Hindawi

BioMed Research International

Volume 2021, Article ID 7913950, 13 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7913950

Research Article
Screening and Identification of Trichoderma Strains
isolated from Natural Habitats in China with Potential
Agricultural Applications

Ming Xue,1 Rui Wang,1,2 Chongyuan Zhang,1 Weiwei Wang,1,3 Fengtao Zhang,1 Di Chen,1
Sen Ren,1 Zhang Manman,1 Jumei Hou,1 and Tong Liu 1,2
1
Key Laboratory of Green Prevention and Control of Tropical Diseases and Pests of Ministry of Education (College of
Plant Protection, Hainan University), Haikou, Hainan 570228, China
2
Engineering Center of Agricultural Microbial Preparation Research and Development of Hainan (Hainan University), Haikou,
Hainan 570228, China
3
Key Laboratory of Genetics and Germplasm Innovation of Tropical Special Forest Trees and Ornamental Plants of Ministry of
Education (College of Forest, Hainan University), Haikou 570228, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Tong Liu; [email protected]

Ming Xue and Rui Wang contributed equally to this work.

Received 17 June 2021; Revised 9 November 2021; Accepted 18 November 2021; Published 21 December 2021

Academic Editor: Joana Barbosa

Copyright © 2021 Ming Xue et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Trichoderma spp. are widely distributed in natural habitats and have been evaluated as a potential biocontrol agent (BCA) for
disease control and plant growth promotion. In this study, 1308 Trichoderma strains were obtained from the plant rhizosphere
soil, above-ground plants, and decaying wood from natural habitats in China. Among them, 49 Trichoderma strains showed a
good inhibitory effect, especially against Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides with
inhibition rate above 85% in the dual culture test. Among these 49 strains, the 13 strains with broad-spectrum inhibitory
effects also significantly promoted the seed germination of five crops (rice, cucumber, tomato, melon, and pakchoi) and root
growth of four crop seedlings (watermelon, tomato, eggplant, and chili). Furthermore, these strains showed effective
colonization in the rhizosphere and root of cucumber. Trichoderma strains SC012 and NX043 showed the highest chitinase
and β-1,3-glucanase activity among all strains. Based on the morphological characterization and phylogenetic analysis of the
nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and translation elongation factor 1 (tef1), twelve Trichoderma strains were
identified as Trichoderma asperellum and one as Trichoderma afroharzianum. This study suggests that the 13 Trichoderma
strains are promising BCAs and could be developed as biofertilizers and biological pesticides for agricultural applications.

1. Introduction through resistant plants [8]. Although these approaches can

reduce pathogen-caused losses, they are time-consuming
Soil-borne diseases significantly decrease the quality and and nontargeting and have poor control effects in some
quantity of cash crops including vegetables, fruits, and cases; chemical control is effective, but there are potential
officinal plants [1]. Most of the causal agents are polypha- risks to the environment, and pathogens are prone to drug
gous ubiquitous fungi, such as F. oxysporum causing wilt resistance [9]. Biological control is one of the best options
[2, 3], C. gloeosporioides causing anthracnose [4, 5], and to overcome the above-mentioned hurdles to the manage-
B. cinerea causing gray mold [6, 7]. Currently available ment of soil-borne plant pathogens and is undoubtedly
strategies for managing soil-borne pathogens include culti- more suitable for the sustainable development of modern
vation practices, physical control, and chemical control agriculture [10].
2 BioMed Research International

Trichoderma spp. are recognized as important bioanta- 5 g, MgSO4·7H2O 0.1 g, NH4NO3 3 g, KH2PO4 2 g in 1 liter of
gonists of phytopathogens in agricultural production and distilled water, pH 6.0) were used to ferment Trichoderma
account for more than 60% of the registered biofungicides strains. Corn meal dextrose agar medium (CMD, 30 g corn
[11]. The biocontrol efficacy of Trichoderma is based on flour, 18 g glucose, and 18 g agar; dilute the volume to 1 L with
the activation of multiple mechanisms, including competing water) and synthetic low nutrient agar medium (SNA, 1.0 g
for nutrients and space, modifying the environmental condi- KH2PO4, 10.5 g KCl, 1.0 g KNO3, 0.5 g MgSO4, 0.2 g glucose,
tions, and promoting plant growth and plant-defensive mecha- 0.2 g sucrose, and 18 g agar; dilute it to 1 L with water) were used
nisms, antibiosis, and mycoparasitism [12–15]. T. asperellum for the morphological identification of Trichoderma strains.
strain CCTCC-RW0014 exhibited antagonism activity to fusar-
ium wilt disease due to its high hydrolytic activity of chitin, 2.2. Collection of Samples and Isolation of Trichoderma. A
gelatin, carboxymethyl cellulose, and pachyman [16]. T. virens total of 1018 samples of the rhizosphere soil and plants of
ZT05 showed a significant inhibitory effect on R. solani, and cultivated crops from different ecological habitats, and
its mechanism of action was associated with hyperparasitism decaying woods were collected from China. All samples were
and antibiosis [17]; T. harzianum Ths97 can control F. oxy- placed into sterile plastic bags in an icebox, transported to
sporum causing damping-off in Pinus massoniana seedlings the laboratory in an icebox, and stored at 4°C for further
by reducing reactive oxygen species, lowering lipid peroxidation use. Add 10 g of soil into 90 mL sterile water, shook for
and cell death, increasing osmolyte levels, stimulating the activ- 30 min (200 r min–1), and then dilute to 103-fold. Fresh plant
ities of antioxidant enzymes, and increasing soil fertility [18]. samples and rotten woods were surface-disinfected by 70%
Trichoderma is one of the most diverse genera of the bio- alcohol for 30 s, ground in 1× PBS buffer, and diluted to
control fungi having above 300 reported species [19]. How- 100-fold. The solutions (100 μL) were added to the surface
ever, only a few of them are used in agricultural production of TSM for the isolation of Trichoderma spp. Each sample
as BCAs or biostimulating agents including T. polysporum, was performed in triplicate. Morphologically different colo-
T. hamatum, T. virens, and T. atroviride [20–22]. Therefore, nies were selected, transferred onto PDA medium, and puri-
exploring the greater diversity of Trichoderma and evaluat- fied by a single spore isolation [26]. All purified strains were
ing its biocontrol effect have greater advantages in the bio- maintained on PDA slants at 4°C for further use.
control of plant pathogens. In addition, the success of
2.3. Inhibitory Effect of Trichoderma Strains on the Pathogenic
BCAs is dependent upon the complex interactions between
Fungi. The antagonistic ability of all Trichoderma strains
beneficial microbes with pathogens and plants [23]. It is a
against pathogenic fungi was evaluated by a dual culture
prerequisite for their effective practical application to under-
method. Five-millimeter diameter mycelial disks from Tricho-
stand how the biocontrol agents exert their protective effects
derma strains and pathogenic fungi were transferred onto the
[24]. In this study, we isolated 1308 Trichoderma strains
border of PDA plate opposed to each other with a distance of
various natural habitats in China and screened for their anti-
50 mm on Petri dishes (diameter, 90 mm) and incubated at
fungal effect against a range of plant pathogenic fungi. Those
28°C for 7 days. The individual cultures of the pathogenic
strains that showed prominent antifungal activity were further
fungi were used as controls. The percentage of growth inhibi-
tested for their plant growth and germination effect on a
tion (PI) was calculated using the following equation: PI ð%Þ
variety of important cash crops. The selected strains were then
= ½ðC − TÞ/C × 100, where C represents radial growth of con-
evaluated for root colonization ability, chitinase, and β-1,3-
trol mycelial and T represents radial growth of the treatment
glucanase activity and finally identified on morphological
mycelial. Each treatment was performed in triplicate.
and molecular basis.
2.4. Effect of Trichoderma Strains on Seed Germination. Five
2. Materials and Methods crops (Supplementary Table S1), including rice, tomato,
melon, cucumber, and pakchoi, were used to measure the
2.1. Strains and Media. The pathogenic fungi (B. cinerea WN- effect of Trichoderma strains on seed germination. Uniform
2, F. oxysporum CS-1, C. gloeosporioides Penz QH-5, Sclerotium size 50 seeds of each crop were surface-disinfected by 75%
rolfsii SDF-23, F. oxysporum f. sp. tracheiphilum MTX-6, ethanol for 1 min and 0.5% NaClO for 5 min and washed five
Botryosphaeria dothidea CTG-7, Magnaporthe oryzae DWM- times with sterile water. The seeds were soaked in Petri dishes
3, Botryodiplodia theobromae PERF-1, F. graminearum KDR- containing 50 mL of Trichoderma strains spore suspension
1, Rhizoctonia cerealis ROD-18, Stagonosporopsis cucurbita- (105 spores mL–1) for 2 h, transferred into new petri dishes
cearum SD-3, and R. solani MNV-6) were isolated, identified, covered with a layer of cotton and a filter paper, and cultured
and stored at the Key Laboratory of Green Prevention and for 7 days at 28°C under the conditions of 12/12 h light/dark.
Control of Tropical Diseases and Pests of Hainan University The seeds treated with an equivalent volume of sterile water
for the subsequent studies. were used as control. The seed germination rate was
Trichoderma selective medium (TSM) was used for the calculated using the following equation: seed germination rate
isolation of Trichoderma spp. [25]. Potato dextrose agar ð%Þ = number of germinated seeds/number of total seeds
(PDA) medium was used to culture and preserve pathogenic tested × 100. The experiment was performed in triplicate.
fungi and Trichoderma. The β-1,3-glucanase synthetic
medium (Yeast extract 30 g, NaNO3 3 g, MgSO4·H2O 0.5 g, 2.5. Determination of Growth Promoting Effect of Trichoderma
K2HPO4 1 g, FeSO4·7H2O 0.01 g, KCl 0.5 g in 1 liter of dis- Strains. The root growth promotion experiment was per-
tilled water, pH 6.0) and chitinase detection medium (chitin formed at 28°C under the conditions of 12/12 h light/dark
BioMed Research International 3

alternation with 80% relative humidity in a greenhouse. Uni- described by Ihrmark et al. [31]. The tef-1 gene was ampli-
form size seedlings of watermelon, chili, eggplant, and tomato fied with primers tef1-728F (5 ′ -CATCGAGAAGTTCGAG
were irrigated with a 100 mL spore suspension (105 spores AAGG-3 ′ ) and tef1-R (5 ′ -GCCATCCTTGGGAGATACC
mL–1) of the Trichoderma strains. The seedlings treated with AGC-3 ′ ), and ITS region was amplified with primers ITS4
water were used as control. After 15 days, the seedlings were
(5 ′ -TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3 ′ ) and ITS5 (5 ′ -
harvested, and the roots and aboveground seedlings were
separated with scissors. The root length of seedlings was mea- GGAAGTAAAAGTCGTAACAAGG-3 ′ ). The PCR prod-
sured. The experiment was carried out in triplicate. ucts were cloned into the Ti-19 vector and sequenced by
the Sangon Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). All
2.6. Determination of the Colonization Ability of Trichoderma sequences from Trichoderma strains were aligned and
Strains. The spore suspension (107 spores mL–1) of the Tricho- spliced through “tef-1+ITS region” using MAFFT v7.215
derma strains was added into sterilized composite soil con- [32]. The best substitution model (GTR+F+I+G4) was eval-
taining vermiculite, matrix, and soil (1 : 3 : 7) and adjusted to uated with IQ-TREE software using the ultrafast bootstrap
a final concentration of 104 spores g–1. Sterilized distilled water method with 10,000 replicates. The phylogenetic tree was
was used as the control. The Trichoderma-inoculated and constructed based on tef-1 gene and ITS region for the
Trichoderma-uninoculated soils were placed into sterile glass molecular identification of the Trichoderma species.
test tubes (height, 25 cm; inner diameter, 2 cm), and then, a 2.9. Statistical Analyses. All experiments were repeated three
cucumber seed was planted inside. All tubes were inserted with times. The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 21.0
a cotton ball, sealed with tin foil, and placed in a plant growth software (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) using one-way
chamber at 28°C under the conditions of 12/12 h light/dark analysis of variance (ANOVA). Means of treatment were
alternation. After 15 days, the Trichoderma populations in compared using the least significant difference (LSD) test
the rhizosphere soil and roots endoderm of cucumber were cal- at P < 0:05 and separated by superscript letters.
culated by a dilution plate method [27] (thirty seedlings for
each treatment). The experiment was performed in triplicate.
3. Results
2.7. Determination of β-1,3-Glucanase and Chitinase Activity 3.1. Screening the Antagonistic Activity of Trichoderma
of Trichoderma Strains. For the determination of β-1,3-gluca- Strains. A total of 1308 Trichoderma strains were obtained
nase activity, the Trichoderma strain was incubated in syn- by the dilution plate method and single spore isolation
thetic medium and cultured at 28°C with shaking at 180 rpm method, including 1018 strains from 1018 rhizosphere soil
for 3 days. Medium without Trichoderma spp. was used as samples, 205 strains from 45 rotten wood samples, and 86
control. Approximately 1 mL of the culture filtrate was used strains from 16 plant samples. The dual culture test showed
to assay activity of β-1,3-glucanase using the 3,5-dinitrosa- that 49 Trichoderma strains had good inhibitory effects
licylic acid colorimetric method [28]. For the determination against F. oxysporum (FOC), C. gloeosporioides (CG), and
of chitinase activity, Trichoderma strain was incubated in chit- B. cinerea (BC), and their PIs were all exceeded 85%
inase detection medium and cultured at 28°C with shaking at (Table 1). These 49 strains used for further experiments.
180 rpm for 3 days. Colloidal chitin was prepared according
to the method described by Roberts and Selitrennikoff [29]. 3.2. Promotion Effect of Trichoderma Strains on Seed
The assay was performed in 10 mL tubes containing 1 mL Germination and Root Growth. The germination test showed
1% colloidal chitin, 1.5 mL 50 mM acetate buffer pH =5.0, that 13 strains (GZ070, HL100, HL119, HL135, HN059,
and 1 mL suspension, the mixture was incubated at 40°C for JX013, SC012, XJ035, NX043, QH060, XJ087, SC098, and
1 h, and the chitinase activity was determined basing the SC101) significantly promoted the seed germination of the five
standard curves of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) mea- plants compared with the control. Among them, HL100 strain
sured at 540 nm absorbance. Enzyme bioactivity was calculated showed the best promotion effects on seed germination of rice,
as follows: enzyme bioactivity ðU/mLÞ = ½ðA1 − A2Þ + b1 × d/ cucumber, and pakchoi, with increased germination rates of
ðK1 × V1 × T1Þ, where A1 represents OD540 of samples, A2 12.17%, 13.23%, and 27.54%, respectively. The XM002-21
represents OD540 of control, b1 represents the y-intercept of and XJ087 strains showed the highest promotion effects on
standard curves, d represents dilution rate of suspension, K1 seed germination of melon and tomato, with increased germi-
represents the slope of standard curves, V1 represents the vol- nation rates of 12.55% and 41.94%, respectively (Table 2).
ume of mixture (mL), and T1 represents reaction time (h). Each The 13 Trichoderma strains that significantly promoted the
treatment was performed in triplicate. seed germination were further tested for their effect on root
growth of watermelon, chili, eggplant, and tomato seedlings.
2.8. Identification of Trichoderma Strains. The morphologi- In greenhouse experiment, all strains showed a promotion
cal characteristics of conidia, phialide, conidiophore, and effect on root growth of chili seedlings, and among them,
chlamydospores and the colony growth patterns of Tricho- HL100 strain showed maximum increase 12.17% in root length
derma strains cultured on PDA, SNA, and CMD media were compared to control. Three strains (GZ070, HL100, and
observed according to the description of Gams and Bissett HN059) significantly promoted the root growth of watermelon
[30]. For molecular identification, genomic DNAs of Tricho- seedlings. HN059 strain showed maximum increase of 18.81%
derma strains were extracted using the method of cetyl- in root length compared to control. Trichoderma strains
trimethylammonium ammonium bromide (CTAB) as GZ070, HL100, HN059, JX013, XJ087, and NX043 strains
4 BioMed Research International

Table 1: The region of the isolates which were screened in dual culture and its PI to three pathogens.

PI (%)
Code Region
FOC CG BC
HL003 Hegang, Heilongjiang 85:13 ± 2:35 86:15 ± 1:54 90:56 ± 0:96
HN071 Ledong, Hainan 89:23 ± 1:54 88:72 ± 2:35 89:74 ± 1:18
SC006 Panzhihua, Sichuan 86:15 ± 6:71 97:95 ± 0:89 89:33 ± 6:11
SC017 Panzhihua, Sichuan 86:67 ± 2:35 93:85 ± 1:54 89:33 ± 2:31
HN059 Ledong, Hainan 85:13 ± 2:35 91:28 ± 0:89 88:89 ± 1:48
JX013 Pingxiang, Jiangxi 85:13 ± 3:20 88:21 ± 3:55 88:51 ± 5:27
HL007 Hegang, Heilongjiang 86:15 ± 1:54 91:28 ± 1:78 88:33 ± 0:22
HL101 Jiamusi, Heilongjiang 85:13 ± 0:89 88:21 ± 0:89 88:33 ± 3:89
HN046 Danzhou, Hainan 86:67 ± 0:89 89:74 ± 0:89 88:03 ± 1:48
HL008 Hailun, Heilongjiang 90:51 ± 0:44 95:49 ± 0:18 88:00 ± 0:92
JX002 Pingxiang, Jiangxi 85:64 ± 4:95 91:28 ± 0:89 87:03 ± 2:25
GX004 Guilin, Guangxi 88:21 ± 0:89 93:33 ± 0:89 87:03 ± 5:94
HL137 Hailun, Heilongjiang 86:15 ± 1:54 90:26 ± 3:20 87:03 ± 2:25
NM023 Chifeng, Neimeng 85:13 ± 2:35 91:28 ± 3:55 85:06 ± 1:99
HL119 Yichun, Heilongjiang 85:13 ± 3:87 85:13 ± 0:89 86:67 ± 2:31
FJ090 Ningde, Fujian 86:15 ± 1:54 95:90 ± 0:89 86:67 ± 2:31
HL092 Daqing, Heilongjiang 90:82 ± 0:09 93:33 ± 0:89 86:67 ± 2:31
ZJ019 Wenzhou, Zhejiang 88:72 ± 3:87 88:21 ± 3:20 86:50 ± 2:34
HN027 Danzhou, Hainan 85:13 ± 0:89 91:28 ± 0:89 86:32 ± 3:92
SX001 Changzhi, Shanxi 86:15 ± 1:54 88:72 ± 1:78 85:47 ± 1:48
HL144 Hegang, Heilongjiang 87:69 ± 1:54 92:82 ± 2:35 85:73 ± 4:49
HL018 Jiamusi, Heilongjiang 85:13 ± 0:89 91:79 ± 0:89 85:73 ± 5:94
HL132 Hegang, Heilongjiang 86:67 ± 4:70 89:74 ± 1:78 85:73 ± 5:94
HL131 Hegang, Heilongjiang 88:72 ± 0:89 91:28 ± 2:35 85:73 ± 5:94
FJ065 Ningde, Fujian 87:18 ± 3:87 91:28 ± 2:35 85:73 ± 4:49
SC011 Panzhihua, Sichuan 90:77 ± 3:08 93:85 ± 1:54 85:33 ± 2:31
SC018 Panzhihua, Sichuan 86:15 ± 1:54 96:41 ± 3:55 85:33 ± 2:31
SC013 Panzhihua, Sichuan 89:74 ± 3:20 91:79 ± 0:89 85:33 ± 6:11
FJ058 Ningde, Fujian 85:13 ± 0:89 94:36 ± 1:78 85:33 ± 2:31
HL015 Daqing, Heilongjiang 85:64 ± 0:89 91:79 ± 0:89 85:33 ± 2:31
HL100 Hailun, Heilongjiang 90:26 ± 3:20 95:90 ± 0:89 85:33 ± 4:62
FJ034 Fuzhou, Fujian 85:13 ± 1:78 85:64 ± 4:95 85:16 ± 4:67
LN005 Dalian, Liaoning 86:67 ± 1:78 87:18 ± 0:89 85:06 ± 3:98
XM002-21 Danzhou, Hainan 86:10 ± 0:09 86:15 ± 1:54 85:06 ± 5:27
HL048 Daqing, Heilongjiang 92:82 ± 0:89 96:41 ± 0:89 85:20 ± 2:08
SC010 Panzhihua, Sichuan 87:69 ± 2:66 90:77 ± 1:54 86:13 ± 3:70
HL135 Hegang, Heilongjiang 90:77 ± 1:54 90:26 ± 3:20 85:20 ± 2:12
SC012 Chengdu, Sichuan 90:21 ± 0:98 94:87 ± 3:20 85:33 ± 6:11
HN018 Danzhou, Hainan 90:26 ± 2:35 89:23 ± 1:54 85:21 ± 3:39
GZ070 Guiyang, Guizhou 90:15 ± 2:32 92:31 ± 1:54 86:50 ± 4:67
FJ087 Fuzhou, Fujian 88:72 ± 2:35 94:97 ± 0:71 85:33 ± 3:06
SC019 Panzhihua, Sichuan 89:74 ± 0:89 96:92 ± 2:66 85:33 ± 7:02
JS016 Xuzhou, Jiangsu 85:08 ± 0:80 89:74 ± 2:35 91:11 ± 1:92
BioMed Research International 5

Table 1: Continued.

PI (%)
Code Region
FOC CG BC
BJ006 Haidian, Beijing 85:13 ± 2:35 86:67 ± 9:40 90:00 ± 3:33
QH060 Haixi, Qinghai 87:79 ± 0:18 87:69 ± 1:54 85:13 ± 2:35
SC101 Guangyuan, Sichuan 86:26 ± 0:18 85:13 ± 0:89 85:13 ± 0:89
NX043 Qinghai, Ningxia 85:13 ± 0:89 85:12 ± 0:89 89:23 ± 1:54
XJ035 Yili, Xinjiang 89:38 ± 0:27 85:13 ± 0:89 86:67 ± 1:78
SC098 Guangyuan, Sichuan 87:74 ± 0:09 85:17 ± 2:35 86:15 ± 0:27
XJ087 Kuerle, Xinjiang 86:15 ± 0:27 85:13 ± 0:89 85:13 ± 0:89
Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3). FOC: Fusarium oxysporum; CG: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides; BC: Botrytis cinerea; PI (%): percentage of growth
inhibition.

Table 2: The germination rate of 5 kinds of seeds after Trichoderma treatment.

Seed germination rates (%)

Code
Rice Cucumber Tomato Melon Pakchoi
a a d,e a
GZ070 83:14 ± 1:97 85:56 ± 10:18 44:00 ± 14:37 83:33 ± 10:00 71:99 ± 4:41b
HL100 94:06 ± 3:98a 90:56 ± 7:97a 49:91 ± 15:25b,c,d,e 80:83 ± 0:72a 99:48 ± 0:90a
HL119 89:62 ± 4:36a 89:64 ± 7:50a 43:31 ± 1:30d,e 85:29 ± 7:50a 97:68 ± 0:86a
HL135 93:39 ± 3:26a 87:30 ± 10:13a 48:72 ± 15:06c,d,e 78:89 ± 8:67a 98:93 ± 0:93a
HN059 89:70 ± 3:14a 79:21 ± 7:40a 45:93 ± 8:41d,e 80:43 ± 3:25a 94:88 ± 2:46a
JX013 89:59 ± 7:09a 78:92 ± 13:81a 48:03 ± 5:85c,d,e 77:14 ± 8:51a 71:96 ± 5:24b
SC012 92:81 ± 3:92a 88:80 ± 4:74a 43:99 ± 18:12d,e 86:59 ± 11:48a 99:00 ± 1:72a
XJ035 83:78 ± 19:05a 82:22 ± 16:44a 72:00 ± 16:00a,b,c 76:81 ± 9:77a 78:67 ± 13:32b
NX043 82:33 ± 15:53a 80:00 ± 15:28a 74:67 ± 2:15a,b 82:22 ± 10:09a 81:11 ± 7:37b
QH060 87:00 ± 7:55a 85:56 ± 6:94a 88:00 ± 2:00a 77:78 ± 13:47a 83:33 ± 3:06b
a a a a
XJ087 87:75 ± 8:49 82:22 ± 5:09 83:33 ± 5:77 81:11 ± 1:92 80:00 ± 3:46b
a a a
SC098 87:33 ± 7:02 85:56 ± 8:39 66:11 ± 10:46a,b,c,d,e 79:33 ± 4:62 76:00 ± 10:58b
a a a
SC101 82:34 ± 12:17 79:56 ± 1:92 69:33 ± 1:15a,b,c,d 82:22 ± 11:71 73:67 ± 11:72b
a a e a
CK 81:91 ± 17:41 77:33 ± 8:03 41:39 ± 12:41 76:34 ± 4:93 71:94 ± 7:25b
Germination rates of seed were measured at 7 days, where seeds were treated by 105 spore mL–1 suspension in 2 hours. “CK” means to treat seeds with sterile
water. Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters indicate that the differences are significant (P < 0:05) using Duncan’s multiple range test.

and HL119, HN059, SC012, XJ035, SC098, and SC101 were inase and β-1,3-glucanase. The results showed that these strains
found to promote the root growth of eggplant and tomato possessed a wide range of activity of chitinase and β-1,3-gluca-
seedlings, respectively. The highest increase in root length of nase (Table 4). SC012 strain exhibited the highest chitinase
eggplant (40.99%) and tomato plants (34.68%) was recorded activity (0.154 U mL–1). NX043 and XJ087 strains showed the
by GZ070 and SC098 strains, respectively (Table 3). highest β-1,3-glucanase activity. The lowest chitinase activity
(0.041 U mL–1) and β-1,3-glucanase activity (0.1765 U mL–1)
3.3. Colonization Ability of Trichoderma Strains. The coloni- were shown by SC098 and XJ035 strains, respectively.
zation of GZ070, HL100, and JX013 strains in rhizosphere
soil was higher than that of other strains, which were 8:30 3.5. Detection of Antimicrobial Spectrum of Trichoderma.
× 104 , 1:50 × 105 , and 1:56 × 105 CFU g–1, respectively. In The results showed that 13 Trichoderma strains exhibited
the root endoderm of cucumber, the colonization of significant inhibitory effects on 9 kinds of pathogenic fungi
GZ070, HL100, and QH060 strains was higher than that of (Table 5). The inhibition rates of 13 Trichoderma strains to
other strains, showing 7:67 × 104 , 1:20 × 105 , and 8:00 × 104 FT and MO were all over 80% (80.81–88.37%). NX043 strain
CFU g–1, respectively (Figure 1). had the highest inhibition rate on FT (88.37%), and HL100
strain had the highest inhibition rate to MO (87.50%). How-
3.4. Activity of Chitinase and β-1,3-Glucanase. The 13 Tri- ever, the inhibition rate of 13 Trichoderma strains on BT was
choderma strains were used to measure the activities of chit- lower than that of other pathogenic fungi (59.49–70.26%).
6 BioMed Research International

Table 3: Root length of different crops treated with a spore suspension at 15 days.

Length of roots (cm)

Code
Watermelon Chili Eggplant Tomato
a,b,c b,c,d a
GZ070 11:71 ± 0:18 9:56 ± 0:54 12:88 ± 2:55 3:74 ± 0:49e,f ,g,h
HL100 12:26 ± 0:73a,b,c 11:85 ± 0:83a,b 10:48 ± 1:06a,b,c,d,e 3:60 ± 0:37g,h
HL119 9:36 ± 1:00h 11:08 ± 0:82a,b,c 9:47 ± 2:13i,j 5:03 ± 0:71a,b,c,d
HL135 11:20 ± 0:57c,d,e,f ,g 9:72 ± 0:74b,c,d 9:54 ± 1:29h,i,j 2:98 ± 0:16h
HN059 13:03 ± 1:51a 11:28 ± 1:38a,b 10:16 ± 0:55c,d,e,f ,g 4:10 ± 0:29e,f ,g,h
JX013 9:71 ± 0:54h 10:33 ± 0:57a,b,c,d 10:91 ± 1:02a,b,c,d 3:73 ± 0:46f ,g,h
SC012 11:33 ± 1:10b,c,d,e,f 10:19 ± 0:95a,b,c,d 9:24 ± 0:66h,i,j 5:02 ± 0:54a,b
XJ035 10:69 ± 0:49c,d,e,f ,g 10:96 ± 0:90a,b,c,d 8:24 ± 0:70h,i,j 4:76 ± 0:54b,c,d
NX043 11:65 ± 1:66b,c,d,e,f ,g 10:51 ± 0:68a,b,c,d 9:39 ± 1:58e,f ,g,h,i,j 3:37 ± 0:38h
QH060 11:50 ± 0:99c,d,e,f ,g 9:20 ± 0:51a,b,c,d 8:45 ± 0:57h,i,j 3:43 ± 0:61f ,g,h
XJ087 10:25 ± 0:58g,h 9:79 ± 0:78a,b,c,d 11:33 ± 0:38a,b,c,d,e 3:35 ± 0:33f ,g,h
SC098 10:18 ± 0:88e,f ,g,h 8:96 ± 0:76b,c,d 8:45 ± 0:87i,j 5:40 ± 0:46a
SC101 9:99 ± 0:83f ,g,h 9:88 ± 0:65a,b 7:00 ± 0:32k 4:42 ± 0:37d,e,g,f
CK 11:26 ± 0:18a,b 9:34 ± 0:38d 9:63 ± 0:15f ,g,h,i,j 3:93 ± 0:14f ,g,h
The concentration of the conidial suspension was 105 spores mL–1. “CK” means to treat seeds with sterile water. Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3).
Different letters indicate that the differences are significant (P < 0:05) using Duncan’s multiple range test.

20
AB
AB
Amounts of Trichoderma

AB
15
(104 CFU/g)

ABCD DEFG
ABCD ABC
10 EFG
GH GH
EFG G FG DEFG GH GH
FGH FGH FGH EFG
H EFGH
5 H H
FGH
H
0
GZ070

HL100

HL119

HL135

HN059

JX013

SC012

XJ035

NX043

QH060

XJ087

SC098

SC101

Treatments

Rhizosphere soil
Endosphere in roots

Figure 1: Determination of colonization ability of Trichoderma on cucumber seedlings. Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3). Different
letters indicate that the differences are significant (P < 0:05) using Duncan’s multiple range test.

3.6. Identification of Trichoderma Strains with Potential arising. Phialides were tended to cluster on branches. SC098
Agricultural Applications. All strains, except for SC098, strain produced a diffuse yellow pigment on both sides of
showed the same morphological characteristics after grow- PDA plates, and green and yellow cottony sori were observed
ing on three kinds of medium for 7 days. These strains on CMD medium at 48 h. The mycelia of the strains were
appeared as dark green colonies with a distinctive coconut wavy and grown floccose to arachnoid on SNA plates, and
odor on PDA plates, and they formed green conidial pus- phialides were ampulliform (length, 5-6.5 μm; widest point,
tules on CMD medium and produced white, yellow, and 2.9-3.2 μm), tending to cluster and to create a narrow neck at
green sorus, forming concentric zones on SNA plates the top (Figures 2(f)–2(h) and 3(f)–(h)). A phylogenetic tree
(Figures 2(a)–2(e) and 3(a)–(e)). Conidia and chlamydo- demonstrated that all the selected strains had two distinct
spores are smooth, watered, and subglobose, and the clades. JX013, HN059, XJ097, QH060, HL100, HL119, HL135,
branches were pyramidal and verticillate or paired lateral SC012, NX043, SC101, GZ070, and XJ035 strains belonged to
BioMed Research International 7

Table 4: Chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activity of Trichoderma pathogens for space and nutrition but also degrade the cell
isolates at 3 days in enzyme synthetic medium. walls of pathogens, deform, or even digest the hyphae, and
inhibit the growth of pathogens. It has also been reported that
Code Chitinase (U mL–1) β-1,3-Glucanase (U mL–1) the cell wall degrading enzymes such as chitinase and gluca-
GZ070 0:069 ± 0:018g,h,i 0:398 ± 0:044b,c nase secreted by Trichoderma also play a vital role in the
HL100 0:105 ± 0:017b,c,d,e,f 0:319 ± 0:042b,c,d hyperparasitism process of Trichoderma on pathogens [36].
In addition, we also found that some Trichoderma strains
HL119 0:112 ± 0:018b,c,d,e 0:397 ± 0:022b,c had a distinctive coconut odor, which may be related to the
HL135 0:081 ± 0:006e,f ,g,h 0:488 ± 0002b production of the volatile compound namely 6-pentyl-2H-
pyran-2-one (6PP) [37]. Wonglom et al. reported that T.
HN059 0:068 ± 0:016g,h,i 0:340 ± 0:002b,c,d
asperellum T1 could produce 22 volatile compounds including
JX013 0:082 ± 0:001e,f ,g,h 0:489 ± 0:05b 6PP, which could inhibit the growth of two leaf spot fungal
SC012 0:154 ± 0:013a 0:3744 ± 0:062b,c,d pathogens, Corynespora cassiicola and Curvularia aeria [38].
This study confirmed that 13 Trichoderma strains had a
XJ035 0:087 ± 0:009d,e,f,g,h 0:1765 ± 0:038c,d good growth-promoting effect on many crops. Trichoderma
NX043 0:108 ± 0:028b,c,d,e 0:8162 ± 0:172a promotes plant growth by enhancing nutrient absorption effi-
ciency and the secretion of growth-promoting metabolites in
QH060 0:126 ± 0:009b 0:2258 ± 0:070b,c,d
host plant [39]. Previous studies have shown that T. virens
XJ087 0:104 ± 0:039b,c,d,e,f 0:7993 ± 0:199a promotes the growth of Arabidopsis thaliana by mediating
SC098 0:047 ± 0:015i 0:3814 ± 0:048b,c,d the activation of the classical auxin response pathway [40].
Additionally, diverse VOCs from T. asperellum also contribute
SC101 0:095 ± 0:006c,d,e,f ,g 0:3170 ± 0:08b,c,d immensely to plant growth [37, 38]. Trichoderma T-22 could
Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters indicate that the increase the efficiency of nitrogen application in maize, and
differences are significant (P < 0:05) using Duncan’s multiple range test. under the same growth conditions, it could reduce the nitro-
gen application rate of corn by 40% [41]. Besides, Trichoderma
the Hamatum clade and had affinity to KP009011 (T. asperel- can also induce plant hormone synthesis to promote plant
lum). SC098 strain was identified as T. afroharzianum, which growth by upregulating plant genes for hormone biosynthesis
was closely related to KP0699541 (T. afroharzianum) and or downregulating hormone catabolism-related genes [42].
belonged to the harzianum clade (Figure 4). Based on the mor- For instance, some reports suggested an indirect altered bal-
phological and molecular characteristics, the remaining 12 ance of the auxin hormone and cytokinin by Trichoderma,
strains were identified as T. asperellum, and SC098 strain was through the synthesis induction of these hormones by the
identified as T. afroharzianum. plant, thereby achieving the purpose of promoting plant
growth [43, 44].
4. Discussion As a mycorrhizal fungus, Trichoderma can successfully
colonize in soil and plant roots, which is the premise of acting
Trichoderma grows rapidly and can quickly occupy the growth its biocontrol effect (including competition, growth promotion,
space of pathogenic fungi, which is one of the important antagonism, induced resistance) [45]. Trichoderma is precisely
mechanisms of their antimicrobial effect [19]. The competitive regulated in the process of colonizing plant roots. To success-
effect of Trichoderma has been widely reported. For example, fully colonize roots, Trichoderma can instantly reduce the activ-
T. asperellum (T3, T4, T15, and T19) and T. harzianum T6 ity of root defense-system and promote its colonization in the
showed effective inhibition on graminicola in the dual culture root cortex [46]. Some reports suggested that root colonization
assay [33]; T. atroviride, T. harzianum, and T. viride showed by Trichoderma strains could increase levels of defense-related
strong inhibitory effects on Phytophthora, Botrytis cinerea, plant enzymes, including various peroxidases, chitinases, β-
and Rhizoctonia solanacearum in competitive bioassay tests 1,3-glucanases, and the lipoxygenase-hydroperoxide lyase path-
[34]. In this study, we found that the growth rate of Tricho- way [47, 48]. In cucumber, root colonization by strain T-203
derma was significantly faster than that of pathogenic fungi. causes an increase in phenolic glucoside levels in leaves; their
It could be clearly observed that Trichoderma covered most aglycones (which are phenolic glucosides with the carbohydrate
parts of the plates, and some can even continue to grow on moieties removed) are strongly inhibitory to a range of bacteria
the colony of pathogenic fungi and then covered the entire and fungi. Root colonization by these fungi therefore induces
colony, showing obvious competition. significant changes in the plant metabolic machinery [19]. In
The production of cell wall-degrading enzymes (CWDEs) this study, we also evaluated the colonization ability of 13 Tri-
and volatile antibiotics is key parameters for Trichoderma as a choderma strains on cucumber and found that all of them could
biocontrol agent [35]. Saravanakumar et al. proved that there colonize in the rhizosphere soil of cucumber, and the corre-
was a positive correlation between the CWDs of Trichoderma sponding Trichoderma strain could also be isolated from other
strains and its antagonism to pathogens [15]. We found that parts of cucumber, proving that they have strong colonization
13 Trichoderma strains (PI > 85%) with excellent antagonism ability. However, the biocontrol effect of Trichoderma is the
to pathogens could secrete chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase, result of multiple mechanisms, and the interaction mechanism
which were closely related to the cell wall composition of path- between Trichoderma, host plants, and pathogens needs to be
ogens. Therefore, Trichoderma can not only compete with further explored.
 8

Table 5: Inhibition spectrum of Trichoderma isolates, the PI of isolates against 9 pathogens in dual culture.

PI (%)
Code
SR FT BD MO BT FG RC SC RS
a a a,b a a a c a,b
GZ070 78:97 ± 1:78 87:50 ± 1:33 83:61 ± 4:09 83:62 ± 1:49 67:69 ± 1:54 83:08 ± 1:54 83:97 ± 1:11 78:09 ± 1:65 85:29 ± 3:23a,b
HL100 75:38 ± 4:07b 87:50 ± 2:80a 86:34 ± 2:37a,b 87:50 ± 1:98a 62:50 ± 2:35a 81:03 ± 0:89a,b 85:58 ± 0:96b,c 79:17 ± 0:62a,b 76:31 ± 1:41b
HL119 79:49 ± 0:89a 88:08 ± 0:50a 90:44 ± 4:73a 86:64 ± 0:75a 68:72 ± 0:89a 82:05 ± 0:89a,b 85:90 ± 1:11b,c 79:17 ± 2:49a,b 85:70 ± 4:64a
HL135 78:46 ± 2:66a 86:34 ± 0:50c 78:14 ± 4:73b,c 84:05 ± 1:98a 65:64 ± 1:78a 84:36 ± 1:18a 85:26 ± 1:11b,c 78:09 ± 0:62a,b 84:89 ± 3:08a,b
HN059 78:56 ± 0:18a 86:63 ± 0:50a 87:70 ± 4:10a,b 86:21 ± 3:73a 65:64 ± 9:01a 81:28 ± 1:94a,b 81:41 ± 1:11b,c 78:45 ± 2:85a,b 82:84 ± 4:42a,b
JX013 80:00 ± 5:33a 86:45 ± 1:31a 81:56 ± 2:05a,b,c 85:78 ± 2:59a 64:10 ± 0:89a 83:85 ± 2:77a 83:33 ± 1:06c 82:04 ± 5:42a,b 85:70 ± 3:54a
SC012 78:97 ± 3:55a 86:05 ± 0:87a 84:29 ± 1:18a,b 86:64 ± 1:49a 70:26 ± 8:75a 82:15 ± 2:51a,b 87:82 ± 1:11a,b 79:89 ± 3:29a,b 83:66 ± 3:54a,b
XJ035 76:92 ± 2:66a 86:92 ± 0:87a 86:34 ± 4:27a,b 84:91 ± 0:75a 69:23 ± 7:99a 82:05 ± 0:44a,b 83:97 ± 1:11c 81:68 ± 5:39a,b 88:15 ± 3:54a
NX043 79:74 ± 0:44a 88:37 ± 1:01a 82:24 ± 4:27a,b,c 86:64 ± 0:75a 61:03 ± 1:78a 83:13 ± 0:09a 89:42 ± 0:96a 76:65 ± 0:62a,b 86:11 ± 3:94a
QH060 79:49 ± 0:89a 80:81 ± 1:74b,c 80:19 ± 1:18a,b,c 85:78 ± 2:24a 64:62 ± 11:99a 83:08 ± 1:54a 84:94 ± 1:47b,c 75:57 ± 1:24b 81:21 ± 2:83a,b
XJ087 78:46 ± 1:54a 84:88 ± 1:82b 81:56 ± 2:05a,b,c 84:05 ± 1:49a 69:23 ± 6:15a 82:05 ± 1:78a,b 83:97 ± 1:11c 78:45 ± 3:73a,b 87:75 ± 2:45a
SC098 76:92 ± 4:07a 88:08 ± 1:33a 72:68 ± 6:26c 82:76 ± 1:49a 66:67 ± 6:22a 78:97 ± 0:89b 79:49 ± 2:94d 73:42 ± 1:24a,b 87:13 ± 0:87a
SC101 76:41 ± 5:40b 84:59 ± 3:30b 89:07 ± 6:26a 83:19 ± 1:29a 59:49 ± 4:44a 82:31 ± 1:33a,b 84:29 ± 1:47c 85:27 ± 5:53a 81:62 ± 6:13a,b
Data represent the mean ± SD (n = 3). Different letters indicate that the differences are significant (P < 0:05) using Duncan’s multiple range test. SR: Sclerotium rolfsii; FT: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. tracheiphilum;
BD: Botryosphaeria dothidea; MO: Magnaporthe oryzae; BT: B. theobromae; FG: F. graminearum; RC: Rhizoctonia cerealis; SC: Stagonosporopsis cucurbitacearum; RS: R. solani; PI: percentage of growth inhibition.
BioMed Research International
BioMed Research International 9

(a) (b)

2 mm
(c) (d)

500 μm 20 μm

(e) (f)

20 μm 20 μm
(g) (h)

20 μm
(i)

Figure 2: Morphological identification of JX013 (Trichoderma asperellum). (a–c) Cultures of JX013 that were grown on PDA, CMD, and
SNA medium. (d, e) Conidial pustules. (f) Conidia. (g, h) Conidiophore. (i) Chlamydospores. PDA: potato dextrose agar medium; CMD:
corn meal dextrose agar medium; SNA: synthetic low nutrient agar medium.
10 BioMed Research International

(a) (b)

2 mm
(c) (d)

1 mm 20 μm
(e) (f)

10 μm 10 μm
(g) (h)

5 μm
(i)

Figure 3: Morphological identification of SC098 (Trichoderma afroharzianum). (a–c) Cultures of JX013 which grew on PDA, CMD, and
SNA medium. (d, e) Conidial pustules. (f) Conidia. (g, h) Conidiophore. (i) Chlamydospore. PDA: potato dextrose agar medium; CMD:
corn meal dextrose agar medium; SNA: synthetic low nutrient agar medium.
BioMed Research International 11

HL100
GZ070

HL119

HL135

HN059

JX013
66
NX043

QH060

SC012
100 SC101

XJ087

XJ035
Trichoderma asperellum (KP009011.1- KP009366.1)
99
Trichoderma asperellum (KP008927.1- KP009370.1)

100 Trichoderma hamatum (MK895140.1- MK890773.1)

Trichoderma hamatum (EU279965.1- EU280124.1)

100 Trichoderma caerulescens (JN715621.1- JN715589.1)

50
Trichoderma caerulescens (JN715624.1- JN715590.1)
Trichoderma paratroviride (KT153586.1- KT153590.1)
43
Trichoderma atroviride (KX538956.1- KX538952.1)
99
Hamatum Clade 100 Trichoderma atroviride (KX538955.1- KX538951.1)

100 Trichoderma citrinoviride (MK850831.1- MH624144.1)

98 Trichoderma citrinoviride (MH425156.1 - MH357336.1)

Trichoderma longibrachiatum (KJ467815.1- KJ467813.1)

100 Trichoderma longibrachiatum (MT069951.1- MT041661.1)

100 Trichoderma virens (MK850836.1- MH624149.1)

97
Trichoderma virens (MK439945.1 - MK439941.1)

100 Trichoderma harzianum (KX632592.1 - KX632478.1)

82
Trichoderma harzianum (KX632593.1- KX632479.1)
Trichoderma afroharzianum (KR911897.1- KR911900.1)
100
Trichoderma afroharzianum (MT069954.1- MT041659.1)
100
Harzianum Clade SC098
Protocrea farinosa (EU703892.1 - EU703914.1)

100 Protocrea farinosa (EU703886.1- EU703909.1)

Outgroup

0.0050

Figure 4: Phylogenetic analysis based on the tef-1 gene and ITS region from the strains screened. GenBank accession numbers of 13
Trichoderma strains shown in Supplementary Table 2.

5. Conclusion asperellum (12 strains) and T. afroharzianum (1 strain).

These strains have good biological control potential, which
In this study, thirteen Trichoderma strains that showed high provides a feasibility basis for the next evaluation of their
antagonistic potential against B. cinerea, F. oxysporum, and field control effects and their application in production.
C. gloeosporioides were screened. At the same time, they
could increase the germination rate of a variety of crop
seeds, promote root growth, efficiently colonize in cucumber Data Availability
root soil, and show high β-1,3-glucanase and chitinase activ-
ities. These 13 strains of Trichoderma were identified as T. Data are available on request.
12 BioMed Research International

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