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Lecture 01

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Saad Abbasi
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© © All Rights Reserved
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STA-365 Mathematical Statistics

Lecture 01
Probability Probability is the measure of uncertainty.

• In the study of statistics, we are concerned basically with the presentation and
interpretation of chance outcomes that occur in a planned study or scientific
investigation.
• We shall refer to any recording of information, whether it be numerical or
categorical, as an observation.
• Statisticians use the word experiment to describe any process that generates a
set of data.
• Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called the
sample space and is represented by the symbol “S”.
Sample Space
Collection of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called
Sample Space.
Examples
Flipping a single coin.
SS={H, T}
Flipping 2 coins/Flipping a coin twice.
SS={HH, HT, TH, TT}
Make the sample space when three coins
are flipped?
Sample Space
• Rolling a die.
SS={1,2,3,4,5,6}
• Rolling a pair of die.
Sample Space
When a card is drawn from a deck of playing cards
Method of Counting Sample Points in Sample
Space
• Multiplication Rule

• Generalized Multiplication Rule

• Permutation

• Circular Permutation

• Distinct Permutation/ Permutation of Like Objects

• Combination
Counting Sample Points: Multiplication Rule
It is the fundamental rule of counting sample points.
Theorem 1:
If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for each of these ways
operation can be performed in n2 ways, then the two operations can be performed
in (n1*n2) ways.

Example 1: How many sample points are in the sample space when a fair die is
rolled twice?
Solution:
Number of Sample Points= n1 * n 2 =6(6)ways= 36 possible ways
Counting Sample Points: Multiplication Rule
Example 2: List all the elements of the sample space when an experiment is
performed the way that a coin is tossed once, and outcome is recorded, then
another stage is performed based on the recorded outcome. A coin will be tossed
again if the recorded outcome is “Head”, and the die is rolled otherwise.
Counting Sample Points: Generalized Multiplication Rule
It is used when involving operations is more than two.
Theorem 2:
If an operation can be performed in n1 ways and if for each of these a second
operation can be performed in n2 ways and for each of the first two a third
operation can be performed in n3 ways and so forth then the sequence of k
operations can be performed in (n1* n2* n3* …*nk ) ways.
Example:
How many 3 digits can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 5, 6, and 9 if each no. can
only used once?
Solution:
n1 n 2 n 3 =5(4)(3)ways =60 possible ways
Counting Sample Points: Generalized Multiplication Rule
Example
A developer of a new subdivision offers prospective home buyers a choice of Tudor,
rustic, colonial, and traditional exterior styling in ranch, two-story, and split-level
floor plans. In how many ways can a buyer order one of these homes?

Solution:

A buyer must choose from (4)*(3)=12 possible ways.


Stage 1: Choose exterior style
Stage 2: Choose interior style
Counting Sample Points: Permutation
It is the arrangement of all or part of a set of objects in a definite order. Order is
important aspect of permutation.
Theorem #3
The number of permutation of n distinct objects is “n!”
Example:
Five people are to be arrange in a row to be seated. In how many ways can this
done?
Solution:
n= 5 people to be arrange in definite order
n!= 5!=5(4)(3)(2)(1)=120 ways
Counting Sample Points: Permutation
Theorem 4:
The number of permutation of “n” distinct objects taken “r” at a time is
n Pr = n!
(n-r)!
Example:
Four applicants enter an interview room in which there are six seats. In how
many ways may they be seated?
Solution:
n = 6; r = 4
6P4 = 6! = 360 ways
(6-4)!
Counting Sample Points: Circular Permutation
Permutations that occur by arranging objects in a circle are called circular
permutation.
Theorem 5:
The number of permutation of n distinct objects arranged in a circle is (n-1)!
Example:
How many distinguishable ways can four people be seated around a circular
table?
Solution:
n=4
(n-1)!= (4-1)!= 3! = 6 ways
Counting Sample Points: Permutation of alike Objects
Theorem 6:
The number of distinct permutation of “n” things of which n1 are the same kind, n2 of a
second kind……., nk of a second kind,…..nk of a kth kind is
𝑛!
𝑛1∗𝑛2∗⋯∗𝑛𝑘
Example:
Eight books are to be arrange on a shelf. There are 2 math identical books,3 identical
English books and 3 identical Physics books. How many distinct arrangement are
possible?
Solution:
n= 8 books, n1 =2 Math books, n2 =3 English books, n3 =3 Physics books
P = 8! = 560 arrangements
2! 3! 3!
Counting Sample Points: Combination
It is arrangement of number of ways of selecting r objects from n without regard
to order.
Theorem # 7
The number of combination of n distinct objects taken r at a time is
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪 𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
Example:
In how many ways a committee of 3 can be chosen from a group of 8?
Solution:
n= 8 ; r= 3
8C3 = 8! = 56 different ways
3!(8-1)!
Difference between Combination and Permutation
Combination Order doesn’t matter
Permutation Order Matters
Practice Questions
Q.No.1: In how many ways can a caravan of 8 covered wagons from Arizona be
arranged in a circle?

Q.No.2: How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word
INFINITY?

Q.No.3: In how many ways can 3 oaks, 4 pines, and 2 maples be arranged along a
property line if one does not distinguish among trees of the same kind?

Q.No.4: Registrants at a large convention are offered 6 sightseeing tours on each of


3 days. In how many ways can a person arrange to go on a sightseeing tour
planned by this convention?
Practice Questions
Q.No.5: In a fuel economy study, each of 3 race cars is tested using 5 different
brands of gasoline at 7 test sites located in different regions of the country. If 2
drivers are used in the study, and test runs are made once under each distinct set
of conditions, how many test runs are needed?
Q.No.6: How many ways are there that no two students will have the same birth
date in a class of size 60?
Q.No.7: Find the number of ways that 6 teachers can be assigned to 4 sections of
an introductory statistics course if no teacher is assigned to more than one section.
Q.No.8: In a medical study, patients are classified in 8 ways according to whether
they have blood type AB+, AB−, A+, A−, B+, B−, O+, or O−, and also according to
whether their blood pressure is low, normal, or high. Find the number of ways in
which a patient can be classified.
Using R for Introductory Statistics
• “UsingR” is a package in R that can be installed by
using command “install.packages(“UsingR”)”.
• Many data sets are available in this package you
can use for learning process.
• You have to solve all the exercises available at the
chapters.
Installing R: http://cran.r-project.org/
Installing “UsingR”
Installing “UsingR”
RStudio IDE
Use of R for Counting Sample Points
Packages for Combinations and Permutations
• Combinat package:
install.packages(“combinat”)
library(combinat)
library(combinat)
Function: combn() Function: permn()
Packages for Combinations and Permutations
• Combinat package:
install.packages(“gtools”)
library(gtools)
Function: permutations(n=?, r=?, v=?)
n = number of observations in sample space
r = number of observations selected
v = vector of observations
Packages for Combinations and Permutations
• Combinat package:
install.packages(“gtools”)
library(gtools)
Function: combinations(n=?, r=?, v=?)
n = number of observations in sample space
r = number of observations selected
v = vector of observations
Packages for Combinations and Permutations
combinations(n=?, r=?, v=?, repeats.allowed=T)

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