applicable (see section Holes in enclosures later in
this chapter).

When the Faraday cage is formed by cabling, the rules for

cabling must be applied (see sections on cabling and wiring
in this chapter and follow the product specific instructions
for the drive).

The use of additional components, e.g. contactors,

isolators, fuses, etc. in some cases makes it difficult to
keep the clean and the dirty side separate.

This can happen when contactors or switches are used in

circuits to change over from clean to dirty side (e.g. by-pass).

Some examples of solutions are described in chapter 4,

Practical Examples.

RFI filtering RFI filters are used to attenuate conducted disturbances

in a line connecting point where the filter leads the
disturbances to earth.

Output filters attenuate disturbances at the output of a PDS.

E.g. du/dt and common mode filters help somewhat, even
if they have not been designed for RFI.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 17
EMC Solutions

Note: Filters cannot be used in floating network

(IT-network) where there is high impedance or
no physical connection between the phases and
the earth.

Figure 3-2 Example of filtering integrated in drive module.

Figure 3-2 shows an example of integral, distributed

filtering. Some drive products need a separate filter (see
product specific instructions).

Selecting the An RFI filter is selected to attenuate the conducted

RFI filter disturbances. It is not possible to compare the disturbances
measured from a source, and the insertion loss for a filter, as
the measurement base for the two items of information will
not correspond.

It is always necessary to test a filter in conjunction with

the source of disturbance to ensure adequate attenuation
and to meet applicable emission limits.

Installation of Reliable HF/low impedance connections are essential to

the RFI filter ensure proper functioning of the filter, therefore the
following instructions shall be followed.

• Filter shall be assembled on a metal plate with unpainted

connection points all in accordance with filter manu-
facturer’s instructions.
• The frames of the filter cubicle (if separate) and the drive
cubicle shall be bolted together at several points. Paint
shall be removed from all connection points.
• The input and output cables of the filter shall not run in
parallel, and must be separated from each other.

18 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

• The maximum length of the cable between the filter and

the drive must be according to the RFI-filter manufacturer's
instructions.
• The filter must be earthed in accordance with the manu-
facturer’s instructions. Note that the cable type and size
are critical.

Drives in IT- Check with a meter that there are no filtering

capacitors connected to earth.
networks 3

Figure 3-3 Examples of suppression.

Arc suppressors Relays, contactors and magnetic valves must be equipped

with spark suppressors. This is also necessary when these
parts are mounted outside the frequency converter cubicle.

Selection of a Where the BDM is to be installed, (e.g. an IP 00 open

secondary chassis converter), or if additional components are to be
connected to the dirty side of an otherwise compliant unit,
enclosure it is always necessary to provide an EMC enclosure.

For enclosed chassis modules where the motor connec-

tions are made directly to the converter output terminals,
and all the internal shielding parts are fitted, there are no
requirements for special enclosures.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 19
EMC Solutions

If drives are fitted with output switching devices, for

example, then an EMC enclosure will be needed, as the
integral Faraday Cage will no longer apply.

As a reminder, EMC is only one part of enclosure selection.

The enclosure is sized according to several criteria:

• Safety
• Degree of Protection (IP Rating)
• Heat Rejection Capability
• Space for accessory equipment
• Cosmetic aspects
• Cable access
• EMC compliance
• General requirements for EMC compatibility

The safety of people and animals together with degree of

protection (IP-rating) requirements are mainly described
in Machinery Safety standard EN 60204-1, Electrical Safety
Standard EN 50178 or Product Standard EN 61800-2 and
are not described here. In this document only the EMC
aspect is handled.

From the EMC point of view it means that the enclosure is

firm and proof enough to be a part of the Faraday Cage.
In small systems, plastic boxes can also be used if they
are painted inside with conductive paint. The paint must
have metal to metal contact at each seam to other parts
of the metal enclosure.

External safety switches can also be in plastic boxes if the

boxes form a good Faraday Cage and are conductive
inside, otherwise metal boxes should be used.

The enclosure must adhere to the following parameters

as a minimum:

• Thickness: 0.75 mm stainless (galvanised) steel (Normally

recommended <1.5 mm for stiffness).
• Outside surface: Electrostatic powder coating e.g. polyester
powder paint (TGIC). Thickness 60 µ , or other cosmetic
finish.
• Inside surface: Hot galvanised and chromated steel. Not
painted. The surfaces that make metal to metal contact
shall not be painted.
• Louvres: holes in steelwork < 21 mm in width or proprietary
RFI proof type.
• Doors: Sealed with conductive gasket, and adequately
earthed. Enough locks for high frequency earthing.

20 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

• Cover plates: Metal against metal (not painted), all earthed.

A number of proprietary enclosure types are available,
which use a variety of materials and methods of shielding
against radiated emissions.

The manufacturer’s guidelines for construction and earthing

must be followed.

Figure 3-4 Enclosure detail.

Holes in In most cases, some holes must be made in the enclosure

enclosures e.g. for door devices, louvres, locks, cables, etc.

When an EMC enclosure is to be used, the maximum

diagonal or diameter for any hole is 100 mm, which equates
to 1/10TH of the wavelength of a 300 MHz frequency. This
dimension has been found acceptable in EMC tests.

It is, however, also recommended to use metal framed

devices if their assembly holes are between 30 mm to
100 mm, if there is any possible doubt about problems
with HF disturbances.

Holes bigger than 100 mm must be covered with a metal

frame surrounding the aperture and earthed to the
enclosure.

Larger viewing holes can be covered by proprietary glazing

with conductive coating.

Glazing must be connected to non painted metal surrounds

with conductive double sided tape or conductive gasket.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 21
EMC Solutions

Maximum size 72 x 72 mm
instrument

o
Note: If front plate of door device is plastic, make 360 earthing for cable,
otherwise twisted pair is acceptable

Figure 3-5 Typical enclosure aperture detail.

360° HF 360° HF earthing should be done everywhere where cables

earthing enter the drive enclosure, auxiliary connection box or
motor. There are different ways to implement the HF
earthing. The solutions used in ABB’s CDM/BDM products
are described here.

HF earthing The cable glands which are specially designed for 360° HF
with cable earthing are suitable for power cables with a diameter less
than 50 mm.
glands
Cable glands are not normally used for control cables due
to the fact that the distance from the control connections
to the cable glands is often too long for reliable HF earthing.
If the glands are used with control cables, the cable
shielding must continue as near to the control connections
as possible. Only the outer insulation of cable should be
removed to expose the cable screen for the length of the
cable gland.

To get the best possible result from HF earthing, the cable

shielding should be covered with a conductive tape. The
tape must cover the whole surface of the shielding,
including pigtail, and should be tightly pressed with fingers
after every single turn. The glue must be conductive.

22 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

wires as possible

covered with
conductive tape

Figure 3-6 Essential points of power connections.

HF earthing with 360° HF earthing in power cable entries can be done by

conductive using a conductive sleeve around the cable shielding. The
sleeve is connected to the Faraday Cage by tightening it
sleeve to the specially designed collar in the gland plate.

Figure 3-7 360° earthing with conductive sleeve.

The advantage of this solution is that the same sleeve can

be used for cables with different diameters.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 23
EMC Solutions

The cable can be mechanically supported by clamps, and

a specific cable gland is not required.

Note that the sleeve does not act as a strain relief clamp.

360° earthing The continuity of the Faraday Cage at the motor end must
at motor end be ensured by the same methods as in cabinet entry, namely:

• Cable gland must be used for clamping the cable.

• Cable shielding should be sealed with conductive tape.
• Conductive gaskets should be used for sealing both the
cable gland plate and the terminal box cover for the
Faraday Cage and IP 55 degree of protection.
• Earthing pigtail conductors should be as short as possible.

Figure 3-8 shows a Faraday Cage solution at the motor end.

For motors which are not totally enclosed, such as in cooling

form IC01, IC06, etc. the continuity of the Faraday Cage must
be ensured in the same manner as for the converter enclosure.

Figure 3-8 Essential points in motor cabling.

Conductive The 360° HF earthing for control cables can be done with
gaskets with conductive gaskets. In this method the shielded control
control cables cable is led through two gaskets and pressed tightly
together, as the figure 3-9 shows.

When gaskets are mounted at a gland plate, the cable

shielding must continue as near to the control connections
as possible. In this case the outer insulation of the cable
should be removed to allow connection to the shield for
the length of the gasket transit.

The shielding should be covered with conductive tape.

24 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The best HF earthing is achieved if gaskets are mounted

as near to the control connections as possible.

The gaskets must be installed to connect with the earthed

unpainted surfaces of the gland plate to which they are
mounted.

All connection tails should be as short as possible, and

twisted in pairs where appropriate. The cable shield should
be earthed to the connection end by a short pigtail. 3
The hole size in a gland plate required by these gaskets is
typically 200 x 50 mm.
Twist the pairs
up to terminals
Control
connections

Short pigtail
PE
Cable

Cable shielding covered

Pull the outer insulation with conductive tape
required by gasket
(about 3 cm)
Press the gaskets Unpainted gland plate
together

Conductive gasket

Continuity of
Faraday
Cage

Clamp

Control
cables

Figure 3-9 Essential points for control cabling transit.

Installation of The variety of accessories which can be installed is so

accessories large that only basic principles for selection and installation
can be given for them.

Accessories can, however, be divided into two categories

depending on how immune/sensitive they are.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 25
EMC Solutions

The protected device in this context means its ability to

keep the Faraday Cage closed. It is therefore recommended
to use metal enclosed/shielded devices wherever such
devices are available.

The rules for holes in the enclosure must be applied if there

are devices forming a bridge between the clean side and
the dirty side which can be disturbed.

Typical open devices are fuses, switch fuses, contactors

etc., which do not have a metal covering around them.

In general, such devices cannot be installed into the clean

side without protective metallic shielding plates. The rules
for holes in the enclosure must then be applied.

In some cases there might be some confusion between

safety and EMC requirements. It is therefore important to
remember the following basic rule:

Safety is always the first priority and overrules

the EMC requirements.

Some examples of protected and open devices are given

in the chapter Practical Examples.

Internal wiring There are some basic rules for internal wiring:
• Always keep clean and dirty side cables separate and
shielded from one another.
• Internal clean power connections with integrally filtered drive
units, e.g. from contactor to converter input, do not require
shielded cables but may require de-coupling ferrite rings
where they enter the converter input.
• Use twisted pair wires wherever possible.
• Use shielded twisted pairs for signal level outward and
return wires exiting from the overall enclosure.
• Avoid mixing pairs with different signal types e.g. 110 VAC,
230 VAC, 24 VDC, analogue, digital.
• Run wires along the metal surface and avoid wires hanging
in free air, which can become an antenna.
• If plastic trunking is used, secure it directly to installation
plates or framework. Do not allow spans over free air which
could form an antenna.
• Keep power and control wiring separate.
• Use galvanically isolated (potential free) signals.
• Keep wires twisted as near the terminal as possible.
• Keep pigtails as short as possible.
• Earthing connections should be as short as possible in flat
strip, multistranded or braided flexible conductors for low
RFI impedance.

26 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

DIGITAL INPUTS
3

RELAY OUTPUTS
(pot.free)

RC filter or
varistor for
AC relay

Avoid parallel running with control wires

Cross in 90˚ angle

Avoid parallel running with control wires

Cross in 90˚ angle

Figure 3-10 Principles of wiring inside CDM.

Control cables The control cabling is a part of the Faraday Cage as described
and cabling in the section Conductive gaskets with control cables.

In addition to correct HF earthing there are some basic

rules for control cabling:

• Always use shielded twisted pair cables:

- double shielded cable for analogue signals
- single shielded for other signals is acceptable but double
shielded cable recommended.
• Don’t run 110/230 V signals in the same cable with the
lower signal level cables.
• Keep twisted pairs individual for each signal.
• Earth directly at frequency converter side.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 27
EMC Solutions

If instructions for the device at the other end of the

cable specify earthing at that end, earth the inner
shields at the end of the more sensitive device and
the outer shield at the other end.

• Route signal cables according to figure 3-11 whenever

possible and follow instructions given by the product specific
manuals.

Motor cable

Mains cable

Figure 3-11 Routing principles of control cables.

There is more about control cabling in the documents

“Grounding and cabling of the drive system” and in
product specific manuals.

Power cables As the cables are part of the PDS they are also part of the
Faraday Cage. To be able to meet the EMC requirements,
power cables with good shielding effectiveness must be used.

The purpose of the shield is to reduce radiated emission.

In order to be efficient, the shield must have good

conductivity and cover most of the cable surface. If the
cable shield is used as protective earthing, the shield cross
area (or equivalent conductivity) must be at least 50 % of
the cross sectional area of the phase conductor.

28 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The product specific manuals describe some cable types

which can be used in mains supply and motor output.

If such types are not available locally, and because cable

manufacturers have several different shield constructions, the
types can be evaluated by the transfer impedance of the cable.

The transfer impedance describes the shielding

effectiveness of the cable. It is commonly used with
communication cables. 3
The cable can consist of either braided or spiral shield,
and the shield material should preferably be either copper
or aluminium.

The suitability for certain drive types is mentioned in the

product specific manuals.

Figure 3-12 Galvanised steel or tinned copper wire with braided shield.

Figure 3-13 Layer of copper tape with concentric layer of copper wires.

Figure 3-14 Concentric layer of copper wires with an open helix of

copper tape.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 29
EMC Solutions

Transfer
impedance

Limit

Figure 3-15 Transfer impedance for power cables.

To meet the requirements for radiated emission the transfer

impedance must be less than 100 mΩ/m in the frequency
range up to 100 MHz. The highest shielding effectiveness
is achieved with a metal conduit or corrugated aluminium
shield. Figure 3-15 shows typical transfer impedance
values of different cable constructions. The longer the
cable run, the lower the transfer impedance required.

Use of Ferrite In particular cases due to high emission levels, common

rings mode inductors can be used in signal cables to avoid
interfacing problems between different systems.

Common mode disturbances can be suppressed by wiring

conductors through the common mode inductor ferrite
core (figure 3-16).

The ferrite core increases inductance of conductors and

mutual inductance, so common mode disturbance signals
above a certain frequency are suppressed. An ideal common
mode inductor does not suppress a differential mode signal.

Figure 3-16 Ferrite ring in

signal wire.

30 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The inductance (i.e. the ability to suppress HF disturbances)

can be increased by multiple turns of the signal wire.

When using a ferrite ring with power cable, all phase

conductors should be led through the ring. The shielding
and possible earth wire must be wired outside the ring to
keep the common mode inductor effect. With power cables
it is not normally possible to make multiple turns through
the ring. The inductance can be increased by using several
successive rings. 3
If for any reasons the installation instructions cannot be
followed and therefore additional ferrites or filters are added
afterwards, it is recommended that measurements be
made to show conformance.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 31
 Chapter 4 - Practical Examples

Simple Shielded cables are shown interconnecting the primary

installation parts, ensuring attenuation of radiated emissions. The
supply is made through the RFI filter.

The Faraday Cage is earthed and all the emissions are

drained to earth.

In the case shown in figure 4-1, the cabinet is not required

to be EMC proof, because connections are made directly
in an EMC compliant frequency converter.

1) Short pigtail
to PE, both common
and pair screen
2) 360˚ HF grounding
3) For rules, see part
CONTROL
CABLING

Figure 4-1 Basic PDS Configuration.

32 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
Example of In this case it is difficult to ensure that no cross coupling
By-pass system occurs between the dirty side of the converter and the
clean side above the Direct On Line (DOL) contactor.
<100kVA Contactors are not RFI barriers, and the coil circuits are
also vulnerable.

A suitable RFI filter at the supply input connections would

require to be able to pass the DOL starting current, which can
be six to seven times the normal Full Load Current, and
would be greatly oversized for normal running, which makes
it difficult to design. Ferrite cores used in the feeds to the
3
contactor will help attenuate the coupled noise as shown
in figure 4-2.

Cabinet 1
Supply
connection

For more details, see

360˚ MOTOR EARTHING

Figure 4-2 Basic scheme with By-pass.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 33
Practical Examples

Typical example In this case a 12-pulse rectifier is an IT system, unearthed

of 12-pulse drive due to the delta winding, therefore any filter in the line
must be at the primary of the phase shift transformer.

Experience has shown that, in this case, with short

connections to the busbars, the earth shield between the
transformer windings is not quite adequate for conducted
emissions attenuation for use in the first environment.
Therefore RFI filtering may be needed for EMC compliance.

For equipment fed from an IT system, a similar procedure

can be used. An isolating transformer allows the PDS to
be earthed and to use a suitable filter, for use in the First
Environment. The Point of Coupling is at a medium voltage
and emissions may be considered at the next low voltage
point of coupling in the system. The level of emissions
should correspond to those for the appropriate
environment. For definitions, see section Installation
Environments in chapter 2.

Low voltage supply

Note: All equipment inside must be enclosed

Figure 4-3 12-pulse converter system fed at LV.

34 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Practical Examples

Figure 4-4 12-pulse converter system fed at LV (CDM, transformer and switch fuse have separate
housing).

Figure 4-5 12-pulse converter system fed at medium or high voltage.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 35
Practical Examples

Example of This example features a common DC bus sectional drive which

common DC is supplied from an earthed network through an RFI filter.
fed sectional The enclosure must be EMC proof as the components
drive inside are not. Cable entries must be 360° HF earthed. The
enclosure is earthed to drain away all emissions.

Common
Earth

Figure 4-6 Common DC bus fed sectional drive fed at LV

36 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 5 - Bibliography

Various texts are referred to in this guide. They are

recommended further reading to assist in achieving
compliant installations:

EN 61800-3, Adjustable Speed Electrical Power Drive

Systems - part 3, EMC product standard including specific
test (published by CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium and
3
National Standards organisations in EU member countries).

EN 61800-3:1996/A 11:2000

Guidelines by the Commission on the application of Council

Directive 89/336/EEC, published by European Commission
DGIII - Industry.

Interference Free Electronics by Dr. Sten Benda (published

by ABB Industry Ab, Västerås, Sweden)

Technical Guide No. 2 - EU Council Directives and Adjustable

Speed Electrical Power Drive Systems, code 3BFE 61253980
(published by ABB Industry Oy, Helsinki, Finland)

Grounding and cabling of the drive system, code 3AFY

61201998 (published by ABB Industry Oy, Helsinki, Finland)

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 37
 Chapter 6 - Index

12-pulse rectifier 34 ferrite core 33

Ferrite ring 15, 16, 26, 30, 31
A First Environment 3, 12, 34
antenna 26 frequency converter 8, 19, 27, 32
apparatus 11 fuse 5, 17, 26

B G
Basic Drive Module (BDM) 8, 17, 19 gasket 16, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27
gland plate 23, 24, 25
C
cabinet 16, 24, 32 H
cable gland 22, 24 harmonics 8
CE mark 3, 5, 10, 11, 16 high-frequency emission 8
CENELEC 9, 37 High-frequency phenomena 8
Complete Drive Module (CDM) 8, 27
Component 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17, 19 I
conducting radio frequency IGBT 8
disturbance 8 imbalance 8
conduction 8 Installation Environment 3, 11, 13, 34
Conductive gasket 16, 20, 21,24, 27 isolating transformer 34
Contactor 5, 15, 17, 19, 26, 33 IT system 34
Control Cable 16, 22, 24, 27, 28
control connection 22, 24, 25 L
control electronics 8 Low Voltage Directive 5
converter 8, 19, 24, 26, 27, 33, low-frequency phenomena 8
34, 35 low-voltage network 12, 17
cross coupling 33
customer 13 M
Machinery Directive 5
D medium voltage network 12
delta winding 34 metallic screening 26
direct function 16 motor 24
DOL 33
double shielded cable 27 N
drive 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, notches 8
16,17, 18, 19, 22, 26, 28, 29, 37
O
E Original Equipment Manufacturers
EEA 8 (OEM) 5, 6, 9
electrical surge 8
Electromagnetic Compatibility P
(EMC) 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, Panelbuilder 5, 6, 9
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, Power Drive System (PDS) 1, 3,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 28,
electromagnetic disturbance 9 32, 34, 37
electromagnetic environment 8 phase shift transformer 34
electrostatic discharge 8 pigtail 24, 26
enclosure 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, plastic trunking 26
22, 24, 26 Point of Coupling 34
Environment Class 11, 12 power components 8
power distribution networks 11
F power supply network 12, 13
Faraday Cage 16, 17, 19, 20, 23,
24, 26, 27, 28, 32
fast transient burst 8

38 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 R
radiating electromagnetic field 8
radiation 8, 16
Restricted Distribution 3, 12, 13
RF impedance 26
RFI filter 15, 17, 18, 32, 33

S
3
Sales distribution 12, 13
Second Environment 3, 11, 12
Shielded cable 26, 32
single commercial unit 11
single functional unit 11
strain relief clamp 24
suppliers 13
System Integrator 5

T
transformer 12, 34
twisted pair 16, 22, 26, 27

U
Unrestricted 3, 12, 13
Unrestricted Distribution 3, 13
user 5, 9, 12, 13

V
Variable Speed Drives (VSD) 5,
6, 8, 16, 17, 22, 37

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 39
 Dark Oy, Vantaa 2003
3AFE 61348280 REV C EN 11.6.2003 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 3

EMC Compliant Installation

and Configuration for a
Power Drive System
2 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Contents

1 Introduction ...................................................... 5
General ...................................................................... 5
This guide’s purpose ................................................. 5
The Directives concerning drives ......................... 5
Who is the manufacturer? .................................... 5
The responsibility of the manufacturer ................ 5
OEM customer as a manufacturer ....................... 5
Panel builder or system integrator
as a manufacturer ................................................. 6
Definitions ............................................................. 6
Practical installations and systems ...................... 6
Earthing principles ................................................ 6
Product-specific manuals ..................................... 7

2 Definitions ........................................................ 8
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) of PDS ......... 8
Immunity ................................................................ 8
Emission ................................................................ 8
Power Drive System ................................................. 8
Types of equipment ................................................ 9
Component.......................................................... 10
Components with direct function ....................... 10
Components without direct function ................. 11
Apparatus & systems .......................................... 11
Installation ........................................................... 11
CE marking for EMC ........................................... 11
Installation environments........................................ 11
First Environment ................................................ 12
Second Environment .......................................... 12
Propagation ......................................................... 12
The drive’s route to market .................................... 12
Unrestricted distribution ..................................... 13
Restricted distribution ........................................ 13
EMC emission limits ............................................... 13
EMC plan ............................................................. 13

3 EMC solutions ................................................. 15

General .................................................................... 15
Solutions for EMC compatibility ............................. 15
Emissions ............................................................ 15
Conducted emission ........................................... 15
Radiated emission .............................................. 16
Clean and dirty side ............................................ 17
RFI filtering .......................................................... 17

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 3
 Selecting the RFI filter ........................................ 18
Installation of the RFI filter ................................. 18
Drives in IT-networks .......................................... 19
Arc suppressors .................................................. 19
Selection of a secondary enclosure ................... 19
Holes in enclosures ............................................. 21
360O HF earthing ................................................... 22
HF earthing with cable glands ............................ 22
HF earthing with conductive sleeve ................... 23
360O earthing at motor end ................................. 24
Conductive gaskets with control cables ............ 24
Installation of accessories .................................. 25
Internal wiring...................................................... 26
Control cables and cabling ................................. 27
Power cables ....................................................... 28
Transfer impedance ............................................ 30
Use of Ferrite rings ............................................. 30

4 Practical Examples ......................................... 32

Simple installation ................................................... 32
Example of By-pass system <100kVA ................... 33
Typical example of a 12-pulse drive ....................... 34
Example of common DC bus fed sectional drive .. 36

5 Bibliography .................................................... 37

6 Index ............................................................... 38

4 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General This guide assists design and installation personnel when

trying to ensure compliance with the requirements of the EMC
Directive in the user’s systems and installations when using
AC drives.

This guide’s The purpose of this guide is to guide Original Equipment

purpose Manufacturers (OEM), system integrators and panelbuilders
in designing or installing AC drive products and their auxiliary
components into their own installation and systems. The
auxiliaries include contactors, switches, fuses, etc. By following
these instructions it is possible to fulfil EMC requirements
and give CE marking when necessary.

The Directives There are three directives which concern variable speed
concerning drives. They are the Machinery Directive, Low Voltage
Directive and EMC Directive. The requirements and
drives principles of the Directives and use of CE marking is
described in Technical Guide No. 2 “EU Council
Directives and Variable Speed Drives”. This document
deals only with the EMC Directive.

Who is the The European Commission has published guidelines on the

manufacturer? application of the EMC Directive. These guidelines give the
following definition of a manufacturer: “This is the person
responsible for the design and construction of an
apparatus covered by the Directive with a view to placing it
on the EEA market on his own behalf. Whoever modifies
substantially an apparatus resulting in an “as-new” apparatus,
with a view to placing it on the EEA market, also becomes the
manufacturer.”

The According to EMC Directive (89/336/EEC) article 10 part

responsibility of 1, the manufacturer is responsible for attaching the CE-
mark to each unit. According to part 2 the manufacturer is
the manufacturer responsible for writing and updating the Technical
Construction File (TCF), if the TCF route is used.

OEM It is well known that OEM customers sell equipment using

customer as a own trade marks or brand labels. Changing the trademark,
brand label or the type marking is an example of modification
manufacturer resulting in “as new” equipment.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 5
Introduction

Frequency converters sold as OEM products shall be

considered components (Complete Drive Module CDM or
Basic Drive Module BDM). Apparatus is an entity and
includes any documentation (manuals) intended for the
final customer. Thus, the OEM-customer has sole and
ultimate responsibility concerning EMC of equipment,
and he shall issue a Declaration of Conformity and
Technical Construction File for the equipment.

ABB Oy offers services to help OEM customers to issue a

TCF and a DoC in order to CE mark the product according
to the EMC Directive.

Panel builder or According to the EMC Directive, a system is defined as a

system combination of several types of equipment, finished
products, and/or components combined, designed and/
integrator as a or put together by the same person (system
manufacturer manufacturer) intended to be placed on the market for
distribution as a single functional unit for an end-user
and intended to be installed and operated together to
perform a specific task.

A panel builder or system integrator typically undertakes

this kind of work. Thus, the panel builder or system
integrator has sole and ultimate responsibility concerning
EMC of the system. He cannot pass this responsibility to
a supplier.

In order to help panel builder/system integrator, ABB Oy

offers installation guidelines related to each product as
well as general EMC guidelines (this document).

Definitions The EMC Product Standard for Power Drive Systems,

EN 61800-3 (or IEC 61800-3) is used as the main standard
for variable speed drives. The terms and definitions defined
in the standard are also used in this guide.

Practical This guide gives practical EMC examples and solutions

installations which are not described in product specific manuals. The
solutions can be directly used or applied by the OEM or
and systems panelbuilder.

Earthing The earthing and cabling principles of variable speed drives

principles are described in the manual “Grounding and cabling of
the drive system”, code 3AFY 61201998. It also includes
a short description of interference phenomena.

6 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Introduction

Product-specific Detailed information on the installation and use of

manuals products, cable sizes etc. can be found in the product
specific manuals. This guide is intended to be used
together with product specific manuals.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 7
 Chapter 2 - Definitions

Electromagnetic EMC stands for Electromagnetic Compatibility. It is the ability

Compatibility of electrical/electronic equipment to operate without problems
within an electromagnetic environment. Likewise, the equipment
(EMC) of PDS must not disturb or interfere with any other product or
system within its locality. This is a legal requirement for all
equipment taken into service within the EEA. The terms
used to define compatibility are shown in figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1 Immunity and emission compatibility.

As variable speed drives are described as a source of

interference, it is natural that all parts which are in electrical
or airborne connection within the PDS are part of the EMC
compliance. The concept that a system is as weak as its
weakest point is valid here.

Immunity Electrical equipment should be immune to high-frequency and

low-frequency phenomena. High-frequency phenomena
include electrostatic discharge (ESD), fast transient burst,
radiating electromagnetic field, conducting radio frequency
disturbance and electrical surge. Typical low-frequency
phenomena are mains voltage harmonics, notches and
imbalance.

Emission The source of high-frequency emission from frequency

converters is the fast switching of power components such
as IGBTs and control electronics. This high-frequency
emission can propagate by conduction and radiation.

Power Drive The parts of a variable speed drive controlling driven equipment
System as a part of an installation are described in EMC Product
Standard EN 61800-3. A drive can be considered as a Basic
Drive Module (BDM) or Complete Drive Module (CDM)
according to the standard.

8 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

It is recommended that design and installation

responsible personnel have this standard available and
be familiar with this standard. All standards are available
from the national bodies on standardisation and from
CENELEC, rue de Stassart, 35, 1050 Bruxelles.

Systems made by an OEM or panelbuilder can consist

more or less of the PDS parts alone, or there can be many
PDSs in a configuration.

The solutions described in this guide are used within the

definition of Power Drive System, but the same solutions
can, or in some cases, should, be extended to all
installations. This guide gives principles and practical EMC
examples which can be applied to a user’s system.

System control and

sequencing
Basic Drive Module BDM
Control, Converter and
Protection

Feeding section
Auxiliaries and others

Motor and Sensors

Driven Equipment

Figure 2-2 Abbreviations used in Drives.

Types of The EMC Directive applies to “all electrical and electronic

equipment appliances together with installations containing electrical and/
or electronic components liable to cause electromagnetic
disturbance or the performance of which is liable to be affected
by such disturbance”. The interpretation of the EMC Directive
for different configuration in the area of drives can be divided
into several levels:

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 9
Definitions

Component In this context the interpretation of component can be

divided into two main categories. The component can
either deliver a ‘direct function’ or not.

Direct function:
Any function of the component itself, which fulfils the
intended use, specified by the manufacturer in the
instruction for use for an end user.

Components Components with a direct function can be divided into

with direct two sub-groups:
function 1) The direct function is available without further adjustment
or connections other than simple ones, which can be
performed by any person not fully aware of the EMC
implications. Such a component is an ‘apparatus’ and
it is subjected to all provisions of the EMC Directive.

2) The direct function is not available without further

adjustment or connections other than simple ones,
which can be performed by any person not fully aware
of the EMC implications. Such a component is not an
‘apparatus’. The only requirement for such a component
is to provide it with instructions for use for the professional
assembler or manufacturer of the final apparatus into
which the component will be incorporated. These instruc-
tions should help him to solve any EMC problems with
his final apparatus.

If a component performs a direct function without further

adjustment other than simple ones, the component is
considered equivalent to apparatus (Case 1). Some variable
speed power drive products fall into this category, e.g. a
drive installed into a cabinet or drive with enclosure and
sold as a complete unit (CDM). All provisions of the EMC
Directive apply (CE-mark, Declaration of Conformity).

If a component performs a direct function that is not

available without further adjustment other than simple
ones, it is considered as a component (Case 2). Some
variable speed power drive products fall into this category,
e.g. basic drive module (BDM). These are meant to be
assembled by a professional assembler (e.g. panel builder
or system manufacturer) into a cabinet not in the scope of
delivery of the manufacturer of the BDM. According to the
EMC Directive, the requirement for the BDM supplier is
to deliver instructions for installation and use.

According to the EMC Directive the system manufacturer

or panel builder is resonsible for CE-mark, Declaration of
Conformity and Technical Construction File.

10 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

Components Components with no direct function are not considered

without direct as apparatus within the meaning of the EMC Directive.
The EMC Directive does not apply to these. These
function components include resistors, cables, terminal blocks, etc.

Apparatus and A finished product containing electrical and/or electronic

systems components and intended to be placed on the market and/
or taken into service as a single commercial unit.

Several items of apparatus combined to fulfil a specific

objective and intended to be placed on the market as a
single functional unit.

Installation A combination of items of apparatus, equipment and/or

components put together at a given place to fulfil a specific
objective but not intended to be placed on the market as
a single functional unit.

CE marking A component with a direct function without further adjustment

for EMC than simple ones needs to carry CE marking for EMC (Case 1).

A component with a direct function that is not available

without further adjustment than simple ones does not need
to carry CE marking for EMC (Case 2).

Note: The products may carry CE marking for other

directives than EMC.

Apparatus and systems must be CE marked.

Installations are required to satisfy various parts of the

Directives, but are not required to be CE marked.

Figure 2-3 The CE mark.

Installation The PDSs can be connected to either industrial or public

environments power distribution networks. The environment class depends
on the way the PDS is connected to power supply. The
environment classes are First and Second Environment.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 11
Definitions

First “The First Environment includes domestic premises. It

Environment also includes establishments directly connected without
intermediate transformer to a low-voltage power supply
network which supplies buildings used for domestic purposes.”

Second “Second Environment includes all establishments other than

Environment those directly connected to a low-voltage power supply
network which supplies buildings used for domestic purposes"
Medium voltage network

Propagation of conducted emissions

Public low-voltage network Industrial low-voltage network

Point of measurement
for conducted emission Point of measurement

1st Environment 2nd Environment

Boundary of
installation

10 m

Point of measurement for

radiated emission, see figure 2-5
Equipment PDS
(victim) (emitter)

Figure 2-4 Illustration of Environment Classes and propagation of

disturbances.

Propagation “For PDSs in the second environment, the user shall ensure
that excessive disturbances are not induced into low-
voltage network, even if propagation is through a medium
voltage network.”

Note: Figure 2-4 shows the case when a victim is

in a First Environment. The situation is the same
if a victim is in a Second Environment in another
installation. The measurements are carried out
only in case of dispute (see figure 2-5).

The drive’s The EMC Product Standard for PDS divides the drive’s
route to routes to the market into Unrestricted and Restricted sales
distribution classes.
market

12 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Definitions

Unrestricted “Unrestricted distribution is a mode of sales distribution

distribution in which the supply of equipment is not dependent on the
EMC competence of the customer or user for the
application of drives".

Goods can be placed in service by a person skilled in the

operation of goods, but without any specific EMC experience.

Restricted “Restricted distribution is a mode of sales distribution in

distribution which the manufacturer restricts the supply of equipment
to suppliers, customers or users who separately or jointly
have technical competence in the EMC requirements of
the application of drives.”

This means that the goods require EMC competence to

be put into service.

EMC emission The EMC emission limits for PDS depend on the installation
limits environment, type of power supply network and power of
the drive. Limits for certain conditions can be selected by
using the following flow chart (see Figure 2-5).

EMC Plan The appropriate limits of the PDSs of the restricted

distribution class in the second environment may not be
met due to technical reasons.

“These applications are:

• IT networks in complex systems
• Current above 400 A
• Voltage above 1000 V
• Where the required dynamic performances are limited
because of filtering

… the user and the manufacturer shall agree on an EMC

plan to meet the EMC requirements of the intended
application.”

This means that the manufacturer and the user make the
EMC Plan in cooperation.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 13
Definitions

EN 61800-3
EMC Product Standard for PDS

1st Environment 2nd Environment

(public low-voltage network) (industrial network)

Either Unrestricted
Unrestricted Restricted or Restricted Distr .
Distribution Distribution

I < 100A I > 100A

Disturbance
in power port
dBuV
C 100 150
O 79 80 quasi-peak 130 quasi-peak
N 73 125
115
D 66
56
60 quasi-peak
110
U 100
quasi-peak
C 40 90
86
T 20 70 See also EMC Plan
E
0
D 0.15 0.5 1 5 10 30
50
0.15 0.5 1 5 10 30
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
Disturbance
dBuV/m
50 70
R Restricted (10 m), quasi-peak
10 m, quasi-peak
A 47
45 60
D 50
40
I Unrestricted (10 m), quasi-peak 40
A 37
35
T 30

E 30 20 See also EMC Plan

D 25 10
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
30 230 30 230
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
DISPUTE
The polluter solves

Figure 2-5 Emission limits for PDS.

14 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 3 - EMC Solutions

General The solutions used to fulfil immunity and both radiated

and conducted emission requirements are described in this
chapter.

Solutions for There are some basic principles which have to be followed when
EMC designing and using drive systems incorporating AC drive
products. These same principles were used when these
compatibility products were initially designed and constructed, where
such issues as printed circuit board layout, mechanical
design, wire routing, cable entries and other special points
were all considered in great detail.

This all is referred to as fully integrated EMC.

Emissions Drive products are normally immune to a majority of

disturbances, otherwise they would be affected by their
own disturbances. So in this context only emissions need
to be handled.

The emissions can be divided into two parts, the conducted

emission and the radiated emission. The disturbances can
be emitted in various ways as the following figure shows:

Figure 3-1 Emissions.

Conducted Conducted disturbances can propagate to other equipment

emission via all conductive parts including cabling, earthing and the
metal frame of an enclosure.

Conductive emissions can be reduced in the following way:

• By RFI filtering for HF disturbances

• Using sparking suppressors in relays, contactors, valves,
etc. to attenuate switching sparks
• Using ferrite rings in power connection points

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 15
EMC Solutions

Radiated To be able to avoid disturbance through air, all parts of the

emission Power Drive System should form a Faraday Cage against
radiated emissions. The PDS includes cabinets, auxiliary
boxes, cabling, motors, etc.

Some methods for ensuring the continuity of the Faraday

Cage are listed as follows:

Enclosure:

• The enclosure must have an unpainted non-corroding

surface finish at every point that other plates, doors, etc.
make contact.
• Unpainted metal to metal contacts shall be used
throughout, with conductive gaskets, where appropriate.
• Use unpainted installation plates, bonded to common
earth point, ensuring all separate metal items are firmly
bonded to achieve a single path to earth.
• Use conductive gaskets in doors and covers. Covers
should be secured at not more than 100 mm intervals
where radiation could escape.
• Separate radiative i.e. “dirty” side from the “clean side”
by metal covers and design.
• Holes in enclosure should be minimised.
• Use materials with good attenuation e.g. plastic with
conductive coating, if a metal enclosure cannot be used.

Cabling & Wiring:

• Use special HF cable entries for high frequency earthing

of power cable shields.
• Use conductive gaskets for HF earthing of control cable
shield.
• Use shielded power and control cables. See product
specific manuals.
• Route power and control cables separately.
• Use twisted pairs to avoid disturbances.
• Use ferrite rings for disturbances, if necessary.
• Select and route internal wires correctly.

Installation:

• Auxiliaries used with CDMs should be CE marked products

to both EMC & Low Voltage Directives, NOT ONLY to LV-
directive, unless they are not concerned, e.g. being with
a component without a direct function.
• Selection and installation of accessories in accordance
with manufacturers’ instructions.
• 360° earthing at motor end. See product specific manuals.
• Correct internal wiring methods.
• Special attention must be given to earthing.

16 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

Note: When selecting equipment for a config-

uration it is essential to check that both radiated
and conducted emissions have been taken into
account.

Clean and dirty The circuit before the point where supply power is
side connected to the CDM and where the filtering starts, is
referred to as the clean side. The parts of the BDM which
can cause disturbances are described as the dirty side.

Enclosed wall mounted drives are designed so that the circuit

followed by output connection is the only dirty part. That is
the case if the installation instructions of the drive are followed.

To be able to keep the clean side “clean” the dirty parts

are separated into a Faraday Cage. This can be done either
with separation plates or with cabling.

When using separation plates the rules for enclosure holes

are applicable (see section Holes in enclosures later in
this chapter).

When the Faraday cage is formed by cabling, the rules for

cabling must be applied (see sections on cabling and wiring
in this chapter and follow the product specific instructions
for the drive).

The use of additional components, e.g. contactors,

isolators, fuses, etc. in some cases makes it difficult to
keep the clean and the dirty side separate.

This can happen when contactors or switches are used in

circuits to change over from clean to dirty side (e.g. by-pass).

Some examples of solutions are described in chapter 4,

Practical Examples.

RFI filtering RFI filters are used to attenuate conducted disturbances

in a line connecting point where the filter leads the
disturbances to earth.

Output filters attenuate disturbances at the output of a PDS.

E.g. du/dt and common mode filters help somewhat, even
if they have not been designed for RFI.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 17
EMC Solutions

Note: Filters cannot be used in floating network

(IT-network) where there is high impedance or
no physical connection between the phases and
the earth.

Figure 3-2 Example of filtering integrated in drive module.

Figure 3-2 shows an example of integral, distributed

filtering. Some drive products need a separate filter (see
product specific instructions).

Selecting the An RFI filter is selected to attenuate the conducted

RFI filter disturbances. It is not possible to compare the disturbances
measured from a source, and the insertion loss for a filter, as
the measurement base for the two items of information will
not correspond.

It is always necessary to test a filter in conjunction with

the source of disturbance to ensure adequate attenuation
and to meet applicable emission limits.

Installation of Reliable HF/low impedance connections are essential to

the RFI filter ensure proper functioning of the filter, therefore the
following instructions shall be followed.

• Filter shall be assembled on a metal plate with unpainted

connection points all in accordance with filter manu-
facturer’s instructions.
• The frames of the filter cubicle (if separate) and the drive
cubicle shall be bolted together at several points. Paint
shall be removed from all connection points.
• The input and output cables of the filter shall not run in
parallel, and must be separated from each other.

18 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

• The maximum length of the cable between the filter and

the drive must be according to the RFI-filter manufacturer's
instructions.
• The filter must be earthed in accordance with the manu-
facturer’s instructions. Note that the cable type and size
are critical.

Drives in IT- Check with a meter that there are no filtering

networks capacitors connected to earth.

Figure 3-3 Examples of suppression.

Arc suppressors Relays, contactors and magnetic valves must be equipped

with spark suppressors. This is also necessary when these
parts are mounted outside the frequency converter cubicle.

Selection of a Where the BDM is to be installed, (e.g. an IP 00 open

secondary chassis converter), or if additional components are to be
connected to the dirty side of an otherwise compliant unit,
enclosure it is always necessary to provide an EMC enclosure.

For enclosed chassis modules where the motor connec-

tions are made directly to the converter output terminals,
and all the internal shielding parts are fitted, there are no
requirements for special enclosures.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 19
EMC Solutions

If drives are fitted with output switching devices, for

example, then an EMC enclosure will be needed, as the
integral Faraday Cage will no longer apply.

As a reminder, EMC is only one part of enclosure selection.

The enclosure is sized according to several criteria:

• Safety
• Degree of Protection (IP Rating)
• Heat Rejection Capability
• Space for accessory equipment
• Cosmetic aspects
• Cable access
• EMC compliance
• General requirements for EMC compatibility

The safety of people and animals together with degree of

protection (IP-rating) requirements are mainly described
in Machinery Safety standard EN 60204-1, Electrical Safety
Standard EN 50178 or Product Standard EN 61800-2 and
are not described here. In this document only the EMC
aspect is handled.

From the EMC point of view it means that the enclosure is

firm and proof enough to be a part of the Faraday Cage.
In small systems, plastic boxes can also be used if they
are painted inside with conductive paint. The paint must
have metal to metal contact at each seam to other parts
of the metal enclosure.

External safety switches can also be in plastic boxes if the

boxes form a good Faraday Cage and are conductive
inside, otherwise metal boxes should be used.

The enclosure must adhere to the following parameters

as a minimum:

• Thickness: 0.75 mm stainless (galvanised) steel (Normally

recommended <1.5 mm for stiffness).
• Outside surface: Electrostatic powder coating e.g. polyester
powder paint (TGIC). Thickness 60 mm, or other cosmetic
finish.
• Inside surface: Hot galvanised and chromated steel. Not
painted. The surfaces that make metal to metal contact
shall not be painted.
• Louvres: holes in steelwork < 21 mm in width or proprietary
RFI proof type.
• Doors: Sealed with conductive gasket, and adequately
earthed. Enough locks for high frequency earthing.

20 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

• Cover plates: Metal against metal (not painted), all earthed.

A number of proprietary enclosure types are available,
which use a variety of materials and methods of shielding
against radiated emissions.

The manufacturer’s guidelines for construction and earthing

must be followed.

Figure 3-4 Enclosure detail.

Holes in In most cases, some holes must be made in the enclosure

enclosures e.g. for door devices, louvres, locks, cables, etc.

When an EMC enclosure is to be used, the maximum

diagonal or diameter for any hole is 100 mm, which equates
to 1/10TH of the wavelength of a 300 MHz frequency. This
dimension has been found acceptable in EMC tests.

It is, however, also recommended to use metal framed

devices if their assembly holes are between 30 mm to
100 mm, if there is any possible doubt about problems
with HF disturbances.

Holes bigger than 100 mm must be covered with a metal

frame surrounding the aperture and earthed to the
enclosure.

Larger viewing holes can be covered by proprietary glazing

with conductive coating.

Glazing must be connected to non painted metal surrounds

with conductive double sided tape or conductive gasket.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 21
EMC Solutions

Maximum size 72 x 72 mm
instrument

o
Note: If front plate of door device is plastic, make 360 earthing for cable,
otherwise twisted pair is acceptable

Figure 3-5 Typical enclosure aperture detail.

360° HF 360° HF earthing should be done everywhere where cables

earthing enter the drive enclosure, auxiliary connection box or
motor. There are different ways to implement the HF
earthing. The solutions used in ABB’s CDM/BDM products
are described here.

HF earthing The cable glands which are specially designed for 360° HF
with cable earthing are suitable for power cables with a diameter less
than 50 mm.
glands
Cable glands are not normally used for control cables due
to the fact that the distance from the control connections
to the cable glands is often too long for reliable HF earthing.
If the glands are used with control cables, the cable
shielding must continue as near to the control connections
as possible. Only the outer insulation of cable should be
removed to expose the cable screen for the length of the
cable gland.

To get the best possible result from HF earthing, the cable

shielding should be covered with a conductive tape. The
tape must cover the whole surface of the shielding,
including pigtail, and should be tightly pressed with fingers
after every single turn. The glue must be conductive.

22 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

wires as possible

covered with
conductive tape

Figure 3-6 Essential points of power connections.

HF earthing with 360° HF earthing in power cable entries can be done by

conductive using a conductive sleeve around the cable shielding. The
sleeve is connected to the Faraday Cage by tightening it
sleeve to the specially designed collar in the gland plate.

Figure 3-7 360° earthing with conductive sleeve.

The advantage of this solution is that the same sleeve can

be used for cables with different diameters.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 23
EMC Solutions

The cable can be mechanically supported by clamps, and

a specific cable gland is not required.

Note that the sleeve does not act as a strain relief clamp.

360° earthing The continuity of the Faraday Cage at the motor end must
at motor end be ensured by the same methods as in cabinet entry, namely:

• Cable gland must be used for clamping the cable.

• Cable shielding should be sealed with conductive tape.
• Conductive gaskets should be used for sealing both the
cable gland plate and the terminal box cover for the
Faraday Cage and IP 55 degree of protection.
• Earthing pigtail conductors should be as short as possible.

Figure 3-8 shows a Faraday Cage solution at the motor end.

For motors which are not totally enclosed, such as in cooling

form IC01, IC06, etc. the continuity of the Faraday Cage must
be ensured in the same manner as for the converter enclosure.

Figure 3-8 Essential points in motor cabling.

Conductive The 360° HF earthing for control cables can be done with
gaskets with conductive gaskets. In this method the shielded control
control cables cable is led through two gaskets and pressed tightly
together, as the figure 3-9 shows.

When gaskets are mounted at a gland plate, the cable

shielding must continue as near to the control connections
as possible. In this case the outer insulation of the cable
should be removed to allow connection to the shield for
the length of the gasket transit.

The shielding should be covered with conductive tape.

24 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The best HF earthing is achieved if gaskets are mounted

as near to the control connections as possible.

The gaskets must be installed to connect with the earthed

unpainted surfaces of the gland plate to which they are
mounted.

All connection tails should be as short as possible, and

twisted in pairs where appropriate. The cable shield should
be earthed to the connection end by a short pigtail.

The hole size in a gland plate required by these gaskets is

typically 200 x 50 mm.
Twist the pairs
up to terminals
Control
connections

Short pigtail
PE
Cable

Cable shielding covered

Pull the outer insulation with conductive tape
required by gasket
(about 3 cm)
Press the gaskets Unpainted gland plate
together

Conductive gasket

Continuity of
Faraday
Cage

Clamp

Control
cables

Figure 3-9 Essential points for control cabling transit.

Installation of The variety of accessories which can be installed is so

accessories large that only basic principles for selection and installation
can be given for them.

Accessories can, however, be divided into two categories

depending on how immune/sensitive they are.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 25
EMC Solutions

The protected device in this context means its ability to

keep the Faraday Cage closed. It is therefore recommended
to use metal enclosed/shielded devices wherever such
devices are available.

The rules for holes in the enclosure must be applied if there

are devices forming a bridge between the clean side and
the dirty side which can be disturbed.

Typical open devices are fuses, switch fuses, contactors

etc., which do not have a metal covering around them.

In general, such devices cannot be installed into the clean

side without protective metallic shielding plates. The rules
for holes in the enclosure must then be applied.

In some cases there might be some confusion between

safety and EMC requirements. It is therefore important to
remember the following basic rule:

Safety is always the first priority and overrules

the EMC requirements.

Some examples of protected and open devices are given

in the chapter Practical Examples.

Internal wiring There are some basic rules for internal wiring:
• Always keep clean and dirty side cables separate and
shielded from one another.
• Internal clean power connections with integrally filtered drive
units, e.g. from contactor to converter input, do not require
shielded cables but may require de-coupling ferrite rings
where they enter the converter input.
• Use twisted pair wires wherever possible.
• Use shielded twisted pairs for signal level outward and
return wires exiting from the overall enclosure.
• Avoid mixing pairs with different signal types e.g. 110 VAC,
230 VAC, 24 VDC, analogue, digital.
• Run wires along the metal surface and avoid wires hanging
in free air, which can become an antenna.
• If plastic trunking is used, secure it directly to installation
plates or framework. Do not allow spans over free air which
could form an antenna.
• Keep power and control wiring separate.
• Use galvanically isolated (potential free) signals.
• Keep wires twisted as near the terminal as possible.
• Keep pigtails as short as possible.
• Earthing connections should be as short as possible in flat
strip, multistranded or braided flexible conductors for low
RFI impedance.

26 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

DIGITAL INPUTS

RELAY OUTPUTS
(pot.free)

RC filter or
varistor for
AC relay

Avoid parallel running with control wires

Cross in 90˚ angle

Avoid parallel running with control wires

Cross in 90˚ angle

Figure 3-10 Principles of wiring inside CDM.

Control cables The control cabling is a part of the Faraday Cage as described
and cabling in the section Conductive gaskets with control cables.

In addition to correct HF earthing there are some basic

rules for control cabling:

• Always use shielded twisted pair cables:

- double shielded cable for analogue signals
- single shielded for other signals is acceptable but double
shielded cable recommended.
• Don’t run 110/230 V signals in the same cable with the
lower signal level cables.
• Keep twisted pairs individual for each signal.
• Earth directly at frequency converter side.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 27
EMC Solutions

If instructions for the device at the other end of the

cable specify earthing at that end, earth the inner
shields at the end of the more sensitive device and
the outer shield at the other end.

• Route signal cables according to figure 3-11 whenever

possible and follow instructions given by the product specific
manuals.

Motor cable

Mains cable

Figure 3-11 Routing principles of control cables.

There is more about control cabling in the documents

“Grounding and cabling of the drive system” and in
product specific manuals.

Power cables As the cables are part of the PDS they are also part of the
Faraday Cage. To be able to meet the EMC requirements,
power cables with good shielding effectiveness must be used.

The purpose of the shield is to reduce radiated emission.

In order to be efficient, the shield must have good

conductivity and cover most of the cable surface. If the
cable shield is used as protective earthing, the shield cross
area (or equivalent conductivity) must be at least 50 % of
the cross sectional area of the phase conductor.

28 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The product specific manuals describe some cable types

which can be used in mains supply and motor output.

If such types are not available locally, and because cable

manufacturers have several different shield constructions, the
types can be evaluated by the transfer impedance of the cable.

The transfer impedance describes the shielding

effectiveness of the cable. It is commonly used with
communication cables.

The cable can consist of either braided or spiral shield,

and the shield material should preferably be either copper
or aluminium.

The suitability for certain drive types is mentioned in the

product specific manuals.

Figure 3-12 Galvanised steel or tinned copper wire with braided shield.

Figure 3-13 Layer of copper tape with concentric layer of copper wires.

Figure 3-14 Concentric layer of copper wires with an open helix of

copper tape.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 29
EMC Solutions

Transfer
impedance

Limit

Figure 3-15 Transfer impedance for power cables.

To meet the requirements for radiated emission the transfer

impedance must be less than 100 mΩ/m in the frequency
range up to 100 MHz. The highest shielding effectiveness
is achieved with a metal conduit or corrugated aluminium
shield. Figure 3-15 shows typical transfer impedance
values of different cable constructions. The longer the
cable run, the lower the transfer impedance required.

Use of Ferrite In particular cases due to high emission levels, common

rings mode inductors can be used in signal cables to avoid
interfacing problems between different systems.

Common mode disturbances can be suppressed by wiring

conductors through the common mode inductor ferrite
core (figure 3-16).

The ferrite core increases inductance of conductors and

mutual inductance, so common mode disturbance signals
above a certain frequency are suppressed. An ideal common
mode inductor does not suppress a differential mode signal.

Figure 3-16 Ferrite ring in

signal wire.

30 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 EMC Solutions

The inductance (i.e. the ability to suppress HF disturbances)

can be increased by multiple turns of the signal wire.

When using a ferrite ring with power cable, all phase

conductors should be led through the ring. The shielding
and possible earth wire must be wired outside the ring to
keep the common mode inductor effect. With power cables
it is not normally possible to make multiple turns through
the ring. The inductance can be increased by using several
successive rings.

If for any reasons the installation instructions cannot be

followed and therefore additional ferrites or filters are added
afterwards, it is recommended that measurements be
made to show conformance.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 31
 Chapter 4 - Practical Examples

Simple Shielded cables are shown interconnecting the primary

installation parts, ensuring attenuation of radiated emissions. The
supply is made through the RFI filter.

The Faraday Cage is earthed and all the emissions are

drained to earth.

In the case shown in figure 4-1, the cabinet is not required

to be EMC proof, because connections are made directly
in an EMC compliant frequency converter.

1) Short pigtail
to PE, both common
and pair screen
2) 360˚ HF grounding
3) For rules, see part
CONTROL
CABLING

Figure 4-1 Basic PDS Configuration.

32 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
Example of In this case it is difficult to ensure that no cross coupling
By-pass system occurs between the dirty side of the converter and the
clean side above the Direct On Line (DOL) contactor.
<100kVA Contactors are not RFI barriers, and the coil circuits are
also vulnerable.

A suitable RFI filter at the supply input connections would

require to be able to pass the DOL starting current, which can
be six to seven times the normal Full Load Current, and
would be greatly oversized for normal running, which makes
it difficult to design. Ferrite cores used in the feeds to the
contactor will help attenuate the coupled noise as shown
in figure 4-2.

Cabinet 1
Supply
connection

For more details, see

360˚ MOTOR EARTHING

Figure 4-2 Basic scheme with By-pass.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 33
Practical Examples

Typical example In this case a 12-pulse rectifier is an IT system, unearthed

of 12-pulse drive due to the delta winding, therefore any filter in the line
must be at the primary of the phase shift transformer.

Experience has shown that, in this case, with short

connections to the busbars, the earth shield between the
transformer windings is not quite adequate for conducted
emissions attenuation for use in the first environment.
Therefore RFI filtering may be needed for EMC compliance.

For equipment fed from an IT system, a similar procedure

can be used. An isolating transformer allows the PDS to
be earthed and to use a suitable filter, for use in the First
Environment. The Point of Coupling is at a medium voltage
and emissions may be considered at the next low voltage
point of coupling in the system. The level of emissions
should correspond to those for the appropriate
environment. For definitions, see section Installation
Environments in chapter 2.

Low voltage supply

Note: All equipment inside must be enclosed

Figure 4-3 12-pulse converter system fed at LV.

34 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Practical Examples

Figure 4-4 12-pulse converter system fed at LV (CDM, transformer and switch fuse have separate
housing).

Figure 4-5 12-pulse converter system fed at medium or high voltage.

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 35
Practical Examples

Example of This example features a common DC bus sectional drive which

common DC is supplied from an earthed network through an RFI filter.
fed sectional The enclosure must be EMC proof as the components
drive inside are not. Cable entries must be 360° HF earthed. The
enclosure is earthed to drain away all emissions.

Common
Earth

Figure 4-6 Common DC bus fed sectional drive fed at LV

36 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 Chapter 5 - Bibliography

Various texts are referred to in this guide. They are

recommended further reading to assist in achieving
compliant installations:

EN 61800-3, Adjustable Speed Electrical Power Drive

Systems - part 3, EMC product standard including specific
test (published by CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium and
National Standards organisations in EU member countries).

EN 61800-3:1996/A 11:2000

Guidelines by the Commission on the application of Council

Directive 89/336/EEC, published by European Commission
DGIII - Industry.

Interference Free Electronics by Dr. Sten Benda (published

by ABB Industry Ab, Västerås, Sweden)

Technical Guide No. 2 - EU Council Directives and Adjustable

Speed Electrical Power Drive Systems, code 3BFE 61253980
(published by ABB Industry Oy, Helsinki, Finland)

Grounding and cabling of the drive system, code 3AFY

61201998 (published by ABB Industry Oy, Helsinki, Finland)

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 37
 Chapter 6 - Index

12-pulse rectifier 34 ferrite core 33

Ferrite ring 15, 16, 26, 30, 31
A First Environment 3, 12, 34
antenna 26 frequency converter 8, 19, 27, 32
apparatus 11 fuse 5, 17, 26

B G
Basic Drive Module (BDM) 8, 17, 19 gasket 16, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27
gland plate 23, 24, 25
C
cabinet 16, 24, 32 H
cable gland 22, 24 harmonics 8
CE mark 3, 5, 10, 11, 16 high-frequency emission 8
CENELEC 9, 37 High-frequency phenomena 8
Complete Drive Module (CDM) 8, 27
Component 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 16, 17, 19 I
conducting radio frequency IGBT 8
disturbance 8 imbalance 8
conduction 8 Installation Environment 3, 11, 13, 34
Conductive gasket 16, 20, 21,24, 27 isolating transformer 34
Contactor 5, 15, 17, 19, 26, 33 IT system 34
Control Cable 16, 22, 24, 27, 28
control connection 22, 24, 25 L
control electronics 8 Low Voltage Directive 5
converter 8, 19, 24, 26, 27, 33, low-frequency phenomena 8
34, 35 low-voltage network 12, 17
cross coupling 33
customer 13 M
Machinery Directive 5
D medium voltage network 12
delta winding 34 metallic screening 26
direct function 16 motor 24
DOL 33
double shielded cable 27 N
drive 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, notches 8
16,17, 18, 19, 22, 26, 28, 29, 37
O
E Original Equipment Manufacturers
EEA 8 (OEM) 5, 6, 9
electrical surge 8
Electromagnetic Compatibility P
(EMC) 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, Panelbuilder 5, 6, 9
16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, Power Drive System (PDS) 1, 3,
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 28,
electromagnetic disturbance 9 32, 34, 37
electromagnetic environment 8 phase shift transformer 34
electrostatic discharge 8 pigtail 24, 26
enclosure 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, plastic trunking 26
22, 24, 26 Point of Coupling 34
Environment Class 11, 12 power components 8
power distribution networks 11
F power supply network 12, 13
Faraday Cage 16, 17, 19, 20, 23,
24, 26, 27, 28, 32
fast transient burst 8

38 Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS
 R
radiating electromagnetic field 8
radiation 8, 16
Restricted Distribution 3, 12, 13
RF impedance 26
RFI filter 15, 17, 18, 32, 33

S
Sales distribution 12, 13
Second Environment 3, 11, 12
Shielded cable 26, 32
single commercial unit 11
single functional unit 11
strain relief clamp 24
suppliers 13
System Integrator 5

T
transformer 12, 34
twisted pair 16, 22, 26, 27

U
Unrestricted 3, 12, 13
Unrestricted Distribution 3, 13
user 5, 9, 12, 13

V
Variable Speed Drives (VSD) 5,
6, 8, 16, 17, 22, 37

Technical Guide No.3 - EMC Compliant Installation & Configuration for a PDS 39
 Ad agency Piirtek#10477
3AFE 61348280 REV B EN 17.5.2002 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 4

Guide to Variable Speed Drives

2 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives
 Contents

1 Introduction .............................................................. 5
General ....................................................................... 5

2 Processes and their requirements ......................... 6

Why variable speed control? ...................................... 6
Industrial segments with VSD processes ................... 7
Variables in processing systems ................................ 8
Machines are used to alter materials' properties ....... 9
Well defined shape ................................................. 9
Indefinite shape ...................................................... 9
...and to transport materials ...................................... 10
Solid materials ....................................................... 10
Liquid materials ..................................................... 10
Gaseous materials ................................................. 10

3 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor ... 11

Electric motors drive most machines ........................ 11
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical ......
energy ........................................................................ 12
Frequency converters control electromagnetic
induction ..................................................................... 13
The efficiency of the drive system ............................. 14
Reversed rotation or torque is sometimes required .. 15
The load, friction and inertia resist rotation ............... 16
The motor has to overcome the loading torque ........ 17
The drive torque and load torque are equal
at nominal speed ........................................................ 18

4 Variable volumes require some form of control 19

Variable material flow and input/output requirements 19
Simpler control methods ............................................ 20
The best control method is VSD ................................ 21
Mechanical, hydraulic and electrical VSDs ................ 22
Hydraulic coupling ................................................. 22
DC drive ................................................................. 22
AC drive ................................................................. 22
Electrical VSDs dominate the market ........................ 23
Maintenance costs ................................................. 23
Productivity ............................................................ 23
Energy saving ........................................................ 23
Higher quality ......................................................... 23
The AC drives market is growing fast ........................ 24

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 3

 5 AC drive: The leading control method .................... 25
The basic functions of an AC drive ........................... 25
A motor's load capacity curves with an AC drive ...... 26
AC drive features for better process control .............. 27
Reversing ............................................................... 28
Torque control ........................................................ 28
Eliminating mechanical vibrations ......................... 28
Power loss ride-through ......................................... 29
Stall function .......................................................... 29
Slip compensation ................................................. 30
Flying start ............................................................. 30
Environmental features .......................................... 31
EMC ....................................................................... 31

6 Cost benefits of AC drives ..................................... 32

Technical differences between other systems
and AC drives ............................................................. 33
No mechanical control parts needed ......................... 34
Factors affecting cost ................................................ 35
Investment costs: Mechanical and electrical
components ............................................................... 36
The motor .............................................................. 36
The AC drive .......................................................... 36
Installation costs: Throttling compared to AC drive ... 37
Operational costs: Maintenance and drive energy .... 38
Total cost comparison ................................................ 39

7 Index ......................................................................... 40

4 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General This guide continues ABB’s technical guide series, describing

different variable speed drives (VSD) and how they are used in
industrial processes. Special attention has been given to
electrical VSDs and especially to AC Drives.

The guide tries to be as practical as possible. No special

knowledge of VSDs is required, although basic technical
know-how is required to fully understand the terms and
descriptions used.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 5

 Chapter 2 - Processes and their requirements

Why variable To understand why variable speed control is necessary, we

speed first need to understand the requirements of different
processes. These processes can be divided into two main
control? categories; material treatment and material transport, although
there are many different sub-categories that come under
these two basic headings.

Common to both main categories, however, is the need to be

able to adjust the process. This is accomplished with VSDs.
This chapter describes the main industrial and non-industrial
processes using VSDs.

6 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Processes and their requirements

Industrial Industrial processes are numerous, and the list above

segments mentions just some of the industrial segments with VSD
processes. What they have in common is that they all require
with VSD some kind of control using VSD.
processes
For example, in air conditioning applications (part of HVAC),
air flow requirements change according to the humidity and
temperature in the room. These can be met by adjusting the
supply and return air fans. These adjustments are carried out
with VSDs.

Fans are also used in power plants and the chemical industry.
In both cases, the fans need to be adjusted according to the
main process. In power plants, the main process changes
due to varying demands for power at different times of the
year, day or week. Likewise, the need for VSDs differs
according to the process.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 7

 Processes and their requirements

Variables in This diagram shows what kinds of variables affect the

processing processing system. These variables can be divided into energy
and material variables. In the processing system itself, material
systems or energy is processed by means of mechanical power,
electromagnetic influence, thermal influence, chemical and
biological reactions or even nuclear power.

Each process needs the material and energy supplied to

accomplish the required process. The product or final material
state is the output of the process, but in every process, waste,
in the form of energy and/or material, is also produced.

In processing systems, VSDs are used to control the

mechanical power of the different machines involved in the
process.

Material treatment can also be controlled by VSDs. A good

example is a drying kiln, in which the hot air temperature
must be constant. The process is controlled by controlling
the speed of the hot air fans using VSDs.

8 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Processes and their requirements

Machines are As mentioned earlier in this guide, working machine processes

used to alter can be divided into two categories. The first category is
material treatment, which is accomplished using various types
materials' of processing apparatus to alter a material’s properties into
properties... another form.

Well defined Processing apparatus can be divided into two groups

shape according to the resulting shape of the material being treated.
The shape can be either well defined or indefinite. Materials
with a well-defined shape, such as paper, metal and wood,
are processed with machinery. Examples are paper machines,
rolling mills and saw mill lines.

Indefinite Materials with an indefinite shape, such as various food

shape products, plastics etc., are processed with plant equipment.
Examples of this kind of equipment are margarine stirrers,
and different kinds of centrifuges and extruders.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 9

 Processes and their requirements

...and to The second category consists of machines which transport

transport material to a desired location. This group consists of
conveying, dosing and pressure changing apparatus. These
materials machines can be divided into three different sub-groups
according to whether the type of material being treated is a
solid, liquid or gas.

Solid materials Solid materials, such as shipping containers, metal, wood,

minerals and of course people, are transported by conveying
apparatus. Such apparatus includes cranes, conveyors and
elevators.

Liquid materials Liquid materials, for example, water, oil or liquid chemicals,
are transported by pumps.

Gaseous Gaseous materials such as air are transported using fans,

materials compressors or blowers. A special application of these
machines is air conditioning.

In the diagram above, five different types of machines are

presented. They either shape or transport different types of
material, but all of them can be potentially used with Variable
Speed Drives.

10 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Chapter 3 - The workhorse of
industry: The electric motor

All of the machines mentioned earlier in this guide are

commonly driven by electric motors. It can be said that the
electric motor is the workhorse of industrial processes. In
this chapter, we will take a closer look at electrical motors -
especially the squirrel cage AC motor, which is the most
common motor used in industrial processes.

Electric Every machine consists of four different components, shown

motors drive in the diagram. These components are energy control, the
motor, transmission and the working machine. Together, the
most first three components comprise the so called “drive system”.
machines This drive system can transform a given type of energy,
usually electrical, into mechanical energy, which is then
used by the working machine. Energy is supplied to the drive
system from the power supply.

In each of the three drive system components, variable

speed control is possible. Variable speed control can be
accomplished, for example, using a frequency converter as
the energy control component, a two speed motor as the
motor component and gears as the transmission component.

As mentioned earlier, most machines are driven by an electric

motor. Electric motors can be divided into AC and DC motors.
AC motors, particularly squirrel cage motors, are the most
commonly used motors in industrial processes.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 11

The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

Motors convert An AC motor’s ability to convert electrical energy into

electrical mechanical energy is based on electromagnetic induction.
The voltage in stator windings forms the current and magnetic
energy into
flux. The direction of this flux can be determined using the
mechanical right hand rule from the stator current.
energy
By changing the direction of the voltage in stator windings,
the direction of the flux can also be changed. By changing
the voltage direction in the three phase motor windings in the
correct order, the magnetic flux of the motor starts to rotate.
The motor’s rotor will then follow this flux with a certain slip.
This is the basic principle used to control AC motors.

This control can be achieved using a frequency converter.

As the name suggests, a frequency converter changes the
frequency of the alternating current and voltage. A frequency
converter consists of three parts. Regular 50Hz 3-phase
current is fed in to the rectifier part, which converts it to direct
current. The DC voltage is fed into the DC bus circuit, which
filters the pulsating voltage. The inverter unit then connects
each motor phase either to the negative or the positive DC
bus according to a certain order.

To receive the flux direction shown in the diagram, switches

V1, V4 and V5 should be closed. To make the flux rotate
counterclockwise, switch V6 has to be closed but V5 has to
be open. If switch V5 is not opened, the circuit will short circuit.
The flux has turned 60° counterclockwise.

12 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

Frequency There are eight different switching positions in the inverter.

converters In two positions, the voltage is zero, i.e. when all the phases
are connected to the same DC bus, either negative or positive.
control So in the remaining six switching positions there is voltage in
electromagnetic the motor windings, and this voltage creates magnetic flux.
induction
The diagram shows these six switching positions and the flux
directions, which the voltage in the windings generates in each
case. Voltage also generates current in the windings, the
directions of which are marked with arrows in each phase.

In practice, control is not quite as simple as presented here.

Magnetic flux generates currents in the rotor. These rotor
currents complicate the situation. External interference, such
as temperature or load changes, can also cause some control
difficulties. Nevertheless, with today’s technology and know-
how, it is possible to effectively deal with interference.

Electrical VSDs also provide many additional benefits, such

as energy savings, because the motor does not use more
electrical energy than required. Furthermore, control is better
than with conventional methods, because electrical VSDs
also provide the possibility for stepless control.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 13

 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

The efficiency The total efficiency of the drive system depends on the losses
of the drive in the motor and its control. Both drive and motor losses are
thermal, so they appear as heat. Input power to the drive
system system is electrical in form, while output power is mechanical.
That is why calculating the coefficient of efficiency (
 requires
knowledge of both electrical and mechanical engineering.

Electrical input power Pin depends on voltage (U), current (I)

and the power factor (cos). The power factor tells us what
proportion of the total electric power is active power and how
much is so called reactive power. To produce the required
mechanical power, active power is required. Reactive power
is needed to produce magnetisation in the motor.

Mechanical output power Pout depends on the required torque

(T) and rotating speed (n). The greater the speed or torque
required, the greater the power required. This has a direct
effect on how much power the drive system draws from the
electrical supply. As mentioned earlier, the frequency
converter regulates the voltage, which is fed to the motor,
and in this way directly controls the power used in the motor
as well as in the process being controlled.

Electrical switching with transistors is very efficient, so the

efficiency of the frequency converter is very high, from 0.97
to 0.99. Motor efficiency is typically between 0.82 and 0.97
depending on the motor size and its rated speed. So it can be
said that the total efficiency of the drive system is always
above 0.8 when controlled by a frequency converter.

14 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

Reversed In some cases, reversed rotation of the motor is required. In

rotation or addition, torque direction requirements might change. These
factors combined form the so called “four quadrant drive”.
torque is The name comes from the four different quadrants (I to IV)
sometimes shown in the diagram.
required
I quadrant: In the first quadrant, the motor is rotating clockwise.
Because the torque is in the same direction as the speed,
the drive is accelerating.

II quadrant: In the second quadrant, the motor is still rotating

clockwise, but the torque is in the opposite direction, so the
drive is decelerating.

III & IV quadrants: In the third and fourth quadrant, the motor
is rotating counterclockwise and the drive is again accelerating
or decelerating, depending on the torque direction.

With a frequency converter, torque direction changes can be

implemented independent of the direction of rotation. To
produce an efficient four quadrant drive, some kind of braking
arrangement is required. This kind of torque control is especially
required in crane applications, where the rotation direction might
change, but the torque direction remains the same.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 15

The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

The load, The motor must produce the required torque to overcome
friction and the load torque. Load torque consists of friction, inertia of the
moving parts and the load itself, which depends on the
inertia resist application. In the example in the diagram, the motor torque
rotation has to be greater than the load torque, which is dependent
on the mass of the box, if the box is to rise.

Load factors change according to the application. For example,

in a crusher, the load torque is dependent not only on friction
and inertia, but also on the hardness of the crushed material.
In fans and blowers, air pressure changes affect the load
torque, and so on.

16 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

The motor has In any case, the loading torque has to be known before
to overcome selecting the motor for the application. The required speed
also has to be known. Only then can a suitable motor be
the loading selected for the application.
torque
If the motor is too small, the requirements cannot be met and
this might lead to serious problems. For example, in crane
applications, a motor that is too small may not be able to lift
the required load quickly enough to the desired height. It might
even drop the load completely, as shown in the diagram. This
could be disastrous for people working at the harbour or site
where this crane would be used. To calculate the rated torque
of the motor the following formula can be used:

T[Nm]=9550 x P [kW]
n [1/min]

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 17

 The workhorse of industry: The electric motor

The drive A motor’s torque/speed curve is unique and has to be

torque and calculated for every motor type separately. A typical torque/
speed curve is shown in the graph as Tm. As can be seen, the
load torque maximum load torque is reached just below nominal speed.
are equal at
nominal speed Load torque Tl usually increases with speed. Depending on
the application it can be linear or quadratic. The motor will
automatically accelerate until the load torque and motor torque
are equal. This point is shown on the graph as the intersection
of Tm and Tl. Actual torque (Tact) is shown on the y-axis and
actual speed (nact) on the x-axis.

These are the principles that govern how an ordinary squirrel

cage motor works. With a frequency converter, optimal control
performance can be obtained from the motor and the whole
drive system. This will be introduced later in this guide.

18 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Chapter 4 - Variable volumes
require some form of control

In most processes there is at least one variable. This variable

causes the need for process adjustment. Therefore variable
processes and material volumes need some form of control.

In this chapter we will look at processes and their variables.

We will also examine different control methods.

Variable There may be many different parameters involved in a process,

material flow the most common being input, output and interference. These
parameters may need to be constant or they may need to be
and input/ changed according to a preset pattern. As discussed in the
output first chapter, there are always inputs and outputs present in a
requirements process and, in almost every case, interference as well.

In some processes there is no interference and the input is

constant. This kind of process works without any variable
speed control. However, if the output parameters need to be
changed, the input is variable or there is interference present,
then variable speed control might be the solution to fulfilling
the process requirements.

The above table lists some processes in which variable speed

control is required. It also shows the reasons for the control;
input, interference or output.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 19

 Variable volumes require some form of control

Simpler control There are many simpler control methods in existence such
methods as throttling or bypass control. The construction of such
equipment is usually very simple and the investment may
look cost effective at first.

However, there are many drawbacks. For example the optimal

process capacity, which gives the best quality of the process,
is very difficult to achieve with simple control. An increase in
production capacity usually requires reconstruction of the
whole process and with each direct on-line start-up there is a
risk of electrical and/or mechanical damage.

The simple control methods are also energy consuming, so

in addition to the total operating cost being higher than with
VSDs, the environmental effects, such as CO2 emissions from
power plants, also increase. Therefore, the total life-cycle cost
of investment in simple control methods is much higher than
with VSDs.

20 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Variable volumes require some form of control

The best The best control method for most systems is VSD. Imagine
control method you are driving a car for example. If you are driving on a
highway and entering a populated area, you need to reduce
is VSD speed so that you don’t risk your own and other peoples’
lives.

The best possible way to do this is of course to reduce motor

rotation speed by taking your foot off the gas pedal and, if
necessary, changing to a lower gear. Another possibility would
be to use the same gear, keep your foot on the gas and reduce
speed simply by braking. This would not only cause wear on
the engine and brakes, but also use a lot of fuel and reduce
your overall control of the vehicle. Furthermore, the original
goal of reducing speed without risking your own and other
peoples' lives would not have been achieved.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 21

 Variable volumes require some form of control

Mechanical, Above are the four most common VSDs in the industrial sector.
hydraulic and Mechanical variable speed control usually uses belt drives,
and is controlled by moving conical pulleys manually or with
electrical positioning motors.
VSDs
Hydraulic In hydraulic coupling, the turbine principle is used. By changing
coupling the volume of oil in the coupling, the speed difference between
the driving and driven shafts changes. The oil amount is
controlled with pumps and valves.

DC drive In the DC drive, a DC converter changes the motor supply

voltage fed to the DC motor. In the motor, a mechanical
inverter, a commutator, changes direct current to alternating
current.

AC drive In the frequency converter or AC drive, a standard squirrel

cage motor is used, so no mechanical inverters are required.
The speed of the motor is regulated by a frequency converter
that changes the frequency of the motor voltage, as presented
earlier in this guide. The frequency converter itself is controlled
with electrical signals.

The diagram shows the location of the control equipment for

each type of VSD. In mechanical and hydraulic VSDs, the
control equipment is located between the motor and the
working machine, which makes maintenance very difficult.

In electrical VSDs, all control systems are situated in an

electrical equipment room and only the driving motor is in the
process area. This is just one benefit of electrical VSDs. Other
benefits are presented on the following page.

22 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Variable volumes require some form of control

Year 2000: Europe (estimate)

Electrical VSDs Here are the four most important arguments for using electrical
dominate the VSDs, presented along with estimated VSD market shares in
Europe in 2000. The four main benefits of using electrical
market VSDs are highlighted at the turning points of the speed curve.

Maintenance Direct on-line starting stresses the motor and also the
costs electrical equipment. With electrical VSDs, smooth starting is
possible and this has a direct effect on maintenance costs.

Productivity Process equipment is usually designed to cater for future

productivity increases. Changing constant-speed equipment
to provide higher production volumes requires money and
time. With the AC drive, speed increases of 5 to 20 percent
are not a problem, and the production increase can be
achieved without any extra investment.

Energy saving In many processes, production volumes change. Changing

production volumes by mechanical means is usually very
inefficient. With electrical VSDs, changing the production
volume can be achieved by changing the motor speed. This
saves a lot of energy particularly in pump and fan applications,
because the shaft power is proportional to the flow rate to the
power of three.

Higher quality The accurate speed control obtainable with electrical VSDs
results in process optimisation. The optimal process control
leads to the best quality end product, which means the best
profit for the customer.

Due to these benefits, electrical VSDs are dominating the

market, as can be seen from the table above. AC and DC
drives together account for over 75%, and AC drives for more
than 50%, of the total VSD market in Europe in 2000.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 23

 Variable volumes require some form of control

The AC drives This diagram shows the projected development of the

market is electrical VSDs market to the year 2000. As can be seen, the
AC drives market is growing at almost 10% per year, which
growing fast
accounts for the entire growth of the electrical and VSD market.
The market share of DC drives is diminishing, and the total
DC market size remains approximately constant. This
progress is due to the development of AC drives technology.

As presented earlier in this guide, the AC drive has many

benefits over other process control methods. The difference
between the AC and the DC motor is that the DC motor has
a mechanical commutator, utilising carbon brushes. These
brushes need regular maintenance and the commutator itself
complicates the motor structure and consumes energy. These
are the main reasons why the AC drives market share is
growing in comparison to DC drives.

24 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Chapter 5 - AC drive: The leading control method

Taking into account everything presented so far, we can

confidently say that the AC drive is the leading control method.
In the following chapter we will take a closer look at the different
features of the AC drive, and the levels of performance the
drive can offer.

The basic In this diagram, the basic functions of an AC drive are

functions presented. There are four different components in AC drive
motor control. These components are the user interface, the
of an AC drive motor, the electrical supply and the process interface.

An electrical supply feeds the required electricity to the drive;

one selection criteria for the drive is the supply voltage and
its frequency. The AC drive converts the frequency and voltage
and feeds the motor. This conversion process is controlled by
signals from the process or user via the process and user interfaces.

The user interface provides the ability to observe the AC drive

and obtain different process information via the drive. This
makes the drive easy to integrate with other process control
equipment and overriding process control systems.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 25

 AC drive: The leading control method

A motor's load If the motor is driven without a frequency converter, its load
capacity capacity curves cannot be modified. It will produce a specified
torque at certain speed and maximum torque cannot be
curves with an exceeded.
AC drive
With a frequency converter drive, there are different loading
options. The standard curve, Curve 1 in the diagram, can be
used continuously. Other curves can only be used for certain
periods of time, because the motor’s cooling system is not
designed for this kind of heavy use.

These higher load capacity levels might be needed, for

example, during start-up. In certain applications, as much as
twice the amount of torque is required when starting. With a
frequency converter this is possible, meaning that a motor
can be dimensioned according to its normal use. This reduces
the investment cost.

To be able to use these features it is very important that the

load, the AC drive and the motor are compatible. Otherwise
the motor or the converter will overheat and be damaged.

26 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 AC drive: The leading control method

Important features:
• inputs and outputs
• reversing function
• ramp times acceleration/deceleration
• variable torque V/Hz settings
• torque boosting
• eliminating mechanical vibrations
• load limits to prevent nuisance faults
• power loss ride-through
• stall function
• slip compensation
• flying start

AC drive AC drives also have other internal features and functions which
features for are sometimes required for better process control. Examples
of these features are listed in the diagram. With inputs and
better process outputs for example, different kinds of process information
control can be fed to the drive and it will control the motor accordingly.
Alternatively, the load can be limited to prevent nuisance faults
and to protect the working machine and the whole drive
system.

In the following sections the listed features are presented in

more detail.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 27

 AC drive: The leading control method

Reversing Reversing the motor rotation is simple to accomplish

with an AC drive. With ABB’s frequency converters it can be
achieved simply by pressing one button. Furthermore, it
is possible to set different acceleration and deceleration ramp
times. The ramp form can also be modified according to
the user’s wishes. In the diagram (above, left) an S-ramp has
been presented. Another possibility could be a linear ramp.

Torque control Torque control is relatively simple with an AC drive. Torque

boosting, which was presented earlier, is necessary if a very
high starting torque is required. Variable torque U/f settings
mean that maximum torque can be achieved at a lower speed
of rotation than normal.

Eliminating Mechanical vibrations can be eliminated by by-passing critical

mechanical speeds. This means that when a motor is accelerated close to
vibrations its critical speed, the drive will not allow the actual speed of
the motor to follow the reference speed. When the critical point
has been passed, the motor will return to the regular curve
very quickly and pass the critical speed.

28 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 AC drive: The leading control method

Power loss ride-through Stall function

mains
Torque

dc

Tstall

Intermediate circuit voltage (U dc ) Stall

Frequency
Output frequency (f)
Motor torque (Tm )

Power loss The power loss ride-through function is used if the incoming
ride-through supply voltage is cut off. In such a situation, the AC drive will
continue to operate using the kinetic energy of the rotating
motor. The drive will be fully operational as long as the motor
rotates and generates energy for the drive.

Stall function With an AC drive, the motor can be protected in a stall situation
with the stall function. It is possible to adjust supervision limits
and choose how the drive reacts to the motor stall condition.
Protection is activated if three conditions are met at the same
time.

1. The drive frequency has to be below the preset stall

frequency.

2. The motor torque has to rise to a certain limit, calculated by

the drive software.

3. The final condition is that the motor has been in the stall
limit for longer than the time period set by the user.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 29

 AC drive: The leading control method

Slip If the motor load torque is increased, the speed of the motor
compensation will decrease as shown in the diagram (above, left). To
compensate for this slip, the torque/speed curve can be
modified with the frequency converter so that torque increase
can be accomplished with the same speed as previously.

Flying start The flying start feature is used when a motor is connected to a
flywheel or a high inertia load. The flying start works even without
a speed feedback. In case of rotating motor, the inverter is first
started with a reduced voltage and then synchronised to the
rotating rotor. After synchronised the voltage and the speed
are increased to the corresponding levels.

30 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 AC drive: The leading control method

Environmental Any drive system has to handle different environmental

features stresses such as moisture or electrical disturbances. The
squirrel cage motor is very compact and can be used in very
hostile conditions. The IP 54 degree of protection guarantees
that it can work in a dusty environment and that it can bear
sprinkling water from any direction.

The frequency converter usually has an IP 21 degree of

protection. This means that it is not possible to touch the live
parts and that vertically dripping water will not cause any
harm. If a higher degree of protection is required, it can be
obtained, for example, by installing the drive inside a cabinet
with the required degree of protection. In such cases, it is
essential to ensure that the temperature inside the cabinet
will not exceed the allowed limits.

EMC Another important environmental feature is electromagnetic

compatibility (EMC). It is very important that a drive system
fulfills the EMC directives of the European Union. This means
that the drive system can bear conductive and radiative
disturbances, and that it does not send any conductive or
radiative disturbances itself either to the electrical supply or
the surrounding environment.

If you require more information about the EMC directives and

their effects on drives, please refer to ABB's Technical Guide
No. 3, EMC Compliant Installation and Configuration for a
Power Drive System.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 31

 Chapter 6 - Cost benefits of AC drives

In addition to their technical advantages, AC drives also

provide many cost benefits. In this chapter, these benefits are
reviewed, with the costs divided into investment, installation
and operational costs.

At the moment there are still plenty of motors sold without

variable speed AC drives. This pie chart shows how many
motors below 2.2 kW are sold with frequency converters, and
how many without. Only 3% of motors in this power range are
sold each year with a frequency converter; 97% are sold without
an AC drive.

This is astonishing considering what we have seen so far in this

guide. Even more so after closer study of the costs of an AC
drive compared to conventional control methods. But first let’s
review AC drive technology compared to other control methods.

32 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Technical AC drive technology is completely different from other, simpler

differences control methods. It can be compared, for example, to the
difference between a zeppelin and a modern airplane.
between other
systems and We could also compare AC drive technology to the
AC drives development from a floppy disk to a CD-ROM. Although it
is a simpler information storage method, a floppy disk can
only handle a small fraction of the information that a
CD-ROM can.

The benefits of both these innovations are generally well

known. Similarly, AC drive technology is based on a totally
different technology to earlier control methods. In this guide,
we have presented the benefits of the AC drive compared to
simpler control methods.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 33

 Cost benefits of AC drives

No mechanical To make a proper cost comparison, we need to study the

control parts configurations of different control methods. Here we have used
needed pumping as an example. In traditional methods, there is always
a mechanical part and an electrical part.

In throttling you need fuses, contactors and reactors on the

electrical side and valves on the mechanical side. In On/Off
control, the same electrical components are needed, as well
as a pressure tank on the mechanical side. The AC drive
provides a new solution. No mechanics are needed, because
all control is already on the electrical side.

Another benefit, when thinking about cost, is that with an AC

drive we can use a regular 3-phase motor, which is much
cheaper than the single phase motors used in other control
methods. We can still use 220V single phase supply, when
speaking of power below 2.2kW.

34 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Conventional methods: AC drive:

- both electrical and - all in one
mechanical parts
- many electrical parts - only one electrical
component
- mechanical parts need - no mechanical parts,
regular maintenance no wear and tear
- mechanical control is - saves energy
energy consuming

Factors This list compares the features of conventional control

affecting cost methods with those of the AC drive, as well as their effect
on costs. In conventional methods there are both electrical
and mechanical components, which usually have to be
purchased separately. The costs are usually higher than if
everything could be purchased at once.

Furthermore, mechanical parts wear out quickly. This directly

affects maintenance costs and in the long run, maintenance
is a very important cost item. In conventional methods
there are also many electrical components. The installation
cost is at least doubled when there are several different types
of components rather than only one.

And last but not least, mechanical control is very energy

consuming, while AC drives practically save energy. This
not only helps reduce costs, but also helps minimise
environmental impact by reducing emissions from power
plants.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 35

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Investment In this graph, the investment structure as well as the total

costs: price of each pump control method is presented. Only the
pump itself is not added to the costs because its price is the
Mechanical same regardless of whether it’s used with an AC drive or
and electrical valves. In throttling, there are two possibilities depending on
components whether the pump is used in industrial or domestic use. In an
industrial environment there are stricter requirements for
valves and this increases costs.

The motor As can be seen, the motor is much more expensive for
traditional control methods than for the AC drive. This is due
to the 3-phase motor used with the AC drive and the single
phase motor used in other control methods.

The AC drive The AC drive does not need any mechanical parts, which
reduces costs dramatically. Mechanical parts themselves are
almost always less costly than a frequency converter, but
electrical parts also need to be added to the total investment
cost.

After taking all costs into account, an AC drive is almost always

the most economical investment, when compared to different
control methods. Only throttling in domestic use is as low
cost as the AC drive. These are not the total costs, however.
Together with investment costs we need to look at installation
and operational costs.

36 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Throttling AC drive

Installation material 20 USD 10 USD

Installation work 5h x 65 USD = 1h x 65 USD =
325 USD 65 USD
Commissioning 1h x 65 USD = 1h x 65 USD =
work 65 USD 65 USD
Total 410 USD 140 USD

Savings in installation: 270 USD!

Installation Because throttling is the second lowest investment after the

costs: AC drive, we will compare its installation and operating costs
to the cost of the AC drive. As mentioned earlier, in throttling
Throttling there are both electrical and mechanical components. This
compared to means twice the amount of installation material is needed.
AC drive
Installation work is also at least doubled in throttling compared
to the AC drive. To install a mechanical valve into a pipe is not
that simple and this increases installation time. To have a
mechanical valve ready for use usually requires five hours
compared to one hour for the AC drive. Multiply this by the
hourly rate charged by a skilled installer to get the total
installation cost.

The commissioning of a throttling-based system does not

usually require more time than commissioning an AC drive
based system. One hour is usually the time required in both
cases. So now we can summarise the total installation costs.
As you can see, the AC drive saves up to USD 270 per
installation. So even if the throttling investment costs were lower
than the price of a single phase motor (approximately USD
200), the AC drive would pay for itself before it has even worked
a second.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 37

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Throttling AC drive
saving 50%

Power required 0.75 kW 0.37 kW

Annual energy 4000 hours/year 3000 kWh 1500 kWh

Annual energy cost with 0.1 300 USD 150 USD

USD/kWh

Maintenance/year 40 USD 5 USD

Total cost/year 340 USD 155 USD

Savings in one year: 185 USD!

Operational In many surveys and experiments it has been proved that a

costs: 50% energy saving is easily achieved with an AC drive. This
means that where power requirements with throttling would
Maintenance be 0.75 kW, with the AC drive it would be 0.37 kW. If a pump
and drive is used 4000 hours per year, throttling would need 3000 kWh
energy and the AC drive 1500 kWh of energy per year.

To calculate the savings, we need to multiply the energy

consumption by the energy price, which varies depending on
the country. Here USD 0.1 per kWh has been used.

As mentioned earlier, mechanical parts wear a lot and this is

why they need regular maintenance. It has been estimated
that whereas throttling requires USD 40 per year for service,
maintenance costs for an AC drive would be USD 5. In many
cases however, there is no maintenance required for a
frequency converter.

Therefore, the total savings in operating costs would be

USD 185, which is approximately half of the frequency
converter’s price for this power range. This means that the
payback time of the frequency converter is two years. So it is
worth considering that instead of yearly service for an old valve
it might be more profitable to change the whole system to an
AC drive based control. To retrofit an existing throttling system
the pay-back time is two years.

38 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 Cost benefits of AC drives

Total cost In the above figure, all the costs have been summarised. The
comparison usual time for an operational cost calculation for this kind of
investment is 10 years. Here the operational costs are rated
to the present value with a 10% interest rate.

In the long run, the conventional method will be more than

twice as expensive as a frequency converter. Most of the
savings with the AC drive come from the operational costs,
and especially from the energy savings. It is in the installation
that the highest individual savings can be achieved, and these
savings are realised as soon as the drive is installed.

Taking the total cost figure into account, it is very difficult to

understand why only 3% of motors sold have a frequency
converter. In this guide we have tried to present the benefits
of the AC drive and why we at ABB think that it is absolutely
the best possible way to control your process.

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 39

 Chapter 7 - Index

A F
ABB 5, 28, 31, 39, 44 fans 7, 8, 10, 16
AC drive 5, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, floppy disk 33
28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, flux 12, 13
37, 38, 39 flying start 27, 30
AC drives market 3, 24 flywheel 30
AC motor 11, 12 four quadrant drive 15
active power 14 frequency converter 11, 12, 14, 15,
air conditioning 7, 10 18, 22, 26, 30, 31, 32, 36, 38, 39
B friction 16
belt drives 22 fuses 34
blowers 10, 16 G
braking 15, 21 gears 11
bypass control 20 H
C harbour 17
CD-ROM 33 humidity 7
centrifuges 9 HVAC 7
chemical industry 7 hydraulic coupling 22
coefficient of efficiency 14 I
commissioning 37 industrial processes 5, 6, 7, 11
commutator 22, 24 inertia 16, 30
compressors 10 input power 14
contactors 34 interference 13, 19
conveying 10 inverter 12, 13, 22
conveyors 10 IP 21 31
crane 10, 15, 17 IP 54 31
critical speed 28 L
crusher 16 linear ramp 28
current 12, 13, 14, 22 load capacity curves 26
D M
DC bus 12, 13 machine 8, 9, 10, 11, 22, 27
DC converter 22 magnetic flux 12, 13
DC drive 22, 23, 24 maintenance 22, 23, 24, 35, 38
DC motor 11, 22, 24 margarine stirrers 9
Direct on-line starting 23 material transport 6
dosing 10 material treatment 6, 8, 9
drive frequency 29 mechanical power 8, 14
drive software 29 mechanical vibrations 4, 27, 28
drive system 11, 14, 18, 27, 31 motor efficiency 14
drying kiln 8 motor load 30
E motor losses 14
electrical disturbances 31 motor phase 12
electrical equipment room 22 motor size 14
electrical supply 14, 25, 31 motor stall condition 29
electromagnetic compatibility 31 motor windings 12, 13
electromagnetic induction 12, 13 N
electromagnetic influence 8 nuclear power 8
elevators 10 nuisance faults 27
EMC 31 O
EMC directives 31 output power 14
energy 8, 11, 12, 13, 20, 23, 24, 29, P
35, 38, 39 paper machines 9
extruders 9 power factor 14

40 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives

 power loss ride-through 27, 29
power plants 7, 20, 35
power supply 11
process control 23, 24, 25, 27
processing system 8
pump 10, 22, 23, 34, 36, 38
R
rated speed 14
reactive power 14
reactors 34
rectifier 12
reference speed 28
reversing function 27
right hand rule 12
rolling mills 9
S
S-ramp 28
saw mill lines 9
shipping containers 10
slip 12, 27, 30
squirrel cage motor 11, 18, 22,
31
stall frequency 29
stall function 27, 29
stator 12
stepless control 13
T
temperature 7, 8, 13, 29, 31
thermal influence 8
throttling 20, 34, 36, 37, 38
torque 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 26, 27,
28, 29, 30
transistors 14
V
valves 22, 34, 36, 37, 38
variable speed control 11, 19, 22,
36
Variable Speed Drives 5, 10, 39
voltage 12, 13, 14, 22, 25, 29, 30
VSD 5, 6, 7, 8,13, 21, 22, 23, 24
Z
zeppelin 33

Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 41

42 Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives
Technical Guide No.4- Guide to Variable Speed Drives 43
 014
EL
LA B

Printed matter
AL

T
ON MEN
VIR
EN
C

411
N O R DI

Specifications subject to change without notice.

3AFE 61389211 REV B EN 8.2.2002

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 5

Bearing Currents in
Modern AC Drive Systems
2 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems
 Contents

1 Introduction ............................................................... 5
General ........................................................................ 5
Avoiding bearing currents ............................................ 5

2 Generating Bearing Currents .................................... 6

High frequency current pulses ..................................... 6
Faster switching .......................................................... 6
How are HF bearing currents generated? .................... 7
Circulating current ................................................... 7
Shaft grounding current ........................................... 7
Capacitive discharge current ................................... 7
Common mode circuit ................................................. 7
Stray capacitances ..................................................... 9
How does the current flow through the system? ....... 10
Voltage drops ............................................................ 10
Common mode transformer ....................................... 11
Capacitive voltage divider ......................................... 13

3 Preventing high frequency bearing current

damage ..................................................................... 15
Three approaches ...................................................... 15
Multicore motor cables .......................................... 15
Short impedance path ........................................... 16
High frequency bonding connections ..................... 17
Follow product specific instructions .......................... 17
Additional solutions ............................................... 17
Measuring high frequency bearing currents ............... 18
Leave the measurements to the specialists .............. 19

4 References ............................................................... 20

5 Index ......................................................................... 21

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 3

4 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General Some new drive installations can have their bearings fail only
a few months after start-up. Failure can be caused by high
frequency currents, which flow through the motor bearings.

While bearing currents have been around since the advent of

electric motors, the incidence of damage they cause has
increased during the last few years. This is because modern
variable speed drives with their fast rising voltage pulses and
high switching frequencies can cause current pulses through
the bearings whose repeated discharging can gradually erode
the bearing races.

Avoiding To avoid damage occurring, it is essential to provide proper

bearing earthing paths and allow stray currents to return to the inverter
frame without passing through the bearings. The magnitude of
currents the currents can be reduced by using symmetrical motor cables
or inverter output filtering. Proper insulation of the motor bearing
construction breaks the bearing current paths.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 5

 Chapter 2 - Generating Bearing Currents

High frequency Bearing currents come in several different guises. However,

current pulses while modern motor design and manufacturing practices have
nearly eliminated the low frequency bearing currents induced
by the asymmetry of the motor, the rapid switching in modern
AC drive systems may generate high frequency current pulses
through the bearings. If the energy of these pulses is
sufficiently high, metal transfers from the ball and the races
to the lubricant. This is known as electrical discharge
machining or EDM. The effect of a single pulse is insignificant,
but a tiny EDM pit is an incontinuity that will collect more
pulses and expand into a typical EDM crater. The switching
frequency of modern AC drives is very high and the vast
number of pulses causes the erosion to quickly accumulate.
As a result, the bearing may need replacing after only a short
time in service.

High frequency bearing currents have been investigated by

ABB since 1987. The importance of system design has been
highlighted in the last few years. Each individual item involved,
such as the motor, the gearbox or the drive controller, is the
product of sophisticated manufacturing techniques and
normally carries a favourable Mean Time Between Failure
(MTBF) rate. It is when these components are combined and
the installed system is looked upon as a whole, that it
becomes clear that certain installation practices are required.

Figure 1: Bearing currents can cause “bearing fluting”, a rhythmic

pattern on the bearing’s races.

Faster switching Current AC drive technology, incorporating Insulated Gate

Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), creates switching events 20 times
faster than those considered typical ten years ago. Recent years
have seen a rising number of EDM-type bearing failures in AC
drive systems relatively soon after start up, within one to six
months. The extent to which this occurs depends on the AC
drive system architecture and the installation techniques used.

6 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Generating Bearing Currents

How are HF The source of bearing currents is the voltage that is induced
bearing currents over the bearing. In the case of high frequency bearing currents,
generated? this voltage can be generated in three different ways. The most
important factors that define which mechanism is prominent,
are the size of the motor and how the motor frame and shaft
are grounded. The electrical installation, meaning a suitable
cable type and proper bonding of the protective conductors
and the electrical shield, plays an important role. Du/dt of the
AC drive power stage components and the DC-link voltage
level affect the level of bearing currents.

Circulating In large motors, high frequency voltage is induced between the

current ends of the motor shaft by the high frequency flux circulating
around the stator. This flux is caused by a net asymmetry of
capacitive current leaking from the winding into the stator frame
along the stator circumference. The voltage between the shaft
ends affects the bearings. If it is high enough to overcome the
impedance of the bearings’ oil film, a current that tries to
compensate the net flux in the stator starts to flow in the loop
formed by the shaft, the bearings and the stator frame. This
current is a circulating type of high frequency bearing current.

Shaft grounding The current leaking into the stator frame needs to flow back to
current the inverter, which is the source of this current. Any route
back contains impedance, and therefore the voltage of the
motor frame increases in comparison to the source ground
level. If the motor shaft is earthed via the driven machinery,
the increase of the motor frame voltage is seen over the
bearings. If the voltage rises high enough to overcome the
impedance of the drive-end bearing oil film, part of the current
may flow via the drive-end bearing, the shaft and the driven
machine back to the inverter. This current is a shaft grounding
type of high frequency bearing current.

Capacitive In small motors, the internal voltage division of the common

discharge current mode voltage over the internal stray capacitances of the motor
may cause shaft voltages high enough to create high frequency
bearing current pulses. This can happen if the shaft is not
earthed via the driven machinery while the motor frame is
earthed in the standard way for protection.

Common mode High frequency bearing currents are a consequence of the current
circuit flow in the common mode circuit of the AC drive system.

A typical three-phase sinusoidal power supply is balanced and

symmetrical under normal conditions. That is, the vector sum
of the three phases always equals zero. Thus, it is normal that
the neutral is at zero volts. However, this is not the case with
a PWM switched three-phase power supply, where a dc voltage
is converted into three phase voltages. Even though the

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 7

Generating Bearing Currents

fundamental frequency components of the output voltages are

symmetrical and balanced, it is impossible to make the sum
of three output voltages instantaneously equal to zero with
two possible output levels available. The resulting neutral point
voltage is not zero. This voltage may be defined as a common
mode voltage source. It is measurable at the zero point of any
load, eg. the star point of the motor winding.

Figure 2: This schematic shows the phase voltages of a typical three

phase PWM power supply and the average of the three, or neutral
point voltage, in a modern AC drive system. The neutral voltage is
clearly not zero and its presence can be defined as a common mode
voltage source. The voltage is proportional to the DC bus voltage,
and has a frequency equal to the inverter switching frequency.

Any time one of the three inverter outputs is changed from

one of the possible potentials to another, a current proportional
to this voltage change is forced to flow to earth via the earth
capacitances of all the components of the output circuit. The
current flows back to the source via the earth conductor and
stray capacitances of the inverter, which are external to the
three phase system. This type of current, which flows through
the system in a loop that is closed externally to the system, is
called common mode current.

8 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Generating Bearing Currents

Figure 3: An example of the common mode current at the inverter

output. The pulse is a superposition of several frequencies due to
the different natural frequencies of the parallel routes of common
mode current.

Stray A capacitance is created any time two conductive components

capacitances are separated by an insulator. For instance, the cable phase
wire has capacitance to the PE-wire separated by PVC
insulation, for example, and the motor winding turn is insulated
from the frame by enamel coating and slot insulation, and so
has a value of capacitance to the motor frame. The
capacitances within a cable and especially inside the motor
are very small. A small capacitance means high impedance
for low frequencies, thus blocking the low frequency stray
currents. However, fast rising pulses produced by modern
power supplies contain frequencies so high that even small
capacitances inside the motor provide a low impedance path
for current to flow.

Figure 4: Simplified loop of the common mode current of a PWM

inverter and induction motor. The inverter power supply acts as a

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 9

Generating Bearing Currents

common mode voltage source (Vcm). Common mode current (CMC)

flows through the common mode cable and motor inductances, Lc
Lm and through the stray capacitances between the motor windings
and motor frame, combined to be C m. From the motor frame, the
current proceeds through the factory earth circuit which has the
inductance Lg. Lg is also fed common mode current from the stray
cable capacitance Cc. The inverter frame is connected to the factory
earth and couples the common mode current/earth currents through
stray inverter to frame capacitances, combined as C in, back to the
common mode voltage source.

How does the The return path of the leakage current from the motor frame
current flow back to the inverter frame consists of the motor frame, cable
shielding or PE-conductors and possibly steel or aluminium
through the parts of the factory building structure. All these elements
system? contain inductance. The flow of common mode current through
such inductance will cause a voltage drop that raises the motor
frame potential above the source ground potential at the
inverter frame. This motor frame voltage is a portion of the
inverter’s common mode voltage. The common mode current
will seek the path of least impedance. If a high amount of
impedance is present in the intended paths, like the PE-
connection of the motor frame, the motor frame voltage will
cause some of the common mode current to be diverted into
an unintended path, through the building. In practical
installations a number of parallel paths exist. Most have a
minor effect on the value of common mode current or bearing
currents, but may be significant in coping with EMC-
requirements.

Voltage drops If the value of this inductance is high enough, the reactance
at the upper range of typical common mode current
frequencies, 50 kHz to 1 MHz, can support voltage drops of
over 100 volts between the motor frame and the inverter frame.
If, in such a case, the motor shaft is connected through a
metallic coupling to a gearbox or other driven machinery that
is solidly earthed and near the same earth potential as the
inverter frame, then it is possible, that part of the inverter
common mode current flows via the motor bearings, the shaft
and the driven machinery back to the inverter.

10 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Generating Bearing Currents

Figure 5: A schematic presentation showing the circulating

current and shaft grounding current, the latter resulting from high
motor frame voltage with superior machine earthing.

If the shaft of the machinery has no direct contact to the ground

level, current may flow via the gearbox or machine bearings.
These bearings may be damaged before the motor bearings.

i+∆ i

∆i
D N
i-∆ i

∆i

Figure 6: Source of circulating high frequency bearing current. Current

leakage through distributed stator capacitances gives a non-zero
current sum over the stator circumference. This leads to a net
magnetising effect and flux around the motor shaft.

Common The largest share of the motor’s stray capacitance, is formed

mode between the stator windings and the motor frame. This
capacitance is distributed around the circumference and length
transformer of the stator. As the current leaks into the stator along the coil,
the high frequency content of the current entering the stator
coil is greater than the current leaving.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 11

Generating Bearing Currents

This net current produces a high frequency magnetic flux that

will circulate in the stator laminations, inducing an axial voltage
in the shaft ends. If the voltage becomes large enough, a high
frequency circulating current can flow, internal to the motor,
through the shaft and both bearings. The motor can, in this
case, be thought of as a transformer, where the common mode
current flowing in the stator frame acts as a primary and induces
the circulating current into the rotor circuit or secondary. This
bearing current is considered to be the most damaging with
typical peak values of 3 to 20 amps depending on the rated
power of the motor, du/dt of the AC drive power stage
components and DC-link voltage level.

Figure 7: The high frequency axial shaft voltage can be thought of

as the resultant of a transformer effect, in which the common mode
current flowing in the stator frame acts as a primary, and induces
the circulating current into the rotor circuit or secondary.

Another version of circulating bearing current occurs when,

the current, instead of circulating completely inside the motor,
flows via the shaft and the bearings of the gearbox or driven
machinery and in a structural element that is both external and
common to the motor and the driven machine. The origin of the
current is the same as in the current circulating inside the
motor. An example of this “vagabond” circulating bearing current
is shown in figure 8.

12 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Generating Bearing Currents

Figure 8: “Vagabond” circulating bearing current, where the current

loop is external to the motor.

Capacitive Other stray capacitances are also present in the motor, such
voltage as the capacitance between the stator windings and the rotor,
or that existing in the motor’s airgap between the stator iron
divider and the rotor. The bearings themselves may even have stray
capacitance.

The existence of capacitance between the stator windings and

the rotor effectively couples the stator windings to the rotor
iron, which is also connected to the shaft and the bearing’s
inner races. Fast changes in the common mode current from
the inverter can not only result in currents in the capacitance
around the circumference and length of the motor, but also
between the stator windings and the rotor into the bearings.

Figure 9: Common mode loop of variable speed drive, showing

stator, rotor and bearing stray capacitances.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 13

Generating Bearing Currents

The current flow into the bearings can change rapidly, as this
depends on the physical state of the bearing at any one time.
For instance, the presence of stray capacitance in the bearings
is only sustained for as long as the balls of the bearings are
covered in oil or grease and are non-conducting. This
capacitance, where the induced shaft voltage builds up, can
be short-circuited if the bearing voltage exceeds the threshold
of its breakover value or if a “high spot” on a ball breaks through
the oil film and makes contact with both bearing races. At very
low speed, the bearings have metallic contact since the balls
have not risen on an oil film.

Generally, the bearing impedance governs the voltage level at

which the bearings start to conduct. This impedance is a non-
linear function of bearing load, temperature, speed of rotation
and lubricant used, and the impedance varies from case to
case.

14 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Chapter 3 - Preventing high frequency
bearing current damage

Three There are three approaches used to affect high frequency

approaches bearing currents: a proper cabling and earthing system; breaking
the bearing current loops; and damping the high frequency
common mode current. All these aim to decrease the bearing
voltage to values that do not induce high frequency bearing
current pulses at all, or damp the value of the pulses to a level
that has no effect on bearing life. For different types of high
frequency bearing currents, different measures need to be taken.

The basis of all high frequency current mastering is the proper

earthing system. Standard equipment earthing practices are
mainly designed to provide a sufficiently low impedance
connection to protect people and equipment against system
frequency faults. A variable speed drive can be effectively
earthed at the high common mode current frequencies, if the
installation follows three practices:

Multicore motor Use only symmetrical multicore motor cables. The earth
cables (protective earth, PE) connector arrangement in the motor cable
must be symmetrical to avoid bearing currents at fundamental
frequency. The symmetricity of the PE- conductor is achieved
by a conductor surrounding all the phase leads or a cable that
contains a symmetrical arrangement of three phase leads and
three earth conductors.

Figure 10: Recommended motor cable with symmetrical core

configuration.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 15

Preventing high frequency bearing current damage

Short impedance Define a short, low impedance path for common mode current
path to return to the inverter. The best and easiest way to do this is
to use shielded motor cables. The shield must be continuous
and of good conducting material, i.e. copper or aluminium and
the connections at both ends need to be made with 360°
termination.

Figures 11a and 11b show 360° terminations for European and
American cabling practices.

Figure 11 a: Proper 360° termination with European cabling

practice. The shield is connected with as short a pigtail as
possible to the PE terminal. To make a 360° high frequency
connection between the EMC sleeve and the cable shield, the
outer insulation of the cable is stripped away.

Figure 11 b: Proper 360° termination with American cabling

practice. An earthing bushing should be used on both ends of the
motor cable to effectively connect the earth wires to the armour or
conduit.

16 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Preventing high frequency bearing current damage

High frequency Add high frequency bonding connections between the

bonding installation and known earth reference points to equalise the
connections potential of affected items, using braided straps of copper 50 -
100mm wide; flat conductors will provide a lower inductance
path than round wires. This must be made at the points where
discontinuity between the earth level of the inverter and that
of the motor is suspected. Additionally it may be necessary to
equalise the potential between the frames of the motor and the
driven machinery to short the current path through the motor
and the driven machine bearings.

Figure 12: HF Bonding Strap.

Follow product Although the basic principles of installations are the same, for
specific different products suitable installation practices may differ.
Therefore, it is essential to carefully follow the installation
instructions instructions given in product specific manuals.

Additional Breaking the bearing current loops is achieved by insulating

solutions the bearing construction. The high frequency common mode
current can be damped by using dedicated filters. As a
manufacturer of both inverters and motors, ABB can offer the
most appropriate solution in each case as well as detailed
instructions on proper earthing and cabling practices.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 17

Preventing high frequency bearing current damage

Measuring Monitoring the bearing condition must be conducted with

high established vibration measurements.
frequency
It is impossible to measure bearing currents directly from a
bearing standard motor. But if high frequency bearing currents are
currents suspected, field measurements can be taken to verify the
existence of suspected current loops. Measuring equipment
needs to have wide bandwidth (minimum 10kHz to 2 MHz)
capable of detecting peak values of at least 150 to 200A and
RMS values at least down to 10mA. The crest factor of
measured signals is seldom less than 20. The current may
flow in unusual places, such as rotating shafts. Thus, special
equipment and experienced personnel are needed.

ABB uses a specially designed, flexible, air-cored, Rogowski-

type current sensor with dedicated accessories and has vast
experience of over one thousand measured drives in different
applications worldwide.

The most important measurement points are within the motor.

During measurements, the motor speed needs to be at least
10% of the nominal for the bearings to rise on the oil film. As
an example, basic measurements are shown in figure 13. Figure
14 shows examples of measured current waveforms. GTO
inverters were used mainly in the 1980s and IGBT inverters
are used today. Note the different scale in the various graphs.

Figure 13: Basic measurements: A) circulating current measured

with a jumper, B) shaft grounding current.

18 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Preventing high frequency bearing current damage

A) Circulating current

GTO-inverter, 5m s/div, 2A/div IGBT-inverter, 5m s/div, 2A/div

B) Shaft grounding current

GTO-inverter, 2m s/div, 10A/div IGBT-inverter, 5m s/div, 500mA/div

Figure 14: Examples of current waveforms at the measuring

points shown in Figure 13.

Leave the Since suitable commercial measurement equipment is not

measurements available on the market and specialised experience is needed
to the to make the measurements and interpret the results, it is
advisable that bearing current measurements are made by
specialists
dedicated personnel only.

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 19

 Chapter 4 - References

1. Grounding and Cabling of the Drive System,

ABB Industry Oy, 3AFY 61201998 R0125

2. A New Reason for Bearing Current Damage in Variable

Speed AC Drives
by J. Ollila, T. Hammar, J. Iisakkala, H. Tuusa. EPE 97, 7th
European Conference on Power Electronics and
Applications, 8-10 September 1997. Trondheim, Norway.

3. On the Bearing Currents in Medium Power Variable Speed

AC Drives
by J. Ollila, T. Hammar, J. Iisakkala, H. Tuusa. proceedings
of the IEEE IEDMC in Milwaukee, May 1997.

4. Minimizing Electrical Bearing Currents in Adjustable Speed

Drive Systems
by Patrick Link. IEEE IAS Pulp & Paper Conference
Portland, ME, USA. June 1998.

5. Instruction on Measuring Bearing Currents with a Rogowski

Coil, ABB Industry Oy, 3BFA 61363602.EN.

6. Laakerivir ta ja sen minimoiminen säädettyjen

vaihtovirtakäyttöjen moottoreissa ,
I. Erkkilä, Automaatio 1999, 16.9.1999, Helsinki, Finland.
(In Finnish).

7. High Frequency Bearing Currents in Low Voltage

Asyncronous Motors ,
ABB Motors Oy and ABB Industry Oy, 00018323.doc.

8. Bearing Currents in AC Drives

by ABB Industry Oy and ABB Motors Oy. Set of overheads
in LN database “Document Directory Intranet” on
ABB_FI01_SPK08/FI01/ABB

9. The Motor Guide

GB 98-12.

See also product specific installation manuals.

20 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

 Chapter 5 - Index

360° termination 16 H
A high frequency bearing
ABB 17, 18 currents 6, 7
AC drive 6, 7, 8 High frequency bearing
armour 16 voltage 7
axial shaft voltage 12, 13 high frequency circulating
axial voltage 12 current 12
B high frequency current
ball 14 mastering 15
bearing current loops 15, 17 high frequency flux 7
bearing current paths 5 high switching frequencies 5
bearing currents 5, 6, 7, 12, 15, I
18, 19 IGBT inverters 18
bearing fluting 6 induced shaft voltage 14
bearing races 5 Insulated Gate Bipolar
bearing voltage 14 Transistors (IGBT) 6
bearings 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 14 internal voltage division 7
bonding connections 17 inverter 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17
braided straps 17 inverter frame 5, 10
C inverter output filtering 5
cable 15 inverter power supply 9
cable capacitance 10 inverter switching frequency 8
cable shield 16 L
circulating current 12 low frequency bearing
common mode cable 10 currents 6
common mode circuit 7 M
common mode current 8, 9, 10, magnetic flux 12
11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 Mean Time Between Failure
Common Mode Loop 9, 13 (MTBF) 6
common mode voltage 7, 8, 10 metallic coupling 10
conduit 16 motor 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15,
crest factor 18 17, 18
current pulses 5 motor bearings 5
D motor cable 15, 16
DC bus voltage 8 motor frame 7, 9, 10, 11
dedicated filters 17 motor shaft 5, 7, 10
drive controller 6 motor windings 10
driven machine 7, 17 N
driven machinery 7, 10, 12 neutral point voltage 8
E O
earthing paths 5 oil film 7, 18
EDM crater 6 P
electric motors 5 primary 12
electrical discharge machining PWM 7, 9
(EDM) 6 R
electrical shield 7 races 6, 14
F Rogowski-type current
field measurements 18 sensor 18
flat conductors 17 rotor 12, 13
frame 17 rotor circuit 12
G S
gearbox 6, 10, 12 secondary 12
GTO inverters 18 shaft 7, 12, 13

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 21

 shaft ends 12
shaft voltages 7
shield 16
stator 7, 11, 13
stator frame 7, 11, 12
stator laminations 12
stator windings 11, 13
stray capacitance 7, 8, 10, 11,
13, 14
stray currents 5
symmetrical motor cables 5, 15
T
three phase power supply 7, 8
transformer 12
V
variable speed drive 5, 13, 15
voltage drop 10
voltage pulses 5
W
winding 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13

22 Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems

Technical Guide No.5 - Bearing currents in modern AC drive systems 23
 Specifications subject to change without notice
© Copyright ABB Automation Group Ltd, 1999 3BFE 64230247 R0125
EN 01.12.99

ABB Industry Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 222 000
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/automation
Technical Guide No. 6

Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

2 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives
 Contents

1. Introduction ................................................. 5

2. Basics of the harmonics phenomena ........... 6

3. Harmonic distortion sources and effects ..... 8

4. Harmonic distortion calculation by using

DriveSize software ....................................... 9

4.1 Circuit diagram for the calculation example ....... 9

4.2 Input data for motor load .................................... 9
4.3 Motor selection .................................................. 10
4.4 Inverter selection ............................................... 10
4.5 Inverter supply unit data .................................... 10
4.6 Network and Transformer data input ................. 10
4.7 Calculated harmonic current and voltage .......... 11
4.8 Calculated harmonic currents in graphical form ... 11
4.9 Part of the printed report ................................... 11

5. Standards for harmonic limits .................... 12

5.1 EN61800-3 (IEC1800-3) Adjustable speed

electrical power drive systems .......................... 12
5.2 IEC1000-2-2,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ................ 13
5.3 IEC1000-2-4,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ................ 13
5.4 IEC1000-3-2,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ................ 13
5.5 IEC1000-3-4,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) ................ 13
5.6 IEEE519, IEEE Recommended practices and
requirements for harmonic control in
electrical power systems ................................... 14

6. Evaluating harmonics ................................. 16

7. How to reduce harmonics by structural

modifications in the AC drive system ......... 17

7.1 Factors in the AC drive having an effect on

harmonics .......................................................... 17
7.2 Table: List of the different factors and their
effects ................................................................ 18
7.3 Using 6-pulse diode rectifier .............................. 18
7.4 Using 12-pulse or 24-pulse diode rectifier ......... 19

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 3

 7.5 Using phase controlled thyristor rectifier ........... 19
7.6 Using IGBT bridge ............................................. 20
7.7 Using larger DC or AC inductor ......................... 21

8. Other methods for harmonics reduction ..... 24

8.1 Tuned single arm passive filter .......................... 24

8.2 Tuned multiple arm passive filter ....................... 24
8.3 External active filter ........................................... 25

9. Summary of harmonics attenuation ............ 26

9.1 6-pulse rectifier without inductor ....................... 26

9.2 6-pulse rectifier with inductor ............................ 26
9.3 12-pulse rectifier with polycon transformer ....... 26
9.4 12-pulse with double wound transformer .......... 26
9.5 24-pulse rectifier ................................................ 26
9.6 Active IGBT rectifier .......................................... 27

10. Definitions .................................................. 28

11. Index .......................................................... 30

4 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General This guide continues ABB's technical guide series, describing

harmonic distortion, its sources and effects, and also distortion
calculation and evaluation. Special attention has been given
to the methods for reducing harmonics with AC drives.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 5

 Chapter 2 - Basics of the harmonics
phenomena

Harmonic currents and voltages are created by non-linear

loads connected on the power distribution system.
Harmonic distortion is a form of pollution in the electric
plant that can cause problems if the sum of the harmonic
currents increases above certain limits.

All power electronic converters used in different types of

electronic systems can increase harmonic disturbances
by injecting harmonic currents directly into the grid. Figure
2.1 shows how the current harmonics (ih) in the input
current (is) of a power electronic converter affect the supply
voltage (ut).

is(t) = i1(t) + Σ ih(t)

Converter
load
Rs Ls
u(t) Point of Common
Coupling (PCC)
Mains Transformer Other
loads

Figure 2.1 Plant with converter load, mains transformer and other
loads.

The line current of a 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier can be

calculated from the direct output current by using the
following formula.

, where

the total RMS current and

direct current output from the rectifier.

(valid for ideal filtered DC current)

The fundamental current is then

6 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Basics of the harmonics phenomena

In a theoretical case where output current can be estimated

as clean DC current, the harmonic current frequencies of
a 6-pulse three phase rectifier are n times the fundamental
frequency (50 or 60 Hz). The information given below is
valid in the case when the line inductance is insignificant
compared to the DC reactor inductance. The line current
is then rectangular with 120° blocks. The order numbers n
are calculated from the formula below:
where

The rms values of the harmonic components are:

and the harmonic components are as shown in Figure 2.2.

Harmonic-
Current (%)

Order of Harmonic Component

Figure 2.2 The harmonic content in a theoretical rectangular current of a

6-pulse rectifier.

The principle of how the harmonic components are added

to the fundamental current is shown in Figure 2.3, where
only the 5th harmonic is shown.

Figure 2.3 The total current as the sum of the fundamental and 5th harmonic.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 7

 Chapter 3 - Harmonic distortion sources
and effects

Common non-linear loads include motor starters, variable

speed drives, computers and other electronic devices,
electronic lighting, welding supplies and uninterrupted power
supplies.

The effects of harmonics can be overheating of transformers,

cables, motors, generators and capacitors connected to the
same power supply with the devices generating the
harmonics. Electronic displays and lighting may flicker, circuit
breakers can trip, computers may fail and metering can give
false readings.

If the cause of the above mentioned symptoms is not known,

then there is cause to investigate the harmonic distortion of
the electricity distribution at the plant. The effects are likely
to show up in the customer's plant before they show on the
utility system. This Technical Guide has been published to
help customers to understand the possible harmonic
problems and make sure the harmonic distortion levels are
not excessive.

8 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Chapter 4 - Harmonic distortion calculation by
using DriveSize software

The harmonic currents cause a distortion of the line voltage.

In principle the voltage harmonics can be calculated at any
point of the network if the harmonic currents and the
corresponding source impedance are known. The circuit
diagrams in Figure 4.1. show the network supplying the
converter and the other essential parts of the installation.
ABB DriveSize software is used for the calculation example.

4.1 Circuit Supply

Sk = 150 MVA
diagram for U = 22 kV
Xk
the calculation Transformer:
S = 400 kVA
example U1 = 22 kV
U2 = 415 V S'k Xt
z = 4,5 %
Cable: X'k
Length = 60 m
R = 0,007 mΩ/m
I
Motor:
P = 100 kW
IN = 200 A

Figure 4.1. Network supplying a frequency converter in the middle and its
equivalent diagram on the right. The data for this example is on the left.

4.2 Input data Motor load

for motor load Load type Const. torque/power

Overload type One overload

min base max

Speed [rpm] 0 1450 1500
Power [kW] 0 100 100
Overload [%] 100 100

Overload time [s] 60 every [s] 600

Figure 4.2. The most important motor load data for harmonics calculation is
the base power in kW.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 9

Harmonic distortion calculation by using DriveSize software

4.3 Motor Selected motor data

M2BA 315 SMC 6
selection Selection DriveSize
Voltage [V] 415
Connection D
Frequency [Hz] 50
Power [kW] 110
Poles 6
Speed [rpm] 992
Max mech. speed [rpm] 2300
Current [A] 197
Torque [Nm] 1060
T max/Tn 3,2
Power factor 0,82
Efficiency [%] 95,6
Insulation class F

Figure 4. 3. The software makes the motor selection for the defined load. If
required there is an option to select a different motor than that selected by
the DriveSize.

4.4 Inverter Selected inverter data

ACS607-0140-3
selection Selection User
Selection method Current (normal)
Voltage [V] 400
Drive power [kVA] 140
Pn [kW] 110
Normal Icont [A] 216
Normal Imax [A] 238
Phd [kW] 90
Heavyduty Icont [A] 178
Heavyduty Imax [A] 267
Pulse 6
Frame type R8
P&F 12Nsq [A] 260

4.4. The inverter selection is based on the previous motor selection and
here also the user has an option to select the inverter manually.

4.5 Inverter Supply unit data

supply unit data Pulse # 6

Lv [µH] 110
Cdc [mF] 4,95
Udc [V] 560
Idc [A] 191

Figure 4.5. The supply unit data is defined by DriveSize according to the
inverter type selected.

4.6 Network and Network and Transformer data

Primary voltage [V] 22000 Secondary voltage [V] 415
Transformer Frequency [Hz] 50
data input Network Sk [MVA] 150 unknow

Transformer Sn [kVA] 400

Transformer Pk [kW] 3,0
Transformer Zk [%] 3,8
Supply cable type Cable Busbar
Cable quantity 3 Impedance [µΩ] 70
Cable lenght [m] 60

Figure 4.6. The network and transformer data input is given here. For
standard ABB transformers the data is shown automatically.

10 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Harmonic distortion calculation by using DriveSize software

4.7 Calculated THD

Current Voltage n f [Hz] Current [A] In/I1 Voltage [V]
1 50 2,8 100,0 % 21996,6
harmonic Result 47,1% 0,2%
IEEE Calc 0,2%/ 0,2%/
5 250 1,2 41,2 % 32,9
7 350 0,6 19,5 % 21,7
current and IEEE Limit 15,0% 0,5%
11 550 0,2 8,6 % 15,1
Data 13 650 0,2 5,6 % 11,7
voltage Primary side 17
19
850
950
0,1
0,1
4,2 %
2,7 %
11,3
8,1
Secodary side 23 1150 0,1 2,3 % 8,2
25 1250 0,0 1,4 % 5,5
Show Mode
29 1450 0,0 1,2 % 5,3
Table 31 1550 0,0 0,8 % 3,7
Graph 35 1750 0,0 0,5 % 3,0
37 1850 0,0 0,6 % 3,3

Figure 4.7. The harmonics are calculated by making discrete Fourier

transformation to the simulated phase current of the incoming unit.
Different kinds of circuit models are used, one for SingleDrive with AC
inductors and one for diode and thyristor supply with DC inductors.
There are also models for 6, 12 and 24 pulse connections.

4.8 Calculated
50
harmonic
currents in 40

graphical form 30
[%]
20

10

0
1150
350

550
650

950

1250

1550

1750
1850
250

850

1450

Frequency [Hz]

Figure 4.8. The results of calculations can be shown in table form as above
or as a graph.

4.9 Part of the

printed report Network check
ACS607-0140-3

Network and Transformer data Supply unit data

Normal voltage [V] 22000 (primary side) Pulse # 6
Frequency [Hz] 50 Lv [µH] 110
Network Sk [MVA] 150 Cdc [mF] 4,95
Transformer Sn [kVA] 400 Udc [V] 560
Transformer Pk [kW] 3,0 Idc [A] 191
Transformer Zk [%] 3,8
Supply cable type Cable
Cable quantity 3
Cable lenght 60

Result IEEE 519 limits calc/limit

Cosfii 0,999 THD Current 47,1 % THD Current 0,2 %/15,0 %
Tot. power factor 0,90 THD Voltage 0,2 % THD Voltage 0,2 %/5,0 %
Unmax mot. 98 %

Figure 4.9. The input data and calculated results can be printed out as a
report, which is partly shown here.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 11

 Chapter 5 - Standards for harmonic limits

The most common international and national standards

setting limits on harmonics are described below.
Figure 5.1 is shown as an example for harmonic distortion
limits.

5.1 Part 3: EMC product standard including specific

EN61800-3 test methods
The countries of the European Economic Area (EEA) have
(IEC1800-3)
agreed on common minimum regulatory requirements in
Adjustable order to ensure the free movement of products within the
speed electrical EEA. The CE marking indicates that the product works in
power drive conformity with the directives that are valid for the product.
The directives state the principles that must be followed.
systems
Standards specify the requirements that must be met.
EN61800-3 is the EMC product standard of adjustable
speed electrical power drive systems (PDS). Meeting the
requirements of this standard, is the minimum condition
for free trade of power electronics converters inside the
EEA.

EN61800-3 states, that the manufacturer shall provide in

the documentation of the PDS, or on request, the current
harmonic level, under rated conditions, as a percentage
of the rated fundamental current on the power port. The
referenced values shall be calculated for each order at
least up to the 25th. The current THD (orders up to and
including 40), and its high-frequency component PHD
(orders from 14 to 40 inclusive) shall be evaluated. For
these standard calculations, the PDS shall be assumed to
be connected to a PC with Rsc = 250 and with initial voltage
distortion less than 1%. The internal impedance of the
network shall be assumed to be a pure reactance.

In a low voltage public supply network, the limits and

requirements of IEC1000-3-2 apply for equipment with
rated current ≤ 16 A. The use of the future IEC1000-3-4 is
recommended for equipment with rated current > 16 A. If
PDS is used in an industrial installation, a reasonable
economical approach, which considers the total
installation, shall be used. This approach is based on the
agreed power, which the supply can deliver at any time.
The method for calculating the harmonics of the total
installation is agreed and the limits for either the voltage
distortion or the total harmonic current emission are agreed
on. The compatibility limits given in IEC1000-2-4 may be
used as the limits of voltage distortion.

12 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Standards for harmonic limits

5.2 Part 2: Environment - Section 2: Compatibility

IEC1000-2-2, levels for low frequency conducted disturbances
and signalling in public low-voltage power supply
Electromagnetic systems
compatibility This standard sets the compatibility limits for low-frequency
(EMC) conducted disturbances and signalling in public low-
voltage power supply systems. The disturbance
phenomena include harmonics, inter-harmonics, voltage
fluctuations, voltage dips and short interruptions voltage
inbalance and so on. Basically this standard sets the design
criteria for the equipment manufacturer, and amounts to
the minimum immunity requirements of the equipment.
IEC1000-2-2 is in line with the limits set in EN50160 for the
quality of the voltage the utility owner must provide at the
customer's supply-terminals.

5.3 Part 2: Environment - Section 4: Compatibility levels

IEC1000-2-4, in industrial plants for low frequency conducted
disturbances
Electromagnetic IEC1000-2-4 is similar to IEC1000-2-2, but it gives
compatibility compatibility levels for industrial and non-public
(EMC) networks. It covers low-voltage networks as well as
medium voltage supplies excluding the networks for ships,
aircraft, offshore platforms and railways.

5.4 Part 3: Limits - Section 2: Limits for harmonic

IEC1000-3-2, current emissions (equipment current <16 A per
phase)
Electromagnetic This standard deals with the harmonic current emission limits
compatibility of individual equipment connected to public networks. The
(EMC) date of implementation of this standard is January 1st 2001,
but there is extensive work going on at the moment to revise
the standard before this date. The two main reasons for the
revision are the need for the standard to cover also the voltage
below 230 V and the difficulties and contradictions in applying
the categorisation of the equipment given in the standard.

5.5 This standard has been published as a Type II Technical

IEC1000-3-4, report. Work is going on to convert it into a standard. It gives
the harmonic current emission limits for individual equipment
Electromagnetic having a rated current of more than 16 A up to 75 A. It
compatibility applies to public networks having nominal voltages from
(EMC) 230 V single phase to 600 V three phase.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 13

Standards for harmonic limits

The standard gives three different stages for connection

procedures of the equipment. Meeting the individual
harmonic limits of Stage 1 allows the connection of the
equipment at any point in the supply system. Stage 2 gives
individual harmonic current limits as well as THD and its
weighted high frequency counterpart PWHD. The limits are
classified and tabulated by the short circuit ratio. The third
stage of connection is based on an agreement between the
user and the supply authority, based on the agreed active
power of the consumer's installation. If the rated current is
above 75 A, Stage 3 applies in any case.

The structure of this standard is generally seen to be good,

but it may justly be questioned whether single and three-
phase equipment should have different limits in Stage 2. It is
very probable that the structure of the standard will remain
as it is, but the version having the status of actual standard,
will contain different limits for single and three-phase
equipment.

MAXIMUM LOAD
132 kV Net 12p 6p STAGE 2 LIMITS
(600 MVA Assumed) % I1
# 6.66 MW # 2.50 MW Min’m VOLTAGE
**
(5.0 MW) (5.0 MW) Rsce I5 I7 I11 I13 %THD
#
66 12 10 9 6 2.36
33 kV Net Typical Values
(400 MVA Assumed) # 4.40 MW # 1.65 MW 120 15 12 12 8 1.69
(3.3 MW) (3.3 MW)
175 20 14 12 8 1.25

11 kV Net 250 30 18 13 8 1.06

(100 MVA Assumed) # 1.11 MW # 415 kW 350 40 25 15 10 0.97

(830 kW) (830 kW)
450 50 35 20 15 1.02

400 kV Net >600 60 40 25 18 <=0.91

(26 MVA Assumed) # 760 kW # 108 kW
(215 kW) (215 kW) **Contribution to existing
THD level at selected
PCC PCC
Figure 5.1 Limits on Harmonics in the proposed EN61000-3-4.

5.6 IEEE519, The philosophy of developing harmonic limits in this

IEEE recommended practice is to limit the harmonic injection
from individual customers so that they will not cause
Recommended unacceptable voltage distortion levels for normal system
practices and characteristics and to limit overall harmonic distortion of
requirements the system voltage supplied by the utility. This standard is
for harmonic also recognised as American National Standard and it is
widely used in the USA, especially in the municipal public
control in
works market.
electrical power
systems

14 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Standards for harmonic limits

The standard does not give limits for individual equipment,

but for individual customers. The customers are categorised
by the ratio of available short circuit current (Isc) to their
maximum demand load current (IL) at the point of common
coupling. The total demand load current is the sum of both
linear and non-linear loads. Within an industrial plant, the
PCC is clearly defined as the point between the non-linear
load and other loads.

The allowed individual harmonic currents and total harmonic

distortion are tabulated by the ratio of available short circuit
current to the total demand load current (Isc/IL) at the point
of common coupling. The limits are as a percentage of IL for
all odd and even harmonics from 2 to infinity. Total harmonic
distortion is called total demand distortion and also it should
be calculated up to infinity. Many authors limit the calculation
of both the individual components and TDD to 50.

The table 10.3 of the standard is sometimes misinterpreted

to give limits for the harmonic emissions of a single apparatus
by using Rsc of the equipment instead of Isc/IL of the whole
installation. The limits of the table should not be used this
way, since the ratio of the short circuit current to the total
demand load current of an installation should always be used.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 15

 Chapter 6 - Evaluating harmonics

The "Guide for Applying Harmonic Limits on Power Systems"

P519A/D6 Jan 1999 introduces some general rules for
evaluating harmonic limits at an industrial facility. The
procedure is shown in the flowchart in Figure 6.1.

UTILITY CUSTOMER
Choose PCC

Calculate Short Circuit Estimate Weighted Disturbing

Capacity (SSC, ISC) Power (SDW) or % Non-linear
Load
Is Power
Yes
Factor Correction existing
or planned?
No

Yes Stage 1: No
Calculate Average Maximum
Is detailed Evaluation
Demand Load Current (IL)
necessary?

Calculate Short Circuit Ratio

(SCR=(ISC /IL)

Characterise Harmonic Levels

(Measurements, Analysis)
Stage 2:
No
Does Facility meet
Harmonic Limits?
Design Power Factor correction
and/or Harmonic Control
Equipment
Yes (include resonance concerns)

Verification Measurements
and Calculations (if necessary)

Figure 6.1 Evaluation of harmonic distortion.

16 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Chapter 7 - How to reduce harmonics by structural
modifications in the AC drive system

Harmonics reduction can be done either by structural

modifications in the drive system or by using external
filtering. The structural modifications can be to strengthen
the supply, to use 12 or more pulse drive, to use a controlled
rectifier or to improve the internal filtering in the drive.

7.1 Factors in Figure 7.1 shows the factors in the AC drive system which
the AC drive have some influence on harmonics. The current harmonics
depend on the drive construction and the voltage
having an effect
harmonics are the current harmonics multiplied by the
on harmonics supply impedances.

LINE

Short circuit power MVA

Rated Power and MVA

TRANSFORMER
Impedance %

Alternative

Type of Rectifier 6-p, 12-p, 24-p

DIODE, THYRISTOR; INVERTER:

AC DRIVE Reactor Inductance mH

Inverter Type of Inverter PWM;CSI

Rated Power and kW

Motor
Load %

LOAD

Figure 7.1 Drive system features affecting harmonics.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 17

How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

7.2 Table: The cause The effect

List of the The larger the motor… the higher the current harmonics
The higher the motor load… the higher the current harmonics
different factors The larger the DC or AC inductance… the lower the current harmonics
and their The higher the number of pulses in
the rectifier… the lower the current harmonics
effects The larger the transformer… the lower the voltage harmonics
The lower the transformer impedance… the lower the voltage harmonics
The higher the short circuit capacity
of supply… the lower the voltage harmonics

7.3 Using The connections for different rectifier solutions are shown in
6-pulse diode Figure 7.2. The most common rectifier circuit in 3-phase AC
drives is a 6-pulse diode bridge. It consists of six uncontrollable
rectifier rectifiers or diodes and an inductor, which together with a
DC-capacitor forms a low-pass filter for smoothing the DC-
current. The inductor can be on the DC- or AC-side or it can
be left totally out. The 6-pulse rectifier is simple and cheap
but it generates a high amount of low order harmonics 5th,
7th, 11th especially with small smoothing inductance.

The current form is shown in Figure 7.2. If the major part of

the load consists of converters with a 6-pulse rectifier, the
supply transformer needs to be oversized and meeting the
requirements in standards may be difficult. Often some
harmonics filtering is needed.

6-pulse rectifier 12-pulse rectifier 24-pulse rectifier

Current Waveform Current Waveform Current Waveform

Figure 7.2 Harmonics in line current with different rectifier constructions.

18 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

7.4 Using The 12-pulse rectifier is formed by connecting two 6-pulse

12-pulse or 24- rectifiers in parallel to feed a common DC-bus. The input
to the rectifiers is provided with one three-winding
pulse diode transformer. The transformer secondaries are in 30o phase
rectifier shift. The benefit with this arrangement is that in the supply
side some of the harmonics are in opposite phase and
thus eliminated. In theory the harmonic component with
the lowest frequency seen at the primary of the transformer
is the 11th.

The major drawbacks are special transformers and a higher

cost than with the 6-pulse rectifier.

The principle of the 24-pulse rectifier is also shown in Figure

7.2. It has two 12-pulse rectifiers in parallel with two three-
winding transformers having 15o phase shift. The benefit
is that practically all low frequency harmonics are
eliminated but the drawback is the high cost. In the case
of a high power single drive or large multidrive installation
a 24-pulse system may be the most economical solution
with lowest harmonic distortion.

In
6-pulse rectifier 12-pulse rectifier 24-pulse rectifier
I1

Harmonic order
Figure 7.3 Harmonic components with different rectifiers.

7.5 Using A phase controlled rectifier is accomplished by replacing

phase the diodes in a 6-pulse rectifier with thyristors. Since a
thyristor needs a triggering pulse for transition from
controlled nonconducting to conducting state, the phase angle at
thyristor which the thyristor starts to conduct can be delayed. By
rectifier delaying the firing angle over 90o, the DC-bus voltage goes
negative. This allows regenerative flow of power from the
DC-bus back to the power supply.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 19

How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

Standard DC-bus and inverter configurations do not allow

polarity change of the DC-voltage and it is more common
to connect another thyristor bridge anti-parallel with the
first one to allow the current polarity reversal. In this
configuration the first bridge conducts in rectifying mode
and the other in regenerating mode.

The current waveforms of phase controlled rectifiers are

similar to those of the 6-pulse diode rectifier, but since
they draw power with an alternating displacement power
factor, the total power factor with partial load is quite poor.
The poor power factor causes high apparent current and
the absolute harmonic currents are higher than those with
a diode rectifier.

In addition to these problems, phase-controlled converters

cause commutation notches in the utility voltage
waveform. The angular position of the notches varies along
with the firing angle.

Supply Current Voltage Voltage Current Waveform

type TDH (%) TDH (%) TDH (%)
RSC=20 RSC=100

6-pulse 30 10 2
rectifier

12-pulse 10 6 1.2
rectifier

IGBT Supply 4 8 1.8

Unit
Distortion is in % of RMS values

Figure 7.4 Distortion of different supply unit types. Values may vary
case by case.

7.6 Using IGBT Introducing a rectifier bridge, made of self commutated

bridge components, brings several benefits and opportunities
compared to phase commutated ones. Like a phase
commutated rectifier, this hardware allows both
rectification and regeneration, but it makes it possible to
control the DC-voltage level and displacement power
factor separately regardless of the power flow direction.

The main benefits are:

- Safe function in case of mains supply disappearance.
- High dynamics of the drive control even in the field
weakening range.

20 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

- Possibility to generate reactive power.

- Nearly sinusoidal supply current with low harmonic
content. Measured results for one drive is shown in Figure
7.5. When comparing with Figure 7.3 we can see a clear
difference. IGBT has very low harmonics at lower
frequencies, but somewhat higher at higher frequencies.
- Voltage boost capability. In case of low supply voltage the
DC voltage can be boosted to keep motor voltage higher
than supply voltage.

The main drawback is the high cost coming from the IGBT
bridge and extra filtering needed.

In Line Generating Unit

Line Generating Unit I1

3~

Harmonic order

Figure 7.5 Harmonics in line current IGBT line generating unit.

7.7 Using a The harmonics of a voltage source AC drive can be

larger DC or AC significantly reduced by connecting a large enough
inductor in its AC input or DC bus. The trend has been to
inductor reduce the size of converter while the inductor size has
been also reduced, or in several cases it has been omitted
totally. The effect of this can be seen from the curve forms
in Figure 7.6.
Current without
Inductor

Current with Inductor

Figure 7.6 The effect of the inductor on the line current.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 21

How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

The chart in Figure 7.7 shows the effect of the size of the DC
inductor on the harmonics. For the first 25 harmonic
components the theoretical THD minimum is 29%. That value
is practically reached when the inductance is 100 mH divided
by the motor kW or 1 mH for a 100 kW motor (415 V, 50 Hz).
Practically sensible is about 25 mH divided by motor kW,
which gives a THD of about 45%. This is 0,25 mH for a
100 kW motor.

5th
Harmonic Current (pu)

7th
11th
13th
415 V, 50 Hz
17th
19th
23rd
25th
THD

DC Inductance/mH = This Figure/Motor kW

Figure 7.7 Harmonic current as function of DC inductance.

The voltage distortion with certain current distortion

depends on the Short Circuit Ratio Rsc of the supply. The
higher the ratio, the lower the voltage distortion. This can
be seen in Figure 7.8.

Load 60 A, Transformer power 50-315 kVA, line fault level 150 MVA

No inductor, 6-pulse

Small inductor,
THD of Voltage (%)

6-pulse
Large inductor,
6-pulse
Large inductor,
12-pulse

Short Circuit Ratio

Figure 7.8 THD Voltage vs Type of AC drive and transformer size.

22 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 How to reduce harmonics by structural modifications in the AC drive system

Figure 7.9 introduces a simple nomogram for estimation

of harmonic voltages. On the graph below right select first
the motor kilowatt, then the transformer kVA and then
move horizontally to the diagonal line where you move
upwards and stop at the curve valid for your application.
Then turn left to the y-axis and read the total harmonic
voltage distortion.
Input Data to Calculations:
Total Harminic Voltage Distortion Rated Motor for the Drive
No DC-Inductor, Constant Torque Load
6-pulse Voltage 415 V
Small DC-
Inductor, 6-pulse Drive Efficiency = 97%
STOP TURN LEFT Large DC- Supply Impedance = 10%
Inductor, 6-pulse of Transformer Impedance
Large DC-
Inductor, 12-pulse
Supply
Transformer
(kVA)

TURN LEFT

TURN UP

START

Motor kW

Example: 45 kW Motor is connected to ”a 200

kVA Transformer. ”THD = ca. 3% with a “Large
Inductor Drive” and ca. 11% with a “No
Inductor Drive”

Figure 7.9 Total harmonic distortion nomogram.

Results from laboratory tests with drive units from different

manufacturers are shown in Figure 7.10. Drive A with large
DC inductor has the lowest harmonic current distortion, drives
with no inductor installed have the highest distortion.

A= Large DC-Inductance
B, C = Small DC-Inductance
D, E = Without DC-Inductance

Figure 7.10. Harmonic current with different DC-Inductances.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 23

 Chapter 8 - Other methods for harmonics
reduction

Filtering is a method to reduce harmonics in an industrial

plant when the harmonic distortion has been gradually
increased or as a total solution in a new plant. There are
two basic methods: passive and active filters.

8.1 Tuned single The principle of a tuned arm passive filter is shown in Figure
arm passive 8.1. A tuned arm passive filter should be applied at the single
lowest harmonic component where there is significant
filter harmonic generation in the system. For systems that mostly
supply an industrial load this would probably be the fifth
harmonic. Above the tuned frequency the harmonics are
absorbed but below that frequency they may be amplified.

Detuned - Single tuning frequency

Above tuned frequency harmonics absorbed
Below tuned frequency harmonics may be amplified
Harmonic reduction limited by possible over compensation
at the supply frequency and network itself
Figure 8.1 Tuned single arm passive filter.

This kind of filter consists of an inductor in series with a

capacitor bank and the best location for the passive filter
is close to the harmonic generating loads. This solution is
not normally used for new installations.

8.2 Tuned The principle of this filter is shown in Figure 8.2. This filter
multiple arm has several arms tuned to two or more of the harmonic
components which should be the lowest significant
passive filter
harmonic frequencies in the system. The multiple filter
has better harmonic absorption than the one arm system.

Capacitive below tuned frequency/Inductive above

Better harmonic absorption
Design consideration to amplification harmonics by filter
Limited by KVAr and network
Figure 8.2 Tuned multiple arm passive filter.

24 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Other methods for harmonics reduction

The multiple arm passive filters are often used for large
DC drive installations where a dedicated transformer is
supplying the whole installation.

8.3 External A passive tuned filter introduces new resonances that can
active filter cause additional harmonic problems. New power electron-
ics technologies are resulting in products that can control
harmonic distortion with active control. These active filters,
see Figure 8.3, provide compensation for harmonic com-
ponents on the utility system based on existing harmonic
generation at any given moment in time.

Fundamental only idistortion

Supply
Load

icompensation

Active
Filter

Current waveforms

Figure 8.3 External active filter principle diagram.

The active filter compensates the harmonics generated

by nonlinear loads by generating the same harmonic com-
ponents in opposite phase as shown in Figure 8.4. External
active filters are most suited to multiple small drives. They
are relatively expensive compared to other methods.
Waveforms

Clean Load Active filter

feeder current current
current
Harmonics

Figure 8.4 External active filter waveforms and harmonics.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 25

 Chapter 9 - Summary of harmonics
attenuation

There are many options to attenuate harmonics either inside

the drive system or externally. They all have advantages
and disadvantages and all of them show cost implications.
The best solution will depend on the total loading, the supply
to the site and the standing distortion.
In the following tables different internal actions are compared
to the basic system without inductor. The harmonic content
is given with 100% load. The costs are valid for small drives.
For multidrive the 12-pulse solution is quite a lot cheaper.

9.1 6-pulse Manufacturing cost 100%

rectifier without Typical harmonic current components.
inductor Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th
100% 63% 54% 10% 6,1% 6,7% 4,8%

9.2 6-pulse Manufacturing cost 120%. AC or DC choke added

rectifier with Typical harmonic current components.
inductor Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th
100% 30% 12% 8,9% 5,6% 4,4% 4,1%

9.3 12-pulse Manufacturing cost 200%

rectifier with Typical harmonic current components.
polycon Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th
transformer 100% 11% 5,8% 6,2% 4,7% 1,7% 1,4%

9.4 12-pulse Manufacturing cost 210%

with double Typical harmonic current components.
wound Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th
transformer 100% 3,6% 2,6% 7,5% 5,2% 1,2% 1,3%

9.5 24-pulse Manufacturing cost 250%

rectifier Typical harmonic current components.
with 2 Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th
3-winding 100% 4,0% 2,7% 1,0% 0,7% 1,4% 1,4%
transformers

26 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Summary of harmonics attenuation

9.6 Active IGBT Manufacturing cost 250%. Not significant if electrical

rectifier braking is anyway needed.
Typical harmonic current components.

Fundamental 5th 7th 11th 13th 17th 19th

100% 2,6% 3,4% 3,0% 0,1% 2,1% 2,2%

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 27

 Chapter 10 - Definitions

S: Apparent power

P: Active power

Q: Reactive power

Rsc: Short circuit ratio is defined as the short circuit

power of the supply at PCC to the nominal apparent
power of the equipment under consideration.
Rsc = Ss / Sn.

ω1: Angular frequency of fundamental component

ω1 = 2*π*f1, where f1 is fundamental frequency
(eg. 50Hz or 60Hz).

n: Integer n = 2, 3, ... ∞. Harmonic frequencies are

defined as wn = n*ω1.

In: RMS-value of n:th harmonic component of line

current.

Zn: Impedance at frequency n*ω1.

%Un: Harmonic voltage component as a percentage of

fundamental (line) voltage.

THD: Total Harmonic Distortion in the input current is

defined as:

where I1 is the rms value of the fundamental frequency

current. The THD in voltage may be calculated in a similar
way. Here is an example for the 25 lowest harmonic
components with the theoretical values:

PWHD: Partial weighted harmonic distortion is defined as:

28 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Definitions

PCC: Point of Common Coupling is defined in this text as

such a point of utility supply which may be common
to the equipment in question and other equipment.
There are several definitions of PCC in different
standards and even more interpretations of these
definitions in literature. The definition chosen here
is seen as technically most sound.

PF: Power Factor defined as PF = P/S (power / volt-

ampere) = I1 / Is * DPF (With sinusoidal current PF
equals to DPF).

DPF: Displacement Power Factor defined as cosφ1, where

φ1 is the phase angle between the fundamental
frequency current drawn by the equipment and the
supply voltage fundamental frequency component.

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 29

 Chapter 11 - Index

3-winding 26 evaluating of harmonic 16

5th harmonic 7 external filtering 17
6-pulse rectifier 7, 18, 19, 20
6-pulse three phase rectifier 7 F
12-pulse rectifier 18, 19, 20 filtering 17, 18, 21, 24
24-pulse rectifier 18, 19 frequency 9, 12, 13, 14, 19, 24,
28, 29
A fundamental frequency 7, 28, 29
ABB 6, 10
AC inductor 21 H
active filter 5, 24, 25 harmonic component 7, 19, 22,
active power 14, 28 24, 25, 28
American National Standard 14 harmonic currents 6, 7, 9, 11, 12,
anti-parallel 20 13, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27
apparent power 28 harmonic distortion 6, 8, 9, 12, 14,
attenuation 5, 26 15, 16, 19, 23, 25, 28
harmonic limit 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
C harmonics reduction 17, 24, 25
calculation 5, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 23 harmonic voltage 23, 28
CE marking 12 harmonics phenomena 6, 7
circuit breaker 8
common DC-bus 19 I
commutation notch 20 IGBT bridge 20, 21
compatibility limit 12, 13 inductance 17, 18, 22, 23
computer 8 inductor 5, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26
consumer's installation 14 industrial installation 12
converter 6, 9, 12, 18, 20, 21 installation 9, 12, 14, 15, 19, 24,
converter load 6 25
inverter selection 10
D inverter supply unit data 10
DC-capacitor 18
DC-current 18 L
displacement power factor 20, 29 laboratory test 23
distortion calculation 5, 6 line current 6, 18, 21
distortion nomogram 23 low-pass filter 18
DriveSize 9, 10, 11
M
E mains transformer 6
effect 5, 6, 8, 17, 18, 21, 22 manufacturing cost 26, 27
electromagnetic compatibility metering 8
(EMC) 22 motor load 9
electronic device 8 motor selection 10
electronic display 8 motor starter 8
electronic lighting 8 multiple arm passive filter 5, 24,
EMC product standard 12 25
European Economic Area 12

30 Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives

 Index

N THD 12, 14, 22, 23, 28

network 10 three-winding transformer 19
non-linear load 6, 8, 15, 16 thyristor 17, 19, 20
total demand distortion 15
O total harmonic distortion 10,
overheating 8 15, 23, 28
transformer 9, 10
P tuned arm passive filter 24
passive filter 24, 25 two-winding transformer 19
phase commutated rectifier 20
PHD 12 U
point of common coupling 15, 29 uninterrupted power supply 8
power distribution 6
power drive system 12 V
power factor 16, 20, 29 variable speed drives 8
power port 12 voltage 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17,
public supply 12 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23
PWHD 14, 28 voltage boost 21

R W
reactive power 21, 28 welding supply 8
rectifier 5, 6, 7, 17, 18, 19, 20,
26, 27
rectifying mode 20
rectangular current 7
regenerating mode 20
report 11

S
short circuit power 14, 16, 17, 28
short circuit ratio 22, 28
source 6, 8, 9, 21
source impedance 4, 9
standard 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20,
29
structural modification 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23
supply authority 14
supply cable 18
supply transformer 18
supply voltage 6, 21, 29

T
TDD 15

Technical Guide No.6 - Guide to Harmonics with AC Drives 31

 Ad agency Piirtek#10478
3AFE 64292714 REV B EN 17.5. 2002 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
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Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 7

Dimensioning of a Drive system

2 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system
 Contents

1. Introduction .................................................... 5

2. Drive system ................................................... 6

3. General description of a dimensioning

procedure ....................................................... 7

4. An induction (AC) motor ................................. 9

4.1 Fundamentals ......................................................... 9

4.2 Motor current ........................................................ 11
4.2.1 Constant flux range .................................. 12
4.2.2 Field weakening range.............................. 13
4.3 Motor power ......................................................... 14

5. Basic mechanical laws ................................. 15

5.1 Rotational motion ................................................. 15

5.2 Gears and moment of inertia ............................... 18

6. Load types .................................................... 20

7. Motor loadability ........................................... 23

8. Selecting the frequency converter

and motor ..................................................... 24

8.1 Pump and fan application (Example) .................. 24

8.2 Constant torque application (Example) ............... 27
8.3 Constant power application (Example) ............... 29

9. Input transformer and rectifier .................... 33

9.1 Rectifier ................................................................. 33

9.2 Transformer ........................................................... 34

10. Index ........................................................... 36

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 3

4 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

General Dimensioning of a drive system is a task where all factors

have to be considered carefully. Dimensioning requires
knowledge of the whole system including electric supply,
driven machine, environmental conditions, motors and drives
etc. Time spent at the dimensioning phase can mean
considerable cost savings.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 5

 Chapter 2 - Drive system

A single AC drive system consists typically of an input

transformer or an electric supply, frequency converter, an
AC motor and load. Inside the single frequency converter
there is a rectifier, DC-link and inverter unit.

Figure 2.1 A single frequency converter consists of 1) rectifier,

2) DC-link, 3) inverter unit and 4) electric supply.

In multi-drive systems a separate rectifier unit is commonly

used. Inverter units are connected directly to a common DC-
link.

Figure 2.2 A drive system which has 1) a separate supply section,

2) common DC-link, 3) drive sections and 4) electric supply.

6 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Chapter 3 - General description of a
dimensioning procedure

This chapter gives the general steps for dimensioning the

motor and the frequency converter.

1) First check the initial conditions.

In order to select the correct frequency converter and motor,
check the mains supply voltage level (380 V …690 V) and
frequency (50 Hz … 60 Hz). The mains supply network's
frequency doesn't limit the speed range of the application.

2) Check the process requirements. Is there a need for

starting torque? What is the speed range used? What type
of load will there be? Some of the typical load types are
described later.

3) Select the motor.

An electrical motor should be seen as a source of torque.
The motor must withstand process overloads and be able to
produce a specified amount of torque. The motor's thermal
overloadability should not be exceeded. It is also necessary
to leave a margin of around 30% for the motor's maximum
torque when considering the maximum available torque in
the dimensioning phase.

4) Select the frequency converter

The frequency converter is selected according to the initial
conditions and the selected motor. The frequency convert-
er's capability of producing the required current and power
should be checked. Advantage should be taken of the
frequency converter's potential overloadability in case of a
short term cyclical load.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 7

General description of a dimensioning procedure

Dimensioning phase Network Converter Motor Load

T
1) Chek the initial
conditions of the fN=50Hz, 60Hz TS
Tload
network and load
UN=380...690V

n min n max

2) Choose a motor T
according to:
• Thermal loadability TS
• Speed range Tload
• Maximum needed
torque n min n max

3) Choose a frequency Imax

converter according to:
• Load type IN
• Continous and
maximum current
• Network conditions n min n max

Figure 3.1 General description of the dimensioning procedure.

8 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Chapter 4 - An induction (AC) motor

Induction motors are widely used in industry. In this chapter

some of the basic features are described.

4.1 An induction motor converts electrical energy into mechani-

Fundamentals cal energy. Converting the energy is based on electromag-
netic induction. Because of the induction phenomenon the
induction motor has a slip.
The slip is often defined at the motor's nominal point (fre-
quency ( fn ), speed ( nn ), torque ( Tn ), voltage ( Un ), current
( In ) and power ( Pn )). At the nominal point the slip is nominal:

(4.1)

where ns is the synchronous speed:

(4.2)

When a motor is connected to a supply with constant

voltage and frequency it has a torque curve as follows:

Figure 4.1 Typical torque/speed curve of an induction motor when connected

to the network supply (D.O.L., Direct-On-Line). In the picture a) is the
locked rotor torque, b) is the pull-up torque, c) is the maximum motor
torque, Tmax and d) is the nominal point of the motor.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 9

An induction (AC) motor

A standard induction motor's maximum torque ( Tmax, also

called pull-out torque and breakdown torque) is typically
2-3 times the nominal torque. The maximum torque is
available with slip smax which is greater than the nominal slip.
In order to use an induction motor efficiently the motor slip
should be in the range - smax ... smax. This can be achieved by
controlling voltage and frequency. Controlling can be done
with a frequency converter.
TORQUE

SPEED

Figure 4.2 Torque/speed curves of an induction motor fed by a frequency

converter. Tmax is available for short term overloads below the field
weakening point. Frequency converters, however, typically limit the
maximum available torque to 70% of Tmax.

The frequency range below the nominal frequency is called

a constant flux range. Above the nominal frequency/speed
the motor operates in the field weakening range. In the field
weakening range the motor can operate on constant power
which is why the field weakening range is sometimes also
called the constant power range.

The maximum torque of an induction motor is proportional

to the square of the magnetic flux ( Tmax ~ ψ 2 ). This means
that the maximum torque is approximately a constant at the
constant flux range. Above the field weakening point the
maximum torque decrease is inversely proportional to the
square of the frequency

( Tmax ~ ).

10 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 An induction (AC) motor

Tmax

Flux

Voltage

SPEED
Constant flux range Field weekening range

Figure 4.3 Maximum torque, voltage and flux as a function of the relative
speed.

4.2 Motor An induction motor current has two components: reactive

current current ( isd ) and active current ( isq ). The reactive current
component includes the magnetizing current ( imagn ) whereas
the active current is the torque producing current compo-
nent. The reactive and active current components are
perpendicular to each other.

The magnetizing current ( imagn ) remains approximately

constant in the constant flux range (below the field weaken-
ing point). In the field weakening range the magnetizing
current decrease is proportional to speed.
A quite good estimate for the magnetizing current in the
constant flux range is the reactive ( isd ) current at the motor
nominal point.

Figure 4.4 Stator current ( is ) consists of reactive current ( isd ) and active
current ( isq ) components which are perpendicular to each other. Stator flux
is denoted as ψs.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 11

An induction (AC) motor

4.2.1 Constant Below the field weakening point the current components
flux range can be approximated as follows:

(4.3)

(4.4)

The total motor current is:

(4.5)

It can be seen that with zero motor torque the active cur-
rent component is zero. With higher torque values motor
current becomes quite proportional to the torque. A good
approximation for total motor current is:

, when 0.8 * Tn ≤ Tload ≤ 0.7 * Tmax (4.6)

Example 4.1:
A 15 kW motor's nominal current is 32 A and power factor
is 0.83. What is the motor's approximate magnetizing
current at the nominal point? What is the total approximate
current with 120 % torque below the field weakening point.

Solution 4.1:
At the nominal point the estimate for the magnetizing
current is:

The approximate formula for total motor current with 120 %

torque gives:

The approximate formula was used because torque fulfilled

the condition 0.8 * Tn ≤ Tload ≤ 0.7 * Tmax

12 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 An induction (AC) motor

4.2.2 Field Above the field weakening point the current components
weakening also depend on speed.
range

(4.7)

(4.8)

Total motor current is:

(4.9)

The motor current can be approximated quite accurately

within a certain operating region. The motor current
becomes proportional to relative power. An approximation
formula for current is:

(4.10)

Approximation can be used when:

(4.11)

and

(4.12)

In the field weakening range the additional current needed

in order to maintain a certain torque level is proportional
to relative speed.

Example 4.2:
The motor's nominal current is 71 A. How much current is
needed to maintain the 100 % torque level at 1.2 times
nominal speed (Tmax = 3 * Tn).

Solution 4.2:
The current can be calculated by using the approximation
formula:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 13

An induction (AC) motor

4.3 Motor The motor's mechanical (output) power can be calculated

power from speed and torque using the formula:

(4.13)

Because motor power is most often given in kilowatts

(1 kW = 1000 W) and speed in rpm revolutions per minute,

1 rpm = rad/s), the following formula can be used:

(4.14)

The motor's input power can be calculated from the

voltage, current and power factor:

(4.15)

The motor's efficiency is the output power divided by the

input power:

(4.16)

Example 4.3:
The motor nominal power is 15 kW and the nominal speed
is 1480 rpm. What is the nominal torque of the motor?

Solution 4.3:
The motor's nominal torque is calculated as follows:

Example 4.4:
What is the nominal efficiency of a 37 kW (Pn = 37 kW,
Un =380 V, In =71 A and cos(ϕn) = 0.85) motor?

Solution 4.4:
The nominal efficiency is:

14 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Chapter 5 - Basic mechanical laws

5.1 Rotational One of the basic equations of an induction motor describes

motion the relation between moment of inertia ( J [kgm2]), angular
velocity ( ω [rad/s]) and torque ( T [Nm]). The equation is as
follows:

(5.1)

In the above equation it is assumed that both the frequency

and the moment of inertia change. The formula is however
often given so that the moment of inertia is assumed to be
constant:

(5.2)

Torque Tload represents the load of the motor. The load consists
of friction, inertia and the load itself. When the motor speed
changes, motor torque is different from Tload . Motor torque
can be considered as consisting of a dynamic and a load
component:

(5.3)

If the speed and moment of inertia are constants the dynamic

component ( Tdyn ) is zero.

The dynamic torque component caused by acceleration/

deceleration of a constant moment of inertia (motor's speed
is changed by ∆n [rpm] in time ∆t [s], J is constant) is:

(5.4)

The dynamic torque component caused by a variable moment

of inertia at constant speed n[rpm] is:

(5.5)

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 15

Basic mechanical laws

If the moment of inertia varies and at the same time the

motor is accelerating the dynamic torque component can be
calculated using a certain discrete sampling interval. From
the thermal dimensioning point of view it is however often
enough to take into account the average moment of inertia
during acceleration.

Example 5.1:
The total moment of inertia, 3 kgm2, is accelerated from a
speed of 500 rpm to 1000 rpm in 10 seconds. What is the
total torque needed when the constant load torque is
50 Nm?

How fast will the motor decelerate to 0 rpm speed if the

motor's electric supply is switched off?

Solution 5.1:
The total moment of inertia is constant. The dynamic torque
component needed for acceleration is:

Total torque during acceleration is:

If the motor's electric supply is switched off at 1000 rpm the

motor decelerates because of the constant load torque
(50 Nm). Following equation holds:

Time to decelerate from 1000 rpm to 0 rpm:

Example 5.2:
Accelerating of a fan to nominal speed is done with nominal
torque. At nominal speed torque is 87 %. The fan's moment
of inertia is 1200 kgm2 and the motor's moment of inertia is
11 kgm2. The load characteristics of the fan Tload is shown in
figure 5.1.

Motor nominal power is 200 kW and nominal speed is

991 rpm.

16 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Basic mechanical laws

TORQUE

SPEED

Figure 5.1 Torque characteristics of a fan. Speed and torque are shown
using relative values.

Calculate approximate starting time from zero speed to

nominal speed.

Solution 5.2:
Motor nominal torque is:

The starting time is calculated by dividing the speed range

into five sectors. In each sector (198.2 rpm) torque is as-
sumed to be constant. Torque for each sector is taken from
the middle point of the sector. This is quite acceptable be-
cause the quadratic behaviour is approximated to be linear
in the sector.

The time to accelerate the motor (fan) with nominal torque

can be calculated with formula:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 17

Basic mechanical laws

Acceleration times for different speed sections are:

0-198.2 rpm

198.2-396.4 rpm

396.4-594.6 rpm

594.6-792.8 rpm

792.8-991 rpm

The total starting time 0-991 rpm is approximately 112

seconds.

5.2 Gears and Gears are typical in drive systems. When calculating the
moment of motor torque and speed range gears have to be taken into
account. Gears are reduced from load side to motor side
inertia with following equations (see also figure 5.2 ):

(5.6)

(5.7)

(5.8)

Direction of energy

Figure 5.2 A gear with efficiency η. Gear ratio is n1:n2.

18 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Basic mechanical laws

Also all the moments of inertia ( J [kgm2]) within the system

have to be known. If they are not known they can be calculated
which is rather difficult to do accurately. Typically machine
builders can give the necessary data.

Example 5.3:
A cylinder is quite a common shape for a load (rollers, drums,
couplings, etc.). What is the inertia of a rotating cylinder
(mass=1600 kg, radius=0.7 m)?

Solution 5.3:
The inertia of a rotating cylinder (with mass m [kg] and radius
r [m]) is calculated as follows:

In the case of a gear, the moment of inertia to the motor shaft

has to be reduced. The following example shows how to
reduce gears and hoists. In basic engineering books other
formulas are also given.

Example 5.4:
Reduce the moment of inertia to the motor shaft of the
following hoist drive system.

Figure 5.3 A Hoist drive system used in example 5.4.

Solution 5.4:
The total moment of inertia consists of J1=10 kgm2,
J2=30 kgm2, r=0.2 m and m=100 kg.
The moment of inertia J2 and mass m are behind a gear-
box with gear ratio n1:n2=2:1.

The moment of inertia J2 is reduced by multiplying with the

square of the inverse of the gear ratio. The mass m of the
hoist is reduced by multiplying it with square of the radius r
and because it is behind the gearbox it has to be multiplied
with the square of the inverse of the gear ratio, too.

Thus the total moment of inertia of the system is:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 19

 Chapter 6 - Load types

Certain load types are characteristic in the industrial world.

Knowing the load profile (speed range, torque and power) is
essential when selecting a suitable motor and frequency
converter for the application.

Some common load types are shown. There may also be

combinations of these types.

1. Constant torque
A constant torque load type is typical when fixed volumes are
being handled. For example screw compressors, feeders and
conveyors are typical constant torque applications. Torque is
constant and the power is linearly proportional to the speed.

Figure 6.1 Typical torque and power curves in a constant torque application.

2. Quadratic torque
Quadratic torque is the most common load type. Typical
applications are centrifugal pumps and fans. The torque is
quadratically, and the power is cubically proportional to the
speed.

Figure 6.2 Typical torque and power curves in a quadratic torque

application.

20 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Load types

3. Constant power
A constant power load is normal when material is being
rolled and the diameter changes during rolling. The power
is constant and the torque is inversely proportional to the
speed.

Figure 6.3 Typical torque and power curves in a constant power

application.

4. Constant power/torque
This load type is common in the paper industry. It is a
combination of constant power and constant torque load
types. This load type is often a consequence of dimen-
sioning the system according to the need for certain power
at high speed.

Figure 6.4 Typical torque and power curves in a constant power/torque

application.

5. Starting/ breakaway torque demand

In some applications high torque at low frequencies is
needed. This has to be considered in dimensioning. Typi-
cal applications for this load type are for example extrud-
ers and screw pumps.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 21

Load types

Figure 6.5 Typical torque curve in an application where starting torque is

needed.

There are also several other load types. They are however
hard to describe in a general presentation. Just to mention a
few, there are different symmetrical (rollers, cranes, etc.) and
unsymmetrical loads. Symmetry/non-symmetry in torque can
be for example as a function of angle or time. These kinds of
load types must be dimensioned carefully taking into account
the overloadability margins of the motor and the frequency
converter, as well as the average torque of the motor.

22 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Chapter 7 - Motor loadability

Motor thermal loadability has to be considered when

dimensioning a drive system. The thermal loadability defines
the maximum long term loadability of the motor.

A standard induction motor is self ventilated. Because of the

self ventilation the motor thermal loadability decreases as
the motor speed decreases. This kind of behaviour limits
the continuous available torque at low speeds.

A motor with a separate cooling can also be loaded at low

speeds. Cooling is often dimensioned so that the cooling
effect is the same as at the nominal point.

With both self and separate cooling methods torque is

thermally limited in the field weakening range.

T / Tn

Relative speed

Figure 7.1 A standard cage induction motor's typical loadability in a

frequency controlled drive 1) without separate cooling and 2) with separate
cooling.

An AC-motor can be overloaded for short periods of time

without overheating it. Short term overloads are mainly limited
by Tmax (check the safety margin).

Generally speaking, a frequency converter's short term

loadability is often more critical than the motor's. The motor
thermal rise times are typically from 15 minutes (small motors)
to several hours (big motors) depending on the motor size.
The frequency converter's thermal rise times (typically few
minutes) are given in the product manuals.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 23

 Chapter 8 - Selecting the frequency
converter and motor

The motor is selected according to the basic information

about the process. Speed range, torque curves, ventila-
tion method and motor loadability give guidelines for mo-
tor selection. Often it is worth comparing different motors
because the selected motor affects the size of the fre-
quency converter.

When selecting a suitable frequency converter there are

several things to be considered. Frequency converter
manufacturers normally have certain selection tables where
typical motor powers for each converter size are given.

The dimensioning current can also be calculated when the

torque characteristics is known. The corresponding cur-
rent values can be calculated from the torque profile and
compared to converter current limits. The motor's nomi-
nal current gives some kind of indication. It isn't however
always the best possible dimensioning criteria because
motors might for example be derated (ambient tempera-
ture, hazardous area, etc.).

The available supply voltage must be checked before se-

lecting the frequency converter. Supply voltage variations
affect the available motor shaft power. If the supply volt-
age is lower than nominal the field weakening point shifts
to a lower frequency and the available maximum torque of
the motor is reduced in the field weakening range.

The maximum available torque is often limited by the fre-

quency converter. This has to be considered already in
the motor selection phase. The frequency converter may
limit the motor torque earlier than stated in the motor manu-
facturer's data sheet.

The maximum available torque is also affected by trans-

formers, reactors, cables, etc. in the system because they
cause a voltage drop and thus the maximum available
torque may drop. The system's power losses need to be
compensated also by the frequency converter rating.

8.1 Pump and Some stages in pump and fan application dimensioning:
fan application
- Check the speed range and calculate power with highest
(Example) speed.
- Check the starting torque need.
- Choose the pole number of the motor. The most
economic operating frequency is often in the field

24 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Selecting the frequency converter and motor

weakening range.
- Choose motor power so that power is available at
maximum speed. Remember the thermal loadability.
- Choose the frequency converter. Use pump and fan
rating. If the pump and fan rating is not available choose
the frequency converter according to the motor current
profile.

Example 8.1:
A pump has a 150 kW load at a speed of 2000 rpm. There
is no need for starting torque.

Solution 8.1:
The necessary torque at 2000 rpm is:

It seems that 2-pole or 4-pole motors are alternative

choices for this application.

Figure 8.1 Motor loadability curves in a pump and fan application.

Comparison of 1) 2-pole and 2) 4-pole motors.

1) motor p=2
For a 2-pole motor the loadability at 2000 rpm according
to the loadability curve is about 95 %. The motor nominal
torque must be at least:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 25

Selecting the frequency converter and motor

The corresponding nominal power must then be at least:

A 250 kW (400 V, 431 A, 50 Hz, 2975 rpm and 0.87) motor is

selected. The nominal torque of the motor is:

The motor current at 2000 rpm speed (constant flux range)

is approximately:

The minimum continuous current for the frequency converter

is then 384 A.

2) motor p=4
For a 4-pole motor the loadability at 2000 rpm is 75 %.
The minimum nominal torque of the motor is:

The minimum power for a 4-pole motor is:

A 160 kW motor (400 V, 305 A, 50 Hz, 1480 rpm and 0.81)

fulfills the conditions. The approximated current at a speed
of 2000 rpm (66.7 Hz) is:

The exact current should be calculated if the selected

frequency converter's nominal current is close to the
approximated motor current.

A 4-pole motor requires less current at the pump operation

point. Thus it is probably a more economical choice than a
2-pole motor.

26 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Selecting the frequency converter and motor

8.2 Constant Some stages in dimensioning of a constant torque

torque application:
application - Check the speed range.
(Example) - Check the constant torque needed.
- Check the possible accelerations. If accelerations are
needed check the moments of inertia.
- Check the possible starting torque required.
- Choose the motor so that torque is below the thermal
loadability curve (separate/self ventilation?). Typically
the nominal speed of the motor is in the middle of the
speed range used.
- Choose a suitable frequency converter according to the
dimensioning current.

Example 8.2:
An extruder has a speed range of 300-1200 rpm. The load
at 1200 rpm is 48 KW. The starting torque requirement is
200 Nm. Acceleration time from zero speed to 1200 rpm is
10 seconds. The motor is self-ventilated and the nominal
voltage is 400 V.

Solution 8.2:
The constant torque requirement is:

A suitable motor is a 4-pole or a 6-pole motor.

Figure 8.2 Motor loadability curves in a constant torque application.

comparison of 1) 4-pole and 2) 6-pole motors.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 27

Selecting the frequency converter and motor

1) Motor p=4
At 300 rpm speed the thermal loadability is 80 %.
The estimated minimum nominal torque is:

The minimum motor nominal power is:

A suitable motor is for example a 75 kW (400 V, 146 A,

50 Hz, 1473 rpm and 0.82) motor. The motor nominal torque
is:

Motor current is approximately (T/Tn ≈ 0.8):

According to the calculated motor current a suitable

frequency converter can be selected for constant torque
use.

The starting torque requirement (200 Nm) is not a problem

for this motor.

If the motor's moment of inertia is 0.72 kgm2 the dynamic

torque in acceleration is:

Thus the total torque during acceleration is 391 Nm which

is less than the nominal torque of the motor.

2) Motor p=6
At speeds of 300 rpm and 1200 rpm the motor loadability
is 84 %. Thus the minimum nominal torque of the 6-pole
motor is:

The minimum value of the motor nominal power is:

28 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Selecting the frequency converter and motor

A suitable motor could be for example a 55 kW (400 V, 110

A, 50 Hz, 984 rpm and 0.82) motor. The motor nominal
torque is:

The dimensioning current can be approximated at a speed

of 1200 rpm:

The nominal (continuous) current of the frequency converter

must be over 96 A.

The starting torque requirement is less than motor's nominal

torque.

If the inertia of the motor is 1.2 kgm2 the dynamic torque in

acceleration is:

The total torque needed during acceleration is 397 Nm

which is less than the nominal torque of the motor.

A 6-pole motor current is 19 A smaller than with a 4-pole

motor. The final frequency converter/motor selection
depends on the motor and frequency converter frame sizes
and prices.

8.3 Constant Some stages in dimensioning of a constant power appli-

power cation:
application - Check the speed range.
(Example) - Calculate the power needed. Winders are typical constant
power applications.
- Dimension the motor so that the field weakening range
is utilized.

Example 8.3:
A wire drawing machine is controlled by a frequency
converter. The surface speed of the reel is 12 m/s and the
tension is 5700 N. The diameters of the reel are 630 mm
(empty reel) and 1250 (full reel). There is a gear with gear
ratio n2 :n1 =1:7.12 and the efficiency of the gear is 0.98.

Select a suitable motor and converter for this application.

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 29

Selecting the frequency converter and motor

Solution 8.3:
The basic idea of a winder is to keep the surface speed and
the tension constant as the diameter changes.

Figure 8.3 Basic diagram of a winder.

In rectilinear motion the power is: P = Fv

In rotational motion the power is: P = Tω

The relation between surface speed and angular velocity is:

Torque is a product of force and radius: T = Fr

By using the above formulas the motor can be selected:

30 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Selecting the frequency converter and motor

The gear must be taken into account before choosing the

motor. Speeds, torques and power have to be reduced:

1) Motor p=2
If a 2-pole motor is selected loadability at a speed of 1305
rpm is about 88 % and 97 % at 2590 rpm. The minimum
nominal power of the motor is:

A 200 kW (400 V, 353 A, 50 Hz, 2975 rpm and 0.86) motor is

selected. The motor nominal torque is:

The dimensioning current is calculated according to a torque

of 511 Nm:

2) Motor p=4
If a 4-pole motor is selected it can be seen from the loadability
curve that loadability at a speed of 1305 rpm is about 98 %
and about 60 % at 2590 rpm. The minimum nominal power
of the motor is:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 31

Selecting the frequency converter and motor

A 90 kW (400 V, 172 A, 50 Hz, 1473 rpm and 0.83) is se-

lected. The motor nominal torque is:

Dimensioning in this case is done according to the motor

current at 1305 rpm. The motor current is:

With a 2-pole motor the field weakening (constant power)

range was not utilized which led to unnecessary
overdimensioning. A 4-pole motor is a better choice for this
application.

32 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Chapter 9 - Input transformer and
rectifier

There are several types of input rectifiers. The rectifier type

might limit the operation.

A conventional rectifier is a 6 or 12 pulse diode rectifier.

Diode rectifiers only support motoring loads where the
power flow is one way only.

In certain processes where the load can also be generat-

ing, the energy needs to be absorbed. For short generat-
ing loads the traditional solution has been a braking resis-
tor where the power generated has been transformed into
heat losses. If however the load is generating all the time,
a true 4-quadrant rectifier is needed.

Both the input transformer and the rectifier are dimen-

sioned according to the motor shaft power and system
losses. For example if high torque at low speed is deliv-
ered the mechanical power is nevertheless quite low. Thus
high overloads do not necessarily mean high power from
the rectifier point of view.

TORQUE

LINE CURRENT

Figure 9.1 Line current in a constant torque application. Line current is

small at low speed.

9.1 Rectifier Rectifiers are dimensioned according to motor shaft power.

A single drive's input rectifier can be selected using the
approximation formula:

(9.1)

In drive systems where there is a common DC-link, there

can be motoring and generating power at the same time.
Rectifier power is then calculated approximately as fol-
lows:

(9.2)

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 33

Input transformer and rectifier

9.2 Transformer An input transformer's power can be calculated as follows:

(9.3)

In the above formulas:

Ptotal is the total motor shaft power

k is the transformer loadability (k-factor)

1.05 stands for transformer voltage drop (impedance)

ηr is the rectifier efficiency

cos(α) is the rectifier control angle (=1.0 for diode

rectifier)

ηc is the AC choke (if there is one) efficiency

ηi is the inverter efficiency

ηm is the motor efficiency

Typically total shaft power is multiplied by a coefficient

1.2 - 1.35.

Example 9.1:
In a constant torque application the maximum shaft power
needed is 48 kW at a speed of 1200 rpm. A 55 kW motor
and 70 kVA inverter unit was selected.

Specify the rectifier and input transformer. A 6-pulse diode

supply is used (efficiency 0.985), there is a DC-choke in
the DC-link, inverter efficiency is 0.97 and motor efficiency
is 0.95.

Solution 9.1:
For the rectifier the estimated power is:

34 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Input transformer and rectifier

The choke efficiency is included in the inverter efficiency.

Because of diode supply unit cos(α) =1. The power of the
input transformer (k=0.95) is:

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 35

 Chapter 10 - Index

4-quadrant 33 K
kilowatt 14
A
AC motor 6 L
acceleration 18 load 6
active current 11 load profile 20
angular velocity 14 load type 20
locked rotor torque 9
B
break down torque 10 M
motor 9
C maximum torque 10
centrifugal pumps 20 mechanical 14
constant flux range 10 moment inertia 15
constant power 10, 21 motoring 33
constant torque 20
coupling 19 N
cubically 20 nominal point 9, 12
cyclical load 7
O
D overloadability 7
DC-link 6
decelerate 16 P
diode rectifier 33 power 9, 14
drum 19 power factor 12
pull-out torque 10
E pull-up torque 9
efficiency 14
electric supply 6 Q
quadratically 20
F quadratic torque 20
fan 16, 20
friction 14 R
field weakening range 10 reactive current 11
flux range 10 rectifier 33
frequency 7, 9 rectifier unit 6
frequency converter 6 roller 19

G S
gear 18 scalf ventilated 23
gear box 19 separate cooling 23
generating 33 shaft power 24
slip 9
I speed 9
induction 9 speed range 7
induction motor 9 starting/breakway torque 21
input transformer 6 starting torque 7
inverter 34,35 supply 6, 7
supply voltage 7, 24

36 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system

 Index

T
thermal loadability 23
transformer 6
torque 9, 10

V
voltage 9

Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 37

38 Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system
Technical Guide No.7 - Dimensioning of a Drive system 39
 Ad agency Piirtek#10492
3AFE 64362569 REV B EN 17.5. 2002 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P.O. Box 184
FIN-00381 Helsinki
FINLAND
Tel: +358 10 22 11
Fax: +358 10 222 2681
Internet: http://www.abb.com/motors&drives
Technical Guide No. 8

Electrical Braking
2 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking
 Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................... 5

1.1 General .................................................................... 5

1.2 Drive applications map according to speed and
torque ..................................................................... 5

2. Evaluating braking power ................................... 7

2.1 General dimension principles for electrical

braking ..................................................................... 7
2.2 Basics of load descriptions ................................... 8
2.2.1 Constant torque and quadratic torque ...... 8
2.2.2 Evaluating brake torque and power .......... 8
2.2.3 Summary and Conclusions ........................ 12

3. Electrical braking solutions in drives .............. 13

3.1 Motor Flux braking ................................................. 13

3.2 Braking chopper and braking resistor .................. 14
3.2.1 The energy storage nature of the
frequency converter ................................... 14
3.2.2 Principle of the braking chopper ............... 15
3.3 Anti-parallel thyristor bridge configuration ........... 17
3.4 IGBT bridge configuration ...................................... 19
3.4.1 General principles of IGBT based
regeneration units ....................................... 19
3.4.2 IGBT based regeneration-control targets . 19
3.4.3 Direct torque control in the form of direct
power control .............................................. 20
3.4.4 Dimensioning an IGBT regeneration unit .. 22
3.5 Common DC ............................................................ 22

4. Evaluating the life cycle cost of different

forms of electrical braking ................................. 24

4.1 Calculating the direct cost of energy .................... 24

4.2 Evaluating the investment cost ............................. 24
4.3 Calculating the life cycle cost ................................ 25

5. Symbols and definitions ..................................... 29

6. Index ..................................................................... 30

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 3

4 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking
 Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1 General This guide continues ABB's technical guide series, describ-
ing the practical solutions available in reducing stored en-
ergy and transferring stored energy back into electrical
energy. The purpose of this guide is to give practical guide-
lines for different braking solutions.

1.2 Drive Drive applications can be divided into three main catego-
applications ries according to speed and torque. The most common
AC drive application is a single quadrant application where
map according speed and torque always have the same direction, i.e. the
to speed and power flow (which is speed multiplied by torque) is from
torque inverter to process. These applications are typically pump
and fan applications having quadratic behaviour of load
torque and thus often called variable torque applications.
Some single quadrant applications such as extruders or
conveyors are constant torque applications, i.e. the load
torque does not inherently change when speed changes.

The second category is two-quadrant applications where

the direction of rotation remains unchanged but the direc-
tion of torque can change, i.e. the power flow may be from
drive to motor or vice versa. The single quadrant drive may
turn out to be two quadrants for example if a fan is decel-
erated faster than mechanical losses could naturally
achieve. In many industries also the requirement for emer-
gency stopping of machinery may require two-quadrant
operation although the process itself is single quadrant
type.

The third category is fully four-quadrant applications where

the direction of speed and torque can freely change. These
applications are typically elevators, winches and cranes,
but many machinery processes such as cutting, bending,
weaving, and engine test benches may require repetitive
speed and torque change. One can also mention single
quadrant processes where the power flow is mainly from
machinery to inverter such as in a winder or an uphill to
downhill conveyor.

It is commonly understood that from the energy saving

point of view the AC motor combined with inverter is su-
perior to mechanical control methods such as throttling.
However, less attention is paid to the fact that many proc-
esses may inherently include power flow from process to
drive, but how this braking energy could be utilised in the
most economical way has not been considered.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 5

Introduction

Decelerating Accelerating

Accelerating Decelerating

Figure 1.1 Drive applications map according to speed and torque.

6 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Chapter 2 - Evaluating braking power

2.1 General The evaluation of braking need starts from the mechanics.
dimension Typically, the requirement is to brake the mechanical sys-
tem within a specified time, or there are subcycles in the
principles for process where the motor operates on the generator side
electrical at constant or slightly varying speed.
braking
It is important to note that devices used in electrical brak-
ing are dimensioned according to braking power. The me-
chanical braking power depends on braking torque and
speed, formula (2.1). The higher the speed the higher the
power. This power is then transferred at a certain speci-
fied voltage and current. The higher the voltage the less
current is needed for the same power, formula (2.2). The
current is the primary component defining the cost in low
voltage AC drives.

In formula (2.2) we see the term cosφ. This term defines

how much motor current is used for magnetising the mo-
tor. The magnetising current does not create any torque
and is therefore ignored.

On the other hand, this motor magnetising current is not

taken from the AC supply feeding the converter, i.e. the
current to the inverter is lower than the current fed to the
motor. This fact means that on the supplying side the cosφ
is typically near 1.0. Note that in formula (2.2) it has been
assumed that no loss occurs when DC power is converted
to AC power. There are some losses in this conversion,
but in this context the losses can be ignored.

(2.1)

(2.2)

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 7

Evaluating braking power

2.2 Basics of Typically loads are categorised as constant torque or quad-

load ratic torque type. Quadratic load torque means that the
load torque is proportional to the square of the speed. It
descriptions also means that the power is speed to the power of three.
In constant torque applications, the power is directly pro-
portional to speed.

2.2.1 Constant Constant torque:

torque and
C: constant
quadratic
torque (2.3)
(2.4)

Quadratic torque:

(2.5)

(2.6)

2.2.2 Evaluating In the case of steady state operation (the angular acceler-
brake torque ation α is zero) the motor torque has to make friction torque
correspond proportionally to the angular speed and load
and power torque at that specific angular speed. The braking torque
and power need in respect to time varies greatly in these
two different load types.

(2.7)

Let us first consider the case where the load is constant

torque type and the drive system is not able to generate
braking torque, i.e. the drive itself is single quadrant type.
In order to calculate the braking time needed one can ap-
ply the following equation. Please note that formula (2.7)
underlines that the torque needed for inertia accelerating
(or decelerating), friction and load torque is in the opposite
direction to the motor torque.

(2.8)

In practice, it is difficult to define the effect of friction ex-

actly. By assuming friction to be zero the time calculated is
on the safe side.

8 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Evaluating braking power

Natural braking curve with constant load

Power [10 * kW], Time [s], Torque [100 * Nm]

Cumulative time
Natural braking
power [kW] * 10
Natural braking
torque [Nm] * 100

Speed [rpm]
Figure 2.1 Cumulative braking time, braking load power and torque as a
function of speed.

(2.9)
By solving t one ends up with the formula:

(2.10)

Assuming that the load inertia is 60 kgm2 and the load

torque is 800 Nm over the whole speed range, if the load is
running at 1000 rpm and the motor torque is put to zero,
the load goes to zero speed in the time:

(2.11)
This applies for those applications where the load torque
remains constant when the braking starts. In the case
where load torque disappears (e.g. the conveyor belt is
broken) the kinetic energy of the mechanics remains
unchanged but the load torque that would decelerate the
mechanics is now not in effect. In that case if the motor is
not braking the speed will only decrease as a result of
mechanical friction.

Now consider the case with the same inertia and load
torque at 1000 rpm, but where the load torque changes
in a quadratic manner. If the motor torque is forced to
zero the load torque decreases in quadratic proportion to
speed. If the cumulative braking time is presented as a
function of speed, one sees that the natural braking time
at the lower speed, e.g. from 200 rpm to 100 rpm, increases
dramatically in comparison to the speed change from
1000 rpm to 900 rpm.
Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 9
Evaluating braking power

Natural braking curve with quadratic load

Power [10 * kW], Time [s], Torque [100 * Nm]

Braking power
[kW] * 10
Braking torque
[Nm] * 100

Speed [rpm]
Figure 2.2 Natural braking curve for a 90 kW fan braking load power and
torque as a function of speed.

A natural braking curve can easily be drawn based on the

power and speed at the nominal point applying the formulas
(2.5) and (2.6).

Natural braking curve with quadratic load

Time [s]

Braking time

Speed [rpm]

Figure 2.3 Cumulative braking time for, e.g., a 90 kW fan.

Let us now consider the case where the requirement

specifies the mechanical system to be braked in a specified
time from a specified speed.

The 90 kW fan has an inertia of 60 kgm2. The nominal

operating point for the fan is 1000 rpm. The fan is required
to be stopped within 20 seconds. The natural braking effect
caused by the load characteristics is at its maximum at
the beginning of the braking. The maximum energy of inertia
can be calculated from formula (2.12). The average braking
power can be calculated by dividing this braking energy
by time. This value is, of course, on the very safe side due
to the fact that the fan load characteristics are not taken
into account.

10 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Evaluating braking power

(2.12)

(2.13)

When the braking chopper is dimensioned for this 16.4 kW

value and the motor braking capability at a higher speed is
far more than 16.4 kW, the drive has to include a supervision
function for maximum regeneration power. This function is
available in some drives.

If one wants to optimise the dimensioning of the brake

chopper for a specific braking time one can start by look-
ing at figure (2.3). The speed reduces quickly from 1000 to
500 rpm without any additional braking. The natural brak-
ing effect is at its maximum at the beginning of the brak-
ing. This clearly indicates that it is not necessary to start
braking the motor with the aforementioned 16 kW power
in the first instance. As can be seen from figure (2.3) the
speed comes down from 1000 rpm to 500 rpm without any
additional braking within less than 10 seconds. At that point
of time the load torque is only 25 % of nominal and the
kinetic energy conserved in the fan is also only 25 % of the
energy at 1000 rpm. If the calculation done at 1000 rpm is
repeated at 500 rpm, it can be seen that the braking power
in order to achieve deceleration from 500 rpm to 0 rpm is
appr. 8 kW. As stated in previous calculations this is also
on the safe side because the natural braking curve caused
by the load characteristics is not taken into account.

To summarise, the target for a 20 second deceleration time

from 1000 rpm down to 0 rpm is well achieved with a braking
chopper and resistor dimensioned for 8.2 kW. Setting the
drive regenerative power limit to 8.2 kW sets the level of
braking power to an appropriate level.

(2.14)

(2.15)

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 11

Evaluating braking power

2.2.3 Summary There are two basic load types: constant and quadratic
and conclusions load torque.
Constant torque application:

The load torque characteristic does not depend on the

speed. The load torque remains approximately the same
over the whole speed area.
The power increases linearly as the speed increases and
vice versa.
Typical constant torque applications: cranes and convey-
ors.

Quadratic torque application:

The load torque increases to speed to the power of two.

When the speed increases, the power increases to speed
to the power of three.
Typical quadratic torque applications: fans and pumps.

Braking power evaluation:

The quadratic load characteristics mean fast natural de-

celeration between 50-100 % of nominal speeds. That
should be utilised when dimensioning the braking power
needed.
The quadratic load torque means that at low speeds the
natural deceleration is mainly due to friction.
The constant load torque characteristic is constant natu-
ral deceleration.
The braking power is a function of torque and speed at
that specified operating point. Dimensioning the braking
chopper according to peak braking power typically leads
to overdimensioning.
The braking power is not a function of motor nominal
current (torque) or power as such.
If the load torque disappears when braking starts the
natural braking effect is small. This affects the dimen-
sioning of the braking chopper.

12 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Chapter 3 - Electrical braking solutions
in drives

The modern AC drive consists of an input rectifier con-

verting AC voltage to DC voltage stored in DC capacitors.
The inverter converts the DC voltage back to AC voltage
feeding the AC motor at the desired frequency. The proc-
ess power needed flows through the rectifier, DC bus and
inverter to the motor. The amount of energy stored in DC
capacitors is very small compared with the power need-
ed, i.e. the rectifier has to constantly deliver the power
needed by the motor plus the losses in drive system.

3.1 Motor flux Flux braking is a method based on motor losses. When
braking braking in the drive system is needed, the motor flux and
thus also the magnetising current component used in the
motor are increased. The control of flux can be easily
achieved through the direct torque control principle (for
more information about DTC see Technical Guide No. 1).
With DTC the inverter is directly controlled to achieve the
desired torque and flux for the motor. During flux braking
the motor is under DTC control which guarantees that brak-
ing can be made according to the specified speed ramp.
This is very different to the DC injection braking typically
used in drives. In the DC injection method DC current is
injected to the motor so that control of the motor flux is
lost during braking. The flux braking method based on DTC
enables the motor to shift quickly from braking to motor-
ing power when requested.

In flux braking the increased current means increased loss-

es inside the motor. The braking power is therefore also
increased although the braking power delivered to the fre-
quency converter is not increased. The increased current
generates increased losses in motor resistances. The high-
er the resistance value the higher the braking energy dis-
sipation inside the motor. Typically, in low power motors
(below 5 kW) the resistance value of the motor is relatively
large in respect to the nominal current of the motor. The
higher the power or the voltage of the motor the less the
resistance value of the motor in respect to motor current.
In other words, flux braking is most effective in a low pow-
er motor.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 13

Electrical braking solutions in drives

Braking torque (%)

No flux braking

Rated motor power

Flux braking

Figure 3.1 Percentage of motor braking torque of rated torque as a

function of output frequency.

The main benefits of flux braking are:

No extra components are needed and no extra cost, using

DTC control method.
The motor is controlled during braking unlike in the DC
injection current braking typically used in drives.

The main drawbacks of flux braking are:

Increased thermal stress on the motor if braking is re-

peated over short periods.
Braking power is limited by the motor characteristics e.g.
resistance value.
Flux braking is useful mainly in low power motors.

3.2 Braking In standard drives the rectifier is typically a 6-pulse or 12-

chopper and pulse diode rectifier only able to deliver power from the
AC network to the DC bus but not vice versa. If the power
braking resistor flow changes as in two or four quadrant applications, the
power fed by the process charges the DC capacitors
3.2.1 The according to formula (3.1) and the DC bus voltage starts
to rise. The capacitance C is a relatively low value in an AC
energy storage drive resulting in fast voltage rise, and the components of
nature of the a frequency converter may only withstand voltage up to a
frequency certain specified level.
converter

14 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Electrical braking solutions in drives

(3.1)

(3.2)

In order to prevent the DC bus voltage rising excessively,

two possibilities are available: the inverter itself prevents
the power flow from process to frequency converter. This
is done by limiting the braking torque to keep a constant
DC bus voltage level. This operation is called overvoltage
control and it is a standard feature of most modern drives.
However, this means that the braking profile of the ma-
chinery is not done according to the speed ramp specified
by the user.

The energy storage capacity of the inverter is typically very

small. For example, for a 90 kW drive the capacitance val-
ue is typically 5 mF. If the drive is supplied by 400 V AC the
DC bus has the value of 1.35 * 400 = 565 V DC. Assuming
that the capacitors can withstand a maximum of 735 V
DC, the time which 90 kW nominal power can be fed to the
DC capacitor can be calculated from:

(3.3)

This range of values applies generally for all modern low

voltage AC drives regardless of their nominal power. In
practice this means that the overvoltage controller and its
'work horse' torque controller of the AC motor has to be a
very fast one. Also the activation of the regeneration or
braking chopper has to be very fast when used in drive
configuration.

3.2.2 Principle The other possibility to limit DC bus voltage is to lead the
of the braking braking energy to a resistor through a braking chopper.
The braking chopper is an electrical switch that connects
chopper DC bus voltage to a resistor where the braking energy is
converted to heat. The braking choppers are automatical-
ly activated when the actual DC bus voltage exceeds a
specified level depending on the nominal voltage of the
inverter.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 15

Electrical braking solutions in drives

UDC+ R+
V1

C1
Control R-
Circuit

UDC-

Figure 3.2 Circuit diagram example of braking chopper. UDC represents

DC bus terminals and R the resistor terminals.

The main benefits of the braking chopper and resistor so-

lution are:

Simple electrical construction and well-known technol-

ogy.
Low fundamental investment for chopper and resistor.
The chopper works even if AC supply is lost. Braking
during main power loss may be required, e.g. in elevator
or other safety related applications.

The main drawbacks of the braking chopper and resistor

are:

The braking energy is wasted if the heated air can not be

utilised.
The braking chopper and resistors require additional
space.
May require extra investments in the cooling and heat
recovery system.
Braking choppers are typically dimensioned for a certain
cycle, e.g. 100 % power 1/10 minutes, long braking times
require more accurate dimensioning of the braking chop-
per.
Increased risk of fire due to hot resistor and possible
dust and chemical components in the ambient air space.
The increased DC bus voltage level during braking causes
additional voltage stress on motor insulation.

When to apply a braking chopper:

The braking cycle is needed occasionally.

The amount of braking energy with respect to motoring
energy is extremely small.
Braking operation is needed during main power loss.

16 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Electrical braking solutions in drives

When to consider other solutions than braking chopper

and resistor:

The braking is continuous or regularly repeated.

The total amount of braking energy is high in respect to
the motoring energy needed.
The instantaneous braking power is high, e.g. several
hundred kW for several minutes.
The ambient air includes substantial amounts of dust or
other potentially combustible or explosive or metallic
components.

3.3 Anti-parallel In a frequency converter the diode rectifier bridges can be

thyristor bridge replaced by the two thyristor controlled rectifiers in
antiphase. This configuration allows changing the rectifier
configuration bridge according to the power flow needed in the process.

The main components of the thyristor supply unit are two

6-pulse thyristor bridges. The forward bridge converts 3-
phase AC supply into DC. It feeds power to the drives (in-
verters) via the intermediate circuit. The reverse bridge
converts DC back to AC whenever there is a need to pass
the surplus motor braking power back to the supply net-
work.

Forward Reverse

3 Udc

Figure 3.3 Line diagram of anti-parallel thyristor supply unit.

Only one bridge operates at a time, the other one is

blocked. The thyristor-firing angle is constantly regulated
to keep the intermediate circuit voltage at the desired level.
The forward/reverse bridge selection and intermediate cir-
cuit voltage control are based on the measurement of the
supply current, supply voltage and the intermediate cir-
cuit voltage. The DC reactor filters the current peaks of
the intermediate circuit.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 17

Electrical braking solutions in drives

The main benefits of the anti-parallel thyristor bridge are:

Well known solution.

Less investment needed than for an IGBT solution.
The DC voltage can be controlled to a lower value than
the network. In certain special applications this can be
an advantage.

The main drawbacks of the anti-parallel thyristor bridge

are:

The DC bus voltage is always lower than AC supply volt-

age in order to maintain a commutation margin. Thus
the voltage fed to the motor remains lower than the in-
coming AC. However, this can be overcome by using a
step-up autotransformer in the supply.
If the supplying AC disappears a risk of fuse blowing ex-
ists, due to the failure in thyristor commutation.
The cosφ varies with loading.
Total harmonic distortion higher than in IGBT regenera-
tive units.
The current distortion flows through other network im-
pedance and can cause undesired voltage distortion for
other devices supplied from the point where voltage dis-
tortion exists.
The braking capability is not available during main power
loss.
Voltage / V, Current / A

Sinusoidal phase
voltage
Distorted phase
voltage
Line current

Time / ms

Figure 3.4. Example of anti-parallel bridge current and voltage

waveforms during braking.

18 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Electrical braking solutions in drives

3.4 IGBT bridge The IGBT based regeneration is based on the same princi-
configuration ples as power transmission within a power network. In a
power network several generators and load points are con-
nected together. One can assume that at the point of con-
3.4.1 General nection the power network is a large synchronous genera-
tor having a fixed frequency. The input IGBT bridge of the
principles of drive (later line converter) can be considered as another
IGBT based AC voltage system connected through a choke to the gen-
regeneration erator. The principle of power transfer between two AC
units systems having voltage U and connected to each other
can be calculated from figure (3.4).

(3.4)

The formula indicates that in order to transfer power

between these two systems there has to be a phase
difference in the angle between the voltages of the two AC
systems. In order to control the power flow between the
two systems the angle has to be controlled.

Line generating unit Line generating unit

Harmonic order

Figure 3.5. Typical line current waveform and harmonics of an IGBT line
generating unit.

3.4.2 IGBT There are three general control targets in IGBT based
based regeneration units. The first one is to keep the DC bus
voltage stable regardless of the absolute value of power
regeneration -
flow and the direction of power flow. This ensures that
control targets inverters feeding AC motors can work in an optimum way
regardless of the operation point thanks to a stable DC
bus voltage. The DC bus voltage is stable when the power
flow into the DC bus equals the power flow out of the DC
bus. This control of appropriate power flow is achieved by
controlling the power angle between the two AC systems.
Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 19
Electrical braking solutions in drives

Load step

Power / kW, Voltage / 10 * V

DC Measurement
Power

Times / ms

Figure 3.6. Fast change from regenerating to motoring operation. Note

how stable the DC bus voltage is during this transition.

The second control target is to minimise the supply current

needed, i.e. to operate at cosϕ = 1.0. This is achieved by
controlling the output voltage of the line converter. In some
applications it is desired that the IGBT line converter also
works as an inductive or as a capacitive load.

The third control target is to minimise the harmonic content

of the supply current. The main design criteria here are the
impedance value of the choke and an appropriate control
method.

3.4.3 Direct Direct torque control (DTC) is a way to control an AC mo-

torque control tor fed by an inverter. The control principal turns IGBT
switches on and off directly based on the difference be-
in the form of
tween the actual AC motor torque and the user’s reference
direct power torque (Technical Guide No. 1). The very same principle
control can be applied in a line converter controlling the power
flow from power network to drive and vice versa. The power
is torque multiplied by angular frequency, which in the net-
work is constant, i.e. controlling torque means also con-
trol of power flow.

(3.5)

Torque_REF Direct torque and flux ASICS

Flux_REF Hysteresis control
Torque_BITS
Hysteresis Flux_BITS Optimal S1, S2, S3
Control_BITS Switching
Logic
Flux_ACT Torque_ACT

Model of power DC-Voltage

transmission
S1, S2, S3
L
Calculate
actual values
Current
DC voltage control

Figure 3.7. Fundamental control diagram for DTC based IGBT

regeneration unit.
20 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking
 Electrical braking solutions in drives

The DTC control method combined with IGBT technology

contributes to a low amount of current harmonics. For that
reason the IGBT supply unit can be used to replace single
quadrant 12-pulse or 18-pulse supply configurations, which
are typically used for reducing current harmonics on the
supply side. An IGBT supply unit is therefore also a solution
for those cases where current harmonics rather than the
handling of braking energy is the issue.

The main benefits of an IGBT regeneration unit are:

Low amount of supply current harmonics in both motor-

ing and regeneration.
High dynamics during fast power flow changes on the
load side.
Possibility to boost the DC voltage higher than the re-
spective incoming AC supply. This can be used to com-
pensate for a weak network or increase the motor’s max-
imum torque capacity in the field weakening area.
Full compensation of system voltage drops thanks to
voltage boost capability.
Possibility to control the power factor.
Power loss ride through operation with automatic syn-
chronisation to grid.
DC bus voltage has approximately the same value dur-
ing motoring or braking. No extra voltage stress on in-
sulation of motor winding during braking.
Voltage / V

Actual DC voltage
Reference DC voltage

Times / ms

Figure 3.8. Boosting capability of supplying voltage.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 21

Electrical braking solutions in drives

The main drawbacks of an IGBT regeneration unit are:

Higher investment cost.

The braking capability is not available during main power
loss.
High frequency voltage harmonics due to high switching
frequency. These several kilohertz voltage components
can excite small capacitors used in other electrical de-
vices. With appropriate design and arrangement of feed-
ing transformers for different devices these phenomena
are eliminated.

When to use an IGBT regeneration unit:

The braking is continuous or repeating regularly.

The braking power is very high.
When space savings can be achieved compared to the
braking resistor solution.
When network harmonics limits are critical.

3.4.4 Dimen- The supply current dimensioning of the IGBT unit is based
sioning an on power needed. Let us assume that the motoring shaft
power needed is 130 kW and braking power 100 kW. To
IGBT regenera- dimension the IGBT supply unit the maximum value of
tion unit motoring or braking power is selected, in this case 130 kW.
The motor voltage is 400 V. The minimum value for the
supplying network is 370 V.

In this case the voltage boost capability can be utilised;

the DC bus voltage is raised to correspond to an AC volt-
age of 400 V. However, the required supply current is cal-
culated based on the 370 level. Assuming that there are
5 % system losses in the motor and drive, the total power
needed from the grid is 136.5 kW. The supplying current
can be calculated from the formula:

(3.6)

The IGBT regeneration unit is selected based solely on the

calculated current value.

3.5 Common When a process consists of several drives where one mo-
DC tor may need braking capability when others are operat-
ing in motoring mode, the common DC bus solution is a
very effective way to reuse the mechanical energy. A com-
mon DC bus solution drive system consists of a separate
supply rectifier converting AC to DC, and inverters feeding
AC motors connected to the common DC bus, i.e. the DC
22 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking
 Electrical braking solutions in drives

bus is the channel to move braking energy from one motor

to benefit the other motors. The basic configuration of the
common DC bus arrangement can be seen from figure (3.9).

Supply section Braking sections Drive sections

Auxilliary Incoming Filter unit DSU/TSU/ Braking unit (optional)

control unit with IGBT IGBT
unit supply only Supply
unit
Common DC bus
ACU ICU FIU

Resistor
Chopper
Supply Inverter Inverter
24 V unit

AC

Figure 3.9. The basic configuration of the common DC bus solution.

The main benefits of the common DC bus solution are:

Easy way to balance power flow between drives.

Low system losses in conversion of braking energy
thanks to common DC bus.
Even if the instantaneous braking power is higher than
motoring power the braking chopper and resistor do not
need to be dimensioned for full braking power.
If braking power is likely to be needed for long periods a
combination of rectifiers can be used.

The main drawbacks of the common DC bus solution with

single quadrant rectifier are:

The instantaneous motoring power has to be higher than

or equal to braking power.
The braking chopper and resistor are needed if instan-
taneous braking power exceeds motoring power.
If the number of motors is small the additional cost of a
dedicated inverter disconnecting the device from the DC
bus raises the investment cost.

When to use common DC bus solution with single quadrant

rectifier:

The number of drives is high.

The motoring power is always higher than braking power
or only low braking power is needed by the braking chop-
per.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 23

 Chapter 4 - Evaluating the life cycle cost
of different forms of electrical braking

It has become increasingly important to evaluate the total

life cycle cost when investing in energy saving products.
The AC drive is used for controlling speed and torque. This
basic function of AC drives means savings in energy
consumption in comparison to other control methods used.
In pump and fan type applications braking is seldom
needed. However, modern AC drives are increasingly being
used in applications where a need for braking exists.

Several technical criteria are mentioned above. The

following examines the economic factors for different
electrical braking approaches.

4.1 Calculating The direct cost of energy can be calculated based, for
the direct cost example, on the price of energy and the estimated brak-
ing time and power per day. The price of energy varies
of energy from country to country, but a typical estimated price
level of 0.05 Euros per kilowatt-hour can be used.
1 Euro ~ 1 USD. The annual cost of energy can be calcu-
lated from the formula:

(4.1)

For example, a 100 kW drive is running 8000 hours per

year and braking with 50 kW average power for 5 minutes
every hour, i.e. 667 hours per year. The annual direct cost
of braking energy is 1668 Euros.

4.2 Evaluating The required investment objects needed for different brak-
the investment ing methods vary. The following investment cost compo-
nents should be evaluated.
cost
Braking chopper:

The additional investment cost of braking chopper and

resistor plus the cost of additional space needed for those
components.
The investment cost of additional ventilation needed for
the braking chopper.

24 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Evaluating the life cycle cost of different forms of electrical braking

Thyristor or IGBT based electrical braking:

The additional investment cost of thyristor or IGBT re-

generative braking in respect to the same power drive
without electrical braking capability.

Common DC bus:

The additional investment cost of braking chopper and

resistor including the space needed for those compo-
nents if needed in a common DC bus solution.
The investment cost difference between common DC
bus solution and the respective single drive solution.

4.3 Calculating The life time cost calculation supports the purely economic
the life cycle decision in making an investment. The price level of en-
ergy as well as the price of drives varies depending on the
cost country, utility, size of company, interest ratio, the time the
investment is used and the overall macroeconomic situa-
tion. The absolute values of prices given in the following
examples are solely used to illustrate the calculation prin-
ciples.

Case 1 - Occasional braking

Consider the following application case:

The continuous motoring power is 200 kW at a shaft speed
of 1500 rpm. In the event of an emergency stop command
the application is required to ramp down within 10 sec-
onds. Based on the experience of the process an emer-
gency stop happens once every month. The inertia J of
the drive system is 122 kgm2. When the emergency stop is
activated the load torque can be neglected.

Calculating the braking torque needed for the motor:

(4.2)

The typical torque value for a 200 kW, 1500 rpm motor is
about 1200 Nm. A normal AC motor instantaneously con-
trolled by an inverter can be run with torque at 200 % of
nominal value. To achieve higher torque values a propor-
tionally higher motor current is also needed.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 25

Evaluating the life cycle cost of different forms of electrical braking

The braking power is at its maximum at the beginning of

the braking cycle.

(4.3)

The braking chopper and resistor have to withstand

instantenously the current for a power of 300 kW. The av-
erage braking power is calculated below.

(4.4)

(4.5)

Cost of resistor braking:

The braking chopper needed is for a maximum braking
power of 300 kW. If the drive has a power limitation func-
tion the braking resistor can be dimensioned according to
the 150.3 kW. The additional cost of the braking chopper
and resistor is 4000 Euros.
The braking resistor requires 0.4 m2 additional floor space.
The cost of floor space is 500 Euros/m2.

Due to the small total heating energy and emergency use

of braking, the cost of additional cooling is considered
negligible.

The total additional investment cost consists of:

Braking chopper and resistor in cabinet, 4000 Euros.

Floor space 0.4 m2 * 500 Euros/m2, 200 Euros.

The total cost of wasted energy during one braking is:

(4.6)
In this case the cost of braking energy is negligible.

Cost of 4Q drive:
The additional cost of a respective investment for electri-
cal braking with anti-parallel thyristor bridge in compari-
son with a drive with braking chopper is 7000 Euros. As
expected, the energy savings cannot be used as an argu-
ment to cover the additional investment required.
26 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking
 Evaluating the life cycle cost of different forms of electrical braking

Case 2 - Crane application

Consider following application case:

Crane with hoisting power of 100 kW. The crane needs full
power on both the motoring and generating side. The long-
est hoist operation time can be 3 minutes. The average on
duty time over one year for the hoist is 20 %.

Cost of resistor braking:

The braking chopper and resistor have to be dimensioned
for continuous 100 kW braking due to the 3 minutes maxi-
mum braking time. Typically the maximum braking chop-
per dimensioning is made for a braking time of 1 minute in
10 minutes.

Braking chopper and resistor in cabinet 7800 Euros.

The mechanical construction of the crane allows having

cabinets with braking chopper. No extra cost due to floor
space.

It is assumed that for 50 % of the duty time the crane

operates on the generator side, i.e. an average 2.4 h/day.
The total cost of wasted energy is:

(4.7)

Cost of 4Q drive:
The IGBT 4Q drive is recommended for crane applications.

The additional investment cost for electrical braking with

IGBT input bridge in comparison to drive with braking chop-
per is 4000 Euros.

The direct payback calculation indicates that an additional

4000 Euros investment brings the same amount of energy
savings during the first year of use.

Case 3 - Centrifuge application

Consider the following application case:

Sugar Centrifuge with 6 pole motor 160 kW rating. The
motor needs full torque for a period of 30 seconds to
accelerate the charged basket to maximum speed of
1100 r/min, centrifuge then spins liquor off the charge
for 30 seconds at high speed. Once the charge is dry
motor decelerates the centrifuge as fast as possible to
allow discharge and recharging.

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 27

Evaluating the life cycle cost of different forms of electrical braking

In a batch cycle the charge, spin and discharge times are

fixed, so the only opportunity to increase production is to
increase the rates of acceleration and deceleration. This is
achieved by using an IGBT 4Q drive as the DC link voltage
can be boosted for operation in the field weakening range
(1000 to 1100 r/min). This can save around 3 seconds per
cycle, therefore reducing cycle time from 110 seconds to
107 seconds. This allows an increase in throughput mean-
ing that the productivity of the process is improved. The
cost premium for IGBT is 10 %.

28 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

 Chapter 5 - Symbols and Definitions

AC: Alternating current or voltage

B: Friction coefficient

C: Constant or coefficient

cosφ: Cosine of electrical angle between the fundamental

voltage and current

DC: Direct current or voltage

DPF: Displacement Power Factor defined as cosφ1, where

φ1 is the phase angle between the fundamental
frequency current drawn by the equipment and the
supply voltage fundamental frequency component.

I: Current [Ampere, A]

J: Inertia [kgm2]

n: Rotation speed [revolutions per minute,rpm]

P: Power [Watt, W]

PF: Power Factor defined as PF = P/S (power/voltam-

pere) = I1 / Is * DPF (With sinusoidal current PF is
equal to DPF).

T: Torque (Newton meter, Nm)

t: Time

THD: Total harmonic distortion in the current is defined as

(5.1)

where I1 is the rms value of the fundamental

frequency current. The THD in voltage may be
calculated in a similar way.

U: Voltage [V]

W: Energy [Joule, J]

ω: Angular speed [radian/second, 1/s]

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 29
 Chapter 6 - Index

A O
AC power 7 over dimensioning 12
overvoltage control 15
B
braking chopper 11, 12, 15, 16, P
17, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 pumps 12
braking power 7, 11, 12, 13, 15,
17, 22, 23, 26 Q
quadratic torque 8, 12
C
centrifuge 27 R
common DC 22, 23, 25 rectifier 13, 14, 17, 22, 23
constant torque 8, 12
conveyors 12 S
cosφ 7, 18, 29 single quadrant 5, 8, 21, 23
crane 12, 27
T
D thyristor bridge 17, 18, 26
DC injection braking 13 two-quadrant 5
DC power 7
direct torque control 13, 20

E
energy storage 14, 15

F
fans 12
flux braking 13, 14
four-quadrant 5
friction 8, 9, 12

H
harmonic distortion 18, 29

I
IGBT 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28
impedance 18, 20
inertia 9, 10, 25, 29
inverter 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 23, 25

L
line converter 19, 20

N
natural braking 10, 11, 12

30 Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking

Technical Guide No.8 - Electrical Braking 31
 014
EL
LA B

Printed matter
AL

T
ON MEN
VIR
EN
C

411
N O R DI

3AFE 64362534 REV A EN 16.8.2002 Specifications subject to change without notice.

ABB Oy
Drives
P. O. Box 184
FIN - 00381 Helsinki
Finland
Telephone +358 10 22 11
Telefax +358 10 222 2681
Internet http://www.abb.com/motors&drives