Management of curriculum implementation:

implication for school effectiveness

by

Vikizitha Wycliffe Mtshali

MINI-DISSERTATION

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS

in

EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING

at the

RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY

Supervisor: Prof. BR Grobler
Co-supervisor: Dr. CF Loock

May 2000
 ii

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to the following family members:

my great-grandfather, Mndawonye Mtshali, who gallantly took part in the
defence of the last Zulu Empire against the English at lsandlwana, Rorke's
Drift and Ulundi in 1879.
KaZinakile Mnguni, my great-grandmother and Mndawonye's wife, the first
member of the family who was converted to Christianity by the Methodists in
1882.
my grandparents, Mndawonye Ablon Mtshali and Bella Xaba who had the
vision to build the first school for black children at the farm "De Kraalen", Piet
Retief in 1910. Although Bella had passed standard five at Mahamba
Methodist School in Swaziland, and Ablon had only attended evening classes
for two years in Johannesburg, they had the courage to teach and pass their
knowledge to others.
my father, Hlamvana Alfred Mtshali
The founder of Cana Primary School in 1935
The founder of Ndlela Secondary School in 1947
The founder of Piet Retief Methodist School in 1953
The Principal of Ndawonye Primary School 1956 — 1975
my mother, Winstance Dokanini,
Principal of Qhubekani Primary School 1960 —1975
Principal of Kempsiding Combined School 1975 — 1986.
 111

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is not possible for me to mention all the people who have contributed to the
success of this study. I do however wish to express my gratitude to the
following people:
Dr. Loock for the useful advices he gave me;
Prof. Grobler for his assistance and guidance;
the British Council, who financially supported me;
The Mpumalanga Department of Education who presented me with the
opportunity to study;
The educators who completed the questionnaire;
my colleagues, P. B. Nkosi, B. S. Nkosi, F. B. Mtshali, J. Lushaba and N.
Lekgau for advice and support;
Nomonde Barn, for allowing me to use many of her resources;
Maudie de Wit for her assistance with the typing and layout of this
document.
my son, Mxolisi who typed the manuscript over and over again;
my wife Doreen, who gave me moral support all the way;
 iv

SINOPSIS .

Die fokus met hierdie navorsing is die bestuur van kurrikulumimplimentering

en die implikasies daarvan op skooldoeltreffendheid. Aspekte van kurrikulum-
implimentering word as bydraende faktore beskou tot die verbetering van
kwaliteit en groter skooldoeltreffendheid.

Die navorsingsmetode was tweeledig deurdat daar eerstens 'n

literatuurondersoek met betrekking tot kurrikulumimplimentering plaasgevind
het. Die navorser het hierdie inligting gebruik ten einde sy navorsingsveld te
ondersteun en om begronde afleidings te kon maak. Tweedens is gebruik
gemaak van gestruktureerde vraelyste wat deur opvoeders in skole in
Mpumalanga voltooi is. Die inligting afkomstig van 'n analise van die vraelyste
het die navorser in staat gestel om verskeie bevindinge oor die persepsies
van opvoeders en skoolhoofde ten opsigte van doeltreffende skole te maak.

In die navorsing is die volgende bevind:

doeltreffende skole in Mpumalanga is gebaseer op aspekte soos
skoolkultuur, skoolklimaat, visie, motiveringstrategee, kurrikulum, Ieierskap
en hulpbronne;
bogenoemde aspekte kan tot drie faktore gereduseer word, naamlik
aanspreeklike ko6peratiewe bestuur, oop demokratiese bestuur en
normatiewe bestuur; en
die navorser het die onderrigmediumgroepe met mekaar vergelyk en
aangetoon dat die groepe se gemiddelde faktortellings statisties
beduidend van mekaar verskil. Die vier onderrigmediumgroepe het
beduidend ten opsigte van al drie die faktore van mekaar verskil.

Hierdie navorsingsprojek het sewe voorbeelde van twee onafhanklike en elf

voorbeelde van drie of meer onafhanklike groepe met mekaar vergelyk.
Hipoteses is gestel en meerveranderlike sowel as enkelveranderlike
statistiese toetse is gebruik om die data te analiseer en te ontleed.
Beduidende statistiese verskille is ten opsigte van al drie faktore gevind.
 v

Met betrekking tot aanspreeklike koOperatiewe bestuur is beduidende

statistiese verskille gevind tussen groepe ten opsigte van:
bywoning van werkswinkels, seminare of kursusse oor
skooldoeltreffendheid;
skoolbywoning deur opvoeders en opvoederorganisasies;*
moedertaalgroepe;
distrikte waaropvoeders werksaam is; en die
viak van dissipline in die skool.
(*Groep deur hierdie navorser bespreek).

Statistiese beduidende verskille tot oop demokratiese bestuur is gevind

tussen die volgende onafhanklike groepe:
bywoning van werkswinkels, seminare of kursusse oor
skooldoeltreffendheid;
opvoederorganisasies;*
godsdiens;
skoolbywoning deur opvoeders;
ouderdom van respondente;
onderwyservaring;
moedertaalgroepe;
hoogste onderwyskwalifikasie;
onderrigmedium van skool; en
distrikte waar opvoeders werk.
(*Groep deur hierdie navorser bespreek)

Met betrekking tot die derde faktor naamlik normatiewe bestuur het die
volgende onafhanklike groepe statisties beduidend van mekaar verskil:
bywoning van werkswinkels, seminare of kursusse oor
skooldoeltreffendheid;
posvlak van opvoeder;
opvoederorganisasies;*
godsdiens;
i skoolbywoning deur opvoeders;
 vi

ouderdom van respondente;

moedertaalgroepe;
onderrigmedium van skool;
skoolbywoning deur leerders;
distrikte waar opvoeder werksaam is; en die
viak van dissipline in die skool.
(*Groep deur hierdie navorser bespreek)

In Afdeling C van die vraelys is nie van 'n skaal met gelyke intervalle gebruik
gemaak nie. Gevolglik moes nie-parametriese statistiese metodes gebruik
word om aan to dui of die verskillende onafhanklike groepe statisties
beduidend ten opsigte van hul persepsies oor skooldoeltreffendheid van
mekaar verskil. 'n Ooreenkoms in die bevindinge tussen Afdelings B en C van
die vraelys was dat die groepe wat in Afdeling B beduidend van mekaar
verskil het, ook in Afdeling C verskil het. Die Chi-kwadraat tesame met die
gestandaardiseerde residueel het die volgende statistiese beduidende
verskille aan die lig gebring.
by die skoolbywoning van opvoedergroepe het die groep met die
persepsie dat opvoederbywoning by hulle skole uitstekend was, die
persepsie gehuldig dat hulle tot 'n groter mate aan die meer doeltreffende
skole behoort dan verwag sou word op grond van kansfaktore alleen.
Uitstekende skoolbywoning deur opvoeders beinvloed dus die persepsie
van skooldoeltreffendheid op'n positiewe wyse.
die persepsie van skooldoeltreffend is nie onafhanklik van kulturele
aspekte nie;
opvoeders by multikulturele skole huldig die persepsie dat hulle aan die
minder doeltreffende skole behoort, tot 'n groter mate as wat 'n persoon
sou verwag op grond van kansfaktore alleenlik;
opleidingskursusse in skooldoeltreffendheid beinvloed die persepsies van
opvoeders ten opsigte van skooldoeltreffendheid op 'n konstruktiewe
wyse;
onderwysersorganisasies speel 'n rol in die persepsies van hoe
doeltreffend opvoeders hule skole beskou; en
 vii

respondente in Standerton, Malelane, Ermelo en Nelspruit distrikte huldig

meer positiewe persepsies van hul skole se doeltreffendheid, relatief tot
ander skole in hulle distrik.

Die CHAD-program was gebruik om aan te toon watter van die 18

onafhanklike veranderlikes (as biografiese inligting in Afdeling A van die
vraelys ingesluit) die beste voorspellers van skooldoeltreffendheid was. 'n
Statistiese beduidende verband op die 5% beduidenheidsvlak is tussen
skooldoeltreffendheid en die volgende groepe gevind:
die viak van dissipline in die skool;
dielpywoningsviak van leerders;
die onderrigmedium van die skool;
die bywoningsvlak van opvoeders;
die onderwyskwalifikasies van opvoeders; en
die bywoning van kursusse oor skooldoeltreffendheid;

Die Mann — Whitney U toets is gebruik in 'n poging om 'n verband te toon
tussen die drie faktore onderliggend tot skooldoeltreffendheid in Afdeling B en
wat respondente as doeltreffende skole beskou in Afdeling C.

Die volgende is bevind:

die Kolmogorov-Smirnov toets het aangetoon dat die respondente net
statisties beduidend ten opsigte van normatiwe bestuur van mekaar
verskil. Toetse het ook aangedui dat die persepsie bestaan dat uitermatige
demokratise bestuur skooldoeltreffendheid nadelig kan beinvloed. Dit blyk
ook dat normatiewe bestuur, waar waardes en norme van uitnemende
prestasie teenwoordig is, 'n belangrike rol speel in die persepsie van
respondente ten opsigte van doeltreffende skole.

Ten einde `n moontlike verband tussen die eerste orde faktore onderliggend
aan doeltreffende bestuur en die drie tweede orde faktore te vind, is gebruik
gemaaak van meervoudige-regressieanalise. Die analise het bevind dat die
relatiewe belangrikheid van die eerste-ordefaktore in aanspreeklike
 viii

ko6peratiewe bestuur volgens die persepsies van die respondente soos voig
daaruit sien:
versorgende klimaat;
doeltreffende spanbestuur;
kurrikulumaangedrewe bestuur;
hulpbronbestuur;
waardegesteunde bestuur;
etiese bestuur;
aandeelhouerbetrokkenheid;
opvoederaansporingsmaatreels;
erkenning;
gelyke leerderprestasie; en
individuele prestasie.

Die relatiewe belangrikheid van eerste orde faktore in oop demokratiese

bestuur was:
deursigtige bestuur;
aandeelhouertoeganklikheid;
verdraagsame samewerking;
ontwikkelingsbestuur;
ouerbetrokkenheid in professionele opvoederontwikkeling; en
kurrikulumkonsensus.

Die relatiewe belangrikheid van die eerste orde faktore as voorspellers van
normatiewe bestuur was:
gemeenskaplike waardebestuur;
bekwame besluitneming; en
finansiele betrokkenheid.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGES
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
Sinopsis iv

CHAPTER ONE
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND CLARIFICATION OF TERMS
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 2
1.3 AIM OF RESEARCH 3
1.4 METHOD OF RESEARCH 4
1.5 ASSUMPTIONS 4
1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 5
1.6.1 Management 5
1.6.2 Implementation 6
1.6.3 Curriculum 7
1.7 OUTLINE OF RESEARCH 8

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION 10
2.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE SCHOOL 11
2.2.1 Leadership 11
2.2.2 Vision, goals and mission 12
2.2.3 An emphasis on learning 12
2.3 CURRICULUM 15
2.3.1 Curriculum implementation 15
2.4 CURRICULUM CHANGE AS MANAGED CHANGE 16
2.5 TYPES OF CURRICULA 17
2.5.1 The official curriculum 18
2.5.2 The unofficial curriculum 18
2.5.3 The intended curriculum 18
2.5.4 The formal and informal curriculum 18
2.5.5 The actual curriculum 18
2.5.6 The hidden curriculum 19
2.5.7 The overt curriculum 19
2.5.8 The null curriculum 19
2.5.9 The extra curriculum 20
2.5.10 Cuban's contribution 20
2.6 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM 22
2.7 CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES 22
2.7.1 Bloom's Taxonomy of objectives 23
2.7.1.1 Criticism of Bloom's Taxonomy 24
2.7.2 Curriculum content 25
2.7.2.1 Culture and curriculum 25
2.7.2.2 Curriculum and knowledge 27
2.8 DETERMINANTS OF CHANGE AND STABILITY IN THE
INTENDED AND THE TAUGHT CURRICULUM 29
2.8.1 Determinants of change in the curriculum 29
2.8.1.1 Legislation and government policy 29
2.8.1.2 Technological advancement 30
2.8.1.3 Publishers 30
2.8.1.4 Academic influences 31
2.8.1.5 Internal factors 31
2.8.1.6 The role of parents in curriculum change 32
2.9 DETERMINANTS OF STABILITY IN THE INTENDED
AND THE TAUGHT CURRICULUM 32
2.9.1 Goals and function of schooling 32
2.9.2 Accreditation agencies 32
2.9.3 Text books 33
2.10 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 33
 xi

2.10.1 The fidelity perspective 33

2.11 THE MUTUAL.ADAPTATION PERSPECTIVE 35
2.12 THE PROCESS OF MUTUAL ADAPTATION 36
2.13 THE ENACTMENT PERSPECTIVE 36
2.14 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND THE ROLE OF
EDUCATORS 39
2.14.1 The educator as a curriculum implementer 39
2.14.2 The educator as a curriculum adapter 39
2.14.3 The role of the educator as a curriculum maker 40
2.14.4 Educator proof curriculum 40
2.15 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND LEARNERS 41
2.15.1 Classroom dynamics 41
2.15.2 Factors that influence the learners experience of the
curriculum
2.15.2.1 Educator attention 42
2.15.2.2 Mutual trust 43
2.15.2.3 Learner-educator relationship 43
2.15.2.4 Learners of a low socio-economic status 43
2.15.2.5 Curriculum and gender 44
2.16 Summary 45

CHAPTER THREE
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION 47
3.2 THE PURPOSE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 47
3.2.1 The relationship of the researcher to the subject 49
3.3 THE STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE AS AN
INSTRUMENT OF RESEARCH 49
 xi i

3.4 DISCUSSION OF QUESTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH

MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM
IMPLEMENTATION: IMPLICATION FOR
SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS 51
3.5 THE RESEARCH GROUP 57
3.5.1 Biographical details 58
3.5.2 Return of questionnaires 63
3.5.3 Section C of the questionnaire 63
3.6 SUMMARY 64

CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF A SELECTED SAMPLE OF
EMPERICAL DATA
4.1 INTRODUCTION 66
4.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 67
4.3 HYPOTHESES 75
4.3.1 Comparison of two independent groups 75
4.3.1.1 Differences between SADTU and other non-SADTU
respondents as independent variable 76
4.3.2 Comparison of three or more independent groups 79
4.3.2.1 Differences between the principal experience groups
in respect of the three factors 79
4.4 DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
FACTOR MEAN SCORES PRESENTED IN TABLE 4.8 85
4.4.1 Accountable collaborative management 85
4.4.2 Open democratic management 89
4.4.3 Normative management 94
4.5 Section C of the questionnaire 98
4.5.1 Frequency counts of the educator organisation groups
in respect of the school effectiveness categories 100
4.5.2 The relationship between school effectiveness and the
various independent variables 101
4.5.2.1 The CHAID-technique 102
4.5.2.2 Hypotheses in, respect of the various independent variables 103
4.6 A comparison of the three factors found in section 8 of the
questionnaire with the rating of school effectiveness in
Section C 108
4.6.1 Hypotheses for the one sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test 109
4.6.2 The Mann-Whitney U test 110
4.6.3 Hypotheses for the Mann-Whitney U test 110
4.7 A MORE DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE THREE
SECOND ORDER FACTORS THAT WERE
FOUND UNDERLYING SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS 112
4.7.1 Accountable collaborative management 112
4.7.2 Open democratic management 115
4.7.3 Normative management 116
4.8 SUMMARY 117

CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION 124
5.2 SUMMARY 124
5.3 FINDINGS 126
5.3.1 Literature findings 126
5.3.2 Empirical findings 129
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 131
5.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOLS EFFECTIVENESS IN
MPUMALANGA 132
5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 134
5.7 IN CONCLUSION 135

BIBLIOGRAPHY 136
 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND ANNEXURES

CONTENT PAGES
FIGURE 3.1 Perception of the educators in the schools
sampled as to how effective their schools are 64
FIGURE 4.1 Dendogram of the effect of the independent
variables on school effectiveness 107

TABLE 3.1 Items associated with the curriculum as an aspect

of school effectiveness 50
TABLE 3.2 Distribution of responses associated with the
curriculum as an aspect of school effectiveness 51
TABLE 3.3 Attendance of workshop/seminar/course related
to school effectiveness 58
TABLE 3.4 Has the course benefited your management skills 58
TABLE 3.5 Gender 58
TABLE 3.6 Age of respondents (grouped for convenience) 59
TABLE 3.7 Present post level 59
TABLE 3.8 Teaching experience (grouped for convenience) 59
TABLE 3.9 Membership of educator organisations 60
TABLE 3.10 Mother tongue 60
TABLE 3.11 Highest educational qualification 60
TABLE 3.12 Religion 61
TABLE 3.13 Language of instruction 61
TABLE 3.14 Attendance of educators 61
TABLE 3.15 Attendance of learners 61
TABLE 3.16 Principal's gender 61
TABLE 3.17 Kind of school 62
TABLE 3.18 District in which school is situated 62
TABLE 3.19 Discipline level at your school 62
 .XV

TABLE 3.20 How effective the respondents' school is in

comparison with other schools 63
TABLE 4.1 Items associated with the factor accountabie
collaborative management. 69
TABLE 4.2 Items associated with the factor open democratic
management 72
TABLE 4.3 Items associated with the factor normative
management 74
TABLE 4.4 Hypotheses with membership of educator
organisations as the independent variable 76
TABLE 4.5 Significance of differences between SADTU and
educators belonging to other educator
organisations regarding the following three factors 77
TABLE 4.6 Hypotheses with the years as principal experience
groups as the independent variable 79
TABLE 4.7 Significance of differences between the years as
principal groups in respect of the three factors 82
TABLE 4.8 Mean scores of the independent groups in respect
of the three factors making up school effective 84
TABLE 4.9 Frequency table of the various categories of school
effectiveness 98
TABLE 4.10 Combination of categories of school effectiveness 99
TABLE 4.11 Frequency counts of the educator organisation
groups in respect of the school effectiveness
categories 100
TABLE 4.12 Factor mean scores in respect of the two categories
of school effectiveness 108
TABLE 4.13 One sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test 110
TABLE 4.14 Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for the two
categories of school effectiveness in respect of
the three factors 111
TABLE 4.15 The first order factors involved in accountable
collaborative management 113
TABLE 4.16 Stepwise regression: dependent variable
accountable collaborative management 114
TABLE 4.17 The first order factors involved in open democratic
management 115
TABLE 4.18 Stepwise regression: dependent variable open
democratic management 116
TABLE 4.19 The first order factors involved in normative
management 117
TABLE 4.20 Stepwise regression: dependent variable normative
management 117

ANNEXURE A Questionnaire
ANNEXURE B A letter to the Chief Director, Mpumalanga Department
of Education
ANNEXURE C A letter from the Chief Director, Mpumalanga Department
of Education
ANNEXURE D A letter to the principals of schools of the Nelspruit district
 CHAPTER ONE

1. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM AND CLARIFICATION OF TERMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

One of the clauses of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa as stated in
its preamble is to heal the divisions of the past and thereby establish a society
based on democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights (RSA,
1996).

The introduction of the new Constitution on the 8th of May 1996, set in motion a
series of changes in the lives of many South Africans (Keeton, 1999: 6). These
changes seek to bring about what Senge, (1997: 16) calls, "metanoia" or a
paradigm shift resulting in new ways of thinking and doing.

Occurring at the same time as the constitutional changes, we have seen the
globalization of the commercial and political world, the explosion of information
technology, unbundling of commercial conglomerates, demutualization of mutual
organisations and other fundamental changes. As a result, many learners have
had to reconsider and adjust their subject choices in favour of computer science,
commerce, science, tourism and other more marketable subjects.

The emphasis that is placed by the constitution on "equality", "human dignity" and
the freedom, for example, freedom of religion, belief and opinion, freedom of
expression, freedom of association and others, have made it necessary for the
department of National Education to be favourably disposed to the introduction of
human rights education as part of the new curriculum (RSA, 1996: 10).

As a response to changing needs and to new challenges outlined above, a new

curriculum in the form of Curriculum 2005, has been developed. It differs from the
 2

old because it, amongst other things, encourages creative thinking as against
rote learning. It is learner centred and not educator dominated. It makes use of
continuous assessment more than end of year examinations (Kruger, 1998: 7).
The new curriculum, it is hoped, will help in the quest for solutions to some of the
following challenges.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Many problems that we have today can be partially solved by the curriculum. For
example, Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has become the
number one killer in Africa and number four in the world. Close to four million
South Africans are already infected with the Human Immuno-deficiency Virus
(HIV), 1 700 get infected each day (Poit, 1999: 6).

The high rate of unemployment in South Africa has been partially caused by
wrong subject choices at the schools which have led learners into wrong career
choices.

The General Secretary of the Congress of South African Trade Unions,

(COSATU), Zwelinzima Vavi, estimates that South Africa lost 180 000 jobs in
1998 and that the rate of unemployment stood at 30% in 1999 (Hlanganani,
1999: 1). Large numbers of learners who have dropped out of school have
become unemployed and unemployable. To these dropouts the temptation of
drugs and crime becomes difficult to resist (Mncwabe, 1992: 64).

However as good as a curriculum may be, it exists in vain if it is not implemented

properly or if it is not implemented at all. Hence the focus of this research is on
curriculum implementation as an aspect of an effective school. Having introduced
the problem, it is necessary to demarcate it by means of a number of questions.
 3

The following questions are used to bring into focus the problems formulated
above:
What is the essential nature of school effectiveness in the South African
context?
What role does the management play in curriculum implementation and how
does this impact on school effectiveness?
What are the perceptions of educators with reference to the management of
curriculum implementation relative to school effectiveness?
Does the perception of educators differ in respect of the various components
of school effectiveness?
What guidelines can assist the educational leader to understand his / her role
in the management of curriculum implementation more clearly in order to
enhance school effectiveness?

Having stated the problem, the aim of the research will be the next to be
discussed.

1.3 AIM OF THE RESEARCH

The general aim of this research project is to investigate curriculum

implementation and its implication for school effectiveness. In order to achieve
this general aim the following objectives need to be realised, namely to
investigate:
the nature of an effective school in the South African context;
the possible role of the management of curriculum implementation and how
this impacts on school effectiveness;
the perceptions of education with reference to the role of the management of
curriculum implementation relative to school effectiveness;
whether the perceptions of educators differ in respect of the various
components of school effectiveness; and
 4

the guidelines that may assist the educational leader to understand and
develop his / her management strategies for curriculum implementation, to
enhance school effectiveness.

The next to be discussed is the method of research.

1.4 METHOD OF RESEARCH

A literature study will be used to clarify the concept of school effectiveness in an

effort to expose the essential characteristics and contextual nature of an effective
school in the South African context. These essential aspects will be taken up in a
structured questionnaire in order to investigate the educators' perceptions as to
what components constitute an effective school. Further to this the concept of
curriculum implementation and how it influences a school principal's
management will also be investigated. The findings from the literature survey and
from the empirical investigation will be used to make recommendations to assist
principals to understand their role in the management of curriculum
implementation and how to improve school effectiveness.

The assumption of this research project will be discussed next.

1.5 ASSUMPTIONS

The following assumptions will serve as a basis for judgement and deliberations
for this research:
that the school management plays a leading role in the management of
curriculum implementation;
that educators perceive that an effective school is one that, amongst other
things, manages curriculum implementation well; and
 5

• that the population from which the sample is drawn is normally distributed and
that it has the same variance from the central value and that an interval or
ratio scale will be used to collect data.

The concepts used in this research project will be clarified below.

1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

At this stage, concepts that will be used in this research will be clarified. They are
management, implementation, and curriculum. Management will be discussed
first.

1.6.1 Management

Management refers to administration of business concerns or public

undertakings (Concise English dictionary). It can also be defined as a process in
which human, financial, physical and information resources are utilised in order
to achieve the objectives of the organisation (Cronje, Hugo, Neuland and van
Reenen, 1994: 77). Koontz and O'Donnel, (1994:11) believe that management
has mainly to do with achievement of objectives. This view is also supported by
McFarland (1974: 6).

Mahoney (1961: 1) describes management in terms of co-ordination of actions of

individuals into a coherent and purposeful group endeavour. Management can
also be equated to leading and guiding people towards the achievement of
certain goals and involves making some decisions (Reynders, 1977: 48).

Managers are people in power who exercise their authority over other people
within organisations. They have the right to guide the activities of others through
coercion. On the other hand a leader gets results through motivation and
exemplary behaviour (Cronje et al., 1994: 121).
 6

The real challenge is to combine strong leadership and strong management and
use each to balance the other (Kotter, 1990: 103).

Because curriculum implementation is a very complex process ordinary

management procedures become inadequate. In order that curriculum
implementation be effectively managed it becomes necessary that strategic
management techniques be used. For the purposes of this discussion therefore
management is taken to mean strategic management by which is meant a
continuous iterative process aimed at keeping an organisation as a whole
appropriately matched to its environment by doing the following:
performing an environmental analysis;
establishing an organisational direction;
formulating organisational strategy;
implementing organisational strategy; and
exercising strategic control.

Strategic management is said to be an iterative process because it starts with the

first step, ends with the last step and then begins again with the first step.
Strategic management consists of a series of steps that are repeated in cyclical
fashion (Certo and Peter, 1990: 5).

The concept "implementation" will now be discussed.

1.6.2 Implementation

This is the process of putting a decision or plan into effect (Concise English
dictionary). Curriculum implementation is the process during which revised areas
of the curriculum or forms of knowledge or methods are incorporated into the
current curriculum (Holt, 1980: 29).
 7

Implementation is how the curriculum is delivered to learners. It is an interaction

between an educating agent and one or more individuals intending to learn
knowledge and skills that are appropriate for learners to learn. Educating agents
include educators, other learners, school staff, instruction material, programme
instructions and other technology assisted instruction (Sowell, 1996: 5).

The last concept to be discussed is "curriculum".

1.6.3 Curriculum

This is defined as a course of study (Concise English dictionary). The origins of

these terms are to be found in athletics where it meant the course to be run. It
later underwent a shift of meaning to include a course to be run by learners in the
process of being educated (Hirst, 1969: 143). A broad definition of "curriculum"
includes that series of things which children and youth must do and experience in
the process of growing up. It is the entire range of experiences both undirected
and directed, concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual (Bobbit, 1974:
42). One of the narrowest definitions of "curriculum" is that it is a programme,
which may be implemented in one class or across the nation (Madaus and
Kelleghan, 1992: 179).

Taba, (1962: 8) seems to suggest that the process of curriculum making is

endless by defining the "curriculum" as the amorphous product of generations of
tinkering.

A more acceptable but short definition of the "curriculum" is that it is all the
learning which is planned and guided by the school whether it is carried on in
groups or individually, inside or outside the school (Kerr, 1968: 16).
 8

Posner, (1995: 11) has identified six common concepts of the curriculum as
follows:
scope and sequence. The depiction of the curriculum as a matrix of objectives
assigned to successive grade levels and grouped according to a common
theme;
syllabus. A plan for an entire course typically including rational, topics,
resources and evaluation;
content outline. A list of topics covered organised in outline form;
textbooks. Instructional materials used as a guideline for classroom
instruction;
course of study. A series of courses that a learner must complete; and
planned experiences. All experiences learners have that are planned by the
school whether academic, athletic, emotional or social.

The curriculum can also be defined as what is taught to learners. This broad
definition includes the intended and unintended information, skills and attitudes
that are communicated to learners in schools (Sowell, 1996: 5).

A more detailed definition which shall be adopted for the purpose of this
discussion is that a curriculum of a school is a series of planned events intended
for learners to learn particular knowledge, skills and values and organised to be
carried out by administrators and educators (Cuban, 1992: 216).

The next to be discussed is the outline of the research.

1.7 OUTLINE OF RESEARCH

Chapter one consists of the research problem, the aim of the research, and
methodology to be used. It also has an outline of certain assumptions and
attempts to clarify the concepts of the research title.
 9

Chapter two reviews the literature and builds a conceptual framework Of school
effectiveness and reveals the contextual nature of this concept by applying it to
the situation in South African schools. The role of management in curriculum
implementation will also be clarified.

Chapter three deals with the design of the research instrument and a discussion
of the questions formulated in respect of curriculum implementation as an aspect
of management. The possible implication of the responses on the effective
management of the school will also be indicated.

Chapter four deals with the statistical analysis of the data. The reliability and
validity of the questionnaire will be analysed and the various statistical
techniques used to analyse the data will also be discussed.

Chapter five links the interpretation of the findings of chapter two, three and four,
and reflects on the reliability and validity of the research findings. It also deals
with the recommendations of the research and provides a conclusion.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Bhengu, (Sowetan, 1999), reports that the Congress of South African Students
(COSAS), approached the Minister of Education, Kader Asmal, with a request to
be made to write an easier grade twelve examination based on a portion of the
work that they were supposed to have covered. The reason for this was that the
prescribed programmes were not completed. In the same article it is said that the
problem had been made worse by the strike action of members of the South
African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU).

In an address to educators, Minister Asmal told them that the public did not
believe the educators were worth the money the government spent on them
(Pretorius, 1999(a): 1).

It is reported that because of the above-mentioned and other similar events,

Kader Asmal had to declare that there was a "crisis" in education (Pretorius,
ibid.).

The government is to take action on schools which do not perform well and also
on headmasters and educators who fail to turn their schools around. Poorly
managed schools may even have to be closed (Pretorius, 1999(b): 1).

It is therefore safe to assume that many of our schools are not effective.

In the light of the statements and events described above, it has become
necessary and justifiable that the characteristics of an effective school be
investigated.
 11

In this chapter, the following will receive attention:

an investigation into the nature or characteristics that constitutes an effective
school will be made. A study of the literature will be made so that a
conceptual framework of effective schools can be built; and
data will be gathered from the literature and be related to the current situation
in the Mpumalanga provincial schools, to reveal the contextual nature of the
management of curriculum implementation and its implication for school
effectiveness.

The characteristics of an effective school will be discussed below.

2.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE SCHOOL

The most important characteristics of an effective school will be discussed below.

They are leadership, aims/ goals/ mission, learning and others.

2.2.1 LEADERSHIP

Leadership is such a vast concept that it is not possible to investigate all the
characteristics that the school principal needs in order to manage effectively.
Hence only a brief summary is possible.

Leadership is mentioned by several writers as one of the attributes of an effective

school (Squelch and Lemmer, 1994: vii; Kelly, 1977: 15; Sammons, Hillman and
Mortimore, 1995: 80).

Kelly, (1980:16) has identified the following additional characteristics with regard
to an effective school leader, he / she should be:
a positive leader with fine personal qualities;
 12

a leader who establishes structures and strategies for effective

communication with the school community; and
a leader who has an open door policy and is visible in the school and
communicates the school accomplishments on a regular basis to
stakeholders.

2.2.2 VISION, GOALS AND MISSION

The existence of a clear vision, goals and mission are also important
characteristics of an effective school (Stoll and Fink, 1996: 15; Kelly, 1980: 15;
Sammons, Hillman and Mortimore, 1995: 8). The writers emphasise that the
mission, vision and goals must be clearly stated and understood by stakeholders
so that they may be shared and supported.

2.2.3 AN EMPHASIS ON LEARNING

In the view of this writer, an effective school should become a "learning

organisation", in which, according to Senge, (1990: 16), the following activities
take place:
people improve their capacity to achieve what they want;
creative ways of thinking are developed;
collective aspirations are released; and
people learn to learn together.

Characteristics of an effective school identified by Squelch and Lemmer, (1994:

vii) not already mentioned are the following:
short and long term planning;
positive school discipline;
team work;
participation with parents; and
staff appraisal.
 13

In addition, Sammons et al., (1995: 8) have listed the following characteristics of

an effective school:
purposeful teaching;
high expectations all round;
positive enforcement;
monitoring progress;
pupils rights and responsibilities; and
home-school partnerships.

Rosenholtz, (1989: 209) distinguishes between two types of schools, namely, the
"moving school" and the "stuck " school. The characteristics of a moving school
are closely linked to those of an effective school. They are:
high consensus;
educator certainty;
high commitment;
cohesiveness;
collaboration ; and
learning environment.
The characteristics of a "stuck school" are opposite to those of a moving school.

An effective school will take steps to promote a collaborative culture and thereby
avoid the bad effects of individualism and contrived collegiality (Hargreaves,
1991: 53).

Effective schools can be characterized as "resilient schools". By this is meant

those schools which function where others fail. Some of them even thrive in
unfavourable conditions. They have the following characteristics:
a sense of responsibility;
safety and organisation;
authority and discipline;
a culture of concern; and
 14

parental involvement (Christie and Potterton, 1997: 63).

Pretorius, (1999(c): 4) reports that the Department of Education is going to

evaluate all schools according to the following performance indicators:
how motivated the educators are;
whether or not the school starts on the first day of the term;
whether they have working time tables;
whether classes begin on time;
problems with drugs and violence;
how safe the school is;
parental involvement; and
whether or not school-governing bodies are providing leadership.

From these performance indicators we can infer what the government thinks an
effective school is. For example it is implied that an effective school:
has motivated educators;
starts on the first day of the term, and so on.

According to Sithole, (1997: 5) the characteristics of an effective school do not

just develop on their own, but need to be developed by care and diligence as a
long term objective of the school. Effective leadership is for example one of the
decisive factors in the development of an effective school.

This research project has taken effective schools to be composed of the

following:
school culture, (Craythome, 1995);
school climate, (Freiburg, 1999);
vision, (Holmes,1993)
motivation strategies, (Petri, 1996);
curriculum, (O'Neill and Kitson, 1996);
 15

leadership, (Holmes,1993; Harris, Bennet and Preddy,1997); and

resources, (Preddy, Glatter and Levacic, 1997).

Schools that do have the characteristics discussed above can be regarded to be

effective. In addition to that, one of the reasons why they are effective is that,
curriculum implementation is well managed.

This particular mini-dissertation deals with curriculum and more specifically with
management of curriculum implementation and its implications for school
effectiveness. Curriculum and the role played by its various aspects on school
effectiveness will now be discussed.

2.3 CURRICULUM

The concept curriculum, as defined in chapter one, has many aspects which play
a role in school effectiveness, these are: curriculum implementation, curriculum
change as managed change and types of curricula. These are discussed below.

2.3.1 Curriculum implementation

Curriculum implementation means the process during which revised areas of the
curriculum and new forms of knowledge or methods are incorporated into the
current curriculum (Holt, 1980: 29).
Holt continues to suggest techniques for curriculum implementation, namely:
change must not be subject based, but system based, where the system is
the whole curriculum of the school;
whole curriculum planning is not an overnight conversion;
neither does it mean a doctrinaire adherence to a five year plan regardless of
the prevailing circumstances;
it means an agreed undertaking by all stakeholders of the school, to develop
a plan and use it to secure an ordered change which may be viewed as a
phased sequence;
 16

a fresh tactical appraisal can be made after each phase; and

the underlying strategy stays the same.

As curriculum implementation implies some form of change in that new ways of

learning are adopted in the place of the old, it becomes imperative that
curriculum implementation be seen and dealt with as managed change

2.4 CURRICULUM CHANGE AS MANAGED CHANGE

Change is inevitable. It is important that it be managed whether it is imposed or

initiated by us. Change must be managed in such a way that it makes the school
more effective (Squelch and Lemmer, 1994: 136).

Squelch and Lemmer (1994: 137) have classified change into two major
categories, namely, structural and people change. Structural change refers to
changes of policies, rules, and procedures while people change focuses on
changing attitudes, behaviour, performance and ways of acting.

Curriculum implementation involves both structural and people change.

All the procedures that are used in managing change also apply to the
management of curriculum implementation.

Squelch and Lemmer (1994: 140) recommend the use of six procedures for
effective change management. They are the following:
commitment to change - the management of a school must be determined to
bring about change even in the face of opposition. Where commitment is
lacking , attempts at change are easily abandoned;
promoting change - the need for change must be shared with stakeholders.
The vision of the leader must be shared with the stakeholders, otherwise
change is resisted (Senge, 1994: 64);
 17

diagnosing requirements for change - planning for change means being able
to identify areas that must be changed and also the resources that the
change requires. In curriculum implementation, this information is supplied by
the results of the curriculum (Kelly, 1980: 103);
planning the change process - planning for change involves deciding on
what? where?, when?, and how? the change process will be managed;
preparing for change - the people who are to be involved in change need to
attend to the necessary and be prepared for it. Before a new curriculum is
implemented, educators need to attend workshops and seminars; and
reviewing the change - because change is an ongoing evolutionary process,
constant monitoring and evaluation is necessary. Evaluation is a process of
determining whether or not the project does achieve its objectives. In-course
evaluation takes place during implementation and post-course evaluation,
occurs at the end.

If curriculum implementation is not managed effectively, it may fail. A school

which fails to implement its curriculum may not be expected to be effective.

Now that curriculum implementation has been discussed, it is appropriate that

the types of curricula and their implication for school effectiveness be discussed.

2.5 TYPES OF CURRICULA

A total of nine major types of curricula have been identified by Kelly, (1977: 5)
and Posner, (1995: 12). These are the official, unofficial, intended, hidden,
actual, overt, informal / formal, null and extra curricular, curriculum.

Each of these types of curricula is briefly discussed below including other

contributions to the study of curriculum types.
 18

2.5.1 The official curriculum

This can be described as that which is laid down in syllabuses and prospectuses
that are officially prescribed (Kelly, 1977: 5).

2.5.2 The unofficial curriculum

This may consist of one or both of the following: An educator created curriculum
to meet the needs of learners which are not met by the official curriculum. A
learner created curriculum may be a result of learners wanting to know more
about something that is not in the syllabus and thereby influencing the educator
to deviate from the official curriculum (Kelly, 1977: 6).

2.5.3 The intended curriculum

The intended curriculum consists of the official curriculum for which the educator
is the executor and the educator created and learner influenced curriculum for
which the educator is both executor and conceiver (ibid.).

2.5.4 The formal and informal curriculum

The formal curriculum involves those activities for which the time table of the
school allocates specific periods of teaching time as opposed to sport clubs,
societies and school journeys, all of which must be seen as informal curriculum
(Kelly, 1977: 5).

2.5.5 The actual curriculum

The actual curriculum refers to that which is actually covered in practice. That
which the educator is prepared to teach and the learners prepared to learn.
 19

2.5.6 The hidden curriculum

This refers to all that is taught by the school, not by the educator. Those things
which learners learn at school because of the way in which the work of the
school is planned and organised. Which are not in themselves included in the
planning of the affairs of the school (Kelly, 1977: 4). School buildings even have
a hidden curriculum of their own (Meighan, 1993: 66).

2.5.7 The overt curriculum

This refers to all the types of curricula discussed above, save the hidden
curriculum. It refers to what the school and educators consciously teach and the
learners consciously learn (Kelly, 1977: 5).

In the view of this researcher the hidden curriculum does not have to be
implemented, because of its nature, it implements itself.

The official curriculum, is problematic in its implementation because it is often

developed outside the school, without the involvement of educators who are then
forced to implement it with little support.

2.5.8 The null curriculum

According to Posner, (1995: 12) the null curriculum consists of those subjects
that are not taught at school. The school must be engaged in active discussion
with all stakeholders to establish the reasons why some subjects must not form
part of the curriculum. This discussion must be "visited annually" and reviewed if
necessary.
 20

2.5.9 The extra curriculum

This comprises all those planned experiences outside of formal teaching. It

differs from the official curriculum by virtue of its voluntary nature. It is not hidden
but an openly acknowledged dimension of the school experience. Although
seemingly less important than the official curriculum in many ways it is more
significant. Examples are good sportsmanship, teamwork, self-reliance and
others. A major contribution to the classification of the curriculum according to
type was made by Cuban whose work is briefly discussed below.

2.5.10 Cuban's contribution

Cuban (1992: 216) has reduced the seven types of curricula described above,
to four, namely, the intended, that is, content that is expected to be learned; the
curriculum that is taught, the curriculum that learners learn and the historical
curriculum. The first three are imbedded in the historical curriculum.

The intended curriculum shall be discussed first.

• The intended curriculum

This has also been known by different names like "recommended", "adopted"
"official", "formal" or " explicit " (Cuban, 1992: 222).
The intended curriculum is contained in state " frameworks" district courses of
study, and listings of courses taught in a school. It is written and it is the subject
matter, skills and values that policy makers expect to be taught (Goodlad, 1984:
64). Theories of schooling, teaching, learning and knowledge are imbedded
within the intended curriculum and is regarded by some theorists to be equal to
the educator, if not greater, in importance (Cuban, 1992: 222).
The taught curriculum will be discussed next.
 21

The taught curriculum

This includes formal and informal lessons taught in classrooms and schools. This
is also known as the "implicit", "delivered", or "operational curriculum". It is what
educators do to present content, ideas, skills, and attitudes. This is where
educators' beliefs alter the intended curriculum. The informal side has been
labelled " the hidden" curriculum (Goodlad, 1984: 16).

The taught curriculum is also known as the operational curriculum which consists
of what is actually taught by the educator and communicated to the learner as
important (Posner,1995: 11).
Next to be discussed is the learned curriculum.

The learned curriculum

This refers to what learners have actually learned as a result of being in a
classroom. The gap in knowledge between what is taught and what is learned
both intended and unintended is often large (Cuban, 1992: 223).

Every effort to alter the intended or the taught curriculum has to contend with the
past, that is the formal purposes, official content, buried assumptions about
knowledge, and the organisation. This is called the historical curriculum. It is this
historical curriculum that contains the accumulated weight of previous
innovations (Cuban, 1992: 223).

A school will become effective if the differences between the intended and the
taught curriculum and also between the taught and the learned curriculum are
made as small as possible.

For the purposes of study and easier understanding, the curriculum has been
classified into various components or elements a selection of which is discussed
below.
 22

2.6 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM

Curriculum planing consist of at least three elements, namely: choice of

objectives, decisions about content and a selection of appropriate procedures or
methods (Kelly, 1977: 8).

The curriculum objectives are the first to be briefly discussed.

2.7 CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES

We must begin our discussion of objectives by distinguishing between objectives

and aims.

Aims are seen as general goals and purposes such as "to develop critical
awareness", "to promote understanding" and others. They are thus too general
and lacking in specificity. Curriculum planning is a process of developing more
precise statements of goals from these general aims. It is these more precise
statements that are termed objectives (Kelly, 1977: 26).

Wheeler, (1967: 14) has identified the three levels of specificity as ultimate,
mediate and proximate. Ultimate goals are general statements of goals that will
guide the planning of the curriculum. Mediate goals, are behavioural objectives
that will guide the planning of individual units or courses. Proximate goals are set
to guide the planning of specific lessons.

For teaching to succeed, the work of educators must be planned in detail. The
behavioural changes that are being brought about must be stated clearly in
advance. A satisfactory instructional objective must describe the observable
behaviour of the learner (Popham, 1969: 35).
 23

Popham, (1969: 37) goes on to add that a properly stated behavioural objective
must describe without ambiguity, the nature of the learner behaviour or product
to be measured. Bloom, an English educationist, made a bold contribution to the
study of objectives. Even though Bloom's work was published as long ago as
1950, it is still considered a major milestone in the study of curriculum objectives.

It is therefore necessary that Bloom's Taxonomy of objectives will be discussed

in the next section.

2.7.1 Bloom's Taxonomy of objectives

Bloom has classified objectives into three, namely: the cognitive, the affective
and the psychomotor also known as "the head", "the heart" and "the hand"
(Bloom, 1950: 6).

The cognitive domain comprises objectives which emphasise remembering,

solving, some intellectual tasks for which the individual has to determine the
essential problem and then re-order given material (Kratwohl, 1964: 6).

The affective domain comprises objectives which have to do with feelings, tone,
and emotion or a degree of acceptance or rejection (Kratwohl, 1964: 7).

The psychomotor domain consists of objectives which focus on muscular or

motor skills, some manipulation of materials and objects or some act which
requires neuromuscular co-ordination (ibid.).

To balance the picture, a few criticisms of Bloom's Taxonomy will be considered.

 24

2.7.1.1 Criticism of Bloom's Taxonomy

According to Kelly, this approach is too precise and specific. In practice it is not
possible to distinguish objectives in such a detailed way, as every activity in
which a learner engages will have a range of objectives both within and between
the domains (Kelly, 1977: 30). It appears, therefore, that the relationship that
exists between educational objectives is too complex to be reduced to an
unsophisticated model of this kind which sees the relationship as a hierarchy of
simple to more complex objectives.

There are many difficulties in measuring the attainment of behavioural objectives.

What sort of evidence would constitute proof of the fact that we have brought
about the behavioural changes we have been striving for? Learners can, for
example, easily go through the emotions they know we require of them (Kelly,
1977: 34).

Prespecification of intended learning outcomes to an educational process denies

autonomy to both the educator and the learner and thus can not be regarded as
educational (Pring, 1973: 46).

Pring, (1973: 88) has proposed the question of "how can you put on the
blackboard the mysterious internal goal of each creative person?".
Objectives must be drawn to represent roads to travel rather than terminal points.
The objective model is useful, but it has limitations. Its role in curriculum planing
has been overemphasised.
Curriculum objectives form what is also known as the societal curriculum which is
farthest removed from learners and is designed by the public including
politicians, special representative or special interest groups, administrators or
professional specialists. Using socio-political processes these groups decide on
goals, the topics to be studied and objectives to be achieved (Sowell, 1996: 6;
Goodlad and Su,1992: 328).
 25

A curriculum must have objectives because they indicate what the curriculum
aims to achieve. The people who implement the curriculum may not be very
committed if they do not know the objectives .A school which has a curriculum
whose objectives are not known cannot be expected to be very effective.

Curriculum content is the next aspect of the curriculum that will be discussed.

2.7.2 Curriculum content

Many fundamental decisions about the content of the curriculum have been
made and continue to be made each time a curriculum is developed,
implemented and evaluated. The following factors have been identified as having
a role in determining the content of a curriculum. They are culture, knowledge,
and values.

Each of these factors will be briefly discussed below.

2.7.2.1 Culture and curriculum

We must begin our discussion by attempting to explain what culture is.

Culture is not a systematic set of logically interrelated proposition about values,
norms, and the nature of the empirical world, but a broad diffuse, and potentially
contradictory body of shared understanding about both what is and what ought to
be (Metz, 1983: 54).
Culture refers to the normal expected ways of perceiving, thinking and of the
behaving of large social groups, nations or communities. They exclude the
smaller social groups whose normal expected ways of perceiving are those of a
subculture (Cazden, Courney and Mehan, 1989: 49).

What writers refers to as "culture" for example "educator culture", "home culture",
"female culture", "organizational culture" are in fact subcultures which are rooted
 26

in a larger culture of society. These subcultures do battle with one another as

they contend for the right to define what is done in a school (Peshkin, 1992: 250).

Both culture and subculture are important for examining the culture-curriculum
relationship (Peshkin, 1992: 249).

As long ago as 1936, Linton postulated his tripartite conception of culture. His
three components of culture are "universals", "specialities" and "alternatives". The
"universals" and "specialities" correspond to culture and subculture, while
"alternatives" represents departures from adopted ways of doing things. The core
curriculum of the school is determined by the Lintonial universals of its host
culture, the culture of the community that it serves (Peshkin, 1992: 250).

Schools have a role to instil culture in the youth, by insisting on the culture of the
society. The school therefore has the purpose of socialisation or acculturation,
attending to the induction of children into the ways of life of the society. A good
deal therefore of what is to be taught in the school can be decided by reference
to the culture of the society they are created to serve. The major task of the
school is to hand on to the next generation the common cultural heritage
(Lawton, 1975: 34). The "transmissionist" role of the school is not without
challenges which has caused this view to be revisited and re-adjusted, as will be
shown below.

Language is the vehicle through which the transmission of culture takes place.
Yet it becomes a matter of special consideration when the language of instruction
differs from that which the children learn at home and come to school speaking.
Communities in such circumstances, usually advocate learning the foreign
language because they see this as instrumental to economic and political
opportunity (Kane, 1972: 10).
 27

In the view of this writer the same can be said of South Africa where English has
become the language of opportunity, to the detriment of other ten official
languages.

Because we live in a multicultural society and a world that is becoming

interdependant, multicultural education is an imperative (Bennet, 1988: 67).

Multicultural societies should develop a "transmissionist" curriculum in which

people's beliefs are exchanged, defined, argued about, converted and retained,
including all the reactions people have to the beliefs of other people (Walking,
1990: 94).

While schools are influenced by the communities they serve, the schools also
play a role in influencing their communities by setting new trends and by
inculcating new values and norms (Moloi, 1999: 104).

Flax (1989: 11) argues that because the world has become a global village, we
need a curriculum with foreign languages, international history, geography and
foreign culture which will enable our learners to do business anywhere in the
world.

Basing curriculum implementation on the culture of the external environment of

the school will decrease alienation between the school and its environment and
improve the levels of support for the school thereby making it more effective.
The next element of the curriculum to be discussed is knowledge.

2.7.2.2 Curriculum and knowledge

Curriculum documents embody ideas concerning knowledge in a variety of ways.

Such documents prescribe a selection from the infinitely large body of what is
 28

known. Certain portions are identified as worthy of transmission in school

(Schrag, 1992: 277).

The inclusion of certain areas of knowledge into the curriculum is justified by their
truth content, objectivity or intrinsic value (Kelly, 1977: 58).

Philosophical arguments should be disregarded. Society should be deschooled

and the process of education be made less formal by basing the content of the
curriculum on the common sense knowledge of the learner rather than the
educational knowledge of the educator (Holt, 1980: 31).

Lawton, (1975: 64) believed that in making decisions about the curriculum we
must look to both philosophical assertions about the nature of knowledge, social
and technological change and that we balance these against the other.

The recent explosion of information technology has made it imperative for all well
meaning schools to introduce information technology in their curricula. The
source of knowledge will depend on the approach to the study of the curriculum
(Schrag, 1992: 277).

While most of the curriculum knowledge is created outside the school, learners
and educators of an effective school are expected to also contribute to the pool
of knowledge.

It is not by chance that a curriculum will change or remain stable as there are
factors that determine change or stability.

It is now necessary that these factors be discussed briefly.

 29

2.8 DETERMINANTS OF CHANGE AND STABILITY IN THE INTENDED AND

THE TAUGHT CURRICULUM

Although scholars divide determinants of curricula change and of stability into

external and internal factors, there is a complex web of connections between
these that cannot be easily isolated. While the individual factors are important, so
are the visible and invisible linkages between them. No distinction will be made
between external and internal factors (Cuban, 1992: 224).

The determinants of change in the curriculum will now be discussed.

2.8.1 Determinants of change in the curriculum

Various factors that influence curricular changes have been identified. The
following will be discussed: legislation, technological advancement, publishers,
professional associations, and academic influences. Legislation and government
policies are the first to be discussed.

2.8.1.1 Legislation and government policy

Legislation and government policies often initiate changes in the curriculum.

(Sowell, 1996: 6). From 1996, all South African public primary schools were
instructed to make a start with Outcomes Based Education (OBE) whether they
wanted to or not (Kruger, 1997: 2). The key elements of an outcomes based
education are:
developing a clear set of learning outcomes around which all of the systems
components can be focused;
establishing the conditions and opportunities that enable and encourage all
learners to achieve those essential outcomes; and
 30

• ensuring that all learners are equipped with knowledge, competencies and
qualities needed to be successful after they exit the school education system
(Pinchot and Pinchot, 1999: 30).

Technological advancement is the next to be discussed.

2.8.1.2 Technological advancement

The curriculum must change to accommodate advances which take place in

technology otherwise it becomes redundant. The recent explosion in information
technology has necessitated the adjustment of curricula in-order to produce
young people who have acquired the skills which society needs (Kelly, 1977: 12).

In the 1950's the government of the United States of America became worried
over the public schools' diminished role in producing scientists, mathematicians
and engineers and funded efforts to correct this trend. This was done to
strengthen America's position against Soviet Russia (Cuban, 1992: 226). An
effective school is future oriented and will keep abreast of changing times to give
the best to its learners.
At this point, the role of publishers will be discussed.

2.8.1.3 Publishers

Learners spend a great deal of time reading and memorising texts. Educators
spend time using texts and other published material. Learners read at least 32
000 textbook pages in their years of public schooling (Black, 1967: 120).
Educators report using textbooks most of the time in the classrooms, though the
use of these textbooks differs from educator to educator, departing in many
instances from what the publishers intended (Squire, 1988: 143). While a new
curriculum can hardly be implemented without proper books, an effective school
will provide its learners with relevant books (Cuban, 1992: 229).
 31

The role of universities and colleges will be the next to be discussed.

2.8.1.4 Academic influences

Universities and Colleges of Education do have some influence on curriculum

change. What is done at schools depends on what educators have taught.
Institutions for higher learning will exert their influence through their entry
requirements for admission to their courses and also through examinations
(Kelly, 1977: 16).

This brings to an end our discussion of external factors; next to be discussed are
internal factors.

2.8.1.5 Internal factors

School boards, superintendents and principals play a role in shaping the

intended curriculum by initiating changes to it and also by choosing among the
alternatives or generating their own (Cuban, 1992: 231).
The literature on educators initiating curricular changes in the classroom
abounds. When the door closes, that private world within a public school is an
area for change worked through by educators who are often alone and without
help. They revise the intended curriculum and produce the taught one. It is for
this reason that educators must be trained before a new curriculum is introduced
(Squelch and Lemmer, 1994: 137). When this has been done the curriculum will
be implemented better and make the school more effective. The role of parents
must now be discussed.
 32

2.8.1.6 The role of parents in curriculum change

The role of parents in curriculum change cannot be ignored. When community

values are ignored, or sex education and other life skills are taught, or the
concept of evolution espoused, parents have sometimes demanded changes to
what is taught (Cuban, 1992: 231).

While the facts discussed above determine change in the intended and taught
curriculum, below will be discussed those factors that promote stability.

2.9 Determinants of stability in the intended and the taught curriculum

These will include goals and functions of schooling, accreditation agencies,

textbooks, learners and educators.

2.9.1 Goals and function of schooling

The public expects schools to change children into competent, economically

useful citizens while also being able to perform other valuable social and political
duties in the society. Because the school has persisted to play the role of turning
children into good citizens, the content of its intended curriculum also persists
(Cuban, 1992: 233).

A school can become more effective by constantly revising and reviewing its
goals (Squelch and Lemmer, 1994: 138).

2.9.2 Accreditation agencies

Secondary schools strive to satisfy the needs of accreditation organisations. As a

result it becomes difficult to make fundamental changes in the face of these
 33

requirements. Accreditation therefore has become a mechanism for curriculum

control (Jurkowitz, 1981: 11). There is very little a school can do about this.

2.9.3 Text books

Most school systems retain textbooks for about five years or more. With revision,
a textbook may last for more than a decade (Cuban 1992: 235). The content and
organisation of books promote stability (Elson, 1964: 338). A school which is
introducing a new curriculum will do better if it removed old books from
circulation.

Schools that are introducing new curricula must encourage those factors that
promote change and also try to neutralise those factors that retard it, otherwise
the new curriculum will not be well implemented. When this happens the school
becomes less effective.

Various approaches to the study of curriculum implementation have been

developed. These approaches will now be discussed.

2.10 APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

Snyder, Bolin and Zumwalt, (1992: 402) have identified three approaches to the
study of curriculum implementation. They are the following: the fidelity approach,
mutual adaptation and curriculum enactment. They are discussed below one
after the other. The fidelity approach will be the first to be discussed.

2.10.1 THE FIDELITY PERSPECTIVE

Most curriculum implementations have been studied from a fidelity perspective.

(Snyder et al., 1992: 404).
 34

The main intent is to determine the degree of implementation of innovation terms

of the extent to which actual use of the innovation corresponds to the intended or
planned use. This approach also seeks to determine factors which facilitate and
inhibit such implementation (Fullan and Promfet, 1977: 340).

Underlying this perspective, are certain assumptions about curricular knowledge,

change and the role of the educator as explained below. Curricular knowledge is
primarily created outside the classroom by experts who design and develop the
curriculum innovation. Change is conceived as a linear process, with educators
implementing the innovation in the classroom. The curriculum is evaluated to
determine whether the planned outcomes have been achieved. Implementation
is successful when educators carry out the plan as intended (Snyder et al., 1992:
404).

Before a programme can be deemed to have failed because the desired

outcomes may not have been met, it may be necessary to determine whether the
programme had really been implemented. To achieve this the following needs to
be done:
define the innovation clearly;
define the properties of the renovation;
develop and validate an implementation checklist;
use the checklist to assess the degree of implementation of a particular
innovation; and
it can also be used as a self-test questionnaire or an observation schedule
(Fullan and Promfet, 1977: 340).

In a study to find out why a programme designed to provide equal educational

opportunities to disadvantaged children had failed, the following were identified:
educators lacked clarity about the innovation;
educators' lack of skills and knowledge;
unavailability of required instructional materials;
 35

incompatibility of organisational arrangements with innovation; and

lack of motivation (Grass, Giacquinta and Bernstein, 1971: 211).

Mutual adaptation is the next among the approaches to curriculum

implementation that will be discussed.

2.11 THE MUTUAL ADAPTATION PERSPECTIVE

Mutual adaptation can be defined as that process whereby adjustment in a

curriculum are made by curriculum developers and those who actually use it in
the school or classroom context. The developers have in mind what is necessary
to achieve the purpose of the curriculum, and the educators know their learners'
abilities and backgrounds. They also know their own abilities as educators. Both
groups must be willing to make adaptations to their positions and arrive at a
mutually accepted settlement (Sowell, 1996: 243).

The implementation of the above is that there should be a certain amount of

negotiation and flexibility on the part of both the designers and the practitioners
(Snyder et al., 1992: 411).

The term mutual adaptation emerged from the Rand study headed by
researchers Berman and McLaughlin, who were interested in studying practices
that were based on different assumptions about children, educators, and learning
than those practices studied by fidelity researchers (Snyder et al., ibid.).

McLaughlin, (1976: 3110) has noted the following differences between the fidelity
and the mutual adaptation approaches.

The fidelity perspective sees curriculum knowledge as something created outside

the school, while mutual adaptation research tends to see curriculum knowledge
as one facet of a large complex, social system that cannot be taken for granted.
 36

The fidelity approach has the weakness of discouraging educator creativity and
commitment. Its advantage of setting high uniform standards for all the schools
cannot be doubted. This approach is most suited where drastic changes have to
be made, where schools are not effective and where the culture of learning and
teaching has to be restored. In such circumstances the fidelity approach is bound
to make schools more effective.

In fidelity research, evaluation is tied to the degree of match between the

implemented curriculum and an original design. While in mutual adaptation it
involves the degree of interaction between the designers and implementers.

Mutual adaptation is a process that must be carefully planned to take place within
certain time limit. The process will now be discussed.

2.12 THE PROCESS OF MUTUAL ADAPTATION

Berman and McLaughlin, (1979: 111) introduced the concept of mutual

adaptation to the change literature. Mutual adaptation has now, become almost
synonymous with planned curriculum change as it shed light on what kinds of
strategies and conditions tend to promote change in the schools and what do not.

The last section of the approaches to curriculum implementation is the

enactment perspective which will now be discussed.

2.13 THE ENACTMENT PERSPECTIVE

From the curriculum enactment approach, the curriculum is viewed as the

educational experiences jointly created by the learner and educator (Sowell,
1996: 247). The externally created curricula materials and programme materials
 37

of the fidelity and mutual adaptation, are seen as tools to be used as educators
and learners enact experience in the classroom.

Snyder et al., (1992: 418) have identified five major research questions. Which
this approach attempts to find answers to. They are the following:
What are the enacted experiences and how do learners and educators create
them?
What effect do outside factors like curricular materials and programmed
instructional strategies, have on the curriculum as enacted?
What are the effects on learners of the curriculum as it is actively enacted?
Can educators and learners be trusted to produce socially desirable
outcomes?
How can educators and learners be empowered to enact such a curriculum?

The role of the educator is as curriculum developer together with his I her
learners who must be involved in creating positive educational experiences.
Newton, (1934: 218-219) goes on to say that educators must be engaged in
thinking, adapting and developing the curriculum and not be like an artisan who
only works according to definite specifications and under close supervision.

In 1933, 30 Denver high schools were selected to take part in an eight year study
on enactment in which educators and learners together planned what they
wanted to learn in terms of their own situation and needs with a minimum of
prescription by others (Caswell, 1950: 153).

According to Aikin, (1942: 41) educators and the administrators of the 30 schools
reported they needed the following in order to build a curriculum successfully:
time for educators to study and plan together;
as broad a base of participation as possible, including parents and learners;
research on general findings and specific local conditions;
 38

planning was to be followed by action. The schools that plunged into change
without taking the time to solve their problems, often found it necessary to go
back to the beginning and start again;
continual internal evaluation was necessary to record, report and analyse
what was happening;
collaborative leadership and educator collaboration were stressed because
without these the project was doomed to fail; and
finally the educators emphasised that they needed freedom and
responsibility.

It was also found that the learners from experimental schools outperformed those
from non-experimental schools. The experimental schools were more willing to
undertake a search for valid objectives, organising curricula and techniques and
setting them in motion in order to alter the objectives. One of the most effective
schools was located in an area characterised by poverty and predominantly
populated by learners from low socio-economic backgrounds (Snyder et al.,
1992: 422).

In conclusion, the results were very positive when no attempt was made to
control the initiatives of educators, but to assist them to achieve their own
objectives. Educators and learners can be trusted to enact the curriculum
(Snyder et al., 1992: 427).

Curriculum enactment is difficult to implement because it requires large time

investments. The open-ended nature of learning activities calls for large
allocations of time that permit learner exploration and experimentation by
learners. Discussions should be allowed to terminate naturally rather than
according to a fixed timetable (Sowell, 1996: 249).
 39

The enactment approach allows opportunities for educators and learners to be

actively involved in designing and implementing their own learning programmes
and thus contributing to making the school more effective.

The role of educators is critical to the process of curriculum implementation,

which will now be discussed.

2.14 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATORS

The role of the educator in curriculum implementation has been described as

curriculum implementer, adapter, and maker. These roles will be discussed
below including the educator proof curriculum.

2.14.1 The educator as a curriculum implementer

This view is consistent with the fidelity approach which views the role of the
educator as follows:
An educator is a consumer who should follow directions and implement the
curriculum as those possessing the curricular knowledge are those who have
designed it.
Educators are seen as mediators between the curriculum and the intended
outcomes. They are generally told what to do and supervised to make sure
they comply (Snyder et al., 1992: 367).

2.14.2 The educator as a curriculum adapter

This is the view held by followers of the mutual adaptation approach. From this
perspective the role of the educator becomes more active in shaping the
curriculum to meet demands of the local context (Snyder et al., 1992: 424).
 40

2.14.3 The role of the educator as a curriculum maker

According to this view the educator must lead the process of curriculum
development. The educator must be a curriculum maker rather than a curriculum
transmitter or implementer (Tyler, 1949: 16). The role of the educator is integral
to the process because there would be no curriculum without the educator and
the learners giving form to it in the classroom.

For a curriculum to succeed educators must be involved in its development and

not only in its implementation because educators resent the imposition of a
curriculum in which they had minimal input (White, 1993: 85).

Because some writers have written about an educator proof curriculum the
possibility needs to be investigated.

2.14.4 Educator proof curriculum

This refers to curriculum implementation which takes place without the use of
educators. This category includes the use of teaching machines, programmed
textbooks, computer-assisted instruction and distance education and other non-
conventional forms.

Although the forms of education mentioned above go on without the presence of

educators, educators are still involved in writing objectives and in preparing
programmes and other materials. This has put the educator in the forefront of the
technology of curriculum implementation (Wiles and Bondi, 1998: 350).

A school has more chances of being effective if it made use of educators and
other educator-free devices in implementing its curriculum. One way of getting
more out of educators is to offer them the necessary training in the new
curriculum that is being implemented (Skinner, 1958: 972).
 41

The next to be discussed under curriculum implementation is how learners

experience curriculum implementation.

2.15 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND LEARNERS

All forms of curriculum implementation are directed at learners in the classroom

on whom they are intended to have an effect.

The curriculum as experienced by learners is known as the experiential

curriculum. The point of departure for this type of curriculum is that what is
experienced differs from one learner to the next because of differences in
backgrounds, levels of motivation and aspirations (Goodlad and Su, 1992: 79).

The experiential curriculum is the one that is internalised and made personal by
learners. The experiential curriculum is the learned curriculum (Sowell, 1996: 6).
For schools to be effective the principal and staff must therefore focus on the
experiential curriculum.

To understand how learners experience the curriculum the dynamics of the

classroom and factors that influence these experiences will be discussed.

2.15.1 Classroom dynamics

Classrooms are sites in which learners act upon new knowledge and skills and
places where the interaction occurs rapidly (Jackson, 1992: 1968).

Foucault, (1979: 95) has noted that learners in classrooms do not encounter the
manifest curriculum by working in solitary cells, but their engagement with the
curriculum is audienced, where learners are constantly aware of the potential
attention of the educator in the presence of other learners.
 42

He continues to list some of the events that take place in the classroom as
follows:
display of interest;
display of competence;
competition; and
receiving of attention from educators and other learners (Foucault, 1979:
100).
Classrooms are characterised by the following:
asymmetry of formal and informal rights and obligations; and
formal distinction among learners according to their level of performance
(Oakes, 1985: 77).
If the learning site is managed according to democratic but firm principles, where
all learners are treated equally and no harassment of learners by the educator
occurs, some of the conditions for making the school effective have already been
met.

Factors that influence the learner's experience of the curriculum will now be
discussed.

2.15.2 Factors that influence the learners experience of the curriculum

Under this heading will be discussed educator attention, mutual trust and the
learner- educator relationship.

2.15.2.1 Educator attention

Educator attention in daily classroom life has a powerful influence on what goes
on in the classroom. The educator influence is four fold namely:
informal learner identity;
pecking order;
displays of knowledge and skills; and
feelings of learners (Erickson and Shultz, 1992: 476).
 43

2.15.2.2 Mutual trust

In classrooms in which learning is taking place, trust is continually at stake

because of the risk of embarrassment and loss of face during lessons. Learners
are at the edge of their capacity to perform adequately. This is where mistakes
occur in the " zone of proximal development" (Jackson, 1968: 84).

2.15.2.3 Learner-Educator relationship

McDermott, (1974: 56) says the following about this topic:

Where the relationship between the educator and the learner is strained, the
following occurs:
work is seen as irrelevant and boring;
work is seldom completed;
aims are never clear to the learner; and
learners are never self-motivated.
In classes presided over by warm and charismatic educators the following is
experienced:
learners identify with the educator;
learners always try to do their work even if they do not understand it;
learners never withhold their efforts on the task assigned; and
learners do not disturb the class.
Schools will improve their effectiveness if the learner- educator relationship is
well managed, otherwise all the work done in trying to implement the curriculum
will be lost.

2.15.2.4 Learners of a low socio-economic status

Among learners of a low socio-economic status, talent and motivation are

skewed negatively, hence more than half of the learners from such schools will
 44

have learning problems and will also evidence alienation from the school (Snyder
et al., 1992: 472).

According to Hollins, (1996: 12) it is a well-documented fact that learners from

low-income groups and certain ethnic minorities are underserved by the
curriculum of public schools. This challenges the validity of classroom practice to
such learners.

Schools that have the type of learner described above must take extra care to
accommodate them because they may need more time to absorb the curriculum
that is being implemented.

In the next section it will be demonstrated how curriculum practitioners treat boys
and girls differently.

2.15.2.5 Curriculum and gender

Researchers and policy makers have concentrated on sex or gender differences

for over a century and most of the differences uncovered have been small and
unimportant (Noddings, 1990: 689). Because more boys than girls excel in
aptitude tests, some researchers have suggested that there may be a gene
favouring mathematics development in males (Benbow and Stanley, 1980: 1262-
1264). Factors other than genetic preposition are already operating by the time
children enter junior school, and many of these factors press young women to
reject mathematical activity (Brush, 1985: 124).

While there is no evidence of genetic predisposition, there are gender differences

in participation in various mathematical fields. Visual and spatial aptitude have
been considered good possibilities for explaining the differences in participation
(Linn and Petersen, 1985: 1484).
 45

Chipman and Wilson, (1985: 285) dismiss the idea of differences in spatial and
visual perceptions and argues that girls and boys are treated differently even as
early as the pre-school where girls are made to play with dolls and boys with
blocks and trucks. This inculcates in boys the notion that caring for babies is
woman work, and deprives the girls of experience with toys and an early
introduction to science.

To make a school more effective and transformed the science and mathematics
curriculum should be implemented equally to boys and girls without the sexual
prejudices of the past so that participation in these subjects is balanced.

Discussion in this chapter, has been based on the management of curriculum

implementation, especially those factors whose handling is critical to the success
or failure of making a school effective. If the recommendations made in this
chapter are followed and applied to a school situation, the school should be
expected to improve and be more effective.

A summary of what has been discussed in chapter 2 will now be presented.

2.16 SUMMARY

The chaotic conditions that are found in our education system have been
outlined, including the threats and utterances of the officials who want to correct
these conditions. Characteristics of an effective school have been exposed,
especially the importance of good leadership, vision and perfect learning
conditions.

It has been stressed that curriculum implementation implies bringing about

change and should therefore be managed as all change should.
 46

Types of curricula have been discussed with special emphasis on the intended,
the taught and the learned curricula. Objectives, content, methods and evaluation
are the important components of a curriculum. Models of curriculum evaluation
have been discussed in detail.

Determinants of change and stability of the curriculum have been identified as

legislation, technological advancement, textbooks, educators and others. Next to
be discussed were the approaches to the study of curriculum implementation
which comprise, fidelity, mutual adaptation and curriculum enactment.

The role of educators in curriculum implementation has also been discussed,

especially that they are seen as developers, implementers and adapters. The
effect that the curriculum will have on learners is very important because without
it, the curriculum may be in vain. Curricula that are geared to perpetuate gender
differences should be redeveloped to be applicable to all learners.

In the next chapter an outline of the research methodology used by the research
to collect data will be discussed. The discussion will also include questions
associated with the management of the curriculum implementation: implication
for school effectiveness.
 CHAPTER THREE

3. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The bedrock of the structured questionnaire that was used to probe the
perception of educators and principals in respect of effective schools, was
formed by the literature study in chapter two. The specific aim of the research as
management of curriculum implementation: implication for school effectiveness
was highlighted in chapter two.

An attempt will be made in this chapter to outline the methodology used by the
researcher to collect data. The research design focuses on the following:
the purpose of quantitative research;
the design of the questionnaire as a research instrument;
a discussion of the questions used by the researcher; and
a discussion of the respondents used, biographical details requested and the
return of the questionnaire.

The merits of quantitative research will now be discussed briefly.

3.2 THE PURPOSE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Information that has been obtained from respondents will be transcribed in the
form of scores that can be tabulated and analysed. Quantitative research has the
purpose of making objective descriptions of a limited set of phenomena and also
to find out whether or not certain interventions can be used to control the
phenomenon. The initial quantitative studies of a research problem, therefore
involve a precise description of the phenomena and a search for pertinent
 48

variables and their interrelationships. Finally, a theory is formulated to account for

the empirical findings (Borg, Gall and Gall, 1993: 195 -196).

Deductive reasoning is basic to quantitative research. It makes the assumption

that a researcher should be able to move from general kinds of statements to
particular ones. For example, all herbivores have teeth (general statement); all
cattle are herbivores; therefore all cattle have teeth (specific statement). These
statements are regarded as objective and independent of human experience and
are a means of linking theory with observations that have been made.

Borg et al., (1993: 195) states that quantitative researchers assume that they
discover "laws " that lead to predictions that are reliable and make possible the
control of educational phenomena. They see their task as the discovery of these
laws by searching for irregularities in the behaviour of samples of individuals.
Statistical analysis which reveals trends in the sample's behaviour is used to
support this search. It is believed by quantitative researchers that such trends or
laws are sufficiently strong to have practical value, even though they do not allow
for perfect prediction or control. Quantitative researchers use a deductive form of
reasoning and begin with hypotheses and move towards proving these. In this
research project, more specifically, statistical hypotheses will be made use of.

The opposite of what the researcher predicts or expects is postulated by a

statistical research hypothesis. It then known as the null hypothesis and is
usually represented by the symbol Ho. If a statistically significant difference is
expected by the researcher between the mean scores of male and female
educators in respect of learner discipline (research hypothesis) then the
hypothesis will be stated in the form of a null hypothesis. It is a null hypothesis
that is tested using statistical techniques. In its null form the hypothesis will then
read as follows:
• Ho- There is no significant statistical difference between the mean score of
male and female educators with respect to learner discipline.
 49

Ha- there is a significant statistical difference between the mean scores of

male and female educators with respect to learner discipline.
If it is found that there is a statistically significant difference between the mean
scores of male and female educators with respect to learner discipline then the
null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected and the alternative hypothesis or research
hypothesis (Ha) is accepted.

3.2.1 The relationship of the researcher to the subject

The investigator's goal is objectivity in quantitative research. They strive to keep

their personal values, beliefs, and biases from influencing the process of data
collection and analysis. Because of this, they typically administer tests that
involve minimal personal involvement between them and the research sample.
When conducting an interview, the necessary interaction is avoided by
standardisation so that the interaction is identical for every individual in the
sample. Conversely, the role of the respondents in the research is passive
because their function is to react to the researcher's questions and interventions.
They are not asked to interpret research data or to offer opinions other than
those requested by the measuring instruments (Borg et al., 1993: 195).

3.3 THE STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE AS AN INSTRUMENT OF

RESEARCH

One hundred and five (105) closed-ended items constituted the structured
questionnaire. The questions were designed to obtain the perceptions of the
members of the teaching profession in the province of Mpumalanga as to what
constitutes an effective school. Questions were formulated around the following
aspects:
school culture (Craythorne, 1995);
school climate (Freiburg, 1999);
vision (Holmes, 1993);
 50

motivational strategies (Petri, 1996);

curriculum (O'Neill and Kitson, 1996);
leadership (Hams, Bennet and Preddy, 1997); and
resources (Preddy, Glatter and Levacic, 1997).

Twenty-one learners formulated questions around the above aspects of school

effectiveness and each question started with the header " an effective school
should".

Although this particular research project deals with management of the

curriculum as an aspect of school effectiveness, all the questions formulated by
this group relative to the curriculum are represented in table 3.1 and 3.2
respectively.

TABLE 3.1 ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CURRICULUM AS AN ASPECT

OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
ITEM DESCRIPTION: an effective school should MEAN RANK FACTOR
NO SCORE ORDER
B20 Have a curriculum that is supported by the 5,08 80 F2
majority of stakeholders of the school.
B59 will only implement an additional field of study 4,84 84 F2
when the majority of the stake holders have
agreed to it
B63 Only implement a curriculum that has been 3,93 97 F3
successfully implemented in another country
B65 Implement a curriculum that is based on 5,68 26 Fl
relevant and reliable educational research
B70 Implement a curriculum that provides learners 5,73 17 Fl
with the necessary skills to be useful citizens
B1 Ensure that maths and science are part of the 5,57 44 Fl
academic curriculum
B4 Implement a curriculum that provides learners 5,59 42 Fl
with a life-skills education
B6 Not deviate from the national curriculum 4,64 87 Fl
B7 Allow educators to use the results of the 5,05 82 F2
assessment of learners to plan curriculum
priorities
B13 Be future oriented when designing a curriculum 5,65 29 Fl

Factor 1 = accountable collaborative management

 51

Factor 2 = open democratic management

Factor 3 = normative management

TABLE 3.2: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSES ASSOCIATED WITH THE

CURRICULUM AS AN ASPECT OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS

Item Frequency of responders scoring from 1 to 6 Total % selecting

Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 or 6
B20 77 46 104 194 285 974 1080 74,9
B59 136 54 110 238 308 834 1680 67,97
B63 406 83 137 245 206 604 1683 54,07
B65 10 14 21 83 208 1347 1083 92,37
B70 13 9 15 68 180 1398 1683 93,76
B1 36 22 48 95 125 1354 1080 88,0
B4 17 20 45 99 184 1314 1679 89,2
B6 133 78 149 275 296 743 1674 62,07
B7 73 42 90 220 338 905 1668 74,5
B13 14 22 26 75 202 1335 1676 91,7

1 = strongly disagree
6 = strongly agree
2 to 5 = equal intervals between 1 and 6

Tables 3.1 and 3.2 will be used to facilitate a discussion of the questions relevant
to this particular research project

3.4 DISCUSSION OF QUESTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH MANAGEMENT OF

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION: IMPLICATION FOR SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS

Each question was formulated in such a way that the respondents could indicate
the extent to which they agree or disagree with statements in respect of school
effectiveness, for example, an effective school should:
• ensure that maths and science are part of the academic curriculum.
 52

The various questions will now be motivated and discussed using the relevant
data as given in table 3.1 and 3.2

Question B20: Have a curriculum that is supported by the majority of

stakeholders of the school

Tables 3.1 and 3.2 reveal the following statistical data:

mean score :5,08
Rank order :80
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6: 74,9 %

From the above it can be inferred that the majority of the respondents agree to
strongly agree with the statement. The curriculum offered by the school must be
in agreement with the wishes of stakeholders, especially parents and educators.
This view is supported by Squelch and Lemmer, (1994: 140) who stress that the
reasons for change must be shared with stakeholders. This view is also shared
by Holt, (1980: 129) who advises that curriculum change is not an arbitrary
decision, but must involve all stakeholders.

Question B59: Will only implement an additional field of study when the
majority of stakeholders have agreed to it.

Mean score: 4,84

Rank order : 84
`)/0 of respondents selecting 5 or 6: 67,97 %

The above results indicate that most respondents partially agree to agree with
the statement. This means that an effective school should consult stakeholders
before it introduces a new field of study. Parents generally accept that the school
has expertise which they as parents usually do not have. They therefore expect
the school to play a role of leadership in curricular matters. Parents only need to
 53

be consulted properly so that they, too, can also express their views on the
matter (Holt, 1980: 92-93;, Barnard, 1992: 425).

Question B63: Only implement a curriculum that has been successfully

implemented in another country.

Mean score: 3,93

Rank order :97
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6: 54,7 %

The mean score indicates that the respondents are divided on this point because
of the relatively low percentage. Only 54,7 %, of the respondents partially agree
with the statement and whilst 45,3 % of the respondents cannot be classified in
this category. Learning also means referring to the experiences of other people
and learning from their mistakes. Learning from the experiences of countries
which are educationally more advanced than ours is essential.

Gultig, Ndhlovu and Betram (1998: 3) justify their new South African curriculum
framework by saying that similar documents had also been published in Namibia
and England. At the same time the curriculum needs to respond to the needs and
aspirations of the communities that are served by the school. These are unique
and do not depend on what is done in other countries (Snyder et al., 1992: 426).

Question B65: Implement a curriculum that is based on relevant and

reliable educational research

Mean score: 5,68

Rank order :26
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 92,37 %
 54

The respondents have demonstrated that an overwhelming majority of them

agree to strongly agree with this statement because the objectives of a
curriculum must be based on the needs of the community (Snyder et al., 1992:
426). These needs must be established through research if they are to be
reliable. If the curriculum is seen as a strategy it must therefore be preceded by
environmental scanning which in this case, is educational research. Tyler, (1949:
1105) insists that curriculum development must be based on the results of
curriculum evaluation.

Question B70: Implement a curriculum that provides learners with the

necessary skills to be a useful citizen

mean score: 5,73

Rank order: 17
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 93,73 cY0

The above figures reveal that the majority of respondents agree to strongly agree
with the statement. One of the aims of education is to produce good citizens. The
communities demand this from the schools as a return for the investment that
they are called upon to make from time to time. This point of view is also
supported by Cuban (1992: 123). Gultig et al. (1998: 17) have also stated that a
curriculum should inform learners about their rights and responsibilities as
citizens in a democratic South Africa.

Question 131: Ensure that maths and science are part of the academic
curriculum

Mean score: 5,57

Rank order: 44
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 88%
 55

From the figures it can be deduced that the respondents agree to strongly agree
with the statement. This. can be expected because modern inventions have
broadened the horizons of knowledge. As a result, learners who have done
maths and science have more employment opportunities than those that have
not. Information technology is setting the pace for commerce, business, science
and education and it is relatively easier for learners who have done maths and
science to have access to it. Information technology is the future in which most
learners want to have a place. It is inexcusable today for schools not to offer
maths and science in their curricula (Boyer, 1983: 111). Holt, (1980: 49) has
stated that science and maths should be encouraged because they give learners
wonderful insights into the problems of living.

In the fifties, the Government of the United States of America promoted science
and maths education in the schools to compete successfully with Russia in the
space race (Cuban, 1992: 226). The then American Government therefore
supported this view.

Question B4: Implement a curriculum that provides learners with a life

skills education

mean score:5,59
Rank order :42
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 89,2 %

The majority of the respondents agree to strongly agree with the statement. The
Aids pandemic has made the study of life skills very important in the life of South
Africans. The respondents believe that a an appropriate curriculum is capable of
reducing the rate of HIV infection which is presently 1 700 people a day and is
still growing. This is supported by Poit (1999: 6). Similarly Pretorius (1999(d): 5)
reports that "rape lessons" will form part of lifeskills education as an attempt to
combat the high incidence of rape in South Africa. Gultig et al. (1998: 17) also
 56

stress that learning programmes should be developed to inform learners about

career opportunities and important lifeskills.

Question B6: Not deviate from the national curriculum

Mean score: 4,64

Rank order : 87
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 62,07 c/0

The score reveals that a majority of respondents agree with the statement, yet
the agreement is not unanimous. 37,03 % of the respondents do not agree.
Those that agree are in line with the fidelity approach to curriculum
implementation which believes that a curriculum should be implemented as
planned (Snyder et al., 1992: 404). According to this approach, the difference
between the intended curriculum and the taught curriculum should be as little as
possible (Cuban, 1992: 216). The respondents who do not agree with this
statement probably believe that it is acceptable to make adjustments to the
curriculum by those who use it in the classroom (Snyder et al., 1992: 410).

Question B7: Allow educators to use the results of assessment of learners

to plan curriculum priorities.

Mean score: 5,05

Rank order: 82
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 74,5 %

The results show that the majority respondents agree to strongly agree with the
statement. One of the purposes of evaluation is to determine the performance of
learners in the curriculum that they do. If it no longer meets the needs of the
learners, it is time that it must be reconsidered (Tyler, 1949: 1105).
 57

Darling-Hammond and Wise (1985: 324) argue that assessment, when used for
decision making purposes exerts powerful influences on the curriculum and
instructional education, especially on the content and the format of tests. If the
above is true, Cohen and Spillane (1992: 18) believe that assessment should be
carefully shaped to send signals that are consistent with the kinds of learning
desired and the approach to curriculum and instruction that will support such
learning.

Question B13: Be future oriented when designing the curriculum

Mean score: 5,65

Rank order : 29
% of respondents selecting 5 or 6 : 91,7%

The response to this question demonstrates that the majority of respondents

agree to strongly agree with this statement. This is to be expected because the
respondents as educators are sensitive to new developments and to keeping
abreast of times. Gultig et al. (1998: 17) argue that a curriculum should be about
the future as it must provide learners with ways and means of realising their
expectations for the future.

The research group will now be analysed.

3.5 THE RESEARCH GROUP

Questionnaires were distributed to members of the teaching profession in the

province of Mpumalanga, South Africa, according to statistics obtained from the
Mpumalanga Department of Education. There are approximately 26 906
educators in Mpumalanga in a ratio of four English medium of instruction
educators to one Afrikaans medium of instruction educator. Thus approximately
21 525 educators use English as language of instruction and 5 381 have
 58

Afrikaans as medium of instruction. The 2 400 questionnaires were thus divided

into 1 900 English questionnaires and 500 Afrikaans questionnaires. The various
learners associated with the questionnaires distributed these questionnaires
amongst the 10 districts in Mpumalanga (see appendix A). The sample was thus
of a convenient, stratified nature and representative of the educators in the
Province of Mpumalanga.

3.5.1 Biographical details

The following biographical details are represented in the form of tables as it

provides a good example of how representative the sample was of the population
of the Province of Mpumalanga.

TABLE 3.3: ATTENDANCE OF WORKSHOP / SEMINAR / COURSE

RELATED TO SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
Frequency Percent
Yes 922 55,1
No 750 44,9
Total 1 672

TABLE 3.4: HAS THE COURSE BENEFTED YOUR MANAGEMENT SKILLS

Frequency Percent
Definitely 532 31,6
Partially 351 20,8
Not at all 111 6,6
Did not attend 690 41,0
Total 1 684

TABLE 3 5: GENDER
Frequency Percent
Male 684 41,2
Female 978 58,8
Total 1 662
 59

TABLE 3.6: AGE OF RESPONDENTS (grouped for convenience)

Frequency Percent
20 - 30 years 282 17,1
31 - 33 years 270 16,3
34 - 36 years 290 17,5
37 - 40 years 332 20,1
41 - 46 years 270 16,3
47+ years 211 12,7
Total 1 655

TABLE 3.7: PRESENT POST LEVEL

Frequency Percent
Principal 107 6,4
Deputy-principal 90 5,4
Head of department 264 15,7
Educator 1 215 72,5
Total 1 676

TABLE 3.8: TEACHING EXPERIENCE (grouped for convenience)

Frequency Percent
1 - 8 years 510 30,7
9 - 13 years 503 30,3
14+ years 647 40,0
Total 1 660
 60

TABLE 3.9: MEMBERSHIP OF EDUCATOR ORGANISATIONS

Frequency Percent
SADTU 1 114 67,4
TUATA 101 6,1
NATU 15 0,9
NUE 77 4,6
SAOU 255 15,4
NAPTOSA 41 2,5
SAVBO 14 0,9
OTHER 37 2,2
TOTAL 1 654

TABLE 3.10: MOTHER TONGUE

Frequency Percent
Afrikaans 416 21,5
English 65 3,9

Nguni 838 50,5

Sotho 340 20,5
Total 1 659

TABLE 3.11: HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION

Frequency Percent
Lower than grade 12 12 0,7
Grade 12 51 3,1
Post school diploma 351 21,0
Educators diploma + FDE 782 46,9
Bachelors degree 47 2,8
Bachelors degree + diploma 286 17,1
Post graduate qualification 140 8,4
Total 1 669
 61

TABLE 3.12: RELIGION

Frequency Percent
None 26 1,6
Christianity 1 543 91,8
Islam 12 0,7
Hinduism 16 1,0
African traditional 61 3,6
Other 22 1,3
Total 1 680

TABLE 3.13: LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION

Frequency Percent
English 1 115 68,4
Afrikaans 217 13,3
Dual medium 169 10,4
Parallel medium 128 7,9
Total 1 629

TABLE 3.14: ATTENDANCE OF EDUCATORS

Frequency Percent
Excellent 1 016 60,4
Average 634 37,7
Poor 32 1,9
Total 1 682

TABLE 3.15: ATTENDANCE OF LEARNERS

Frequency Percent
Excellent 790 47,1
Average 821 49,0
Poor 66 3,9
Total 1 677

TABLE 3.16: PRINCIPAL'S GENDER

Frequency Percent
Male 1 382 82,3
Female 297 17,7
Total 1 679
 62

TABLE 3.17: KIND OF SCHOOL

Frequency Percent
Primary school 648 38,5
Secondary school 685 40,7
Combined school 326 19,4
Other 25 1,4
Total 1684

TABLE 3.18: DISTRICT IN WHICH SCHOOL IS SITUATED

Frequency Percent
Eerstehoek 206 12,3
Ermelo 168 10,0
Groblasdal 165 9,8
Hazyview 50 3,0
KwaMhlanga 88 5,2
Malelane 216 12,9
Moretele 165 9,8
Nelspruit 181 10,8
Standerton 256 15,2
Witbank 185 11,0
Total 1 680

TABLE 3.19: DISCIPLINE LEVEL AT YOUR SCHOOL

Frequency Percent
Excellent 255 15,2
Good 811 48,3
Average 491 29,2
Poor 123 7,3
Total 1 680

It was reasoned that the above aspects could be related to school effectiveness
and that the perception educators have of school effectiveness would differ in
respect of these groups
 63

3.5.2 Return of questionnaires

Of the 2 400 questionnaires handed out 1 750 were returned of which 1 684 were
usable. This represents a return rate of 70,2% which is most admirable
considering the present low morale among educators in Mpumalanga.

3.5.3 Section C of the questionnaire

Respondents were asked to respond to the question of how effective their school
would be related to other schools in the district, and table 3.20 summarises the
data that is also displayed graphically in figure 3.1.

TABLE 3.20 HOW EFFECTIVE THE RESPONDENTS' SCHOOL IS IN

COMPARISON WITH OTHER SCHOOLS
Frequency Percent
Among the most effective schools in the district 797 47,4
More effective schools in the district 413 24,6
About as effective as other schools in the district 396 23,6
Less effective than most other schools in the district 42 2,5
Amongst the least effective schools in the district 32 1,9
Total 1 680
 64

Perception of Mpumalanga educators about the effectiveness of their

schools

800

700

600

500

P 400
P.
u. 300

200

100

0
2 3 4 5

1= Among the most effective schools in the district

2 = More effective schools in the district
3 = About as effective as other schools in the district
4 = Less effective than most other schools in the district
5 = Amongst the least effective schools in the district

FIGURE 3.1 Perception of the educators in the schools sampled as to how

effective their schools are

3.6 SUMMARY

In this chapter a description of the empirical investigation was provided. Relevant

tables were provided and the questions pertinent to management of curriculum
implementation: implication for school effectiveness were discussed. It was
evident that the respondents regarded the management of curriculum
implementation as important to the functioning of an effective school. A
discussion of the respondents sampled, their biographical details and the
response -rate of the questionnaire were also discussed.

In chapter four the following aspects will be examined:

• reliability and validity of the research instrument;
 65

a discussion of the various factors obtained;

a comparison of one of the independent pairs involved by stating the
appropriate hypotheses and interpreting the statistical tests involved;
a comparison of one of the independent groups containing three or more
groups by stating the hypotheses and analysing the appropriate statistical
data;
a discussion on the significance of differences between the factor means of
the various groups for each of the factors that make up school effectiveness;
the use of the Chi-squared technique in analysing section C of the
questionnaire;
determining which independent variable has the largest influence on school
effectiveness as a dependent variable; and
an analysis of the three second order factors in order to determine which first
order factors play the most significant role in their composition.
 CHAPTER FOUR

4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF A SELECTED SAMPLE OF

EMPIRICAL DATA.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In chapter three, the focus was on the explanation of the questions relevant to
management of curriculum implementation as an aspect of school effectiveness.
Also discussed in chapter three was the sample as representative of the
Mpumalanga province.

The following aspects will receive attention in this chapter:

the reliability and validity of the questionnaire;
a discussion of the various factors;
a comparison of two independent groups by stating the appropriate
hypotheses and analysing the data by means of multivariate statistical tests;
a comparison of three or more independent groups by stating the appropriate
hypotheses and analysing the data using multivariate statistical tests;
a discussion of the significance of differences between the factor means of
the various groups for each of the factors that make up school effectiveness;
the use of the Chi-squared technique in analysing section C of questionnaire;
determining which independent variable has the largest influence on school
effectiveness as dependent variable; and
an analysis of the three-second order factors in order to determine which first
order factors play the most significant role in their composition.

When the perceptions of educators are being determined using a structured

questionnaire, it is important that it is valid and reliable. Validity is concerned
about whether one measures what one intends to measure. Reliability refers to
 67

the extent to which measures are dependable and consistent (Lovell and
Lawson, 1974: 32-38).

A measuring instrument is reliable when repeated measurements of the same

thing give similar results, for example, if you weighed yourself thrice and obtained
the following readings 75 kilograms, 72 kilograms and 77 kilograms, the scale
cannot be reliable. If however each time you got a reading of say, 75 kilograms,
the scale would be reliable (Vogt, 1993: 195). If your actual weight was 70
kilograms the scale would be reliable but inaccurate (not valid).

4.2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Although there are different types of validity, for the purposes of this research,
only content and construct validity will be explained. A measuring instrument has
content validity to the extent that its items represent the content that it is
designed to measure (Borg etal., 1993: 120). Content validity is a matter of good
judgement and not a statistical property. Several principals from secondary
schools and researchers from the Department of Educational Sciences examined
the questionnaire and decided on the relevancy of each item. Further scrutiny
and refinement of the items was done by the Statistical Consulting Services of
the Rand Afrikaans University, to whom the questionnaire was also submitted.
An instrument has construct validity to the extent that it can be shown to measure
a particular hypothetical construct. Effectiveness, anxiety and creativity are
considered hypothetical constructs because they are inferred on the basis of their
observable effects on behaviour (Borg et al., 1993: 120). Factor analysis is used
extensively in research to examine the construct validity of tests or the
measurement characteristics of attitude scales (Jaegar, 1990: 345).

Factor analysis is a correlation technique that examines a large number of items

and determines whether they cluster into a smaller number of underlying factors.
The main objective of factor analysis is to construct a smaller number of
 68

variables or factors that do a good job of conveying the information present in a

larger number of variables (Borg et al., 1993: 269).

One hundred and five (105) items were designed to secure information on the
perceptions of educators at various post levels in respect of which aspects are
involved in school effectiveness (see Appendix A). Successive first and second
order factor analytic procedures were used to investigate the construct validity of
the questionnaire. The first order procedure involves a principal component
analysis (PCA1) followed by a principal factor analysis (PFA1). These
procedures were performed using the SPSS 8,3 programme (Norusis, 1998: 34)
to identify a number of factors that may facilitate the processing of the statistics.
The first order procedure resulted in 20 factors that were used as a second order
procedure. This consisted of a principal component analysis (PCA2) with
varimax rotation and orthogonal axes followed by a principal factor analysis
(PFA2) with direct oblimin (oblique) rotation.

As a result of these procedures, the 105 items were reduced to three factors
namely:
Factor I consisting of 72 items that was named accountable collaborative
management with a Cronbach-alpha-reliability coefficient of 0,980. The 72
items can thus be regarded as forming one scale with a minimum value of 72
x 1= 72 and a maximum vale of 72 x 6 = 432.
Factor 2 consisting of 20 items that was dubbed open democratic
management with a Cronbach-alpha-reliability coefficient of 0,875.
The 20 items thus form one scale with a minimum value of 20 x 1 = 20 and a
maximum value of 20 x 6 = 120
Factor 3 consisting of 13 items that was dubbed normative management with
a Cronbach-alpha-reliability coefficient of 0,785. The 13 items thus form one
scale with a minimum value of 13 x 1 = 13 and a maximum value of 13x6=78.
 69

In Table 4.1 are shown the items that constitute accountable collaborative
management. The items involved in open democratic management are given in
Table 4.2 and the items that make up normative management are presented in
Table 4.3.

TABLE 4.1: ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE FACTOR ACCOUNTABLE

COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT.

B104 Have a principal who is a good role model 5,88 1

B90 Have sufficient toilets for learners and educators 5,82 2
B99 Have the necessary textbooks and stationery 5,81 3
B74 Have educators who lead by example 5,81 3
B84 Have educators who are supportive of one another 5,80 5
B103 Encourage learners to accept responsibility for their 5,77 6
own development
B64 Provide opportunities for improving the teaching skills 5,76 7
of educators
B38 Practice what it preaches 5,76 7
B100 Develop attitudes in their learners conducive to 5,75 9
understanding other people
B97 Ensure high levels of achievement among its 5,75 9
learners
B66 Implement a curriculum that provides learners with 5,75 9
the necessary skills to improve employment
opportunities
B67 Have educators who use a variety of teaching 5,75 9
resources
B102 Strive to provide an environment that all stakeholders 5,74 13
can feel proud of
B73 Inculcate good morals and values in their learners 5,74 13
B39 Show a commitment towards exemplary teaching 5,74 13
practice
B40 Attempt to ensure that basic human rights are 5,74 13
respected
B28 Ensure that its educators provide a supporting 5,73 17
environment for learners
B29 Have educators who show good skills of self- 5,73 17
management
B70 Implement a curriculum that provides learners with 5,73 17
the necessary skills to be useful citizens
B86 Have sufficient furniture in the school 5,72 20
B49 Have corrective measures in place to deal with 5,71 21
 70

learners who violate school rules

B87 Have an administration block 5,71 21
B98 Develop attitudes in learners that fosters a good self- 5,70 23
image
B26 Have educators working as a team with the 5,70 23
management of the school
B33 Have positive expectations for educators 5,69 25
B94 Inculcate leadership skills in learners 5,68 26
B65 Implement a curriculum that is based on relevant and 5,68 26
reliable educational research
B96 Hold an annual general meeting to give feedback to 5,66 28
its stakeholders
B69 Have educators who assist learners who have 5,65 29
special educational needs
B62 Have the leadership skills to bring about the 5,65 29
necessary transformation in the school
B61 Try to create a climate conducive to active parental 5,65 29
involvement
B13 Be future oriented when designing its curriculum 5,65 29
B37 Not be afraid to learn from its failures 5,64 33
B56 Have community structures with an interest in 5,64 33
education supporting the school
B93 Have a security fence 5,63 35
B88 Have an educator who is specifically responsible for 5,62 36
counselling learners with emotional problems
B95 Ensure regular communication with its stakeholders 5,62 36
B54 Ensure that it receive active support from all levels of 5,62 36
the education system
B22 Have a school policy which is in line with its mission 5,61 39
statement
B35 Involve the educators in solving school related 5,61 39
problems
B43 Encourage learners to respect their cultural traditions 5,60 41
B4 Implement a curriculum that provides learners with a 5,59 42
life-skills education
B76 Have norms and values that are supported by the 5,58 43
community
B1 Ensure that maths and science are part of the 5,57 44
academic curriculum
B25 Collect relevant information to determine whether the 5,57 44
objectives of the curriculum have been achieved
B75 Recognise educators who improve their educational 5,57 44
qualifications
B92 Encourage good interpersonal relationships among 5,56 47
all stakeholders
 71

B2 Pass on information received from the Department of 5,53 48

Education to all relevant stakeholders
B27 Have a clearly articulated education philosophy 5,53 48
B82 Regard norms and values as an important aspect in 5,52 50
the development of learners
B 41 Recognise its past students who achieved success in 5,52 50
their chosen careers
B55 Have educators show sympathy towards learners 5,48 52
B105 Select well-qualified educators 5,58 52
B46 Respect the traditions of its community 5,48 52
B42 Involve learners in the cleaning of classrooms and 5,47 55
school grounds
B68 Provide incentives for learners to achieve in 5,46 56
Olympiads and extra curricular activities
B72 Reward the individual performance of learners 5,45 57
B23 Have everyone in the school committed to the 5,45 57
transformation of the education system
B3 Provide learners with opportunities to enable them to 5,43 59
utilise information independently
B24 Ensure that the governing body and educators have 5,43 59
joint planning sessions
B52 Have a governing body that makes special provision 5,43 59
for the welfare of learners
B36 Institute a training and development programme for 5,41 64
educators who fail to achieve their curriculum
objectives
B12 Gather information to make informed decisions about 5,39 65
resourcing the school
B78 Strive towards equity in learner achievement among 5,37 66
all socio-economic levels
B14 Let stakeholders participate in developing the 5,37 66
mission of the school
B11 Allocate most of the school funds to activities of 5,27 69
teaching and learning
B21 Consult with parents before taking an important 5,23 71
decision in respect of policy
B77 Recognise parents who contribute money for the 5,14 76
upgrading of school facilities
B80 Strive towards equity in learner achievement among 5,14 76
differing races
B5 Make use of computer technology to supplement 5,09 79
teaching methods
B6 Not deviate from the national curriculum 4,64 87
B34 Offer financial incentives to educators based on their 4,58 88
teaching competence
 72

The above 72 items can thus be regarded as one scale or factor and the six-point
scale should be understood in terms of a new scale that can be represented as
follows:

Minimum 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maximum

g (X 72)

72 144 216 288 360 432

A score of between 360 and 432 would thus indicate that respondents agree to
strongly agree with the factor concerned. A score of 288 would represent partial
agreement by the respondents whereas a score between 288 and 360 would
represent partial agreement to agreement with the factor. A factor mean score of
216 would represent partial disagreement by the respondents concerned.

Items associated with factor one have been presented and the appropriate scale
discussed. Factor two will now be discussed.

TABLE 4.2: ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE FACTOR OPEN DEMOCRATIC

MANAGEMENT.

Item Description Mean Rank

No. An effective school should Score order
B10 Encourage educators to be accountable for the 5,43 59
1 achievement of their learners
B51 Not tolerate the intimidation of educators 5,42 63
B9 Implement strategies for fund raising 5,42 63
B44 Allow stakeholders to collaborate in the formulation 5,22 72
of school rules and regulations
B30 Train and develop educators using programmes 5,22 72
designed by the educators of the school
B60 Be responsive to the concerns of its stakeholders 5,16 75
B89 Have educators who use peer appraisal to develop 5,13 78
themselves
 73

B20 Have a curriculum that is supported by the majority of 5,08 80

stakeholders of the school
B31 Invite outside consultants to train its educators 5,07 81
B7 Allow educators to use the results of the assessment 5,05 82
of learners to plan curriculum priorities
B58 Create governance structures to give stakeholders 4,84 83
the necessary power to enable them to govern the
school completely
B59 Will only implement an additional field of study when 4,80 84
the majority of the stakeholders agreed to it
B48 Involve learners in disciplinary matters affecting the 4,50 90
school
B16 Encourage teacher unions to participate in school 4,07 94
management
B19 Involve the local taxi association in the transport 3,98 96
needs of the learners
B45 Allow parents to participate in the professional 3,84 98
development of educators
B17 Allow learners to have a say in how money collected 3,77 99
for the development of sport is spent
B 47 Allow parents to play a role in the appointment of 3,72 100
educators
B18 Let student organisations participate in the 3,72 100
management of the school
B8 Allocate most of the school funds to extra-curricular 3,40 103
activities

The 20 items above can thus be regarded as one scale or factor and the six-point
scale should be understood in terms of a new scale that can be represented as
follows:

Minimum 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maximum

(X 20)

20 40 60 80 100 120
 74

TABLE 4.3: ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE FACTOR NORMATIVE

MANAGEMENT

Item Description Mean Rank

No. An effective school should: Score order
B83 Regard excellent achievement as a core value 5,26 70
B71 Have educators with a wide range of teaching 5,18 74
experience
B50 Involve learners in decision-making only if they have 4,76 85
the necessary expertise
B57 Take a stern action against pregnant learners 4,69 86
B15 Try to involve the business sector in the management 4,53 89
of the school
B85 Give greater power to the experienced teachers 4,38 91
B10 Expect parents of learners who cannot pay school 4,29 92
funds to render some form of service to the school
B 53 Involve learners in decision-making only if they have an 4,11 93
interest in a particular decision
B81 Cater for a homogeneous cultural group 4,05 95
B63 Only implement a curriculum that has been 3,93 97
successfully implemented in another country
B79 Links its norms and values to a particular religion 3,48 102
B91 Not allow participate decision-making 2,54 104
B32 Discourage educators from improving their educational 1,73 105
qualifications

The above 13 items can thus be regarded as one scale or factor and the six-point
scale should be understood in terms of a new scale that can be represented as
follows:
Minimum 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maximum

(X13)

13 26 39 52 65 78
 75

A score of between 65 and 78 would thus indicate that respondents agree to

strongly agree with the factor concerned. A score of 52 would represent partial
agreement by the respondents whereas a score between 52 and 65 would
represent partial agreement to agreement with the factor. A factor mean score of
39 would represent partial disagreement by the respondents concerned and a
score of 26 would indicate disagreement by the respondents with the factor
concerned. Having completed a representation of the factors involved in school
effectiveness it is appropriate to state the hypotheses and discuss the statistical
analysis.

4.3 HYPOTHESES

Because of the restrictions placed on the length of a mini-dissertation only one

example of two independent groups and one example of three or more
independent groups will be discussed in detail. The comparison of two
independent groups will be the first to be discussed.

4.3.1 Comparison of two independent groups

At the multivariate level two independent groups can be compared for possible
statistical differences in their mean scores using Hotelling's T 2 test. This implies
that the vector means of the two independent groups are compared in respect of
the three factors considered together. Should a statistically significant difference
be found at this multivariate level then the Student-t-test is used in respect of
each of the variables taken separately. The particular independent group chosen
by this researcher is educator organisation and the discussion will now turn to
possible differences between SADTU and other educator organisations relative
to the three factors.
 76

4.3.1.1 Differences between SADTU and other non-SADTU respondents as

independent variable.

TABLE 4.4 HYPOTHESES WITH MEMBERSHIP OF EDUCATOR

ORGANISATIONS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Dimensions Variable Symbol Description Test

Multivariate Member HoT There is no statistically Hotelling's
level ship of significant difference between T2
teacher the vector mean score of
organi- educators belonging to
sation SADTU and educators
belonging to other educator
organisation groups in respect
of the three factors taken
together.

HaT There is a statistically

significant difference between
the vector mean score of
educators belonging to Student
SADTU and educators t-test
belonging to other educator
organisation groups in respect
of the three factors taken
together.

Hot There is no statistically

Univariate significant difference between
level the mean scores of educators
belonging to SADTU and
educators belonging to other
educator organisation groups
in respect of each factor taken
separately namely:

Hot 1 Accountable collaborative

management

Hot 2 Open democratic

management

Hot 3 Normative management

 77

Hat There is a There is statistically

significant difference between
the mean scores of educators
belonging to SADTU and
educators belonging to other
educator organisation groups
in respect of each factor taken
separately namely:
Hat 1 Accountable collaborative
management

Hat 2 Open democratic

management

Hat 3 Normative management

TABLE 4.5: SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SADTU AND

EDUCATORS BELONGING TO OTHER EDUCATOR
ORGANISATIONS REGARDING THE FOLLOWING THREE
FACTORS

Factor Group Factor mean Hotelling T2 Student t — test

(p — value) (p — value)
Accountable collaborative SADTU 403,68 0,000**
Management Other 396,71

Open democratic SADTU 96,48 0,000 0,000**

management
Other 85,6297 **

Normative management SADTU 51,9599 0,000**

Other 54,9009

** Statistically significant at the 1 % level (P < 0,01) N (SADTU) = 1 129

N (Other) =159
 78

Table 4.5 indicates that there is a statistically significant difference between the
vector mean score of SADTU and other educator organisations at the
multivariate level in respect of all three factors considered together (p = 0,000).
HoT is thus rejected and the alternative hypothesis HaT is accepted. At the
univariate level SADTU and educators belonging to other educator organisations
differ statistically significantly from one another in respect of all three factors
considered separately. Hot 1, Hot 2and Hot 3 are thus rejected in favour of the
alternative hypothesis namely Hat 1, Hat 2 and Hat 3.

SADTU members perceive themselves to be more accountably collaborative and

openly democratic in management of school effectiveness than educators
belonging to other educator organisations. The reasons for the differences can
be found in the history of the organisation. SADTU was launched with the
purpose of bringing together racially divided educator organisations and
challenging the legitimacy of ethnic education departments. One other factor
which contributes to the differences between SADTU and non-SADTU
organisations is that SADTU was founded with the aim of eradicating all forms of
discrimination in education and to strive towards a democratic system of
education in South Africa (SADTU constitution, 1998: 1)

When it comes to the normative aspect of school effectiveness the educators

belonging to the other organisations have a significantly higher factor score than
the SADTU members. Normative management is directional in nature and
provides greater certainty to educators. It is also achievement orientated. This is
what the other organisations expect from school management and this possibly
why their factor mean score is significantly higher than that of the SADTU
members.

Having set the hypotheses and tested them in respect of one example of two
independent groups it is now necessary to do the same for one of three or more
independent groups.
 79

4.3.2 Comparison of three or more independent groups.

In respect of three or more independent groups, multivariate differences are

investigated by means of MANOVA (multivariate analysis of variance) in respect
of the three factors considered together. The vector mean scale scores are
compared and should any difference be revealed at this level then ANOVA
(analysis of variance) is used to investigate which of these three factors is
responsible for the significant statistical difference. Groups are analysed pair-
wise by means of either the Scheffe of the Dunnett T3 tests. If the homogeneity
of variance in the Levene test (an advanced form of the Student t-test) is more
than 0,05 (p>0,05) then the Scheffe test is used to investigate possible
differences between pairs. Should the homogeneity of variance be less than
0,05 (p<,05) then the Dunnett T3 test is used to investigate differences between
the various pairs. The differences between the principal experience groups will
now be discussed.

4.3.2.1 Differences between the principal experience groups in respect of

the three factors

TABLE 4.6: HYPOTHESES WITH THE YEARS AS PRINCIPAL EXPERIENCE

GROUPS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Dimensions Variable Symbol Description Test

Multivariate Years as HoM There is no statistically Manova
Level Principal significant difference
Experience between the vector mean
scores of the three principal
experience groups in
respect of the three factors
taken together.

HaM There is a statistically

significant difference
between the vector mean
 80

scores of the three principal

experience groups in
respect of the three factors
taken together.

Univariate HoA The average scale scores of Anova

Level the three principal
experience groups do not
differ in a statistically
significant way from one
another in respect of the
following factors taken
separately:

HoAl Accountable collaborative

management

HoA2 Open democratic

management

HoA3 Normative management

HaA The average scale scores of

the three principal
experience do differ in a
statistically significant way
from one another in respect
of the following factors
taken separately:

HaA1 Accountable collaborative

management

HaA2 Open democratic

management

HaA3 Normative management

Pair-wise HoS There is no statistically Scheffe

Differences significant difference
between the average scale
scores of the three highest
categories of years as
 81

principal experience groups

compared pair-wise in
. respect of the three factors
considered separately
namely:

HoS1 Accountable collaborative

management

HoS2 Open democratic

management

HoS3 Normative management

HaS There is a statistically

significant difference
between the average scale
scores of the three principal
experience groups
compared pair-wise in
respect of the three factors
considered separately
namely:

HaS 1 Accountable collaborative

management

HaS2 Open democratic

management

HaS3 Normative management

 82

TABLE 4.7. SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE YEARS AS

PRINCIPAL GROUPS IN.RESPECT OF THE THREE FACTORS:

Factor Group Factor Manova Anova Schen / Dunett T3

Mean (p — (p — A B C D
value) value)
Accountable collaborative A 401,62 0,803 A
Management B 407,22 B
C 404,92 C
D 402,46 D
Democratic management A 95,72 0,652 A
B 95,37 0,935 B
C 93,89 C
D 91,76 D
Normative management A 50,56 0,948 A
B 51,15 B
C 50,29 C
D 49,76 D

** Statistically significant at the 1% level (p < 0,01)

* Statistically significant at the 5% level (p > 0,01 but< 0,05)
A = 1 — 3 years = 115
B = 4 — 7 years = 125
C = 8 — 12 years = 116
D = 13+ years = 95

Using the data in Table 4.7 it follows that there is no statistically significant
difference between the years as principal groups at the multivariate level. HoM is
thus accepted in favour of the research hypothesis HaM.

At the univariate level the factor mean scores of the four experience as principal
groups do not differ from one another in respect of all three factors namely,
accountable collaborative management (p =0, 803), open democratic
management (p = 0,652 and normative management (p = 0,948). HoA is thus
 83

accepted in favour of HaA. In respect of the pair-wise comparison the following

conclusion can be made:
In respect of accountable collaborative management, principals who have the
least experience namely one to three years have the lowest factor mean
score whilst principals with between four and seven years have the highest
factor mean score. All the experience as principal groups do, however, have
factor mean scores in excess of 400 (5,55 on a 6 point scale) which indicates
that they tend towards strongly agreeing that accountable collaborative
management is a vital aspect of school effectiveness.
In respect of open democratic management principals with the least
experience have the most positive perception of open democratic
management as an aspect of school effectiveness. There are signs of an
inverse proportion in the sense that the greater the experience the lower the
factor mean score. Age seems to have a moderating effect on the perception
that open democratic management is part of school effectiveness. All groups
do however partially agree with the factor of open democratic management
and they do not differ statistically significantly in their perceptions.
In respect of normative management, principals with 13+ years of experience
have the lowest factor mean score in respect of normative management as an
aspect of school effectiveness. The group with four to seven years experience
has the highest mean score. It is possible that this group is still achievement
oriented and as such place a greater reliance on normative management than
the other groups. The groups do not differ statistically significantly from one
another and all partially agree that normative management is an aspect of
school effectiveness.
 84

TABLE 4.8 MEAN SCORES OF THE INDEPENDENT GROUPS IN RESPECT

OF THE THREE FACTORS MAKING UP SCHOOL EFFECTIVE

Independent Category name Factor mean score

Group F1 F2 F3
Attended workshop- Yes 404,11** 94,60** 53,64**
School effectiveness No 397,82** 90,73** 52,07**
Post level Promotion post 403,62 92,92 51,88**
Educator 400,62 92,87 53,38**
Gender Male 403,78 92,23* 54,02**
Female 399,48 93,91* 51,36**
Religion Other 403,33 95,40* 49,74**
Christianity 401,13 92,67* 53,26**
Educator attendance Excellent 403,34** 92,23** 54,02**
Average to poor 398,28** 93,91* 51,36**
Principals gender Male 400,89 92,53* 53,05
Female 403,67 94,50* 52,59
Benefited from Definitely 407,47** *96,89** 53,69
Workshop Partially 399,93** 92,34** 53,35
Not at all 397,36** *92,82 54,43
20-30 years 403,24 95,36** 51,65*
31-33 years 403,65 *94,89** 52,02
34-36 years 399,15 93,45** *51,80
Age of respondents 37-40 years 402,76 *94,69** *54,45*
41-46 years 397,38 *90,66** 53,23
47+ years 401,32 85,35** 54,17
1 to 8 years 403,66 95,11 52,03
Teaching experience 9 to 13 years 399,96 **93,55 52,39
14 + years 400,60 "90,62* 54,04
Nguni 402,08 95,16 52,27**
Mother tongue Afrikaans 396,59 81,87 57,58
Groups Sotho 403,08 *93,97** 51,75
English 403,26 *89,03** 53,05**
Highest Grade 12 + diploma 397,94 94,21* 53,36
Educational Diploma + FDE 402,80 93,16 53,19
Qualification Degree + higher 401,67 91,38* 52,23
English 402,52 95,16** 52,27**
Language of Afrikaans 396,40 81,87** 57,58**
Instruction Dual medium 401,75 *93,97** 51,75**
Parallel medium 397,56 * 89,03** 53,05**
Attendance of Excellent 402,87 91,83 53,63*
Learners Average 400,05 93,69 52,18*
Poor 397,19 96,03 54,59
 85

Primary 402,38 92,61 53,58

Kind of school Secondary 400,38 93,10 52,58
Combined 401,14 92,96 52,59
Eerstehoek 403,79 97,09** 53,29
Ermelo 403,67 * 93,07** 52,73
Groblersdal 400,76 92,61** 52,40
Hazyview *411,31** 99,04** 56,33**
District in which KwaMhlanga 401,13 96,97** 52,09
School is situated Malelane 407,39 *98,27** 54,48**
Moretele 400,26 *95,64** 49,66**
Nelspriut 394,97** *89,09** 52,96
Standerton 398,44** 86,96** 54,15**
Witbank *398,81 88,12** 52,31
Excellent 401,91 92,71 55,73**
Good 403,79* 93,17 52,62**
Level of discipline Average 400,23 92,99 52,48**
Poor 388,16* 90,92 51,37**

** Statistically significant at the 1% level (p<0,01)

* Statistically significant at the 5% level (P>0,01 but <0,05)
Fl = Accountable collaborative management
F2 = Open democratic management
F3 = Normative management

4.4 DISCUSSION OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FACTOR MEAN

SCORES PRESENTED IN TABLE 4.8

To facilitate the discussion of the factor mean scores, the factors will be
discussed separately. "Accountable collaborative management" will be the first to
be examined.

4.4.1 Accountable collaborative management

• Attendance of a course on school effectiveness- a significantly higher

factor mean score in respect of the factor collaborative management was
obtained by educators who had attended a course/ workshop/ seminar on
 86

school effectiveness as opposed to those who have not. It would appear that
attendance at courses has a positive effect on the perception of educators in
respect of greater accountable collaboration, even though both groups agree
to strongly agree with the items involved in accountable collaborative
management. The idea that accountable collaborative management is the
bedrock of effective management has possibly been enhanced by the
courses on school effectiveness.

Present post level- ordinary educators obtained a lower factor mean score
compared to educators in posts of principal, deputy principal or head of
department. Although the difference in mean scores is not significant
educators in promotional posts attach more importance to collaborative efforts
in order to achieve goals.

Religion- educators professing to be Christians had a lower factor mean

score than those educators who declared that their religion was Islam,
Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, or African Traditional. This difference was
however not significance and both groups agree to strongly agree that
accountable collaboration is an important aspect of school effectiveness

Attendance of educators- educators who indicated that the attendance of

educators at their school was excellent had a statistically higher factor mean
score than educators who perceived educator attendance to be average or
poor. Accountable collaboration would presuppose excellent educator
attendance and it is highly probable that good educator attendance enhances
school effectiveness.

Principals gender- a higher factor mean score in respect of the items making
up accountable collaborative management, was obtained by educators who
have female principals compared to those who have male principals.
Although the difference is not significant, this finding is in accordance with the
 87

greater collaborative nature of female principals (Bisschoff and Grobler, 1997:

208).

Improvement of management skills from course attendance- a

significantly higher factor mean score was obtained by educators who feel
that the course/ workshop/ seminar attendance had definitely benefited their
management skills, compared to the groups who felt they benefited partially
or not at all. The perception of a group of respondents in respect of
accountable collaborative management as an aspect of school effectiveness
has probably been influenced by their attendance of school effectiveness
courses over the years.

Age of respondents- the two youngest age groups between 20 and 33

years, have the highest factor mean score whilst the group falling between4l
and 46 years of age have the lowest mean score. Although the groups do not
differ statistically significantly from one another, all the age groups do agree
to strongly agree that the factor accountable collaborative management is an
aspect of school effectiveness.

Teaching experience- educators with nine to thirteen years experience have

the lowest factor mean score, whilst those with one to eight years experience
have the highest. This result is similar to the age of respondents. All teaching
experience groups although not differing statistically significantly in their factor
mean scores agree to strongly agree that accountable collaborative
management is an important part of school effectiveness.

Highest educational qualification- the factor mean scores of the three

educational qualification groups do not differ statistically significantly.
Educators with the lowest educational qualifications have the lowest factor
mean score in respect of accountable collaborative management while those
with a teachers diploma plus a further education diploma have the highest
 88

factor mean score. All three groups agree to strongly agree that schools will
display the items as contained in the factor accountable collaborative
management.

Language of instruction- the highest factor mean score was obtained by

educators who have English as a medium of instruction in their schools whilst
educators who have Afrikaans as a medium of instruction has the lowest
factor mean score. The language of instruction groups do not differ
statistically significantly from one another in respect of accountable
collaborative management and all agree to strongly agree that it is part and
parcel of an effective school.

Attendance of learners- the highest factor mean score was obtained by

educators who believe that the attendance of learners in their school is
excellent although they do not differ statistically significantly from the groups
who believe that the attendance is average to poor. All three groups agree to
strongly agree that accountable collaborative management is an important
aspect of school effectiveness.

Kind of school- the highest factor mean score was obtained by educators
belonging to the primary schools whilst educators belonging to secondary
schools have the lowest score. Primary school educators are expected to
have the perception that collaboration is more important to school
effectiveness as they a less individualistic that secondary school educators.
The three groups agree to strongly agree that accountable collaborative
management is an important factor of school effectiveness.

District in which educator is employed- the lowest factor mean score was
obtained by educators who work in Nelspruit whilst educators who work in
Hazyview had the highest. Nelspruit, Ermelo and Witbank differ statistically
significantly in their mean scores from the other seven districts. This
 89

difference may be because these three districts have the large percentage of
Afrikaans speaking educators. Nelspruit, Ermelo and Witbank are large urban
areas whilst Hazyview is rural. Despite the significant differences in the mean
scores the educators in all ten districts sampled agree to strongly agree that
accountable collaboration is important for an effective school.

Discipline levels- high factor mean scores were obtained by educators who
believe discipline in their schools is good to excellent compared to those who
believe that it is poor. All four groups agree to strongly agree that accountable
collaborative management is essential to school effectiveness.

This concludes the discussion of accountable collaborative management as an

aspect of school effectiveness. Open democratic management which is a second
factor involved in effective schools in Mpumalanga will now be discussed.

4.4.2 Open democratic management

Attendance of workshops related to school effectiveness- a significantly

higher factor mean score was obtained by educators who attended a
workshop, seminar or course on school effectiveness in the past three years
compared to those who have not attended such a course. Both groups partly
agree or agree that open democratic management is an aspect of effective
school management. It also appears that the attendance of courses,
workshops or seminars has had a positive influence on the respondents in
respect of open democratic management as an aspect of school
effectiveness.

Post level- virtually the same factor mean score in respect of open
democratic management was obtained by both educator and those in
promotional posts. They do not differ significantly from one another. Both
 90

groups partially agree to agree that the items involved in open democratic
management are an important aspect of an effective school.

Religion- educators belonging to other religious groups have a statistically

higher factor mean score in respect of open democratic management, than
educators belonging to the Christian faith. Both groups do however agree that
open democratic management is an important aspect of school effectiveness.

Educator attendance- a statistically lower factor mean score was obtained

by educators with the perception that educator attendance in their school is
excellent compared to educators who believe that educator attendance in
their school is average or poor. Educators where attendance is perceived to
be excellent thus do not agree as strongly with open democratic management
as an aspect of school effectiveness compared to those educators where
attendance is average to poor.

Principal's gender- a statistically significantly higher factor mean score was

obtained by educators who have female principals in comparison with
educators with male principals. Although both groups agree that open
democratic management should be part of an effective school. Educators with
female principals agree to a greater extent with this factor.

Improvement of management skills from course attendance on school

effectiveness- a significantly higher average in respect of open democratic
management was obtained by the educators who feel that attendance at a
course, workshop or seminar benefited their management skills in
comparison with the other groups. Those educators who have a perception
that they only benefited to a partial extent or not at all have a lower factor
mean score. The groups do agree to partially agree that open democratic
management is a component of school effectiveness.
 91

Age of respondents- the oldest age group namely 47+ years have the
lowest factor mean score and partially agree that open democratic
management is an aspect of school effectiveness. The youngest age group
who fall in the category of 20 to 30 years of age have the highest factor mean
score and they agree that open democratic management is an aspect of
school effectiveness. This youngest age group also differs statistically
significantly from the 41 to 46 years age group. It seems therefore that age
has a tempering effect on the perception that open democratic management
is an aspect of school effectiveness.

Teaching experience — the group with the lowest teaching experience,

namely, one to eight years has a higher score than the group with nine to
thirteen years experience. This group has in turn a higher score than the
group with 14+ years teaching experience. The group with the greatest
teaching experience differs statistically significantly from the other two groups
and has the lowest factor mean score. It appears as if age moderates the
perception that open democratic management is an aspect of school
effectiveness.

Years as principal- the most positive view of open democratic management

as an aspect of school effectiveness was held by principals with the least
experience. The greater the experience the lower the factor mean score
becomes. Age seems to moderate the perception that open democratic
management is part of school effectiveness. All groups do partially agree to
agree with the factor open democratic management and they do not differ
statistically significantly in their perception.

Highest educational qualification- the highest factor mean score was

obtained by the educators with the lowest qualifications. They differed
statistically significantly from educators with degrees or higher qualifications
probably because well-qualified educators are normally more critical in their
 92

thinking. Well-qualified educators are more conservative in their perceptions

of open democratic management as an aspect of school effectiveness.

Language of instruction- the highest factor mean score was obtained by

educators who have English as the medium of instruction. They also agree
that the factor open democratic management is an aspect of an effective
school. The lowest factor mean score was obtained by educators with
Afrikaans as the medium of instruction, who only partially agree that open
democratic management is an aspect of effective schools. Afrikaans medium
schools differ statistically significantly from the other three groups at the one
percent level whilst parallel medium schools also differ statistically
significantly from the other groups. Because parallel medium schools in
Mpumalanga probably contain a greater percentage of Afrikaans educators it
is expected that they will have the second lowest factor mean score. This
finding also agrees with the finding on mother tongue groups where the
Afrikaans mother tongue group also had the lowest factor mean score.

Attendance of learners- the lowest factor mean score was obtained by

educators who believe that learner attendance in their school is excellent
whilst educators who believe that learner attendance in their school is poor
have the highest factor mean score. The groups do not differ statistically
significantly from one another. They all agree that open democratic
management is an important aspect of school effectiveness. The possibility
exists that management may be seen as being too democratic and therefore
seen as not conducive to excellent learner attendance.

Kind of school- primary schools have a slightly lower factor mean score than
secondary schools. The reason for this may be that in secondary schools
learners are involved in the governance of the school and this gives
secondary school educators the perception that open democratic
 93

management is more prevalent in secondary schools. All the groups agree

that open democratic management is an aspect of school effectiveness.

District in which educator is employed- the lowest factor mean score was
obtained by educators employed in the Standerton district who also only
partially agree that open democratic management is part of effective schools.
The highest factor mean score was obtained by educators who work in the
Hazyview district who also agree that open democratic management is vital to
school effectiveness. Hazyview is probably the worst of the 10 districts if one
considers good academic achievement as part of an effective school whilst
Standerton schools are among the best in the province. It appears therefore
that Hazyview educators do not believe that good results in the Senior
Certificate Examination are an important aspect of school effectiveness.
Hazyview being a rural district probably has schools that are poorly resourced
in relation to schools, in Standerton, Witbank and Nelspruit with the result that
Hazyview educators probably place a greater emphasis on resources as an
important aspect of school effectiveness. This statement is supported by
findings on accountable collaborative management where the Hazyview
district had the highest factor mean score. All items that had to do with
physical resources fell in the factor on accountable collaborative
management. It is also worth noting that Standerton, Witbank, and Nelspruit
obtained the lowest scores on open democratic management as most of the
schools that were sampled in these urban districts are probably Afrikaans
medium schools. This finding therefore agrees with the findings on the mother
tongue groups.
Discipline levels- the lowest factor mean score was obtained by educators
who had a perception that discipline at their school is poor. The various
groups do not differ statistically significantly from one another. They all agree
that open democratic management is an important aspect of school
effectiveness.
 94

Having discussed 2 of the factors which constitute school effectiveness the third
and the last factor will now be explained.

4.4.3 Normative management

Attendance of courses related to school effectiveness- a significantly

higher factor mean score was obtained by educators who have attended
courses, workshops or seminars compared to educators who had not
attended any such courses. Attendance at courses related to school
effectiveness appears to have influenced the perceptions of educators in
respect of normative management as an aspect of effective schools. Both
groups partially agree that normative management is an important aspect of
effective schools.

Post level- educators in promotion posts have a statistically significantly

lower factor mean score that ordinary educators in respect of normative
management. Educators appear to want direction and norms to be involved in
school management to a greater extent than educators in promotional posts.
The reason for this difference may be that educators feel more secure when
they are given direction and norms while educators in promotional posts are
happier when using their own discretion than when implementing norms.

Religion- a statistically significant higher factor mean score was obtained by

educators belonging to the Christian faith compared to educators belonging to
other religions. Christian educators thus believe to a greater extent than other
religious groupings, that normative management is an important aspect of
school effectiveness. Christians place a high priority on norms and values that
foster good discipline and that will enhance school effectiveness.

Attendance of educators- a significantly higher factor mean score was

obtained by educators who have the perception that attendance of educators
 95

in their school was excellent, compared to educators who believe that

attendance is average to poor. Normative management as an aspect of
school effectiveness seems to be fostered by the perception of excellent
educator attendance. If the attendance of educators is excellent in a school it
becomes a good example which is followed by the learners thus making the
school more effective.

Principals' gender- educators who have female principals have a slightly

lower mean score than educators with male principals. This difference is not
statistically significant. Both groups partially agree that normative
management is an aspect of school effectiveness.

Improvement of management skills from course attendance on school

effectiveness- the factor mean scores of the various groups have no
statistically significant differences. All three groups therefore partially agree
that normative management is an aspect of effective schools. Courses are
not likely to influence the norms and values of educators instantly because
norms and values are formed over a long period of time and have the
tendency to resist being changed.

Age of respondents — the lowest factor mean score was obtained by the
youngest age groups between 20 and 30 years. They also differed statistically
significantly from the 34 to 36 year age group and the 37 to 40 year age
group. The younger age group does not agree to such a great extent, relative
to the older age group that normative management is part of school
effectiveness.

Teaching experience- the highest mean score was obtained by educators

with 14+ years of teaching experience who differed from the other 2 groups at
the 1% and 5% level of statistical significance. All groups partially agree that
normative management is a component of effective schools and it is expected
 96

that the more experienced educators will be more in favour of a directive form
of management.

Years as principal- the lowest factor mean score in respect of normative

management as an aspect of school effectiveness was obtained by principals
with 13+ years of experience. The highest score was obtained by the group of
four to seven years experience. It is possible that this group is still
achievement oriented and as such places a greater reliance on normative
management than the other groups. The groups do not differ statistically
significantly from one another and all partially agree that normative
management is an aspect of school effectiveness.

Highest educational qualification- educators with degrees and higher

qualifications have the lowest factor mean score whilst educators with the
lowest qualification has the highest factor mean score indicating that they are
more in agreement with the normative management than the other groups.
Although there are no significant statistical differences between the three
educational qualification groups, educators who are not well qualified often
prefer a directive management style as this leads to a feeling of certainty.

Language of instruction- the highest factor mean score was obtained by

educators with Afrikaans as a medium of instruction who differ from the other
language of instruction groups at 1% level of statistical significance. They
agree that normative management is an aspect of an effective school. This
finding supports the one on mother tongue groups where Afrikaans medium
schools also had the highest mean score in respect of normative
management as an aspect of an effective school.

Attendance of learners- the highest factor mean score was obtained by

educators who believe that the attendance of learners is poor. All three
 97

groups do partially agree that normative management is an aspect of effective

school.

Kind of school- the groups do not differ statistically significantly from one
another though primary schools have the highest factor mean score. All
groups partially agree that normative management is an aspect of school
effectiveness.

District in which educator is employed- the highest mean factor score was
obtained by educators from Hazyview while educators from Moretele have the
lowest factor mean score in respect of normative management as an aspect
of an effective school. Educators from Moretele differ in their factor mean
score at the 1% level of statistical significance from educators in Standerton,
Malelane and Hazyview. It is perhaps because of all the unrest and learner
militancy in Hazyview that educators there regard normative management as
important as this will give direction to learners and educators.

Discipline level- those educators who perceive discipline at their schools to

be excellent have the highest factor mean score whilst those who perceive it
to be poor have the lowest factor mean score. Educators who perceive
discipline in their schools to be excellent differ statistically significantly from all
other groups at the 1% level. Excellent discipline is often derived from good
norms and values. All the groups partially agree to agree that normative
management should be an aspect of effective schools.

This concludes the discussion of the various statistical results of section B of the
questionnaire. The data obtained from section C of the questionnaire will now be
analysed.
 98

4.5 SECTION C OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Section C of the questionnaire asked only one question where respondents had
to indicate their response to the statement:

My school would be:

Amongst the most effective schools in the district 1

More effective than most schools in the district 2
About as effective as other schools in the district 3
Less effective than most other schools in the district 4
Amongst the least effective schools in the district 5

A summary of the responses is provided in Table 4.9:

TABLE 4.9: FREQUENCY TABLE OF THE VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF

SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS.

Category Frequency Percent

1 797 47,4
2 413 24,6
3 396 23,6
4 42 2,5
5 32 1,9
Total 1 680

As this data is an ordinal measure it can at most be used to rank individuals or

categories. Thus one can rank them as most effective (1), more effective (2), as
effective (3), less effective (4) and least effective (5). It is often convenient to
combine the various categories together; called collapsing categories (Babbie
and Halley, 1994: 34). For example one could collapse categories I and 2
together and refer to it as the more effective group and then collapse
 99

categories 3, 4 and 5 together and name it as the less effective group. Using
the information in Table 4.9 the grouped data would then appear as follows:

TABLE 4.10: COMBINATION OF CATEGORIES OF SCHOOL

EFFECTIVENESS.

Category Frequency Percent

1 + 2 => 1 1 210 72%

3 + 4 + 5==> 2 470 28%

Total 1 680

As the researcher is involved with frequencies the Chi-squared test can be

applied. It makes no assumptions about population parameters or population
characteristics for its use. For this reason the Chi-squared test is one example of
a non-parametric test (Grimm, 1993: 43).

For the purposes of this research a matrix will be used because where the
observed count represents the frequency observed and the expected count
represents the frequency expected. The standardised residual is useful when
the null hypothesis is rejected as it indicates which of the cells in the matrix
makes a significant contribution towards the significance of the Chi-squared test.

R = (f, - fd2

1iRg'i
I

Where R = the standardised residual and if:

 100

R>2 and positive then the number of observations in that cell is more than
would be expected by chance.
R>2 and negative then the number of observations in that cell is lower than
would be expected by chance.

As an example the educator organisation groups in respect of school

effectiveness will be investigated. The observed and expected frequencies, the
percentages within the school effectiveness groups and the standardised
residual are shown in the rows of the matrix whilst the educator organisation
groups are indicated in the columns of the matrix. This information is indicated in
Table 4.16

4.5.1 FREQUENCY COUNTS OF THE EDUCATOR ORGANISATION GROUPS

IN RESPECT OF THE SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS CATEGORIES

TABLE 4.11 FREQUENCY COUNTS OF THE EDUCATOR ORGANISATION

GROUPS IN RESPECT OF THE SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS CATEGORIES

Frequencies of school Educator XZ

Effectiveness organisation (P-
_val
SADTU OTHER Total
More Observed count 758 452 1210
Effective Expected count 800,9 409.1 1210,0
School % within row 68,2% 79,6% 72,0%
Effectiveness Adjusted residual -4,9* 4,9*
As or Observed count 354 116 470 0,0
Less Expected count 311,1 158,9 470,0 ***
Effective % within row 31,8% 20,4% 28,0%
Adjusted residual 4,9* -4,9*
Observed count 1112 568 1680
Total Expected count 1112,0 568,0 1680,0
% within post 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
level
* = these cells make a major contribution towards the significance of x
2
 101

Ho — there is no statistically significant difference between the observed and

expected frequencies of the two educator organisation groups in respect of two
categories of school effectiveness.
Ha — there is a statistically significant difference between the observed and
expected frequencies of the two educator organisation groups in respect of the
two categories of school effectiveness.

From data in Table 4.11 it can be seen that there is a statistically significance
difference between the educator organisation groups in respect of the categories
of school effectiveness. Educators belonging to organisations such as TUATA,
NATU, NUE, SAOU, NAPTOSA and SAVBO perceive themselves as belonging
to the more effective category to a greater extent than would be expected by
chance alone. SADTU is the only educator organisation that openly affirms its
affiliation to a political party such as the ANC and are also active in the disruption
of education to learners in an effort to persuade the Government of the day to
give in to their wage demands. This disruption of schooling must surely impact on
the learners and on the effectiveness of schooling and is perhaps one of the
reasons that SADTU members perceive themselves as belonging to the less
effective categories of schools to a greater extent than would be expected due to
chance alone.

4.5.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND THE

VARIOUS INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

The relationship between the respondent's perceptions of school effectiveness

and each independent variable was investigated statistically using the CHAID-
technique (Stoker, Engelbrecht, Crowther, Du Toit and Herbst, 1985:102-104).
This technique is utilised to identify particular patterns in the data that may be
used to formulate structural relationships between the variables. In this particular
research it is possible to identify the independent variables that contributed
most to the respondents perceptions of school effectiveness. The CHAID-
 102

computer programme is an example of the so-called AID-procedures ("Automatic

Interaction Detection") that can be utilised to predict which of the independent
variables play the most significant role in the variation of the dependent variable.
The results of this technique can be represented schematically in what is called a
dendogram (Stoker et al., 1985; 104).

The CHAID-technique was developed to analyse categorical data where both

the dependent and independent variables are categorical or qualitative in
nature (gender, religion, and marital status). In this research project the CHAID-
technique was used in order to identify which independent variables best
predicts the educators perception of school effectiveness.

4.5.2.1 The CHAID-technique.

For a given set of data the CHAID-analysis involves a number of steps the most
important of which are:

Stratificatidn of each of the predictor variables (independent variables) first

occurs in respect of the dependent variable (school effectiveness). This
implies that the categories of a particular predictor are examined for possible
regrouping into a number of classes say k, that are each more or less
homogeneous in respect of the percentage distributions of the dependent
variable. Suppose the predictor consists of four categories represented by
the symbols A, B, C and D. These categories are then reduced to the
symbols (A), (B) and (CD) in such a way that there are significant differences
in respect of their influence on the dependent variable between the three
classes but not between the categories in the class themselves (Stoker
et al., 1985:103).

After each of the above predictors have been analysed as above, the best
predictor that explains the most variance in the dependent variable (the
 103

independent variable with the highest Chi-squared value) is used to divide the
set of data into a number of subsets. Subsequently each set of data is now
analysed according to the above mentioned steps. The process is continued
until no further statistically significant division of the data is possible (Stoker
et al., 1985:103).

Having briefly described the CHAID-technique it is now necessary to explain how

the CHAID-analysis in respect of school effectiveness was utilised.

4.5.2.2 Hypotheses in respect of the various independent variables

The following hypotheses were formulated:

Ho — there is no statistically significant relationship between the independent

variable Xi and the two categories of school effectiveness (i =1,2,3 18).
Ha — there is a statistically significant relationship between the independent
variable Xi and the two categories of school effectiveness (i =1,2,3....18).

The independent variables utilised were all the biographic variables that featured
in section A of the questionnaire namely:

X1 Attendance on workshops on school effectiveness

X2 Did the workshops benefit your management skills?
X3 Gender
X4 Age
X5 Post level
X6 Teaching experience
X7 Years as principal
X8 Membership to an educator organisation
X9 Mother tongue
X10 Educational qualifications
 104

X11 = Religion
X12 = Language of instruction at school
X13 = Attendance of educators
X14 = Attendance of learners
X15 = Gender of principal
X16 = Type of school
X17 = District in which school is situated
X18 = Present level of discipline in your school.

The CHAID-analysis was implemented using the dependent variable of school

effectiveness in categorical form. For this particular research project the
following two categories of school effectiveness were decided on:

The most and more effective groups 1 and 2 were collapsed into one
category = 1
The as, less and least effective groups 3, 4 and 5 were collapsed into one
category = 2

The CHAID-programme analysis of school effectiveness was used to compile a

dendogram (See figure 4.1). According to the CHAID-programme the best
predictors of school effectiveness in order of their ability to explain variance are:

present level of discipline in your school;

attendance of learners;
language of instruction at your school;
attendance of educators;
educational qualifications of educators; and
attendance of courses related to school effectiveness.

Thus the alternative hypotheses (Ha) are accepted at the 5% level of statistical
significance for the independent variables mentioned above. Alternatively the
 105

null hypotheses (Ho) are accepted at the 5% level for the following independent
variables;

• Betterment of management skills, gender, age, post level, teaching

experience, years as principal, membership to educator organisation, mother
tongue, religion, gender of principal, type of school and district in which
school is situated.

From figure 4.1 it can be deduced that present level of discipline is the best
predictor of educator perception of school effectiveness, followed by
attendance of learners, language of instruction at school, attendance of
educators, qualifications of educators and attendance of courses on school
effectiveness.

It must be remembered that 1=most and more effective schools in the district
whilst 2 = as, less or the least effective schools in the district. Considering figure
4.1 it means that 92,16% of respondents that fell in the excellent category of
discipline perceived their schools as most or more effective whilst only 7,84%
that fell in the excellent category of discipline perceived their schools as less or
least effective of the schools in the district. In respect of the good category of
discipline 79,46% of educators perceived their schools as most or more effective
than most schools in the district whilst 20,54% perceived themselves as
belonging to schools as, less and least effective in their districts. When it comes
to the average to poor category of discipline 53,76% of this group perceive them
as belonging to the most and more category of effective school whereas 46,24%
believe they belong to the as, less or least effective category of schools. Also
notice that the CHAID-programme has reduced the four categories of discipline
in Section A to just three namely excellent, good and has combined the average
and poor into a single category. The Chi-squared value for levels of discipline
was the largest followed by attendance of learners, language of instruction and
so on.
 106

The next level of attendance of learners could now be taken and interpreted in a
similar way.

The dendogram of the effect of the independent variables on school

effectiveness will now be presented.
 Figu re 4. 1: Den dogra m o f the effec t o f t he in dep endent va ria b les on school effe c tiv en ess
Sc hool effectiv eness groups

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 108

4.6 A COMPARISON OF THE THREE FACTORS FOUND IN SECTION B OF

THE QUESTIONNAIRE WITH THE RATING OF SCHOOL
EFFECTIVENESS IN SECTION C

In response to the questions on what an effective school should contain, three

underlying factors were found to be present namely:
accountable collaborative management;
open democratic management; and
normative management

In Section C of the questionnaire the respondents had to indicate as to how

effective they perceived their school to be relative to other schools in the district.
In Table 4.10 the five categories of school effectiveness were collapsed into two
namely:
1 = the more effective group; and
2 = the as or less effective group.

It should thus be possible to compare the mean scores that the respondents
obtained in the three factors with respect to the two categories of perceived
school effectiveness. The relevant data is indicated in Table 4.12

TABLE 4.12 FACTOR MEAN SCORES IN RESPECT OF THE TWO

CATEGORIES OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
Factor School Number of Mean Student
effectiveness respondents t-test
(p-value)
Accountable collaborative 1 and 2 1078 402,62 0,028
management
3 to 5 418 398,29
Open democratic 1 and 2 1153 92,60 0,200
management 3 to 5 446 93,70
Normative management 1 and 2 1169 53,66 0,000
3 to 5 45 51,13
1 and 2 = Most and more effective than schools in the district
 109

3 to 5 = As, less and least effective than schools in the district

** = Statistically significant at the 1% level (p<0,01)
* = Statistically significant at the 5% level (p> 0,01 but < 0,05)

From Table 4.12 it can be seen that the mean scores of accountable
collaborative management and normative management do differ statistically
significantly from one another. It is also interesting to note that it is only in open
democratic management that the mean score of the less effective group is higher
than the more effective group. These respondents thus do not perceive their
schools to be as effective as the other schools in their district suggesting that
open democratic management can adversely affect their perception of school
effectiveness.

A study of the frequencies of the three factors also suggests that their
distributions were negatively skewed and hence the parameter that the
frequencies should be normally distributed is violated. One would thus have to
make use of a non-parametric statistical procedure in order to compare the mean
scores of the three factors relative to the categories of school effectiveness.

It is possible to test the distribution of the factors for normality using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test where one compares the observed
distribution of the factors with a theoretical distribution (Siegel, 1956: 47-58).

4.6.1 Hypotheses for the one sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.

Ho — there is no statistically significant difference between the observed and the

theoretical distributions in respect of accountable collaborative management.
Ha — there is a statistically significant difference between the observed and the
theoretical distributions in respect of accountable collaborative management.

One could also specify the hypotheses for the other two factors in similar way.
 110

TABLE 4.13 ONE SAMPLE KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST

Factor Number of Z p-value

observations
Accountable collaborative 1 499 6,668 0,000**
management
Open democratic management 1 602 2,197 0,000**
Normative management 1 628 1,568 0,015*

** = Statistically significant at the 1% level (p<0,01)

* = Statistically significant at the 5% level (p>0,01 but < 0,05)

From Table 4.13 it can be seen that all three factors have a p-value<0,05 and
hence the null hypotheses is rejected in all three cases. Hence the three
distributions depart significantly from the predicted distribution and non-
parametric statistical methods need to be employed to see whether the mean
scores of the three factors differ statistically significantly from one another.

4.6.2 The Mann-Whitney U test

When either of the sample sizes of the independent groups exceeds 20 then the
sampling distribution of the Mann-Whitney U approximates a normal distribution
and the standard normal curve is used to identify the critical values instead of
reading it from a Mann Whitney U table. The Z cfit value for a = 0,05 for the two
tailed test is 1,96. This means that if the I Z u 1,96 then the null hypothesis Ho
can be rejected or if I Zu Zcrit then the null hypothesis is rejected (Grimm,
1993:475).

4.6.3 Hypotheses for the Mann-Whitney U test

Ho — there is no statistically significant difference between the two categories of

school effectiveness in respect of accountable collaborative management.
 111

Ha — there is a statistically significant difference between the two categories of

school effectiveness in respect of accountable collaborative management.
Similar hypotheses can be stated in respect of open democratic and normative
management.

TABLE 4.14 RESULTS OF THE MANN-WHITNEY U TEST FOR THE TWO

CATEGORIES OF SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN RESPECT OF THE THREE
FACTORS

Factor School Number of Mean Sum of Zu p-value

effectiveness observations Rank ranks
Accountable 1 and 2 1078 759,75 819007 -1,617 0,106
collaborative 300749
3 to 5 418 719,50
management
Open 1 and 2 1153 791,57 912686 -1,173 0,241
democratic 3 to 5 446 821,78 866515
management
Normative 1 and 2 1169 841,51 983723 -3.997 0,000
Management 3 to 5 455 737,97 335777

1 and 2 = Most and more effective than schools in the district

3 to 5 = As, less and least effective than schools in the district
** = Statistically significant at the 1% level (p<0,01)
* = Statistically significant at the 5% level (p> 0,01 but < 0,05)

From the results in Table 4.14 it can be seen that for accountable collaborative
management and for open democratic management the null hypotheses are
accepted ( I Zu I <1,96 (1,62 and 1,17). In the case of normative management,
however, the null hypothesis is rejected at the 1% level ( I Zu I >1,96) and the
alternative hypotheses Ha is accepted. With respect to normative management
there is a statistically significant difference between those respondents who
perceive their schools as more effective and those who perceive them as less
effective. The mean score of respondents who perceive their schools as more
effective is statistically significantly higher than those who perceive their school
 112

as less effective in respect of normative management. Respondents belonging

to such schools involve learners in decision-making only if they have the
necessary expertise and interest and regard excellent academic achievement as
a core value (see items in Table4.3).
Norms and values play an important part in the management of the school and it
is likely that respondents belonging to this group perceive these aspects as of
predominant importance in the effectiveness of a school.

4.7 A MORE DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE THREE SECOND ORDER

FACTORS THAT WERE FOUND UNDERLYING SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS.

The first order factor analysis revealed that the 105 items could be reduced to 20
factors. These 20 first order factors were used as an input into a second order
factor analysis that further reduced the factors to three second order factors. In
order to investigate the composition of the second order factors in greater depth
it is necessary to discuss them in greater detail.

4.7.1 Accountable collaborative management

The first order factor analysis revealed that accountable collaborative

management consisted of 11 first order factors that were named as follows:
 113

TABLE 4.15 THE FIRST ORDER FACTORS INVOLVED IN ACCOUTABLE

COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT

Factor Name No. of items Mean score Mean rank

1.1 Caring climate 35 5,68 3
1.2 Effective team 10 5,46 7
management
1.3 Resource management 7 5,69 2
1.4 Curriculum driven 6 5,31 9
management
1.5 Value-based 3 5,52 5
management
1.6 Ethical management 2 5,76 1
1.7 Stakeholder involvement 2 5,60 4
1.8 Educator incentives 2 5,02 11
1.9 Recognition 2 5,35 8
1.10 Learner achievement 2 5,28 10
equity
1.11 Individual achievement 1 5,46 6

Using the mean scores of the various factors in table 4.15 it seems that ethical
management plays the most important role in accountable collaborative
management followed by resource management, caring climate and so on.
However, the various factors consist of a different number of items and a
comparison of a factor containing one item with one containing 35 is best done
using stepwise multiple regression so that the various factors can be
appropriately weighted (Norusis, 1998: 38).

Multiple regression is the multivariate technique used to interpret the effect of two
or more independent variables on the dependent variable when the variables are
equal interval in nature. The simple linear regression equation is expanded from
the form

Y = a +bx
to
 114

Y = a+biXi +b2x2 ---brIxn

Where x1 and x2 are each independent variables of equal interval measure and
b1 and b2 are partial slopes or partial regression coefficients (Rose & Sullivan,
1996: 202). In our particular case:

Y = accountable collaborative management

b1 = effect of caring climate
b2 = effect of effective team management
b3 = effect of resource management
And so on up b11

The information obtained from this multivariate statistical procedure is

summarised in table 4.16

TABLE 4.16 STEPWISE REGRESSION: DEPENDENT VARIABLE

ACCOUTABLE COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT.

Independent Name Unstandardised Standardised Weighted

Variable coefficients coefficients order
B Beta
A Constant -8.E-15
F1.1 Caring climate 0,486 0,497 1
F1.2 Effective team 0,139 0,195 2
management
F1.3 Resource 0.097 0,127 4
management
F1.4 Curriculum driven 0,083 0,134 3
management
F1.5 Value based 0,042 0,068 6
management
F1.6 Ethical 0,028 0,037 10
management
F1.7 Stakeholder 0,028 0,048 9
involvement
F1.8 Educator 0,028 0,070 5
incentives
F1.9 Recognition 0,028 0,062 8
F1.10 Learner 0,028 0,066 7
achievement
equity
F1.11 Individual 0,014 0,033 11
achievement
 115

An analysis of table 4.16 . indicates that the rank order of the various first order
factors is considerably different from the order in table 4.15. From the
standardised regression coefficient (Beta coefficients) it is clear that the effect of
a caring climate and effective team management carries a greater weight than
the other variables. The contributions of the various first order factors to
accountable collaborative management should thus be seen in terms of the
weighted order in table 4.16.

4.7.2 Open democratic management

Contained in this factor are six first order factors consisting of 20 items. The
names of the factors and their mean scores are displayed in table 4.17.

TABLE 4.17 THE FIRST ORDER FACTORS INVOLVED IN OPEN

DEMOCRATIC MANAGEMENT.

Factor Name No. of Mean Mean

items score rank
2.1 Transparent management 5 3,90 5
2.2 Stakeholder accessibility 4 5,01 3
2.3 Developmental 4 5,22 1
management
2.4 Tolerant co-operation 4 4,86 4
2.5 Parental involvement in 2 3,81 6
educator development
2.6 Consensus curriculum 1 5,08 2

According to the mean scores in table 4.17 developmental management,

consensus curriculum and stakeholder accessibility plays the most significant
role in the factor open democratic management. The technique of multivariate
regression provided the following information:
 116

TABLE 4.18 STEPWISE REGRESSION: DEPENDENT VARIABLE OPEN

DEMOCRATIC MANAGEMENT.

Independent Name Unstandardised Standardised Weighted

variable coefficients coefficients order
B Beta
A Constant -4,8E-15
2.1 Transparent 0,250 0,407 1
management
2.2 Stakeholder 0,200 0,270 2
accessibility
2.3 Developmental 0,200 0,221 4
management
2.4 Tolerant co- 0,100 0,243 3
operation
2.5 Parental 0,100 0,220 5
involvement in
professional
educator
development
2.6 Consensus 0,05 0,090 6
curriculum

Analysis of table 4.18 reveals that transparent management, stakeholder

accessibility and tolerant co-operation play the most significant part in open
democratic management. This reveals that according to the perception of the
stakeholders, openness may be the most significant aspect of open democratic
management. Openness here refers to Senge's concept (1990: 277) where
openness is a combination of participative openness that refers to the freedom to
speak one's mind and reflective openness which is the willingness to challenge
one's own thinking.

4.7.3 Normative management

The first order factor analysis revealed that normative management had three
underlying factors composed of 13 items. Names and mean scores of these
factors were as follows:
 117

TABLE 4.19 THE FIRST ORDER FACTORS INVOLVED IN NORMATIVE

MANAGEMENT.

Factor Name No. of Mean Mean

items score rank
3.1 Common values 9 3,92 3
management
3.2 Financial involvement 2 4,41 2
3.3 Competent decision-making 2 4,43 1

Analysis of Table 4.19 suggests that competent decision-making should be

followed by financial involvement and common values management. Multivariate
regression analysis provides the following data:

TABLE 4.20 STEPWISE REGRESSION: DEPENDENT VARIABLE

NORMATIVE MANAGEMENT.

Independent Name Unstandardised Standardise Weighted

Variable coefficients coefficients order
B Beta
A Constant -2,7E-15
3.1 Common values 0,692 0,768 1
management
3.2 Financial 0,154 0,260 3
involvement
3.3 Competent 0,154 0,280 2
decision-making

Thus according to the standardised beta coefficient common values

management plays the most significant role in normative management followed
by competent decision making and financial involvement.

4.8 SUMMARY

In this chapter an analysis and interpretation of the empirical data was

undertaken. The construct validity of Section B of the structured
 118

questionnaire as research instrument was investigated using two successive

factor analytic procedures, that reduced the 105 items to three factors namely:
Accountable collaborative management consisting of 72 items with a
Cronbach-alpha-reliability coefficient of 0,980;

Open democratic management consisting of 20 items with a Cronbach-

alpha-reliability coefficient of 0,875; and

Normative management consisting of 13 items with a Cronbach-alpha-

reliability coefficient of 0,785.

Effective schools in Mpumalanga can thus be seen as consisting of aspects of

school culture, school climate, vision, motivational strategies, curriculum,
leadership and resources. These aspects can be reduced to three factors namely
accountable collaborative management, open democratic management and
normative management.

An instrument that has construct validity should be able to distinguish between

groups that are known to differ from one another in certain respects. It can be
seen from the data in Table 4.8 that some of the groups that one expects to differ
from one another such as the highest educational qualification groups do differ
significantly from one another in their perceptions. They differ in respect of
aspects of school effectiveness such as accountable collaborative management,
open democratic management and normative management.

The research compared seven examples of two independent groups and eleven
examples of three or more independent groups. Hypotheses were set and
multivariate as well as univariate statistical tests were used to analyse and
interpret the data.
 119

In respect of accountable collaborative management significant statistical

differences were found to be present between:
attendance at workshop, seminar or course on school effectiveness;
membership of educator organisation;
attendance of educators;
gender;
benefit from workshop, seminar or course on school effectiveness;
district in which educator is employed; and
level of discipline in the school.

In respect of open democratic management the following groups produced

statistically significant differences:
attendance at workshop, seminar or course on school effectiveness;
membership of educator organisation;
religion;
educator attendance;
benefit from workshop, course or seminar;
age of respondents;
teaching experience;
language of instruction; and
district in which educator is employed.

With respect to the third factor namely normative management the following
groups differed statistically significantly from one another.
attendance at workshop, seminar or course on school effectiveness;
post level;
membership of educator organisation;
religion;
educator attendance;
age of respondent;
 120

language of instruction;
attendance of learners;
district in which educator is employed; and
level of discipline in the school.

From an analysis of the above data it can be seen that all respondents partially
agree, agree or strongly agree that effective schools in Mpumalanga are
composed of accountable collaborative management, open democratic
management and normative management. Section B of the measuring
instrument was shown to have content and construct validity and to be reliable
and that it could thus be used to determine aspects of school effectiveness in
Mpumalanga.

An equal interval scale was not used for the question in Section C of the
questionnaire. Hence use had to be made of non-parametric statistical tests in
order to see whether the various independent groups differ statistically
significantly from one another in respect of their perceptions of school
effectiveness. There was a similarity in findings in that all the groups that differed
in Section C also differed from one another in Section B of the questionnaire.
The Chi-squared statistic was used and together with the standardised residual
revealed the following statistically significant differences to be present:
the attendance of educator groups that believed that the attendance in their
schools was excellent perceived themselves as belonging to the more
effective schools to a greater extent than one would if the results where due
to chance effects only. Excellent educator attendance thus seems to
effect perceptions of school effectiveness in a positive way.

Afrikaans mother tongue groups perceived themselves as belonging to the

more effective schools to a greater extent than one would expect due to
chance effects only. Sotho mother tongue groups had a more negative
 121

perception in that more of them perceived themselves as belonging to less

effective schools than one would expect if only chance factors were involved.
It thus seems that perceptions of school effectiveness cannot be separated
from cultural effects (Fuller and Clarcke, 1994: 135-142).
The Afrikaans language of instruction group had the most favourable
perception in respect of effective schools. These educators believed that they
belonged to schools that were more effective than most other schools in their
districts than one would predict using the effects of chance alone. Educators
in multicultural schools seemed to have a problem in this regard as they
perceived themselves as belonging to the less effective schools to a greater
extent than one would expect on the basis of chance alone.

Educators who had attended workshops, seminars or courses on school

effectiveness perceived themselves as belonging to the category representing
the more effective schools to a greater extent than one would expect due to
chance only. It appears as if training courses on school effectiveness
influences perceptions of school effectiveness in a positive sense.

Educators who belong to the so-called professional educator organisations

perceive themselves as belonging to the more effective schools to a greater
extent than one would expect due to chance only. On the other hand SADTU
members who are affiliated to the worker organisations such as COSATU
perceive themselves as belonging to the less effective grouping of schools to
a greater extent than one would expect due to chance considerations only.
Educator organisations thus appear to play a role in how educators see
school effectiveness. Educators who teach in the Standerton district
perceived themselves as belonging to the more effective schools in their
district to a greater extent than one would expect due to the effect of chance
only. Educators from the district of KwaMhlanga have observed frequencies
lower than one would expect due to chance only. The educators from the
districts of Standerton, Malelane, Ermelo and Nelspruit thus seem to have
 122

positive perceptions of their schools effectiveness relative to other schools in

their districts.

The CHAID-technique was also utilised in order to verify which of the

independent variables are the best predictors of school effectiveness. The
resulting dendogram indicated that the best predictors of the educator's
perceptions of school effectiveness in Mpumalanga are:
the level of discipline present in the school;
the attendance levels of learners;
the language of instruction at the school;
the attendance levels of educators;
the educational qualifications of educators; and
attendance of course, workshops or seminars on school effectiveness.

In an effort to determine whether there was a relationship between the three

factors underlying what respondents perceived as an effective school in Section
B of the questionnaire and how effective they rated their school in Section C,
non-parametric statistical procedures were used. The Mann-Whitney U test was
able to indicate that respondents differed statistically significantly only in respect
of normative management. There were also indications that respondents
perceived that being too democratic could adversely affect perceptions of how
effective a school really is. Normative management with its emphasis on norms
of excellent academic achievement appears to play an important role in
respondent's perception of an effective school.

The composition of the underlying facets of the three second order factors was
analysed by means of multivariate stepwise regression. This analysis revealed
the following information.

The relative importance of the first order factors in accountable collaborative

management according to stakeholders perceptions are:
 123

caring climate;
effective team management;
curriculum driven management;
resource management;
educator incentives;
learner achievement equity;
value based management;
recognition;
ethical management; and
individual achievement.

The relative importance of the first order factors in open democratic

management are:
transparent management;
stakeholders accessibility;
tolerant co-operation;
developmental management;
parental involvement in professional educator development; and
consensus curriculum.

The relative importance of the first order factors as predictors of normative

management are:
common values management;
competent decision-making; and
financial involvement.

A summary of the research will be given in chapter five. Important findings will
be discussed and appropriate recommendations made. Suggestions for further
research will also be provided.
 CHAPTER FIVE

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In this last chapter of this mini-dissertation the following aspects will be

discussed:
summary of chapters one, two, three, and four;
literature findings;
research findings;
recommendations based on the findings;
implications for effective schools in Mpumalanga; and
recommendations for future research.

5.2 SUMMARY

The many incidents that have been reported in the press about the state of
education in the country and the negative comments and utterances that have
been made by senior officials of the Department, seem to indicate that most of
the schools are not effective. This has necessitated that the effectiveness of the
schools be researched.

Good leadership, shared vision and mission, and suitable conditions for learning
are some of the most important factors for school effectiveness. One way of
making schools effective is to apply the principles of change management to
curriculum implementation.

All the major components of the curriculum, like aims, objectives, materials,
transactions, context, content and evaluation, must be taken into consideration
 125

when the curriculum is developed, implemented and evaluated. This process

must include all important stakeholders.

This research project has taken school effectiveness to consist of the following
facets:
school culture (Craythorne, 1995);
school climate (Freiburg, 1999);
vision (Holmes, 1993);
motivational strategies (Petri, 1996);
curriculum (O'Neill and Kitson, 1996);
leadership (Harris, Bennet and Preddy, 1997); and
resources (Preddy, Glatter and Levacic, 1997).

The research has revealed that an overwhelming majority of the respondents

said they would support a curriculum that has the following features:
is based on research;
promotes good citizenship;
is future oriented;
promotes life skills; and
has maths and science.

Implementing a curriculum that has first been tried in another country, or not
deviating from the national curriculum was not regarded as that important.

SADTU members perceive themselves to be more accountably collaborative and

openly democratic in management of school effectiveness than members of
other educator organisations.

Principals with the least experience have the lowest score in respect of
accountable collaborative management while the most positive perception of
open democratic management was shown by principals with the least
 126

experience. Principals with the longest experience have the lowest factor mean
score of normative management as an aspect of school effectiveness.

The next aspect to be discussed is the findings.

5.3 FINDINGS

This aspect has been classified into two subsections, namely, literature findings
and empirical findings. Literature findings will be discussed first.

5.3.1 Literature findings

Finding number one: curriculum development and curriculum evaluation

Before a decision is taken to develop a new curriculum, the current curriculum

must be evaluated to establish whether it is still useful or not and whether
learners still benefit from it or not. If the curriculum no longer meet the needs of
the learners, the results are then used to inform the process of curriculum
development. The need for a new curriculum must first be established (Tyler,
1949: 1105; Kelly, 1977: 8).

Finding number two: curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation

Before curriculum evaluation is contemplated, some facts must be established:

whether or not the curriculum has been implemented at all; and
if it has been implemented, the level or the degree of implementation must
first be established.
Educators must be using the innovation in a routine manner before one can say
that the innovative change has been implemented. It is only when it has been
established that an innovative change has been implemented that any evaluation
can be contemplated (Hall and Loucks, 1977: 147; Snyder et al, 1992: 408).
 127

Finding number three: The nature of effective curriculum management

Effective curriculum management is a cyclic process which starts with the

evaluation of the current curriculum (Tyler, 1949: 1105). This process is followed
by curriculum development which is informed by the results of curriculum
evaluation. After the developed curriculum has been shared with and accepted
by all major stakeholders (Squelch and Lemmer, 1997: viii) it is then
implemented in phased sequences (Holt, 1980: 32). The level of implementation
if any, is then measured (Hall and Loucks, 1977: 147). Curriculum evaluation
may then be done. The results of this evaluation must inform future curriculum
development.

Finding number four: Curriculum implementation and the experience of

learners.

The effectiveness of a curriculum will depend on how it is experienced by

learners. Classrooms bring learners, educators and the subject matter together.
This relationship should be so managed that the learners experience the
curriculum positively

Classrooms are sites in which learners act upon new knowledge and skills. They
are busy places in which much interaction occurs rapidly (Jackson, 1968: 42).

Very often learners are discriminated against according to ability, race and
language. This causes them to experience the curriculum differently. Many
learners from a low socio-economic status groups experience learning problems
and feel alienated from the school and its curriculum (Erickson and Shultz, 1992:
469).

Learners with special educational needs are often discriminated against or put in
separate remedial classes permanently. This make them feel alienated from the
 128

school curriculum and encourages them to drop out of school (Hollins, 1996:
248).

Finding number five: Curriculum change and conceptual change

The change of a curriculum involves a change of the context. The curriculum is

not likely to change easily if it not accompanied by other changes like the
following:
change of structure, and power relations;
appointment of new people;
policies;
procedures;
paradigms and attitudes; and
materials, books and programmes.
Curriculum change must not be subject based but system based. Change must
be holistic (Holt, 1980: 30).

Finding number six: Curriculum change in multicultural societies

Multicultural communities should develop multicultural education systems

according to guidelines for multicultural curricula similar to those recommended
by government of the United States of America which include the following:
ethnic and cultural diversity should permeate the total school environment;
a school's staff should reflect the ethnic and cultural diversity within the
country; and
the multicultural curricula should promote values, attitudes, and behaviours
that support ethnic pluralism and cultural diversity as well as to build support
for the nations shared national culture (Hollins, 1996: 117).
 129

5.3.2 Empirical findings

These are findings based on the responses of the respondents to the questions
on curriculum, they are discussed below.

Finding number one: the role of stakeholders in the curriculum

The majority of the respondents believe that stakeholders have an important role
to play in the management of the curriculum. Seventy four percent (74%) of them
agree to strongly agree that an effective curriculum needs the support of the
majority of the stakeholders. Sixty seven percent (67%) agree to strongly agree
that stakeholder should be consulted before a new field of study is introduced.
Squelch and Lemmer, (1994: 140) support this view and add that if stakeholders
do not share the vision for change, they may oppose it. Holt (1980: 29 / 92-93)
also agrees that stakeholder involvement is essential for a project to succeed.

Finding number two: The desirability of an appropriate curriculum

The respondents have made known their preference for a suitable, appropriate,
high quality curriculum. This is seen in their insistence that a curriculum should
be based on relevant and reliable educational research. Ninety two percent
(92%) of the respondents agree to strongly agree with this statement. To add to
the preference for relevant curriculum based on research, 74,8 % of the
respondents agree to strongly agree that assessment results should be used to
plan assessment priorities. Darling-Hammond and Wise (1985: 324) support this
view. Cohen and Spillane (1992: 118) also agree that assessment should inform
the curriculum process.
 130

Finding number three: Curriculum initiatives

Because 54% of the respondents agree to strongly agree that they would only
implement a curriculum that has been implemented in another country, it may be
interpreted to mean that this group expects our country to learn from the
experiences of other countries. The 46 % of the respondents who are undecided
or against this statement may be saying that they expect our country to
sometimes take the lead and try something new and unique to South Africa to
meet the challenges of the new millennium.

Finding number four: Curriculum implementation and the quality of life

The respondents strongly believe that the curriculum should be used to improve
the quality of life for all South Africans by turning the country away from crime,
violence, disease, infection and unemployment to a brighter future as detailed
below:
ninety three percent (93,73%) of the respondents agree to strongly agree that
they would implement a curriculum that promotes good citizenship among
learners. A good citizen is expected to be self-reliant, responsible, helpful
and law-abiding with other similar characteristics (Schwab, 1989: 4). The
high crime rate and the wide spread violence may have led to the
overwhelming support for this view. MacGregor (1999: 10) also believes that
the curriculum should be used to promote good citizenship.
Because 89,2 % of the respondents agree to strongly agree that they would
implement a curriculum with life skills education, the respondents believe life
skills education would help curb unemployment , the high rate of HIV infection
and other similar problems and thus improve the quality of life (Heard and
Pretorius,1999: 5).
Eighty eight percent (88%) of the respondents agree to strongly agree that
maths and science are important. This view is also held by Boyer, (1985 :
111). It is the writers opinion that maths and science are popular because
 131

they are associated with numerous employment opportunities, and therefore

with quality of life.
The curriculum is about education and education is about the future. It is not
surprising that 91,7% of the respondents agree to strongly agree that
designers of the curriculum should be future oriented. MacGregor (1999: 10)
supports the view that education should prepare learners for a bright future
and a high quality of life.

Finding number five: Curriculum implementation and the national

curriculum

Sixty two percent (62,07%) of the respondents agree to strongly agree that a
curriculum should not deviate from the national curriculum, while 37 % of the
respondents did not fall within this category. This may be interpreted as follows:
to maintain standards and uniformity the national curriculum must be followed
(Snyder et.al ., 1992: 404); and
to meet local needs a little deviation must be allowed (Snyder et.al ., 1992:
410; Cuban, 1992: 216).

Recommendations will be discussed in the next portion of this mini-dissertation.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations that will be discussed below are based on the literature
findings and the empirical findings discussed in 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 above.

1. The Provincial Department of Education should formulate a strategic plan for

cyclic curriculum management for the whole department. This plan must look
at the various aspects of curriculum management such as the following:
measuring the level of implementation;
evaluation;
 132

curriculum development; and

implementation.
The Provincial Department of Education should start an advocacy campaign
for the new curriculum and promote discussion with all stakeholders.
The alienation from the curriculum caused by poverty, and disability must be
contained because 61% of learners attending school can be classified as
poor and from these we can expect the majority of behavioural and learning
problems (Erickson and Schultz, 1992: 472).
The supply of learning materials to schools in the form of books, workbooks
and programmes must be improved because learning materials are one of the
components of the curriculum. Without them, no curriculum implementation is
possible.
Multicultural education must be started and allowed to spread to as many
schools as possible in a way that will reflect the demography of the country.
Life skills programmes that will include citizenship, guidance and sexuality
education should be made compulsory in all schools.
Management training should be started and intensified for managers in all
levels from school to head office.
Possible implications for the Department of Education in Mpumalanga will now
be discussed.

5.5 IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS IN MPUMALANGA

The implications are based on the recommendations discussed in 5.4 above.

For Mpumalanga schools to be effective, the following will have to be done about
the recommendations discussed above.
1. Curriculum management teams should be established at all levels of the
department from the provincial head office to the school. The following
curriculum officials should be identified and trained and appointed
accordingly:
curriculum developers;
 133

curriculum evaluators; and

curriculum implementers.
All these categories should include school-based educators. The present so-
called "implementers" are actually workshop facilitators.
Workshops should be organised for education managers, parents and other
stakeholders and learners to promote discussion on curricular matters and
the necessity for the new curriculum. Evaluation results should also be
discussed at such forums.
Workshops should be arranged by district offices to train educators to identify
learners who may be feeling discriminated against and alienated for any
reason.
A special effort must be made to train principals of schools and their senior
staff to keep records of books and other materials and learners must also be
taught to treat school property with respect. When this has been done , books
and manuals must only be supplied to those schools that can prove that they
have been trained to handle them.
All schools must be encouraged to do the following in-order to promote
multicultural education:
admit all cultural groups;
employ staff according to the demographics of the country ;
offer English, Afrikaans and an African language to all learners some of whom
could be allowed to do as a third or fourth language; and
offer maths and science as an option in the curriculum.
Life skills programmes should be offered to all learners. All educators should
be trained in life skills. Departmental officials should monitor these
programmes.
Management programmes should be arranged for all sectors of the
department from the highest to the lowest level of managers because the
recommendations made above will require advanced management skills to
implement.
 134

Effective schools are not possible without an effective education department

to manage them and also to provide good leadership. To be effective the
Mpumalanga Department of Education will have to look into the following
issues with a view to improving them:
drawing up year programmes for all activities;
drawing up job descriptions for all its employees;
prioritising spending by putting books and classrooms before luxury
cars; and
introducing good management in the schools.

5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The following topics are recommended for future research

How effective schools which exist in areas for the under-privileged groups
cope?
Common strategies that have been applied by some effective schools to
implement Curriculum 2005.
How effective schools manage the difference between the intended and the
taught curriculum and also between the taught curriculum and the learned
curriculum?
How black learners in predominantly white schools experience curriculum
implementation?
To what extent does the educator's own culture and experiential background
influence his/her curricula perspectives?
To what extent should a school curriculum support replication of existing
social structures?
To what extent should values and practices of ethnic minorities be part of the
regular curriculum in a culturally diverse society?
 135

5.7 In Conclusion

It is the duty of all of us to do all we can to make our schools effective in all we do
or say. We owe it to our children who must grow up to be productive, reliable,
independent and dependable citizens of our country.
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Education under the new constitution in South Africa). Leuven: Acco.

PREDDY, M.; GLATTER, R. & LEVACIC, R. ed. 1997: Educational management

strategy, quality and resources. Buckingham: Open University.

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PRETORIUS, C. 1999: (b) Big stick for bad headmasters. Schools that do not
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PRETORIUS, C. 1999: (c) New evaluation indicators for schools. The Sunday
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PRETORIUS, C 1999: (d) Girls to receive rape lessons. The Sunday Times, 24
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 146

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 148

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ANNEXURE A
 R • A. • U
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
P.O. Box 524 Telegraphic address Rauoiv
Telex 424526 SA
Aockbusl Park
Tdephooe (011)489-2911
Jobaucesbarg + 27-11-489-2911
Republic of South Africa (011) 489-2191
Fax
' 2006 +27-11-489-2191

YOUR OPINION IS VITAL IN DETERMINING SCHOOL .r...P.PLCTIVENESS

Dear Madam/Sir

The effectiveness of a school is of importance to our educational system. It is thus

vital that we obtain your opinion regarding this aspect.

A questionnaire is one of the most effective ways of ELICITING EDUCATOR

OPINION and we are committed to the fact that without your opinion the
information is not credible. Please bear the following in mind when you complete
the questionnaire:

Do not write your name on the questionnaire - it remains anonymous.

There are no correct or incorrect answers in Sections B and C. We.merely require

YOUR OPINION in order to obtain reliable and trustworthy data.

Your first spontaneous reaction is probably the most valid. So work quickly and
accurately. Do not ponder to long over any particular questionfrtem.

Please answer all the questions that are printed on BOTH SIDES of the page.

If you would like to change your response to a question do so by clearly crossing

out the incorrect response and circling your intended response.

This questionnaire should take about 30 minutes of your time to complete.

Please return this questionnaire to the PERSON FROM WHOM IT WAS

- RECEIVED AS SOON AS POSSIBLE AFTER COMPLETION.

Thank you again for your valuable opinion.

Yours faithfully

Prof TC Bischoff.
off/ Prof BR Grobler.

Dr. CF Loock kFASOCICs Mrs. KC Moloi vie C licreoc;

DYNAMIC FOCUS ON THE FUTURE

 2

SECTION A: PERSONAL AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Circle the applicable code or fill in the number where necessary.

EXAMPLE FOR COMPLETING SECTION A

QUESTION 1: Your gender?

If you are a male then circle I as follows:

Mal o 1
Femal e

Have you attended any course/workshop/seminar related to

school effectiveness in the past three years?

Yes 1
No

it you answered yes to question 1, has it benefited your

management skills?

Definitely 1
Partially 2
Not at all 3

Your gender?*

Mal o 1
Femal o 2

How old are you ( in complete years)

e.g. if you are thirty five years then 315

Which of the following best describes your present post?

Principal
Deputy-principal 2
Head of department 3
Educator
 3

Teaching experience (in complete years)

e.g. five years 10 1 5

Number of completed years as a principal (if

applicable)

e.g. five years 0 fs

8. To which of the following educator organisations do you belong?

Please circle yes or no for each one (as you may belong to more
than one)

SADTU Yes No
TUATA Yes • No
NATU Yes No
NUE Yes No
SAOU Yes No
NAPTOSA Yes No
SAVBO Yes No
Other (please specify) Yes -

9. What is your mother tongue? (Give one only)

Zulu 01
Xhosa 02
Afrikaans 03
Tswan a 04
North-Sotho 05
English 06
South-Sotho 07
Tsonga 08
Ndebel c 09
Vend 10 -
Swati 11
Gujerati 12
Hindi 13
Tamil 14
Telegu 15
• Other (specify) 16
 Your highest educational qualification?

Lower than grade 12 1

Grade 12 2
Post school atc 3
Teacher's diploma/certificate plus further educational diploma/certificate- 4
Bachelor's degrec 5
Bachelor's degree plus a teacher's diploma/certificat e 6
Post graduate qualification 7

Your religion?

Non o
Christianity 2
Islam 3
Judaism 4
Hinduism 5
Buddhism
*African Traditional 7
Other (specify) e 8

Language of instruction at your school

English
Afrikaarr 2
Dual medium (two languages simultaneously in every class)--- 3
Parallel medium (two languages for some subjects, in different dasses)– 4
Other (specify) 5

13. How will you describe the attendance of educators in your

school?

Excellent (18 or more present per week out of every 20 - 90% or more}
Average (16-17 present per week out of every 20 - 80 to 89%)--
Poor (15 or less present per week out of every 20 - 79% orless)—

14. How will you describe the attendance of learners in your school?

Excellent (36 or more present per week out of every 40 - 90% or more} 17
' 7.

Average (32-35 present per week out of every 40 80 to 89%)

- — 2
Poor- (28 or less present per week out of every 40 79% es koss)
- — 3
 5

15. What is the gender of your principal?

Male 1
Female

Your school is a:

Primary school 1
Secondary school 2'
Combined school (Primary and secondary) 3
Special school 4
Other (specify) 5

In which district is your school situated?

Eerstehoek 0 1
Ermelo 0 2
Groblersdal 0 3
Hazyview 0 4
KwaMhlango 0 5
Malelanc 0 6
Moretelc 0 7
Nelspruit 0 8
Standerton 0 9
Witbank 1 0

18. How would you classify the present level of discipline in your
school?

Excellent 1
Good 2
Average 3
Poor 4

SECTION B:

Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following
statements:
1= strongly disagree
2— 5 = forms equal intervals between 1 and 6
6 = strongly agree
An effective school should:

ensure that maths and science are part of the academic

curriculum

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

pass on information received from the Department of Education to

all relevant stakeholders

Strongly disagree 11213141516_1 Strongly agree

provide learners with opportunities to enable them to utilise
information independently

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

implement a curriculum that provides learners with a life-skills

education

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

make use of computer technology to supplement teaching

methods

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

6. not deviate from the National curriculum

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

allow educators to use the mutts of the assessment of learners

to plan curriculum priorities

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

allocate most of the school funds to extra-curricular activities

Strongly disagree 111213141516'1 Strongly agree

9. implement strategies for fundraising

Strongly disagree 112 13 141 5 16 Strongly agree

 7

An effective school should:

10. expect parents of learners who cannot pay school funds to render
some form of service to the school

Strongly disagree 112131415N Strongly agree

allocate most of the school funds.to activities of teaching and

learning

Strongly disagree [112131415161 Strongly agree

gather information to make informed deciiions about resourcing
the school

Strongly disagree 11213441516' Stiongly agree

be future orientated when designing its curriculum

Strongly disagree [112 -13 14 1516] Strongly agree

let stakeholders participate in developing the mission of the
school

Strongly disagree 1421314 15 16 j Strongly agree

try to involve the business sector in the management of the
school

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

encourage Teacher Unions to participate in school management

Strongly disagree 14213141516 Strongly agree

allow learners to have a say in how money collected for the

development of sport is spent

Strongly disagree 1112134415161 Strongly agree

let student organisations participate in the management of the
school

Strongly ciusagree 1112131415161 Strongly agree

 8

An effective school should:

19. involve the local taxi association in the transport needs of the
learners

Strongly disagree 1 1213 141516 Strongly agree

have a curriculum that is supported by the majority of

stakeholders of the school

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 Strongly agree

consult with parents before taking an Important decision in

respect of school policy

Strongly disagree 1. 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6j Strongly agree

have a school policy which is in line with its mission statement

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 13 1 4 [5 1 6 Strongly agree

have everyone in the school committed to the transformation of

the education system

Strongly disagree (1 1 2 1 3 1 4 F5161 Strongly agree

ensure that the governing body and educators have joint planning
sessions

Strongly disagree 1 1 (2 1 3 1 4 15 1 6 1 Strongly agree

collect relevant information to determine whether the objectives
of the curriculum have been achieved

Strongly disagree 1 1 12 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

have educators working as a team with the management of the
school

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 41 5 1 6 .1 Strongly agree

have a clearly articulated educational philosophy

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 14 15 16 Strongly agree

 9

An effective school should:

ensure that its educators provide a supporting environment for

learners

Strongly disagree L1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 Strongly agree

have educators who show good skills of self-management

Strongly disagree 1 1 -2 1 3 1 4 1 5 Pr Strongly agree

train and develop educators using programs designed by the

educators in the school

Strongly disagree 1[213141516 Strongly agree

invite outside consultants to train its educators

Strongly disagree 1112131415161 Strongly agree

discourage educators from improving their educational
qualifications

Strongly disagree ?1--. 213141516 Strongly agree

33. have positive expectations for educators

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 1415 16 1 Strongly agree

offer financial incentives to educators based on their teaching

competence

Strongly disagree 11121'314[5161 Strongly agree

involve the educators in solving school related problems

Strongly disagree 1112131415161 Strongly agree

institute a training and development programme for educators
who fail to achieve their curriculum objectives

Strongly disagree 11 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

37. not be afraid to learn from its failures

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 61 Strongly agree

 I0

An effective school should:

practice what it preaches

Strongly disagree 1 1 12 1 3 14 15161 Strongly agree

show a commitment towards exemplary teaching practice .

Strongly disagree 1 12 1 3 14 1'5 1 6 Strongly agree

- attempt to ensure that basic human rights are respected

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 14 1 51 6 Strongly agree

recognise its past students who achieved success in their chosen

careers

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 13 14 1 -5 1 6 Strongly agree

involve learners in the cleaning of classrooms and school

grounds

Strongly disagree 1 12 1 3 14 1 5 16 Strongly agree

encourage learners to respect their cultural traditions

Strongly disagree [ 1 1 2 13 14 1 5 16 1 Strongly agree

allow stakeholders to collaborate in the formulation of school
rules and regulations

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 13 14 1 5 16 Strongly agree

allow parents to participate in the prof e

i ssional development of
educators

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 161 Strongly agree

respect the traditions of its community

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 14 1 5 1 6 Strongly agree

allow parents to play a role in the appointment of educators

Strongly disagree 1-1 12 1314 1 5 16 \ 1 Strongly agree

 11

An effective school should:

involve learners in disciplinary matters affecting the school

Strongly disagree 1112131415 61 Strongly agree

have corrective measures in place to deal with learners who
violate school rules

Strongly disagree 112 [3 [41516" Strongly agree

involve learners in decision-making only if they have the
necessary expertise

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

not tolerate the intimidation of educators

Strongly disagree 11213[41516 Strongly agree

have a governing body that makes special provision for the

welfare of learners

Strongly disagree 111213141:5161 Strongly agree

Involve learners In decision-malting only if they have an Interest in
a particular decision

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

'ensure that it receives active support from all levels of the

education system

Strongly disagree 1 12131415'16 Strongly agree

have educators who show sympathy towards learners

Strongly disagree 1. 11213141516 Strongly agree

have community structures with an interest in education

supporting the school

Strongly disagree 112131415161 Strongly agree

take stern action against pregnant learners

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 .'5 1 6 Strongly agree

An effective school should:

58. create governance structures to give stakeholders the necessary

power to enable them to govern the school competently

Strongly disagree ri1213141516 Strongly agree

will only implement an additional field of study when the majority

of the stakeholders have agreed to it

Strongly disagree ri 2 3 4 5 6 Strongly agree

be responsive to the concerns of its stakeholders

Strongly disagree 1 1 12 13 14 15161 Strongly agree

try to create a climate conductive to active parent involvement

— Strongly disagree 11 1213 14 15 6 1 Strongly agree

have the leadership skills to bring about the necessary
transformation in the school

Strongly disagree 1 112131415 1 6 1 Strongly agree

only implement a curriculum that has been successfully

implemented in another country

Strongly disagree 1112 13 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly a§ree

provide opportunities for improving the teaching skills of
educators

Strongly disagree 11121.3 1415161 Strongly agree

implement a curriculum that is based on relevant and reliable
educational research

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

implement a curriculum that provides learners with the necessary

skills to improve employment opportunities

Strongly disagree 11 121314 1 51 0.1 Strongly agree

 13

An effective school should:

67. have educators who use a variety of teaching resources

Strongly disagree 112131415 161 Strongly agree

68, provide incentives for learners to achieve in Olympiads and extra
curricular activities

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1'6 Strongly agree

have educators who assist learners who have special educational

needs

Strongly disagree 11213141,516 Strongly agree

implement a curriculum that provides learners with the necessary

skills to be useful citizens

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 31 4 1 5 1 6 Strongly agree

have educators with a wide range of teaching experience

Strongly disagree 1 12 1 3 1 4 1 5 16 Strongly agree

reward the individual performance of learners

Strongly disagree 1 12 1 3 14 15 1 '6 Strongly agree

inculcate good morals and values in their learners

Strongly disagree 11213141516 . Strongly agree

have educators who lead by example

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

recognise educators who improve their educational qualifications

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

have norms and values that are supported by the community

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

 14

An effective school should:

77. recognise parents who contribute money for the upgrading of

school facilities

Strongly disagree 1 I2 13 1415 16 Strongly agree

strive towards equity in learner achievement among all socio-

economic levels

Strongly disagree 1 1 1213141516 Strongly agree

link its norms and values to a particular religion

Strongly disagree (1 [21 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

strive towards equity in learner achievement among differing

races

Strongly disagree 11 1 2 3 1 4 1 .5 [6 Strongly agree

81. cater fora homogeneous cultural group

Strongly disagree 1112 I34 1 -,4 6 1 Strongly agree

regard norms and values as an important aspect in the

development of learners

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 21 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

regard excellent academic achievement as a core value

Strongly disagree 11,213141516 Strongly agree

have educators who are supportive of one another

Strongly disagree 1 1 1 2 1 3 14 1 516I Strongly agree

give greater power to the experienced teachers

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 15 1 6 1 Strongly agree

.

have sufficient furniture in the school

Strongly disagree 1 1 (213 141 5 16j Strongly agree

 IS

have an administration block

Strongly disagree 1 1213141516 Strongly agree

have an educator who is specifically responsible for counseling

learners with emotional problems

Strongly disagree 11213141'516 Strongly agree

have educators who use peer appraisal to develop themselves

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

have sufficient toilets for learners and educators

Strongly disagree 111213141516 Strongly agree

not allow participative decision making

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

encourage good interpersonal relationships among all

stakeholders

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

have a security fence

Strongly disagree I 121314166 Strongly agree

inculcate leadership skills in learners

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

ensure regular communication with its stakeholders

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

hold an annual general meeting to give feedback to its

stakeholders

Strongly disagree 1121314151. 6 Strongly agree

 16

97. ensure high levels of achievement among its learners

Strongly disagree rl 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 16 Strongly agree

develop attitudes in their learners that fosters a good self-image

Strongly disagree 1 12 1 3 14 15 16 1 Strongly agree

have the necessary textbooks and stationery

Strongly disagree 11213141516 Strongly agree

develop attitudes in their learners conducive to understanding

other people

Strongly disagree 1 1 f 2 1 3 14 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

101, encourage educators to be accountable for the achievement of

their learners

Strongly disagree 1 1 2 1 3 14 1_ 5 1 6 Strongly agree

1 02. strive to provide an environment that all stakeholders can feel

.

proud of

Strongly disagree 1 1 12 1 3 14 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

encourage learners to accept responsibility for their own
development

Strongly disagree 1 1 121 3 14 1 5 IC Strongly agree

have a principal who is a good role model

Strongly disagree (1 121 3 14 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

select well-qualified educators

Strongly disagree ri 2 1 3 14 1 5 1 6 1 Strongly agree

Section C:

Please indicate your rating for your school by circling the appropriate number
 17

My school would be:

Amongst the most effective schools in the district 1

More effective than most schools in the district 2
About as effective as other schools in the district 3
Less effective than most other schools in the district
Among the least effective schools in the district

Thank you for your patience and co-operation in completing this

questionnaire
ANNEXURE B
 Box 5265
Nelspruit
1200
Tel. No. (013) 2825380

Ref: V.W. Mtshali

20 / May / 1999

C. M. Mashaba
Chief Director
Mpumalanga Department of Education
P / B x251863
Middelburg
1050

Permission to conduct research in schools of the Mpumalanga Department of

Education

I am doing research on: Management of curriculum implementation: Implication

for school effectiveness.

I would like to administer the attached questionnaire at selected schools in the

Nelspruit district.

The administration of this 30 minutes Questionnaire will not disturb the normal
programme of the schools

"vi
•1/4,
v/v.\ 4-X
V.W. Mtshali
ANNEXURE C
 MPUMALANGA PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
The Galleries Private Bag X251863
C/o Jan van Riebeeck and Middelburg
Verdoorn Street 1050
Middelburg South Africa

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Our ref: C.M. Tel. No. (013)
Mashaba
Enquiries: Fax No. (013)

V.W. Mtshali
Box 5265
Nelspruit
1200

Permission to conduct research in Mpumalanga schools

Your letter of 20/5/99 has reference.

It gives me pleasure to grant you permission to do research in our schools. I
further wish to advise you to negotiate directly with the schools concerned.

I wish you well in your studies.

Date
C. M. Mashaba
Chief Director
ANNEXURE D
 Box 5265
Nelspruit
1200
24 May 1999

To principals of schools of the Nelspruit district.

From V.W. Mtshali

Subject: Administration of Questionnaire

I have obtained permission from the Chief Director of Education to administer a

30-minute questionnaire to schools of the Nelspruit district.

As your school is one of the schools selected for this purpose, I would like you to
assist me in the administration of the questionnaire.

I wish to thank you in advance for your co-operation.

V.W. Mtshali