INTRODUCTIONTOAEROSPACE

ENGINEERING

BY

Ms.G.Sravanthi
AssistantProfessor

Mr.R.Sureshkumar
AssistantProfessor

INSTITUTEOFAERONAUTICALENGINEERING
(Autonomous)
Dundigal,Hyderabad-500043
AERONAUTICALENGINEERING
EarlyFlightto
WorldWarI
 Overview

• EarlyUsesofLighter-than-
AirFlyingMachines
• Heavier-than-AirFlyingMachines
– TheUSArmy’sReactiontotheWrightBrothers’
Invention
– TheArmy’sRequirementsfortheFirstMilitary
Aircraft
• EarlyUsesofAirpower

2
 EarlyYearsofFlight
Introduction
• Manfirstflewaloftinaballoon in1783
• Airpowerdidnothaveanimmediateim
pact
• Flyingmachineswerenotreadilyacceptedby
landorientedofficers
• Airpower’sfirstmajorimpactwasnotuntil
WorldWarI

3
 Balloons

• MongolierBrothersflewfirsthot-
airballoonin1783
• BenFranklinsawfirstballoonflightandim
mediatelysawthemilitarypotential
• FirstusedformilitarypurposesbytheFre
nchin1794 atMaubege
• UnionandConfederateforcesemployedb
alloonsduringtheAmericanCivilWar

4
 Balloons(Cont)

• Adolphus V. Greely, the grandfather

ofmilitaryaviationinUS,revivedinterestin
militarycapabilityofballoonsin 1891
– 1892--
Greelyballoonusedtodirectartilleryfireduringthe
BattleofSanJuanHill
• Interestinballoonsdroppedquicklywiththede
velopmentofheavier-than-airvehicles

5
 Dirigibles
• Steerableballoons--oftencalled“Airships”
• 1884--firstsuccessfulflightinadirigible
• FerdinandVonZeppelin--
personmostreadilyidentifiedwithdirigibles
– Zeppelinsfirstflownin1900
– Germansusedtobomb EnglandinWWI
– Germansusedtoflyobservationcoverfortheirsur
facefleetin WWI
• Vulnerabletowindsandgroundfire

6
 TheEarlyYearsofFlight
• UsesofBalloonsandDirigibles
– Reconnaissance
– Artilleryspotting
– Bombing(extremelylimitedpriortoWWI)
– MoraleBooster/Mail/EscapeMeans
– Airtransportofsupplies

7
 EarlyPioneersofFlight
• OttoLilienthal--
studiedglidersandfirsttoexplainthesuperior
ityofcurvedsurfaces
• PercyPilcher--builtairplane chassis
• OctaveChanute--Developedadoublewinged-
glider/wrotehistoryofflightto1900
• SamuelP.Langley--
Firsttosecuregovernmentsupport todevelopan
airplane
– Failedtwicetoflyfromhouseboatin1903
8
– Congresswithdrewmonetarysupport

9
 OrvilleandWilburWright
• Firsttoflyaheavier-than-air,power-
drivenmachine--17 December1903
– Flighttraveled120feetandlasted12seconds
• Approachedflyingscientificallyands
ystematically
• UsedexperienceofLilienthal,PilcherandCh
anute
• BuiltagliderinDaytonin1899
– MovedtoKittyHawk,N.Carolinain1900

1
ReactionstotheWright’sInvention
• USgovernmentwasveryskepticalatfirst
– NotinterestedbecauseoftheLangley’sfailures
• BritainandFrancewereveryenthusiastic
• PresidentRooseveltdirectedtheSecretaryofW
ar, W. H. Taft, to investigate
theWrightBrothers’inventionin1906
• Dec.1907--
ChiefSignalOfficer,BGJamesAllen,issued
Specification # 486calling for bids
tobuildthefirst militaryaircraft
1
 SignalCorpsSpecification
#486
• Establishedtherequirementsforthefirstmilitaryair
craft.Aircraftmustbeableto:
– Carry2persons
– Reachspeedof40mph
– Carrysufficientfuelfor125milenonstopflight
– Becontrollableinflightinanydirection
– Flyatleastonehour
– Landattake-offpoint,withoutdamage
– Betakenapartandreassembledinonehour
– NoMilitaryOperationalRequirementsSpecified

1
 Specification#486(Cont)
• 41proposalswerereceived,only3co
mpliedwith specifications
• USArmysignedcontractwithWrightBr
otherson10Feb1908
• WrightBrothersdeliveredthefirstmilitaryai
rcrafton20 Aug1908
• USArmyacceptedthefirstoperationalair
crafton2 Aug1909

1
 TheEarlyYearsofFlight
ClosingRemarks
• UntilWWIballoons,dirigiblesandaircraftwe
reprimarilyreconnaissancevehicles
• Earlyon,theflyingmachineswerenotseenas
weaponsofwar
• Fewbelievedtheflyingservicewasreadytobea
separateairforce
• Thepotentialusesoftheairplanewouldev
olveconsiderablyduringWWI

1
 Summary

• EarlyUsesofLighter-than-
AirFlyingMachines
• Heavier-than-AirFlyingMachines
– TheUSArmy’sReactiontotheWrightBrothers’
Invention
– TheArmy’sRequirementsfortheFirstMilitary
Aircraft
• EarlyUsesofAirpower

1
HistoryofFlight
 AviationThroughtheAges
1000B.Cto1250A.D

• Man's observations of the earth around him aroused

hiscuriosityandofteninspiredhimtoattempttheimpossible.H
ow did man's lack of knowledge of the physical laws
ofnaturesometimes bringhimtragedy?
• TheGreekmythofDaedalusandhissonIcaruswaswrittenarou
nd 1000 B.C. The myth states that after Daedalus builtthe
labyrinth the king of Crete threw him in it to test it. Heand
his son Icarus escaped by building wings of wax andflying
away. However Icarus flew too high and the wax inhis
wings began to melt. His wings collapsed and
heplungedtohisdeathinthesea.
• Kites flown around the year 400 B.C. in China
wereancestors of modern aviation and the airplane. In the
year1020 A.D.Oliverof Malmesburyputonapairof
wingsandleapt from the top of an abbey. He landed very
hard andbroke his legs. Luckily he survived the crash.
Many othersattempted to fly with "wings" but all failed,
sometimesfatally.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1250to1750
• I was one of the first to experiment with
thescience of flying. Unfortunately my writings
andsketchesweren'tdiscovereduntilthreehundre
dyearsaftermydeath.
• Leonardo da Vinci spent most of his
lifeexploring flight and left the world about
160documentsofsketchesandobservationsabo
utflight. He made important discoveries
aboutthe center of gravity, the center of
pressure,and streamlining. But like so many
people ofhis time he was obsessed with
learning to flylike a bird. What is the
difference betweensimplyglidingandreally
flyinglikeabird?
 AviationThroughtheAges1
750to1850
• Whatforcescausesmoketoriseinafireplace?Thiswas
whatsparkedMontgolfier'scuriosity.
• Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier designed the
firstsuccessful flying craft. Their observations led them
tobelieve that burning created a gas, which they
called"Montgolfier's gas," causing a craft to rise.
Theyconstructed a balloon made of cloth and paper. The
firstaviators were a duck, rooster, and a sheep. Then in
1783 acrowd in Paris watched as a Montgolfier balloon
carriedtwo French men. The way the balloons worked is
hot airand gases filled the balloon causing it to lift. Once it
was
intheairitsimplywentwhereverthewindtookit.Tocounterthi
s problem Henri Giffard designed a round oval
shapedballooncalledablimpandcombineditwithasteamengi
neto make it steerable. When gasoline engines were
inventedthey became a major source of transportation
across theAtlantic Ocean. The Hindenburgzeppelindisaster
in 1937causedtheendfortheselargeairships.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1850to1900
• Sir George Cayley set in motion
thefuture study of aerodynamics in a
singlesentence."Thewholeproblemisconfi
nedwithin these limits, namely to make
asurface support a given weight by
theapplication of power to the resistance
ofair."
• Sir George Cayley experimented
withglidersat his home in Yorkshire. He
wasthe first to discover how wings
work.Cayley discovered that wings are
liftedon the air. He also constructed the
firstaircraft that was heavier than air. He
isnowrecognizedasthefatherofaviation.H
e came up with many principles
ofheavier-than-airflight.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1850to1900
• In 1896, the German
engineer,Otto Lilienthal, tested
severalmonoplaneandbiplaneglid
ers.He built and flew the first
glidercapable of carrying a
person,
butdiedwhenhecrashedinasudde
ngust of wind before he
couldfinishhispoweredplane.
• Thestructureofanairplaneaswekn
owittodaywasinitsformativeyears
. What are the parts of aplane
and how does eachfunction?
 AIRPLANE
• Anairplaneisavehicleheavierthanair,poweredbyanengi
ne, which travels through the air by the reaction
ofairpassingoveritswings.
• FUSELAGE
The fuselage is the central body portion of an
airplanewhichaccommodatesthecrewandpassengersorcarg
o.
• COCKPIT
In general aviation airplanes, the cockpit is usually
thespaceinthefuselageforthepilotandthepassengers:insom
eaircraftsitisjustthepilot'scompartment.
• LANDINGGEAR
Thelandinggear,locatedunderneaththeairplane,supportsit
whileontheground.
• WINGS
Wings are the parts of airplanes which provide lift
andsupporttheentireweightoftheaircraftanditscontentswhil
einflight.
 EXPERIMENT2
Equipment:
• 2sheetsofnotebookpaper
• Holdtwosheetsofnotebookpaperaboutfourinc
hes apart. Blow between them. Instead
offlying apart they come together. The
airmoving rapidly between the two pieces
ofpaper has less pressure than the air
pressingontheoutersidesofthepaper.
 Equipment:
Ping-pongball
• Tank-typevacuumcleaner
• Connectthehosetotheblowerratherthantothesuctionendof the
vacuum cleaner. Turn the switch on. Hold the hosevertically
so the stream of air goes straight up. Release theping-pong
ball into the stream of air about a foot from thenozzle. Slowly
tip the nose so that air shoots at an angle. Theball will stay
suspended in the airstream. The force of gravityupon the ball
tends to make it drop out of the airstream.However, the fast
moving airstream lessens the air pressureon the portion of
the ball remaining in the airstream,overcoming the force of
gravity, which results in the ballremainingsuspended.
 AviationThroughtheAges1
900to1935

• "Only those who are acquainted with

practicalaeronautics
canappreciatethedifficultiesofattemptingthefirsttrial
sofaflyingmachineina25-mile gale. . . but. . . we
were determined. . . to knowwhether the machine
possessed sufficient power tofly."
• ThatwasWilburWright'sstatementtoTheAssociatedPre
ss,January5, 1904.
• At 10:35 a.m. on December 17, 1903 the world's
firstsuccessful airplane known as the Flyer I
acceleratedalong its launching rail and flew through
the
air.Twelvesecondslateritlanded100yardsawayonthes
oft sand at Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk,
NorthCarolina. The pilot Orville and his brother
Wilbur
hadexperimentedforfouryearswithkitesandenginesto
makethefirstsuccessfulflightever.
• The brothers had made their own engine
thatweighed 200 pounds and had fourcylinders. It
couldmake 12 horse power, a sixth of the engine
power
ofasmallcar.Ithadnoseatandthepilothadtolayinacradl
einthebottomwing.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1900A.Dto1935A.D
• TheWrightbrotherscontinuedtoperfecttheirplaneanditwasin a
Wrightbiplanethat the first transcontinental flight
wasmadebyCalbraithP.Rodgers,in1911.
Thekey
totheirsuccesswastolearnhowtocontroltheplane.Howweretheyabl
etoaccomplishthistask?

• In 1914 World War I broke out. At first planes were used

mostlyfor reconnaissance, but later planes developed
intobiplaneandtriplanefightersandbombers.Experimentsweredo
newithevenmore sets of wings, but most failed. The main
fighters of the warwere the British Sopwith "Camel," its
cousin,"The
Snipe,"andthefamousGermanFokkerDf.Iwhichwasflownbytheinf
amousRed Baron. Aerial tactics and strategies were developed
duringthe middle of the war. Germany developed
manyfightertacticsthat are still in modified use today. The
compass was animportant instrument to these early fighters.
How do they work?
Howhasthetechnologychangedoverthedecades?
 AviationThroughtheAges
1900to1935
• After the war General Billy Mitchell became
anadvocate for military aviation. He and his
pilotsachieved many firsts in the field of aviation
duringthese golden years. But the Europeans were
leadingthe race in commercial flight. It wasn't until
RalphPulitzerofferedatrophytopromotehigh-
speedflightand began a national craze for air races
that theAmericanpublicbegantotakenotice.
• In 1918, the Post Office Department started
airmailservice in the United States. The
firstMailwingwasbuilt by Pitcairn Aviation, Inc. In
1926, Congresspassed the Air Commerce Act. This
established anAeronautics Branch within the
Department ofCommerce. They were authorized to
license planesand pilots and provide standards for
commercialflight.Andin1927,CharlesLindberghcomp
letedthefirsttransatlanticflight.Heinstantlybecamea
worldhero.
• AmeliaEarhartwasthefirstwomantoflysoloacross
theAtlanticin1928.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1935A.Dto1950A.D
• Newtechnologiesdevelopedthroughoutthecourseof
World War II. The motto was if you
commandedtheskiesyoucouldwinthewar.
• World War II implemented almost
exclusivelymonoplanes. Both sides of the war
manufacturedliterally thousands
offightersandbombers. Themain Allied planes
included the BritishSupermarineSpitfireMk.IV, the
AmericanP-51 Mustang, theAmericanC-4U Corsair,
the AmericanB-17, and theAmerican B-29
Superfortress. TheGrumann F6FHellcatwas first
used in 1943 and became thepremier carrier fighter
plane. The main Axis planeswere theBf109, the
Junkers Ju-22, and the Stukadive-bomber. The
mainstay of the Japanese
forceswasthefearedMitsubishiZero-
sen.Ourhangaralso includes theNorth American T28
Band theAT-6Texan,otherplanesfromthisperiod.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1935 A.D to1950 A.D
• ThemajorairbattleofWWIIwasthe
Battle of Britain. For days
themuch larger German
Luftwaffeattacked the British
Isles, but thesmall number of
British Spitfiresalways seemed to
know exactlywhere and when
the Germanbombers would be
attacking andhowlargeofaforce.
Thereasonforthiswasarelatively
new technology called
radarallowed the British
groundstations to detect and
identify thesize, speed, distance,
andtrajectoryoftheGermanbombe
rsand send their Spitfires on
perfectinterceptmissions.
AviationThroughtheAges
1935A.Dto1950 A.D

• Instrumentation was crude

incomparison to today's technology.
Inthe early days pilots relied
onlandmarks and sometimes even
pre-
setbonfirestoguidethemalongtheirwa
y. What were the earlyinstruments
like and what were theirfunctions?
How has
instrumentationevolvedthroughthea
ges?
• In the late 1940's, the military
haddevelopedthejetengineandbega
nchanging over to jet fighters.
Thisresulted in faster and
betterperforming craft. New
aviationrecords were set. In
1947,ChuckYeagerbrokethesoundb
arrier.
 AviationThroughtheAges1
950A.Dto1975A.D

• AfterChuckYeager'ssupersonicflightin1947,
aviationenteredaneweradominatedbyjets.
• The years following the war saw the
aviationindustry grow in leaps and bounds. The
militaryairforce developed more effective planes
toaddress the arms race with Russia. The B-47
andB-52bomberswere built to be used to
delivernuclear bombs. They were the world's
heaviestbombers and could hold up to 99,206
pounds ofbombs. Early bombers flew so high
that the crewhad to wearpressure suitsbut later
they wereusedatlowaltitudebecausetheywere
hardertolocatewithradar.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1950 A.D to1975 A.D

• In September, 1955, a contract was awarded to

NorthAmericanAviationfortheX-
15planewhichcouldflyat4,500 miles per hour at an
altitude of at least 70,000feet. 54 percent of its total
weight was its fuel (18,000pounds). The total weight
of the X-15 was 33,000pounds. Though only three of
this type of plane werebuilt they flew a total of over
200 times. The highestspeed ever reached was about
4,525 miles per hour orMach6.72.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1950A.Dto1975 A.D
• In 1958, the first American commercial jet,
the707, was put into service by the
BoeingCompany. The commercial liners were an
instanthit with passengers who appreciated the
fasterflying time. Again new records were set. By
1966bothLockheedandDouglasAircraftCorporatio
nshad entered the commercial industry giving
riseto competition and the development of
newtechnologies.
• During the Vietnam War the use of military
airpower was somewhat limited by policy
inWashington. President Nixon launched the
onlystrategic bombing campaign of the war.
Manyfliers were shot down over Southeast
Asia.
Theywererecentlyhonoredinaceremonydedicati
ngtheMissing Man Monumentat Randolph
AirForceBase,inTexas.
 AviationThroughtheAges1
975A.Dto2000A.D
• Aviationhaschangedmuchsincethebeginningoftime.
• The world's firstsupersoniccommercial passenger aircraft operating
regularscheduled flights was the Concorde. It was developed jointly by Great
Britainand France during the 1960s and 1970s when the Comet 4, the DC-3, and
theConstellation were in regular service. No other supersonic aircraft can fly as
fastand as far as the Concorde without needing mid-flight refueling. Some
militaryaircraft can fly faster, but need in-flight refueling. The Concorde flies
literally ontheedgeofspace,highthrough
theatmosphere.Passengersareevencapableofseeingthe earth'ssurface.

• The Nighthawk (F-117A)first flew in 1981 and began combat in 1989. This jetwas
designed to avoid detection and mount precision attacks. It is the
firststealthcombataircraftintheworld.Ithasatopspeedof593mph(955kph)andis
loaded with 5,000 lbs. of weapons. The choice of weaponry varies from laser-
guided bombs, air-to-air missiles, or air-to-surface missiles. Two types
ofweapons can be carried at one time. The outside of the Nighthawk is
coatedwith a special material that absorbs some of the radar signals that strike
it. It isprotected by 24 hour security with armed guards all around it.
Authorizedpersonnelmustpass apalmprinttesttogetneartheaircraft.
 AviationThroughtheAges
1975A.Dto2000A.D

• The CL-415, or "Firebird," is a

veryimportant aircraft. This aircraft
isamphibious, which means it can
beoperated from land or water. It
wasdeveloped by Canadair to stop
ragingforestfires.However,itisalsouseful
forsearch and rescue missions,
especiallyon the sea. It can search for
survivorsfor up to seven hours before
refueling.It can scoop water into its
tanks.Through doors in the bottom of
theaircraftitdropswateronthefire.
• The age of computers continues
toimpact the aviation field.
Today'stechnologyisexcitinganditseem
sasif"thesky'sthelimit"aswelookintoth
efuture.
 Aviationtodayandtomorrow
• Boeing 787
designedcompletelyont
hecomputer
• willcarry 250 -
290passengersonroute
sof8,000 to 8,500
nauticalmiles
• Theairplanewilluse20per
cent less fuel
forcomparable
missionsthan today's
similarlysized airplane. It
will
alsotravelatspeedssimilar
totoday's fastest
widebodies,
Mach0.85.Airlines will
enjoy
morecargorevenuecapaci
ty.
 MartinAircraft-Maryland

• 1937 Mini-
Mariner,theflyingpr
ototypeof the
WWII
flyingboatbomber
APBM-3MartinMarinerinflight
BasicPropertiesofthe
Atmosphere
 EssentialPoints
1. Heat,TemperatureandTemperatureScales
2. TheElectromagneticSpectrum
3. CompositionoftheAtmosphere
4. Layersintheatmospherearedefinedbyte
mperatureprofiles
5. Howpressurevariesintheatmosphere
6. Principalweatherinstruments
7. Earth’sradiationbudget
 HeatandTemperature
• Temperature:Averageenergyofmoleculesorat
omsinamaterial
• Heat:Totalenergyofmoleculesoratomsinamat
erial
• Canhavelargeamountofheatbutlowte
mperatures
• Canhavehightemperaturesbutlittleheat

1. Heat, Temperature
andTemperatureSc
 HeatandTemperature
• The earth’s outermost atmosphere
isextremely“hot”butitsheatcontentisn
egligible
• The surface of the moon can reach 250 F
insunlightand-
200Finshadow,butthevacuumaround the
Apollo astronauts contained noheat.
• Ittakestimeforthingstowarmupandcooloff.

1. Heat, Temperature
andTemperatureSc
 TemperatureScales
• Fahrenheit
– WaterFreezesat32F
– WaterBoilsat212F
• CentigradeorCelsius
– WaterFreezesat0C
– WaterBoilsat100C
• Twoscalesexactlyequalat-40

1. Heat, Temperature
andTemperatureSc
 AbsoluteTemperature
• Onceatomsstopmoving,that’sascoldasit
canget
• AbsoluteZero=-273C=-459F
• KelvinscaleusesCelsiusdegreesandstartsatabs
olutezero
• MostformulasinvolvingtemperatureusetheKe
lvinScale

1. Heat, Temperature
andTemperatureSc
 ElectromagneticRadiation
• Radio: cmtokmwavelength
• Microwaves: 0.1mmtocm
• Infrared:0.001to0.1mm
• Visiblelight 0.0004–0.0007mm
-9 -7
• Ultraviolet 10 –4x10 m
• X-rays 10-13–10-9m
-15 -11
• GammaRays 10 –10 m

2.TheElectromagneticSpectrum
 CompositionoftheAtmosphere
• Nitrogen 78.08%
• Oxygen 20.95%
• Argon 0.93% (9300 ppm)
• CarbonDioxide 0.035% (350ppm)
• Neon 18 ppm
• Helium 5.2 ppm
• Methane 1.4 ppm
• Ozone 0.07ppm
3.CompositionoftheAtmosphere
OtherComponentsoftheAtmosphere
• WaterDroplets
• IceCrystals
• SulfuricAcidAerosols
• VolcanicAsh
• WindblownDust
• SeaSalt
• HumanPollutants

3.CompositionoftheAtmosphere
 StructureoftheAtmosphere
• DefinedbyTemperatureProfiles
• Troposphere
– WhereWeatherHappens
• Stratosphere
– OzoneLayer
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
– Ionosphere

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
 Troposphere
• HeatingoftheSurfacecreateswarmairatsur
face
• Warmairrises,butairexpandsasitrisesandcool
sasitexpands(Adiabaticcooling)
• Heating+AdiabaticCooling=Warmairatsurf
ace,coolerairabove
• Buoyancy=Coolairatsurface,warmerairabo
ve
• Twoopposingtendencies=constantturnover

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
 Stratosphere
• Altitude11-50 km
• Temperatureincreaseswithaltitude
• -60C atbaseto0Cattop
• Reason:absorptionofsolarenergytomakeoz
oneatupperlevels(ozonelayer)
• Ozone(O3)iseffectiveatabsorbingsolarult
ravioletradiation

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
 Mesosphere
• 50 –80kmaltitude
• Temperaturedecreaseswithaltitude
• 0Catbase,-95C attop
• Topiscoldestregionofatmosphere

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
 Thermosphere
• 80km andabove
• Temperatureincreaseswithaltitudeasatomsac
celeratedbysolarradiation
• -95C atbaseto100Cat120km
• Heatcontentnegligible
• Tracesofatmosphereto1000km
• FormerlycalledIonosphere

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
 WhyistheMesospheresoCold?
• Stratospherewarmedbecauseofozonelayer
• Thermospherewarmedbyatomsbeinga
cceleratedbysunlight
• Mesosphereissandwichedbetweentwow
armerlayers

4.Layersintheatmospherearede
finedbytemperature
profiles
HowHeatMoves
• Radiation
• Conduction
• Convection

7.Earth’sradiationbudget
Magnetosphere

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 EffectsofSpacecraft/PlasmaInteractions

• plasmawavegeneration
• arcingandsputteringatsignificantlyhighne
gativepotentialrelativetotheplasma
• spacecraftchargingathighinclinationor
bits
• currentbalancebetweenthespacevehiclean
dtheambientplasma
• geomagneticfieldeffects

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SolarEnvironment

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 SolarWind
• The solar wind is a stream of energized, charged
particles,primarilyelectronsandprotons,flowingoutwardfr
omtheSun
• CompositionsimilartotheSun’scorona
– Protons(~70%),electrons,ionizedhelium,less than0.5%minorions
– Genesis mission
• Approximately109kg/
sofmaterialislostbythesunasejectedsolarwind
• Speed:200–900km/s
• Solarsail
• Solarwindisalsoaplasmaenvironment
– Notjustgas
– Electricallyconductive

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 IonizingRadiation
• Radiation has a major impact on on-
boarddigitalcircuitry
– Long-
termdegradationandfailure(rangesfrommonthst
oyears)
– Short-term,singleeventeffects(SEE)
• Minor(bitflips)
• Major(catastrophicburnout)

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RadiationEffects

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RadiationBelts
• Twobelts(donut
shaped)
• Magneticfieldtrapsthep
articles
• DiscoveredbyExplorerI
IIin 1958
• Composedof
– Electrons
– Protons
– Someheavyions
• Effects
– Electrons:totaldose
– Protons:totaldose
andSEE
– Ions:SEE

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MovementofParticles

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SouthAtlanticAnomaly
• MagneticfieldweakerinSouth
Atlantic
• Resultisparticlepenetration
• Notepolareffectaswell
• SEUeffectonUoSat-2

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 GalacticCosmicRays
• Highenergyparticlesfrominterstellars
pace
• Fluxinverselyrelatedtosolarmaxpe
riods
• Primaryeffect
– Singleeventupsets

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RadiationEffectsonSpacecraft:
Solar Cells
• High energy protons
&electrons collide with
thecrystallatticestructure
• Collisionsdisplaceatomsf
romtheirlatticesites
• Eventually,thedisplaced
atomsformstabledefects
• Defects change
thepropagation
ofphotoelectronsinth
elatticestructure

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RadiationEffectsonSpacecraft:SolidState
Devices
• NominalMOSorCMOStechnology
• ChargedParticles:
– Voltage output of a
“GATE”switchesabruptlyfroma“0
”toa“1”ataspecifiedvoltage
• Radiation:
– Switchingthresholdchanges
– Draincurrentandoutputvoltage
alsochange
• Effects caused by cumulative effect
ofhigh energy protons and
electrons(CumulativeDosagemeasure
dinrads)

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 Meteoroid/OrbitalDebris
• Meteoroidpopulationconsiststheremnantsofcomets,sp
entrocketstages,fragmentsofrocketsandsatellites,other
hardware,aswellasoperationalsatellites.

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Micrometeoroids/OrbitalDebris
• Examplecollisions
– Russia/USsatellitescollision
– Cerres/Ariane3rdStageDebris
• VERYHIGHkineticenergies
• NASApredictedresults
– Fatalspacesuitdamagefrom0.3to0.5mmparticle
– Catastrophicshuttledamagefrom4mmparticle

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Micrometeoroids/OrbitalDebris:Defense

• DoubleWallBumper
– 1st wall fragments
impactingparticleintosmaller,slow
erpieces
– 2ndwallstopsthosepieces

ESAScientificSpacecraft
(flewthroughHalley'sCometdustcloud)

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EnvironmentsandEffects
Debris:MagnitudeofProblem
• NORADtracks ~7000objects
largerthan10cm
• Only5%areoperationalS/C
• Statisticalanalysissuggests
~40,000largerthan1cm
• Collisionsgeneratemoredebris
– ie 1985 hypervelocity ASAT
testestimated to have created
106fragmentsbetween1mmand
1cmdiameter

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 GravitationalField
• FreeFallEnvironment(notZero-GorMicrogravity)
–AtSeaLevel:ag=9.8m/s2= 1.0g
–At200km: ag=9.2m/s2=0.94g
–At1000km: ag=7.3m/s2=0.75g
–AtGEO: ag=0.2m/s2=0.023g
• Effects:
– Structures/Mechanisms:Minimumsizestructuralcomponents
– Propulsion:Fuelflow(ullageburns,etc)
– TCS:Fluidflowconsiderations(heatpipeswicking)
– etc

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 SpacecraftEnvironmentRelated
Anomalies
• Flare/GeomagneticStorm
– GOES-7:lostimageryandcommunications,solararraysdegraded2-
3yearsworth
– DSP:starsensorcontamination,memoryupsets,lostdata,power
paneldegradation
– MemoryUpsets:DMSP,GPS,INTELSAT,TDRSS
• SpacecraftCharging
– Milstar:powersupplyfailure
– Anik:momentumwheelfailure
– GOES:phantomcommands
• GalacticCosmicRay
–Pioneer:memoryanomalies

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 Conclusions
• Definitionof theflightenvironmentis thefirstcriticalstep.
• Not allspaceenvironmentswillhaveacriticalimpacton
aparticularmission.
• After definition of the space environment is
establishedincludingresultsfromtradestudies,thenextimport
antstepis to establish a coordinated set of natural
spaceenvironment requirements for use in design
anddevelopment.
• The space environment definition and requirements
aredocumented in a separate program document or
areincorporatedintodesignandperformancespecifications.
• The environments specialist then helps insure that
theenvironment specifications are understood and
correctlyinterpreted throughout the design,
development, andoperationalphases oftheprogram.

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