AP Physics C Electricy and Magnetism Review Lecture Notes - All

Flipping Physics Lecture Notes:
Electric Charges and Electric Fields

Review for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism
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Let’s begin with Electric Charge:

- Electric charge is a fundamental property of all matter.
- Charge carriers are protons and electrons, where protons have a positive charge and electrons have a
negative charge. Both protons and electrons have the same magnitude charge called the fundamental charge:
o (The absolute value of the charge on a proton and electron.)
o C stands for coulombs, the unit of charge. Note: Coulombs are not a base SI unit.
o Charge is a scalar quantity.
- Charge is quantized. It comes in discrete quantities in intervals of the fundamental charge.
o
▪ Q = net charge on the object
▪ n = integer number of excess positive or negative charges on the object
● n is positive for excess protons & n is negative for excess electrons
o In other words, an object will never have a charge of +2.1 x 10-19 C because that is not an
integer multiple of 1.60 x 10-19 C.
- The electric charge on an object is determined by the total number of charge carriers contained in
the object.
o The electric charge on an object with 4 protons and 6 neutrons is -3.62 x 10-19 C.
o
o
- Many objects we work with will be considered to be point charges (even if they are made up of
many charge carriers)
o A point charge is a model of a charge where the physical size of the charge (or charged
system) is small enough to be considered to be negligible.
The Law of Charges states that:

- two charges with opposite signs attract one another
- two charges with the same sign repel one another
Coulomb’s Law determines the electrostatic force between two charged objects:
-
o Fe is the electrostatic force on each charged particle.
o k is the Coulomb constant and it equals 8.99 x 109 N • m / C2.
o ε0 is the permittivity of free space or vacuum permittivity; it equals 8.85 x 10-12 C2 / N • m2.
▪ We will better define permittivity when we get to capacitors and dielectrics.
o q1 and q2 are the charges on the two interacting charged particles.
o r is the distance between the centers of charge of the two charges
o is the vector version.

▪ If the two charges have the same sign, the force is positive and repulsive.
▪ If the two charges have opposite signs, the force is negative and attractive.
o is the scalar version and has no direction.

o According to AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism guidelines, you will only be
expected to calculate electric forces between four or fewer charged objects or systems.
However, you may be required to analyze more than four charged objects in situations
which have high symmetry.
0467 Lecture Notes - Electric Charges and Electric Fields - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
The reality is that electrostatic forces, which can be determined using Coulomb’s Law, cause many of the
forces which we work with on a macroscopic level. For example, force normal, forces of static and kinetic
friction, and the force of tension. There are just too many microscopic electrostatic forces to reasonably
calculate, and we model the net force caused by all of these microscopic electrostatic forces as these
macroscopic forces.
Note that Coulomb’s Law is similar to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:
- Coulomb’s Law: and the Universal Law of Gravitation:

- r is distance between centers of charge in the case of Coulomb’s law, or distance between
centers of mass in the case of the Universal Law of Gravitation.
- Electrostatic forces can be attractive or repulsive, however, gravitational forces can only be
attractive.
- Notice the difference between the constants in the equations:
o &
o The Coulomb constant is much larger than the universal gravitational constant
o When two objects have both mass and electric charge, most often the electric force is so
much larger than the gravitational force that the gravitational force is negligible.
▪ However, when we are considering large scales like people, planes, pineapples,
planets, and Prii1, gravitational forces are large enough to make electric forces
negligible because large scale objects are usually nearly electrically neutral. In
other words, their total number of protons and electrons are nearly equal.
The Law of Conservation of Charge:

- The net charge of an isolated system does not change.
o Typically, electrons are the charges which move in a system and if there is no way for
electrons to leave or enter the system (an isolated system), then the net charge of the
system will not change.
- Charging by friction involves rubbing one object on another object (fur on a balloon, for example).
When this happens, electrons move from the fur to the balloon.
o The balloon gains negative electrons and the net charge on the balloon decreases.
o The fur loses electrons and the net charge on the fur increases.
o The net charge on the balloon-fur system remains the same because the total number of
protons and electrons in the system remains the same.
- Bringing two objects close to one another will cause electrostatic forces between charges and
change the distribution of the electrons in the objects. This can polarize the objects, however, the
net charge on each object will remain the same if electrons are not allowed to flow between the
objects.
- When a charged object is brought close to a neutral object, charge-induced separation of charges
within the neutral object can occur.
- The only way to change the charge of a system is to add or remove charged particles from the
system. In the matter most familiar to us, the electrons are the charged particles that can be
added or removed from the system to change its charge. In this case the system is not isolated,
and charge is not conserved.
- A “ground” has, relatively speaking, an infinite number of electrons which we can pull from it, or
we can give to it. We can “ground” a system by electrically connecting it to the Earth which is a
“ground” or a neutrally charged, infinite well of electrons. When we ground a system, the system
is not isolated, and charge is not conserved.
1
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Electric Fields:
- If we were to place a positive test charge in an electric field, it would experience an electrostatic
force. An electric field is the ratio of the electrostatic force the test charge would experience and
the charge of the test charge.
o A positive test charge is a charge which is small enough not to measurably change the
electric field it is placed in. Electric field directions are defined according to the direction
of the net electrostatic force on a positively charged test charge.
- The equation for an electric field and its units are:

- Notice the electric field and the electrostatic force experienced by a positive charge in the electric
field will be in the same direction. (Both electric field and electrostatic force are vectors in the
equation.)
- That means the electric field which surrounds a point charge is:
- And the electric field maps for isolated point charges look like this:
- Notice the similarity to the gravitational field around a planet. The equation has a similar format,
so the gravitational field has a similar format:
- And the electric field which exists between two large, parallel, oppositely charged plates is similar
to the gravitational field close to the surface of a planet:
-
- Remember electric field is a vector which means that the electric field for two point charges which
are near one another is the sum of the two individual electric fields for each point charge.
- Electric field maps like the one above are simplified models and vector maps which show the
magnitude and direction of the electric field for the entire region.
- Electric Field Lines Basics:
o In the direction a small, positive, test charge would experience an electrostatic force
o Electric field lines per unit area is proportional to electric field strength
▪ Higher density electric field lines = higher electric field strength
o Start on a positive charge and end on a negative charge
▪ or infinitely far away if more of one charge than another
o Always start perpendicular to the surface of the charge
o Electric field lines never cross
Conductors vs. Insulators:

- Conductors allow electrons to move rather easily. This is because conductors have electrons
which are loosely bound to their atoms which allows electrons to flow.
o Examples: aluminum, stainless-steel, and gold.
- Insulators resist the motion of electrons. Insulators have electrons which are tightly bound to their
atoms which does not allow electrons to flow.
o Examples: plastic, rubber, glass, and paper.
- Semiconductors are materials which are somewhere in between conductors and insulators.
Electrons have some resistance to flow, and the precise resistance to flow is controlled by the
composition of the materials.
o Examples: silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide.
o Example uses: diodes, transistors, amplifiers, solar cells, and light emitting diodes (LEDs)
Continuous Charge Distributions
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Continuous Charge Distribution: A charge that is not a point charge. In other words, a charge which has
shape and continuous charge distributed throughout the object.
In order to find the electric field which exists around a continuous charge distribution, we can use
Coulomb’s Law and the equation definition of an electric field. We consider the charged object to be
made up of an infinite number of infinitesimally small point charges dq and add up the infinite number of
electric fields via superposition. It’s an integral.
Realize that, for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism, students are only expected to be able to use
this equation to determine electric fields around continuous charge distributions with high symmetry. The
specific examples students are responsible for are:
- An infinitely long, uniformly charged wire or cylinder at a distance from its central axis
- A thin ring of charge at a location along the axis of the ring
- A semicircular arc or part of a semicircular arc at its center
- A finite wire or line of charges at a distance that is collinear with the line of charge or at a location
along its perpendicular bisector.
Quick review of charge densities:
Let’s do an example. Let’s determine the electric field at point P, which is located a distance “a” to the left
of a thin rod with a charge +Q, uniform charge density 𝜆, and length L.
Notice that, if we were to place a positive point charge at point P, it would experience a force to the left
from every dq or every infinitesimally small part of the wire. Therefore, we already know the direction of
the electric field at point P, it will be to the left or in the negative “i" direction. Now let’s solve for the
electric field:
0468 Lecture Notes - Continuous Charge Distributions - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
In other words, if we get far enough from the charged rod, it acts like a point charge. ☺
And, because they are so fun, another example! Let’s determine the electric field caused by a uniformly
charged ring of charge +Q, with radius a, at point P which is located on the axis of the ring a distance x
from the center of the ring.
Side view, cross section: Front view:
Knowns: a, x, Q
However, all dE’s in the vertical plane cancel out because there is an equal but opposite component of dE
caused by the dq on the opposite side of the ring. In the figure that is dEy.
Note:
Note:
That’s right, if you get far enough from the uniformly charged ring, it acts like a point particle!
If that sounds familiar, that is because this is true for all continuous charge distributions. If you get far
enough away from them, that their own size is small by comparison to the distance, they all have electric
fields which are similar to point particles.
Note:
And if we use a negative charge, then the force is to the left or towards the center of the ring:
That’s right, the negative charge will move in simple harmonic motion about the center of the ring.
A bonus graph from Carl Hansen: (Thank you Carl Hansen!)
This following graph shows the equation we derived for the electric field along the axis of a thin ring of a
uniform charge distribution, of radius a = 1m, and charge Q = +1µC. The plot shows the linear profile
needed for simple harmonic motion close to the origin, and the inverse square law far away. The
maximum electric field occurs around x = 0.7m, as a turning point to transition between the two trends.
Electric Flux and Gauss’ Law
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Flux is defined as any effect that appears to pass or travel through a surface or substance, however,
realize that effect does not need to move. Hence, “appears to”.
Electric flux is the measure of the amount of electric field which passes through a defined area. The
equation for electric flux of a uniform electric field is:
●
● is the uppercase, Greek letter phi
● E is the uniform electric field (use magnitude)
● A is the area of the surface through which the uniform electric field is passing (use magnitude)
● θ is the angle between the directions of E and A
o Notice this is the same form as the equation for work. This means you use the
magnitudes of E and A, and cosθ determines if the electric flux is positive or negative
o
● Electric flux is a scalar
● The units for electric flux are
Usually, electric flux is through some sort of closed surface. So,

let’s do an example and determine the net electric flux of a uniform,
horizontal electric field through a right triangular box.
Let’s define and label the dimensions and sides of the triangular box as:
And now we can determine the electric flux through each side:
Electric flux for Area 1 (back): θ1 is 180° because Area 1 is to the left or
out of the rectangular box and the electric field is to the right.
Electric flux for Area 2 (bottom): θ2 is 90° because Area 2 is down or out
of the rectangular box and the electric field is to the right.
0469 Lecture Notes - Electric Flux and Gauss' Law - Review for AP Physics C Electricity and Magnetism.docxpage 1 of 5
Electric flux for Areas 3 and 4 (sides): θ3 and θ4 are both 90° because Area 3 is out of the page and Area
4 is into the page (and the electric field is to the right).
Electric flux for Area 5 (top): To understand why cosθ5 = a/c, we

need to draw another diagram.
And the total electric flux through the entire triangular box is:
Notice that:
● When an electric field is going into a closed surface, the
electric flux is negative.
● When an electric field is coming out of a closed surface, the
electric flux is positive.
Let’s now do another example. Let’s determine the electric flux

passing through a sphere which is concentric to and surrounds a
positive point charge.
Notice we cannot use

because the electric field is not uniform. We need to use the
integral equation for electric flux:
In other words, the electric flux through a closed Gaussian surface is:
This is Gauss’ law!
Gauss’ law relates electric flux through a Gaussian surface to the charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface:
● A Gaussian surface is a three-dimensional closed surface
● While the Gaussian surfaces we usually work with are imaginary, the Gaussian surface could
actually be a real, physical surface
● Typically, we choose the shapes of our Gaussian surfaces such that the electric field generated
by the enclosed charge is either perpendicular or parallel to the various sides of the Gaussian
surface. This greatly simplifies the surface integral because all the angles are multiples of 90°
and the cosine of those angles have a value of -1, 0, or 1.
● As long as the amount of charge enclosed in a Gaussian surface is constant, the total electric flux
through the Gaussian surface does not depend on the size of the Gaussian surface.
● Gauss’ law is the first of Maxwell’s equations which are a collection of equations which fully
describe electromagnetism.
Notice then that, if the net charge inside a closed Gaussian

surface is zero, then the net electric flux through the Gaussian
surface is zero.
This is why the net electric flux through the closed rectangular
box in our first example was zero.
Let’s do another example using Gauss’ law. Determine the

electric field which surrounds an infinitely large, thin plane of
positive charges with uniform surface charge density, σ:
First off, we know the electric field will be directed normal to and
away from the infinite plane of positive charges. This is because
the plane is infinitely large; therefore, every component of the
electric field, dE, which is parallel to the plane of charges and is
caused by infinitesimally small, charged pieces of the plane, dq,
will cancel out leaving only electric field components of dE which
are perpendicular to the plane and directed away from the plane.
We pick a Gaussian surface such that it is a cylinder with ends

parallel to the plane of charges and a side parallel to the electric
field and use Gauss’ law. The two ends of the Gaussian cylinder
are equidistant from the charged plane.
Notice this electric field is uniform and is independent of the distance from the infinite plane of charges.
And notice what happens if we have two infinite parallel

planes of charges, one with positive charge and one with
negative charge:
The electric field outside the planes of charges cancels

out to give zero electric field outside the planes of
charges:
And between the two planes of charges, the electric

fields add together:
And we have begun our journey towards determining the

capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor…
Notice that a positively charged particle moving through

a constant electric field will experience an electrostatic
force in the direction of the electric field. This force will
be constant and equal to qE. In other words, the motion of a charged particle through a constant electric
field will have similar characteristics to a mass moving through the constant gravitational field near the
surface of a planet. This is very similar to projectile motion.
A few loose ends:

● According to the AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism Guidelines, you are responsible for a
quantitative approach of Gauss’ law to solve for electric fields only for charge distributions which
are spherically, cylindrically, or planarly symmetric.
a. In other words, to keep the math from getting overly complicated, you are responsible for
solving equations with Gauss’ law only in situations which are highly symmetrical.
b. Some examples are:
i. Inside and outside of a solid sphere made of conducting or insulating material.
The Gaussian surface is a sphere.
ii. Inside and outside of a thin spherical shell. Again, the Gaussian surface is a
sphere.
iii. An infinitely long, thin line of charges. The Gaussian surface is a cylinder that is
colinear with the line of charges.
iv. An infinitely large, thin plane of charges. We just did this. The Gaussian surface
is a cylinder whose ends are parallel to the plane of charges.
v. 2 infinitely large, thin parallel planes of charges. We just did this. Do a single
plane of charges first.
● Do not forget the three kinds of charge densities which you are responsible for being able to use
with Gauss’ law depending on whether the charge is one, two, or three dimensional.
a.
b.
c.
Lastly, realize Gauss’ law uses electric flux which is a measure of the number of imaginary electric field
lines which pass through an imaginary Gaussian surface and those imaginary field lines are caused by
highly symmetric groups of stationary point charges which are imperceptible to the naked eye. Yeah, it
takes a bit of imagination to be able to visualize all of this. Which is why you need to practice!
A loose end:
- Outside the surface of a uniformly charged sphere, the
electric field is the same as if the charged sphere were a
point particle.
o Example: Solid, uniformly charged sphere with
charge Q and radius, a.
o Create a Gaussian surface which is a concentric
sphere with radius r > a.
o This is true of a conductor or an insulator, however, the electric field inside a conductor
will be zero, and inside an insulator the electric field depends on the radius and charge
distribution, and can be derived in a similar manner.
Electric Potential
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The electrostatic force is a conservative force, therefore:
We have determined the change in electric potential energy experienced by a charged particle which has
moved from point A to point B in an electric field. Notice, because the electrostatic force is a conservative
force, this change in electric potential energy does not depend on the path taken from point A to point B.
To make a comparison to gravitational potential energy, if we lift an object vertically upward in a constant
downward gravitational field, it will experience a positive change in gravitational potential energy.
The same is true for a positively charged object, if we move a positively charged object vertically upward
in a constant downward electric field, it will experience a positive change in electric potential energy.
Notice the negative and the dot product in the equation. As we move a charge in a direction opposite the
direction of the field, the direction of the displacement of the charge and the direction of the field are
opposite to one another, therefore, the angle between those two directions is 180°, the cosine of 180° is
negative one, which makes the change in potential energy of a positive charge positive.
Next, we need to define electric potential. Just like we define the electric field in terms of the force
experienced by a small, positive test charge, we define the electric potential in terms of the energy
experienced by a small, positive test charge.
●
● The symbol for electric potential is V. Yes, I know. The symbol for electric potential, V, is the
same as the symbol for the units for electric potential, volts, V. It’s not my fault.
● Electric potential is a scalar attribute of a vector electric field which does not depend on any
electric charges which could be placed in that field.
o The fact that electric potential is a scalar can be very helpful in this class.
o This scalar can be either positive or negative for any given location.
o Just like gravitational potential energy, we need to either assign a location where it
equals zero, or follow a convention for assigning the zero potential location.
● Most often we work with electric potential difference not just electric potential. Electric potential
difference is the difference in the electric potential between two points:1
1
I know. I know. … Duh! … But it had to be said.
0470 Lecture Notes - Electric Potential - Review for AP Physics C Electricity and Magnetism.docx page 1 of 6
● We will often set the initial electric potential, or electric potential at point A, equal to zero.
● Realize we can rearrange every integral to form a derivative:
Now that we have volts, the units for electric potential, it is important to realize the units for the electric
field can be given in terms of volts as well.
If a charge is moved from point A to point B via an external force, the external force does work on the
charge, that changes the electric potential energy of the charge. And, as long as there is no change in the
kinetic energy of the charge, that work equals the charge of the charge multiplied by the electric potential
difference the charge went through:
A unit of energy often used for very small amounts of energies, like one would use in atomic and nuclear
physics, is the electron volt (eV). An electron volt is defined as the energy a charge-field system gains or
losses when a charge of magnitude e (the elementary charge or the magnitude of the charge on an
electron or proton) is moved through a potential difference of 1 V:
I consider the electron volt to be a misnomer because it sounds like a unit of electric potential (volts),
however, it is a unit of energy. It also refers to a positive amount of energy, even though the electron is
negative. Be careful of that.
Let’s say we have two, large, equal magnitude charged parallel plates, the top plate has a positive
charge, and the bottom plate has a negative charge. We have shown the electric field is constant in this
case and will be directed downward. Let’s say the electric potential difference between the two plates is
12 volts and the distance between the two plates is 1.0 cm. Let’s define the top plate as plate A, and the
bottom plate as plate B. Let’s start by determining the general equation for the electric potential difference
when going from plate A to plate B.
This is a good time to discuss the negative sign in the electric potential equation. In other words, a charge
moving in the direction of the electric field will go through a negative potential difference and a charge
moving opposite the direction of the electric field will go through a positive electric potential difference.
Add to the example: If we release a proton from the inside surface of plate A, what will the speed of the
proton be right before it runs into plate B?
Set initial point at A and final point at B. Do not need a horizontal zero line because gravitational potential
energy for subatomic particles is usually negligible and it is in this case. We do not actually know the
electric potential energy initial or electric potential energy final; however, we do know the change in the
electric potential energy. Also, the charge and mass of a proton are given in the Table of Information
provided on the AP Physics C exam.
Now let’s look at determining the electric potential difference when moving at an angle relative to a
uniform electric field. We already know the electric potential difference when moving from point a1 to b:
Let’s determine the electric potential difference when

moving from point a2 to b:
The electric potential difference is the same for both of these because points a1 and a2 have the same
electric potential.
Points a1 and a2 are on an equipotential surface. An equipotential surface (or line):

- Has the same electric potential at every point on the surface (or line)
- Is always perpendicular to the electric field
o Therefore, the electric field has no component along the equipotential line
- Equipotential lines are sometimes called isolines
- And it takes zero work to move a charged object along an equipotential surface
This means the equipotential lines for a point charge look like this:
And the equipotential lines for an electric dipole2 look like this:
The equation for the electric potential which surrounds and is caused by a point charge is:
This equation assigns our location of zero electric potential to be infinitely far away.
We can use the relationship between electric potential and electric potential energy to determine the
electric potential energy which surrounds and is caused by a point charge:
2
This is a simple example of an electric dipole which is a pair of electric charges of equal magnitude, but opposite sign separated
by some typically small distance.
Realize, because electric potential and electric potential
energy are scalar values, determining those values for
multiple particles uses superposition. You just add all the
values together.
In order to understand how useful it is that electric potential

is a scalar and not a vector, let’s revisit an example from
before. Let’s determine the electric potential caused by a
uniformly charged, thin ring of charge +Q, with radius a, at
point P, which is located on the axis of the ring a distance x
from the center of the ring.
Because this is a continuous charge distribution, we need

to break the uniformly charged thin ring of charge +Q into
an infinite number of infinitesimally small charges, dQ.
And from there we can determine the electric field at point P.
Notice that this derivation of the electric field at point P is much easier than deriving the electric field
directly like we did before. Therefore, I would recommend that you remember that, for a continuous
charge distribution, you can first determine the electric potential and then the electric field, and that is
often easier than solving for the electric field directly.
Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium
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Conductors are materials where the electrons are free to move rather easily, however, when they are in
electrostatic1 equilibrium, this means the charges are stationary in the object. There are four things you
need to remember about conductors in electrostatic equilibrium:
1) The electric field inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium equals zero.

a. If the electric field inside were not equal to zero, charges would have a net electrostatic
force acting on them and they would accelerate, therefore the conductor would not be in
electrostatic equilibrium.
i.
b. Notice that this means that anything inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is
shielded from all external electric fields. This is called electrostatic shielding.
2) All excess charges are located on the surface (or surfaces) of the
conductor.
a. Solid conducting sphere example:
i. Draw a Gaussian surface as a concentric sphere
with a radius slightly smaller than the radius of the
sphere.
ii. Using Gauss’ law, because there is no electric field
inside the conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, we
know the left-hand side of the equation equals zero.
iii. Therefore, there must be zero net charge inside the
Gaussian sphere and all the excess charges must
be outside the Gaussian sphere.
iv. Therefore, all the excess charges are on the surface
of the conductor.
3) The electric field just outside the surface of a conductor in

electrostatic equilibrium is:
a. If the electric field had a component parallel to the surface of

the conductor, the charges would move, and the conductor
would no longer be in electrostatic equilibrium. Therefore,
the electric field at the surface of a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium must be perpendicular to the surface.
i. Because equipotential surfaces are always
perpendicular to the electric field, the surface of a
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium must be an
equipotential surface.
b. If we zoom way in on the surface of the conductor in

electrostatic equilibrium, we can draw a Gaussian cylinder
1
Electrostatics is the study of electromagnetic phenomena that occur when there are no moving charges.
0471 Lecture Notes - Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 2
with its cylindrical axis normal to the surface of the conductor.
4) For an irregular shape, the local surface charge density is at its maximum where the radius of
curvature is at its minimum. In other words, the largest number of excess charges per area will be
where the radius of curvature is the smallest.
a. To prove this, we have two conducting spheres connected by a long conducting wire with
the whole system in electrostatic equilibrium.
i. This system is a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium. In other words, when two
conductors are brought into contact with one another, the charges redistribute
such that both conductors are at the same electric potential. Please realize this
happens so quickly that the time for this to occur is considered to be negligible.
b. The radius of sphere 2 is smaller than the radius of sphere 1, and the distance, d,
between the two spheres is much, much larger than either radius.
0471 Lecture Notes - Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 2 of 2
Capacitors
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A capacitor is a way to store electric potential

energy in an electric field. The simplest form of
a capacitor is a parallel plate capacitor.
Capacitance, C, is defined as the magnitude of

the charge stored on one plate
divided by the electric potential
difference between the two plates:
- Capacitance is always positive.
o Q, is the charge on the positive plate.
o ΔV is the positive electric potential difference between the two plates.
- The net charge on a capacitor is zero.
-
o
o It is not my fault the symbol for capacitance is C and capacitance is charge per electric
potential difference and the units for charge are coulombs for which the symbol is C.
- The three-line equal sign, , means “is defined as”. This is not a derivation. We made it up. We
have simply decided to define the charge on a capacitor divided by the electric potential
difference of the capacitor as “capacitance”.
- Energy is stored in the electric field of the capacitor.
- The capacitance of a capacitor depends only on the capacitor’s physical characteristics. For
example, the capacitor’s shape and material used to separate the plates of the capacitor.
The basic idea is:

- Start with an uncharged capacitor.
o No charge on either plate.
o No electric field between the plates.
- Attach the terminals of a battery to the two plates of the capacitor.
- Charges flow from one plate to the other plate of the capacitor.
- We now have a charged capacitor.
o Both plates have equal magnitude charge.
o There is an electric field and an electric potential difference between the plates.
o Energy is stored in the electric field of the capacitor.
Let’s derive the equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. We have already derived two
equations for two parallel, infinitely large, charged plates with equal magnitude, but opposite sign.
This assumes there is a vacuum between the two plates. Usually, we place an insulating material
between the plates of a capacitor. This is both to help physically separate the two plates and because it
increases the capacitance of the capacitor. This insulating material is called a dielectric.
0472 Lecture Notes - Capacitors - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 3

The charged particles in the dielectric are polarized and induce their own electric field (above in blue)
which is opposite the direction of the original electric field of the capacitor E0 (above in black). The net
electric field (below in black) is decreased. Because the electric field is decreased, the electric potential
difference across the capacitor is decreased, the charge of the capacitor remains the same, and the
capacitance of the capacitor is increased.
The way we define the effect of a dielectric is with the dielectric constant. The symbol for the dielectric
constant is the lowercase Greek letter kappa, κ. It looks basically like a lowercase k. The dielectric
constant equals the ratio of the electric permittivity of the dielectric to the electric permittivity of free space.
-
- The dielectric constant has no units.
- Electric permittivity is the measurement of how much a material is polarized when it is placed in
an electric field.
o The easier it is for electrons to change configurations in a material, the larger the
dielectric constant of that material.
- The dielectric constant is also sometimes called relative permittivity.
We can also determine the relationship between the electric field between the parallel plates of the
capacitor with a vacuum and with a dielectric.

And then use that to determine the relationship between the capacitance of the capacitor with a vacuum
and the capacitance of the capacitor with a dielectric.
According to the College Board, students are responsible for determining the capacitance only of the
following shapes: parallel-plate capacitors, spherical capacitors, and cylindrical capacitors.
Next, let’s derive the equation for the energy stored in a capacitor. Starting with an uncharged capacitor,
we move one, infinitesimally small charge from one plate to the other plate. Because the electric potential
difference between the plates is zero, moving this first charge takes no work. However, moving the next
charge does take work because there is now an electric potential difference between the two plates. The
work it takes to move a charge equals the change in electric potential energy of the capacitor and it
equals the magnitude of the charge which is moved times the electric potential difference the charge is
moved through which is the electric potential difference across the capacitor which now has an
infinitesimally small electric potential difference across it. We need to identify the infinitesimally small
charge as dq and the amount of work it takes to move that charge dW. And take the integral of both
sides.
Note: The energy stored in the capacitor is stored in the electric field of the capacitor and is equal to the
amount of work needed to move the charges from one plate to the other.
The capacitor in the disposable camera:

Current, Resistance, and Simple Circuits
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Electric current, I, is defined as the derivative of charge with respect to time:
●
o Amperes are a base S.I. unit.
o This is instantaneous current.
●
● Current is the electric charge of the charges which pass by a point in a current carrying wire
divided by the time it takes for those charges to pass by that point.
● Current occurs when there is an electric potential difference across a wire. If there is no electric
potential difference, current does not flow.
o
Unless otherwise stated, electric current in this class is all considered to be conventional current:
● The direction of conventional current is the direction positive charges would flow.
● Reality is that, in most circuits, negative charge carries (electrons, e-) move opposite the direction
of conventional current.
Let’s look at charges flowing in a wire:

Start with the average current over a small section of
the wire Δx:
●
● Charge carrier density, n:
●
o Drift velocity, vd: The average velocity of the charge carriers in a current carrying wire.
▪ If the current is zero, the charge carriers are still moving, however, the average
velocity of the charge carriers is zero.
▪ vd typically is quite low. On the order of 0.1 mm/s. The reason lightbulbs in a
circuit (for example) turn on immediately when you flip the switch is because all
the electrons are already in the wire. When you flip the switch, they all start
flowing.
0473 Lecture Notes - Current, Resistance, and Simple Circuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 5
Current density, J, is current per unit area:
● &
o Materials which have this property are considered to be ohmic and follow Ohm’s Law.
o σ is the conductivity of the material.
▪ Conductivity is a measure of how little a material opposes the movement of
electric charges.
▪ Conductivity is a fundamental property of a material.
●
o An electric potential difference across a wire is what causes current in the wire and we
are assuming the electric field created in the wire is uniform. Rather than using d for the
distance in the electric field, we use L for the length of the wire.
The resistance of a wire, R, is defined as

● However, usually resistance is defined in terms of resistivity, ρ.
o Resistivity is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the movement of electric
charges.
o Resistivity is a fundamental property of a material.
o
o This equation requires the resistor to have uniform geometry.
● Which brings us to the more common version of Ohm’s law:
o
o Again, not all materials are ohmic and follow Ohm’s law.
Resistance and resistivity are two terms which students often mix up:
● Resistance has units of ohms, Ω, and is a property of an object.
● Resistivity has units of Ω·m and is property of a material.
● Two objects can have the same resistivity but different resistances if they are made of the same
material; however, they have different lengths or cross-sectional areas.
The resistivity of a conducting material typically decreases with decreasing temperature. Think of
superconductors. Superconducting materials have zero resistivity, and require very, very low
temperatures.
● In this class, unless otherwise stated, the resistivity of conducting materials is considered to be
constant regardless of temperature.
● Resistors usually convert electric potential energy to thermal energy which can increase the
temperature of the resistor and can increase the temperature of the resistor’s environment.
Now we get to discuss electric power, which is the rate at which electric potential energy is converted to
other types of energy such as heat, light, and sound.
A unit which is often used when it comes to electricity is the kilowatt-hour:
In other words, the kilowatt-hour is a misnomer (or maybe just misleading). It sounds like a unit of power;
however, it is a unit of energy. And we know:
A light bulb is a common item used in physics. It is a resistor which converts electric potential energy to
light, heat, and sound energy. The brightness of a light bulb increases with increasing power; therefore,
the brightness of a light bulb is often used to demonstrate the power in an electric circuit. Speaking of
electric circuits…
The Basics of Electric Circuits:

● An electric circuit is typically composed of electrical loops which can include wires, batteries,
resistors, light bulbs, capacitors, switches, ammeters, voltmeters, and inductors.
● Typical symbols for elements in electric circuits are:
Single Cell Battery Double Cell Battery Resistor
Light Bulb Capacitor Switch
Ammeter Voltmeter Inductor
A simple circuit with a battery and a resistor:
● The long line of the battery is the positive terminal, and the short line is the negative terminal.
● Electromotive force, emf, ε, is the ideal electric potential difference, or voltage, across the
terminals of the battery.
o Yes, the symbol, lowercase Greek letter epsilon, is the same as electric permittivity. ☹
o Yes, electromotive force is not a force. The term is another misnomer. ☹
● According to the law of charges, positive charges are repelled from the positive terminal and
attracted to the negative terminal; therefore, current is clockwise in this circuit.
● A battery adds electric potential energy to electric charges.
o Like lifting a mass adds gravitational potential energy to masses.
o A battery is essentially an electric potential energy pump.
● A resistor converts electric potential energy to heat energy. (And maybe light sound energy)
o Like a mass falling off a wall converts gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy.
● Unless otherwise stated, wires are considered to be ideal and have zero resistance; therefore,
there is no change in electric potential energy of charges as they move along a wire.
o Like a mass at rest maintaining a constant height and therefore a constant gravitational
potential energy at either the top or bottom of the wall.
● Terminal Voltage, ΔVt , is the measured voltage across the terminals of the battery.
o Because all real batteries have some internal
resistance, when a battery is supplying current to a
circuit, the terminal voltage of a real battery is less
than the emf.
▪ The symbol for the internal resistance of a
real battery is typically, r.
o One way to illustrate a real battery in an electric
circuit is shown in yellow.
o
o As current increases, the terminal voltage decreases.
o The only way to get the terminal voltage to be equal to the emf is to have no current
flowing through the battery.
Series and Parallel Circuits
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When an anthropomorphic1 charge has no choice but to go through

two circuit elements, those two circuit elements are in series. For
example, a charge which goes through resistor 1 has no choice but to
also go through resistor 2. There is no other path for the
anthropomorphic charge to choose.
The currents through the three circuit elements must all be equal:
The “t” in the subscript refers to the current at the terminals of the
battery which is the current delivered by the battery to the circuit.
The electric potential difference across the battery equals the

summation of the electric potential difference across the two resistors:
(If you’d prefer to look at this in terms of the electric potential

difference around the loop in the circuit:)
We know Ohm’s law: ; therefore, …
The “eq” in the subscript means equivalent. In other words, Req is one
resistor with the equivalent resistance of the two resistors.
Therefore, the equation for the equivalent resistance of n resistors in

series is:
When an anthropomorphic charge has the choice between two circuit

elements and then the paths through those two circuit elements
reconverge without going through another circuit element, the
two circuit elements are in parallel.
When circuit elements are in parallel, their electric potential

differences are equal:
Note the junctions at points a and b. Due to conservation of

charge, the net current going into a junction equals the net
current coming out of a junction. For junction a:
1
Anthropomorphism: Giving human characteristics or behaviors to non-human objects.
0474 Lecture Notes - Series and Parallel Circtuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
We can then use Ohm’s law:
And we get the equivalent resistance for the two resistors in parallel:
And the equivalent resistance for n resistors in parallel:
When we add a resistor in series, the equivalent resistance increases.

When we add a resistor in parallel, the equivalent resistance decreases.
Now let’s look at two capacitors in parallel:

We know the electric potential differences are all equal.
Because the charges moved to the top plates of the

capacitors need to go to either capacitor 1 or capacitor
2, the charge moved by the battery to the plates of the
capacitors equals the sum of the charges on the
capacitors:
We can then use the definition of capacitance:
To derive the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors in parallel:
And the equivalent capacitance of n capacitors in parallel:
And we can now look at two capacitors in series:
The electric potential is the same as resistors in series:
And the charges on each capacitor are equal:
This is because the magnitude of the charge moved by

the battery to the top plate of capacitor 1 and the
bottom plate of capacitor 2 are equal in magnitude.
And those plates polarize the charges on the wire
between the two capacitors and the bottom of
capacitor 1 and the top of capacitor 2. This causes all
four plates of the two capacitors to have equal
magnitude charges. This is an illustration of
conservation of charge.
And we can solve for electric potential difference in

terms of capacitance and charge:
And use that to solve for the equivalent capacitance of two capacitors:
And the equivalent capacitance of n capacitors:
Notice the equations for resistors and capacitors are reversed. That means that:
When we add a capacitor in parallel, the equivalent capacitance increases.
When we add a capacitor in series, the equivalent capacitance decreases.
Let’s discuss how to use the tools which measure current and electric potential difference. Starting with
the ammeter which measures current or amperes. We need to decide if an ammeter needs to be put in
series or parallel with the circuit element it is meant to measure the current through. So, let’s look at what
happens when we attempt to measure the current through a resistor using an ammeter in series and in
parallel with a resistor:
Hopefully you recognize that placing an ammeter in parallel with a resistor will not measure the current
through the resistor because the current through the ammeter and the resistor are not the same.
Therefore, an ammeter needs to be placed in series with a circuit element to measure the current through
that circuit element. Also, the resistance of an ammeter needs to be very small. In the above example, if
the resistance of the ammeter is not very small, it will increase the equivalent resistance of the circuit and
decrease the current through the resistor you are trying to measure the current through. Unless otherwise
indicated, ammeters in this class are considered to have zero resistance.
And now let’s attempt to measure the electric potential difference across a resistor using a voltmeter
either in series or in parallel with a resistor:
Hopefully you recognize that placing a voltmeter in series with a resistor will not measure the electric
potential difference across the resistor because the voltage across the voltmeter and the resistor are not
the same. Therefore, a voltmeter needs to be placed in parallel with a circuit element to measure the
voltage across that circuit element. Also, the resistance of a voltmeter needs to be very large. In the
above example, if the resistance of the voltmeter is not very large, it will decrease the equivalent
resistance of the circuit, increase the current delivered by the battery, and change the overall properties
of the circuit. Unless otherwise indicated, voltmeters in this class are considered to have infinite
resistance.
To review:
● Ammeters: ● Voltmeters:
o Measure current o Measure electric potential difference
o Placed in series with the circuit element o Placed in parallel with circuit element
o Have nearly zero resistance* o Have nearly infinite resistance*
* You may see this called impedance in product literature for Voltmeters and Ammeters, due to the fact
that there is more to the behavior of these devices than just resistance. For the purpose of this class and
the AP Physics C Electricity and Magnetism exam, it will be called resistance unless otherwise noted.
Kirchhoff’s Rules of Electrical Circuits

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Kirchhoff’s Two Rules for circuits are very basic rules which are used to understand
circuits. Let's start with Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule which states that the net electric
potential difference around a closed loop equals zero.
The Loop Rule is essentially conservation of electric potential energy in

a circuit. Because electric potential difference equals change in electric
potential energy per unit charge, the net change in electric potential
energy in a closed loop then equals zero.
Using a gravitational potential energy analogy here, this is like saying, if you drop a mass off a wall, then
pick up the mass and return it to its original location, the change in gravitational potential energy of that
mass equals zero. We know this to be true because the mass returns back to the same height as where it
started, so the mass will have the same gravitational potential energy at the end as it did at the beginning,
no matter where we place the horizontal zero line.
Going back to electric potential energy, this means, after a charge goes through one full, closed loop around a
circuit, the electric potential energy of the charge will return back to its original value. But because we are using
electric potential, we are really talking about the electric potential energy per unit charge at each location.
Let’s say we have a 9-volt battery. That means we know the electric potential difference across the battery
equals 9 volts. As we go from the negative to the positive terminals of the battery, the electric potential will
go up. Technically we do not know the electric potential at any point, only the difference in the electric
potential, however, it is customary to assume the minimum electric potential is zero. That means we are
assuming the negative terminal of the battery is at zero volts and the positive terminal of the battery is at
positive 9 volts.
Because ideal wires have zero resistance, that means the electric
potential in the upper left corner must also be 9 volts, the electric
potential in the upper right corner equals 9 volts, and the electric
potential at the top of the resistor is 9 volts. Also, the electric potential in
the lower left corner must be the same as the negative terminal of the
battery, so electric potential in the lower left corner equals 0 volts.
Therefore, electric potential in the lower right corner is 0 volts, and the
electric potential at the bottom of the resistor equals 0 volts. This means
the electric potential difference across the resistor also has a magnitude of 9 volts. In other words, in this
circuit with two circuit elements, the two elements, the battery and the resistor, both have the same
magnitude electric potential difference.
In a previous lesson we determined that a positive charge in the circuit would be repelled from the
positive terminal of the battery and attracted to the negative terminal of the battery, therefore the current
in this circuit is clockwise. This means the current is down through the resistor.
0348 Lecture Notes - Kirchhoff's Rules of Electrical Circuits.docx page 1 of 3

There is only one closed loop in our present circuit, so it might not seem
obvious that we need to do this, however, we need to define a loop
direction. Often the loop direction is the same as the direction which goes
from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the battery and through
the battery, therefore, our loop direction for this circuit is clockwise.
This means as we go in the direction of the loop across the battery, the
electric potential goes up because we go from the negative to the positive terminal of the battery.
Therefore, when we sum the electric potential differences in our Kirchhoff’s loop equation, the electric
potential difference across the battery is positive. When we go in the direction of the loop across the
resistor, as we illustrated before, the electric potential goes down. Therefore, in our loop equation, the
electric potential difference across the resistor is negative. We know the electric potential difference
across the battery equals the electromotive force or the emf of the battery. And the electric potential
difference across the resistor equals current times resistance. Therefore, we can determine the current in
the circuit in terms of the emf of the battery and the resistance of the resistor.
If we had chosen counterclockwise as the loop direction, all of our

electric potential differences in Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule would have been
reversed. Because the loop direction goes from the positive to the
negative terminals of the battery, the electric potential difference across
the battery is negative, because the electric potential is going down.
Because the loop direction through the resistor is opposite the direction
of the current direction we defined through the resistor, the electric
potential goes up through the resistor and the electric potential difference
the across resistor is positive.
Realize, we get the same result for the current in the circuit
regardless of which loop direction we choose. If we had chosen
an incorrect direction for current, the current ends up being
negative, which tells you that you chose the incorrect current
direction.
Now let’s add a resistor to the circuit and talk about Kirchhoff’s
Junction Rule which is the result of conservation of charge in the
circuit. The rule is sum of the currents entering a junction must
equal the sum of the currents leaving a junction, which is
conservation of charge:
Junctions are locations in circuits where at least three circuit

paths meet. That means in our circuit we have two junctions
which are labelled a and b. Therefore, the current going into both
of those junctions equals the current coming out of those
junctions. This means we need to define current directions. We
do this the same way we did before, we place a positive test

charge in the circuit and see which direction the Law of Charges defines electric force direction on the
charge. This means current will go to the right through the top wire, to the left through the bottom wire, and
down through both resistors. Let’s label those currents as current 1 through resistor 1, current 2 through
resistor 2, and current t through the battery because it is the current through the terminals of the battery.
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule equations for this circuit are for:
junction a:
junction b:
Yes, these two equations are actually the same.
But how do we know a and b are junctions and the four exterior “corners” of the circuit are not junctions? I
know it may seem obvious because there are not at least three circuit paths at any of those locations,
however, this is a simple circuit. Again, we return back to placing a positive test charge on the wire.
Notice that a charge which approaches point a could go in the wire leading to resistor 1 or in the wire
leading to resistor 2. Because junctions are defined as having three circuit paths, any time a charge
comes to a fork in the wire, the charge could go down either wire, that makes it a junction. When a charge
enters a corner, there is no other choice but to continue along the same wire, therefore none of the
corners are junctions.
Let’s identify the loops in this second circuit and determine

their Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule equations. We can define the first
loop as the same as the previous circuit, but let’s call it loop
A with a clockwise direction. There is another loop that
contains resistor 1 and resistor 2. Let’s call that loop B and
also have that be clockwise. Lastly there is a loop all the way
around the outside; It includes the battery and resistor 2.
Let’s call that loop C and have it also be clockwise.
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule equations look like this:
But notice the third equation is actually just a combination of the previous two:

RC Circuits
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Up until this point we have assumed all changes in electric current, electric
potential difference, and charge on capacitor plates were instantaneous. Today,
we put a resistor and a capacitor together and learn how those variables
change as a function of time. This is called an RC circuit. We start with a circuit
composed of an uncharged capacitor, a resistor, a battery, and an open switch,
all connected in series.
At time initial, ti = 0, we close the switch.

We are charging a capacitor through a resistor.
Let’s start by adding a loop in the direction of current flow in the circuit. Then use Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
starting in the lower right-hand corner of the circuit:
We can use the definition of capacitance to solve for the electric potential
difference across the capacitor:
And we know Ohm’s law:
Notice we are using lowercase “q” for charge because the charge is changing as a function of time. I wish
we had a similar notation for current, I, however, if we used lowercase “i", I am sure it would be more
confusing. So, please realize charge, q, and current, I, are both changing as a function of time in the
above equation.
Now let’s look at limits, starting with ti = 0:
● The initial charge on the capacitor is zero:

● This means the initial electric potential difference across the capacitor is also zero:
● We can now use the loop equation to solve for the initial current through the circuit.
● Because the charge on the capacitor will increase as a function of time, electric potential
difference across the capacitor will also increase. This means the current in the circuit will
decrease. In other words, the initial current in the circuit is also the maximum current.
And now the limit of “after a long time” or the tf!"!#$
● The final current in the circuit is zero:
0475 Lecture Notes - RC Circtuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4

● This means the final electric potential difference across the resistor is also zero:
● And we can use the loop equation to solve for the final charge on the capacitor:
● Because we know the charge has been increasing this whole time, we know this is the maximum
charge on the capacitor.
Now let’s figure out what happens between ti = 0 and tf!"!#%!&'()*)+%!,)-'+)!()!.'%!/!(012!2'!3'412!'52!

2&02!67!7&894:9!;<!=>):2+4:428!01.!?0@1)249A!925.)129!0+)!+)93'194,>)!-'+!B1'(41@!&'(!2'!.)+4*)!2&)9)!
)C5024'19$!D'%!8)9%!8'5!.'!1)).!2'!51.)+9201.!2&)9)!.)+4*024'19!01.!,)!0,>)!2'!.'!2&)A!'1!8'5+!'(1$!
61.!&)+)!()!@'!E!920+241@!(42&!'5+!F4+:&&'--G9!H''3!I5>)!)C5024'1<!
(The above step is the one I find students forget most often. Yes, factor out a negative one on the right-
hand side of the equation. Write it down. Remember it. No, it is not an obvious step you need to take.)
Applicable known equations:

Notice this equation fits our limits for charge:

And we can derive the current through the circuit as a function of time:
Again, this fits our limits for current:
&
And now we get to talk about the time constant!
In the equations for charge and current as functions of time, there appears this expression:
The time constant equals whatever appears in the denominator of that fraction. In other words, for an RC
circuit, the time constant equals resistance times capacitance. The symbol for the time constant is the
lowercase Greek letter tau, ":
Before we discuss further what the times constant is, let’s determine its units:

The units for the time constant are seconds; it is the time constant.
Let’s replace RC with the time constant in our charge equation:
And determine the charge on the capacitor after one time constant:
After one time constant, the charge has increased to 63.2% of its maximum value.
After one time constant, the current has decreased by 63.2% from its maximum value.
The time constant is the time it takes for a change of 63.2%. If you want to know more about the time
constant, I talk about it in more detail in my video Time Constant and the Drag Force:
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There are similar equations for discharging a capacitor through a resistor which we are not going to
derive today.
Please realize the following two calculus equations are on the AP Equation Sheet:

Magnetic Fields
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Magnetic fields (or “B” fields) are be created by magnetic dipoles:

● Just like electric charges are described as positive and negative charges, magnetic poles are
described as north and south poles.
o A magnetic monopole has never been found.
▪ This does not mean magnetic monopoles do not exist.
● We cannot prove magnetic monopoles do not exist.
o We can only say we have no evidence that they exist.
o If a magnetic dipole is broken in half, it becomes two new magnetic dipoles.
● Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
o Just like the Law of Charges
● The magnetic field caused by a magnetic dipole
looks remarkably like the electric field caused by an
electric dipole.
o B field lines external to the magnet, point
from north pole to south pole.
▪ Just like E field points from positive
charge to negative charge.
o Magnetic field lines must be closed loops.
▪ Due to Gauss’ law for magnetism which we will get to, eventually.
▪ This means B fields inside the
magnet point from the south pole to
the north pole, to complete the
closed loop.
o A magnetic dipole placed in a magnetic field
will align itself with the magnetic field.
▪ Think compass!
● For planet Earth:
o The location of the geographic north pole is
close to that of the magnetic south pole.
o The location of the geographic south pole is close to that of the magnetic north pole.
▪ The north pole of a compass points north because it is attracted to the magnetic
south pole of the Earth.
● (unlike poles attract)
o The magnetic field of the Earth can be approximated as a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipoles are the result of electric charges moving in circles.

● We will cover electric charges moving in circles creating magnetic fields extensively later. At this
point, just know that electric charges moving in circles create magnetic fields.
● The magnetism of magnets is most often the motion of electrons moving in circles inside them.
● Permanent magnetic dipoles and induced (temporary) magnetic dipoles are a property of the
object which results from the alignment of magnetic dipoles within the object.
The material composition of a magnet affects its magnetic behavior when it is placed in an external
magnetic field:
● Ferromagnetic materials can be permanently magnetized by an external magnetic field.
o The alignment of the magnetic domains or atomic magnetic dipoles is permanent.
o Example materials: nickel, iron, cobalt
● Paramagnetic materials are only temporarily magnetized by an external magnetic field.
o The alignment of the magnetic domains or atomic magnetic dipoles is temporary.
o Example materials: aluminum, magnesium, titanium
0476 Lecture Notes - Magnetic Fields - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
Just like materials have an electric permittivity, ε, materials also have a magnetic permeability, μ:
● Magnetic permeability: the measurement of the amount of magnetization a material has in
response to an external magnetic field.
o Ferromagnetic materials have high magnetic permeabilities that increase in the presence
of an external magnetic field.
o Paramagnetic materials have low magnetic permeabilities.
o The magnetic permeability of materials is not constant. It changes depending on various
factors such as temperature, orientation, and the strength of the external magnetic field.
● The magnetic permeability of free space has a constant value, μ0:

A magnetic field is defined by the fact that a moving electric charge in a B field can experience a
magnetic force, FB.
●
o This equation is an experimentally determined equation. In other words, there is no way
to mathematically derive it! We know it is true because we have repeatedly measured it.
o Notice the similarities to the torque equations:
●
o
Please recognize that the magnetic field is a vector. To that end, we need to know the direction of the
magnetic force acting on an electric charge moving in a magnetic field. For that we use …
The Right-Hand Rule: [Don’t be too cool. Limber up. Find your right hand.]
● Fingers point in the direction of the electric charge velocity.
● Fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field.
o It’s a good rule of thumb1 to start at 90°.
● Thumb points in the direction of the magnetic force on a positive charge.
o For a negative charge, the thumb points 180° from the direction of the magnetic force.
o Make sure your thumb points normal to the plane created by the velocity of the electric
charge and the magnetic field.
▪ In other words, realize the direction of the magnetic force is always normal to the
plane created by the velocity of the electric charge and the magnetic field.
● Realize, the cross-product version of the magnetic force equation also gives you the direction of
the magnetic force in terms of unit vectors.
● Since examples of this concept require vectors in all three dimensions, we introduce two symbols
to indicate direction perpendicular to the page. A dot for out of the page, and an X for into the
page, like the pointed tip and fletching (feathers) of a flying arrow respectively.
A few examples:
1
Ha ha ha!
What if we have a series of charges all moving in the same direction? Like a current carrying wire?
● We already derived the equation for the current in a wire:

● And we know the magnetic force acting on each individual charge moving in the wire:
● However, what we want to know is the net magnetic force acting on all the charges moving in the
wire. So, we need to use charge carrier density, n:
o
● Which we can use to get the magnetic force acting on all the charges moving in the wire:
● And we have derived the general equations for the magnetic force on a current carrying wire both
for a straight wire and, using an integral, a wire that does not follow a straight path.
● You use the same wonderful right-hand rule to determine the direction of this force.
Because it involves many concepts that are likely to come

up on the AP exam, let’s take a moment to analyze a mass
spectrometer:
The magnetic field is uniform into the page throughout, and

in the velocity selector, the electric field uniform and down.
Velocity Selector:
● For a positive charge the magnetic force is up and
the Coulomb force is down.
● For a negative charge the magnetic force is down
and the Coulomb force is up.
● Regardless of whether the charge is positive or
negative, the free body diagrams result in the same
Newton’s Second Law equation:
● So, all charged objects with the same constant velocity will all move in a straight horizontal line in
the velocity selector. Regardless of mass, charge sign, and charge magnitude.
Deflection Chamber:
● The uniform magnetic field is the only field present in the deflection chamber.
● The only force acting on the charged particle is the magnetic force which acts inward.
o The charged particles will move along a circular path with radius, R.
o Positive charges will be deflected upward.
o Negative charges will be deflected downward.
● Again, we use Newton’s Second Law:
The mass spectrometer is a tool for determining velocities and mass-to-charge ratios of electric charges.
Imagine how useful this could be for learning information about new particles!
Biot-Savart and Ampère's Laws
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The Biot-Savart law:
●
● This is an experimentally determined equation; you cannot derive it.
● Unit vector r is a position vector which points from the location of the infinitesimally small length of
the wire, dL, to the location of the infinitesimally small magnetic field, dB.
o r is the magnitude of the distance between those two points
● Magnetic permeability, μ, is the measurement of the amount of magnetization of a material in
response to an external magnetic field. μ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space:
● This equation shows that a current carrying wire creates a magnetic field. In fact, because current
is composed of individually moving electric charges, even a single moving electric charge causes
a magnetic field.
The direction of the magnetic field created by a current carrying wire can be seen using the Biot-Savart
law. It is the cross product, so again, we use the right-hand rule!
● Fingers point in the direction of current/wire.
● Fingers curl in the direction of unit vector r.
● For conventional current, the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field.
Notice the direction of the magnetic field caused by an infinitesimally small portion of the current carrying
wire, dL, is the same along a line parallel to the straight wire, however, the magnitude of the magnetic
field decreases as you get farther from a line perpendicular to the straight wire. The direction remains the
same because the cross product of dL and unit vector r always gives the same direction. The magnitude
decreases as the value of r, which is squared in the denominator of the equation, increases.
However, now realize that there are, for an infinitely long, straight, current carrying wire, an infinite
number of dL’s and all of their magnetic fields add up to cause the magnetic field to have a uniform value
at a distance r straight out from the wire. And, the magnitude of the magnetic field decreases as r, the
distance from the wire, increases.
0477 Lecture Notes - Biot-Savart and Ampere's Laws - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
● An alternate right-hand rule exclusively for the magnetic field which surrounds a current carrying
wire is:
o Point thumb in direction of current.
▪ Fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field.
● The Biot-Savart law can also be used to determine the magnitude of the magnetic field a distance
r from an infinitely long, straight, current carrying wire. That equation is:
o We now know the magnetic field magnitude is inversely proportional to distance from the
wire.
Next up we have Ampère’s law, which is the magnetic field equivalent to Gauss’ law:
● Gauss’ law:
o Closed surface integral and charge inside a Gaussian surface.
● Ampère’s law:
o Closed loop integral and current inside an Amperian loop.
Example: Determine the magnitude of the magnetic field outside an infinitely

long, straight, wire with radius R and current I.
Start by drawing an Amperian loop in the shape of a circuit of radius

which is concentric with the wire. And let’s use Ampère’s law.
Next let’s look at a solenoid. A very common tool for creating a uniform magnetic field. A typical solenoid
is a single, very long, current carrying, insulated wire wrapped to form a hollow cylinder. An ideal solenoid
has a length which is much, much larger than its diameter. The cross section of a solenoid looks like this.
Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field caused by the current in the top wires completely cancels out the
magnetic field caused by the bottom wires. In other words, an ideal solenoid has zero magnetic field
outside the cylinder of the solenoid. (ideal solenoid below)
Now let’s derive the equation for the magnetic field inside an ideal solenoid. In order to do so, we begin
with Ampère’s law and draw an Amperian loop. Just like Gaussian surfaces, we want to pick Amperian
loops to have sides which are at integer multiples of 90° relative to the magnetic field, and such that the
magnetic field is uniform on the sides of the Amperian loop. For an ideal solenoid, we pick an Amperian
loop shape of a rectangle with one side inside the solenoid and parallel to the magnetic field inside the
solenoid and the opposite side of the Amperian loop is completely outside the solenoid.
And now we can begin using Ampère’s law:
For side 3, the magnetic field is zero outside the solenoid, so that integral equals zero. For sides 2 and 4,
the magnetic field and ds are 90° to one another and the cosine of 90° is zero, so both of those integrals
equal zero. That means, the only integral which remains is the integral for side 1.
Where “n” is the turn density of the solenoid.
Electromagnetic Induction
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Before we learn about electromagnetic induction, we need to learn about magnetic flux. Before we do
that, let’s review electric flux:
● Electric flux is the measure of the number of electric field lines which pass through a surface.
● When the electric field is uniform, and the surface is a two-dimensional plane:
● The general equation for electric flux:
Magnetic flux:
● Magnetic flux is the measure of the number of magnetic field lines
which pass through a surface.
● When the magnetic field is uniform, and the surface is a two-
dimensional plane:
● The general equation for magnetic flux:
● Example #1: Current through a wire loop. Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of the
area vector. (Similar to the right-hand rule for angular velocity direction.) Fingers curl in the
direction of the current, thumb points in the direction of the area vector.
● Example #2:
Gauss’s law has to do with electric flux:
Gauss’s law for magnetism has to do with magnetic flux:

● Because a magnetic monopole has never been found in nature or
in a manmade experiment, every magnetic field line is a closed loop.
● Therefore, no matter what shape the gaussian surface has, every magnetic field line which enters
the gaussian surface will also leave the gaussian surface:
● The above equation,

Gauss’s law for
magnetism, is the
second of Maxwell’s
equations which are a
collection of equations
which fully describe
electromagnetism.
0482 Lecture Notes - Electromagnetic Induction - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
Electromagnetic Induction:
● We have already discussed that moving electric charges create magnetic fields.
● It should be no surprise that moving magnetic poles create electric fields.
o Notice how these interact with one another!
● When a magnetic field changes over time, this can induce an electric potential difference called
an induced emf, this causes charge to flow in a closed loop of wire which is called an
induced current. More specifically, the relationship is between a changing magnetic
flux and the resulting induced emf in a single closed loop of wire and is described by
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
o Induced emf = the derivative of magnetic flux with respect to time. (magnitudes)
● Substitute in the equation for magnetic flux:
o N is the number of loops
o An emf can be induced by changing:
▪ Magnitude of the magnetic field.
▪ Area enclosed by the loop.
▪ Angle between magnetic field and loop area. (θ between and )
▪ Or any combination of the three.
●
In other words, if the only one of those three ( , , and θ) which is
changing is the magnitude of the magnetic field, then the magnitude of
the induced emf through one loop of wire is:
● Electromagnetic induction is the process of inducing an
electromotive force by a change in magnetic flux.
● Faraday’s law is the third of Maxwell’s equations which are a
collection of equations which fully describe electromagnetism.
Now we need to determine the direction of the induced emf caused by a changing magnetic flux. That is
shown by removing the absolute value from the equation, which gives us, assuming only one loop:
● The negative in this equation means the induced emf is opposite the direction of
the change in magnetic flux.
● The direction of the induced emf is called Lenz’ law.
o Yes, the negative added to Faraday’s law is called Lenz’ law.
o Lenz’ law: The current induced in a circuit due to a change in a magnetic field is directed
to oppose the change in magnetic flux and to exert a mechanical force which opposes
the motion.
● We use the right-hand rule1 to determine the direction of the induced emf. Examples below:
● Zero initial magnetic flux inside the loop.

● Original B field is into the screen and increasing, therefore the
original magnetic flux is increasing.
● Induced magnetic field opposes the change in the original
magnetic flux and therefore is induced out of the screen to
counteract the change in original magnetic flux.
● According to the right-hand rule, fingers curl out of the screen in
the direction of the induced magnetic field, thumb points in the
direction of the induced current which is counterclockwise.
1
This is the “alternate” right-hand rule with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current in the wire and fingers curling in the
direction of the magnetic field created by the current in the wire.
● Original B field in the loop is into the screen and decreasing,
which means the original magnetic flux is decreasing.
● Binduced opposes this change in magnetic flux and attempts to
maintain the original magnetic flux. Therefore, Binduced is into the
screen.
● According to the right-hand rule, fingers curl into the screen in
direction of the induced current which is clockwise.
Note: Magnetic flux is a dot product, so magnetic flux is a scalar. So, the induced magnetic flux does not
have a direction, however, the induced magnetic field does have a direction and the direction of the
induced magnetic field in the plane of the loop is always normal to the loop in which the induced current is
created.
● Original B field inside the loop is into the screen and the area is
decreasing which means the original magnetic flux is decreasing.
● Binduced opposes this change in magnetic flux and produces a
magnetic field to maintain the original magnetic flux. Therefore,
Binduced is into the screen.
(The next example was cut out of the video, however, y’all still get to enjoy it here!)
● There is no original B field so no original magnetic flux. The B

field is increasing out of the screen so the original magnetic flux is
increasing.
● B field is originally parallel to the loop, so there is zero original

magnetic flux through the loop. Loop turns to cause the area of the
loop to now be normal to the B field which is out of the screen. So,
the original magnetic flux is increasing.
Note: No matter which way the loop is turned, the change in the magnetic flux through the loop is the
same and the induced magnetic field is into the screen caused by the induced current which is clockwise
from this perspective.
● B field is originally parallel to the loop, so there is no original
magnetic flux. B field turns to now be into the screen. So, the
original magnetic flux is increasing.
Binduced is out of the screen.
● According to the right-hand rule, fingers curl out of the screen in
● B field is originally parallel to the loop, so there is no original

magnetic flux. B field turns to now be … still parallel to the loop.
So, the magnetic flux through the loop is still zero.
● No change in the magnetic flux means there is no induced
current. ☺
We now have covered all four of Maxwell’s equations which are a collection of equations which fully
describe electromagnetism:
1) Gauss’ law:
2) Gauss’ law in magnetism:
3) General form of Maxwell-Faraday’s law of induction:
4) The Ampère-Maxwell law:
Maxwell’s third equation is:
● The Faraday’s law of induction we previously learned:

o Which shows that changing magnetic fields create an electric potential difference
● plus the more general addition:

o Which shows that a changing magnetic field must also create a nonconservative electric field.
Maxwell’s fourth equation is:
● Ampère’s law:
o Which shows that magnetic fields can be generated by electric currents
● plus Maxwell’s addition of

o Which shows that a changing electric field creates a magnetic field.
▪ In a similar manner to how a moving charge creates a magnetic field.
Induced Forces
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Believe it or not, but our discussion of induced forces begins with two derivations of motional emf.
Motional emf is the idea that the motion of a conductor moving in a magnetic field can cause charges to
move in the conductor creating a voltage across the conductor. In other words, a conductor moving in a
magnetic field can acquire an induced emf across it.
● The conductor is moving to the right with a constant velocity at a right angle to a
magnetic field which is into the page.
● According to the right-hand rule, positive charges will
experience an upward magnetic force, and negative
charges will experience a downward magnetic force.
● This will result in the movement of charges with the
final result being that there will be a net positive charge
on the top end of the conductor and a net negative
charge on the bottom end of the conductor. This
arrangement of charges creates a uniform, downward
electric field in the moving conductor.
● As a result of the downward electric field in the conductor, positive charges will experience a
downward electrostatic force, and negative charges will experience an upward electrostatic force.
● Because the conductor is moving at a constant velocity, the charges will arrange
themselves such that equilibrium is reached between the magnetic and electric
forces acting on the charges such that the electric field has a constant magnitude
and the charges in the conductor are moving with a constant velocity to the right;
there is no vertical motion of the electric charges.
● We can now sum the forces on a positive charge.
● The same final equation is derived when using a negative charge.
Previously we derived the equation relating voltage and a uniform electric field. We have already
identified the direction of the electric field, so we only need the absolute value of the voltage.
L is the length of the conductor. We have derived the voltage or the induced emf across the conductor
moving at a right angle to a uniform magnetic field. This is called motional emf.
There is actually an entirely different approach to deriving the same motional emf equation. This
approach starts with a conductor moving to the right while in contact with two parallel, metal rails
connected by a wire at the left end with a uniform
magnetic field going into the page. The resistance of
the circuit is represented by the resistor shown in the
wire on the left. A force is applied to the conductor to
cause it to move to the right. We can use Lenz’ law to
determine the direction of the induced current in the
loop.
● The magnetic field is into the screen and the
magnetic flux is increasing because the area
of the loop is increasing which increases the number of field lines passing through the loop.
0483 Lecture Notes - Induced Forces - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 4
● The induced magnetic field opposes this change in flux and is directed out of the page.
● Using the alternate right-hand rule, our fingers curl in the direction of the induced magnetic field
which is out of the page inside the loop and our thumb points in the counterclockwise direction
which is in the direction of the induced current in the loop.
● Notice this means that, because positive charges are moving in the direction of conventional
current in the conductor, we can use the right-hand rule to show that the fingers point in the
direction of the motion of the positive charges which is up, fingers curl in the direction of the
magnetic field, which is into the page, and our thumb points in the direction of the magnetic force,
which is to the left. In other words, there is a magnetic force which opposes the motion of the
conductor in the magnetic field. If the applied force is constant, the magnetic force will also be
constant to keep the conductor moving at a constant velocity.
● Now we can use Faraday’s law to determine the magnitude of the induced emf in the conductor.
Next, let’s look at a conductive loop which has a current induced in it, something we talked about
previously1, that induced current is now a bunch of charge carriers which are moving in a magnetic field.
Those moving charges now have induced forces acting on them, again this is something we talked about
quite a before now2. The following equations determine that magnetic force:
Let’s walk through an example.

Below is a front view and a side view of a conducting loop in the shape of a rectangle. Let’s start by only
looking at the front view. Again, all directions for now refer to the front view only.
● A uniform magnetic field is directed out of the page and is decreasing.
● That means the magnetic flux through the loop is decreasing.
● Lenz’ law states the induced B field is out of the page to counteract the decreasing magnetic flux.
● Using the alternate right-hand rule
o Fingers curl with the induced B
field, out of the page.
o Thumb points counterclockwise
with induced current.
● The right-hand rule on the induced
current in side 1 of the loop:
o Fingers point to the left in the
direction of the induced current.
o Fingers curl out of the page in
the direction of the original
magnetic field.
o Thumb points up in the direction of the induced magnetic force on side 1.
● For the remaining sides the right-hand rule shows the induced magnetic forces are:
o To the right on side 2.
o Down on side 3.
o To the left on side 4.
● Notice that the net induced magnetic force on the loop equals zero!
o The induced magnetic forces on sides 1 and 3 are equal and opposite.
1
Electromagnetic Induction Review for AP Physics C: E&M- http://www.flippingphysics.com/apcem-electromagnetic-induction.html
2
Magnetic Fields Review for AP Physics C: E&M - http://www.flippingphysics.com/apcem-magnetic-fields.html
Now let’s switch to the side view. Again, all directions for now refer to the side view only.
● Side 1: The induced current is into the page, and the induced magnetic force is up.
● Side 2: The induced current is up and to the right, and the induced B force is out of the page.
● Side 3: The induced current is out of the page, and the induced magnetic force is down.
● Side 4: The induced current is down and to the left, and the induced B force is into the page.
● You can see the net induced magnetic force on the loop is still zero, however, …
● The induced magnetic forces cause a net torque on the loop! Net torque is not zero!
o Assuming the loop is not attached to anything, the net torque on the loop would cause an
angular acceleration around its center of mass which is counterclockwise at this specific
moment in time.
Now let’s change the example by making it so the magnetic field abruptly
ends partway through the loop.3
● Again, the magnetic field is uniform, directed out of the page, and is
decreasing in magnitude.
● Lenz’ law gives us the same direction for the induced current in the
loop; counterclockwise.
● Using the right-hand rule to determine the directions of the induced
magnetic force:
o Side 2: This entire side of the wire is not in the magnetic
field, so there is no induced magnetic force on side 2!
o Side 4: Everything is the same here. Induced magnetic force is to the left.
o Sides 1 and 3: The directions are the same as before (1 is up, 3 is down), however, only
the part of each side which is in the magnetic field will experience an induced magnetic
force, therefore, the magnitudes of these induced magnetic forces are smaller than in the
previous example.
● The net induced magnetic force on this loop does not equal zero.
o The net force would accelerate the loop to the left.
In other words, the net induced magnetic force on a current carrying loop:
● Which is entirely in a uniform external magnetic field always equals zero.
o (The induced magnetic forces can cause a net torque on the loop.)
● Which is only partially in a uniform magnetic field is nonzero.
o This can cause a translational acceleration of the loop.
3
I would argue that creating a magnetic field which looks like this is impossible, however, it is helpful for learning. So, step off!
Let’s switch it up again. In this example we have a rectangular conducting loop in a uniform magnetic field
oriented as shown. We place an emf across the loop to cause current I in the loop.
In the front view you can see that, according to the right-hand rule, a net torque acts on the loop causing
it to angularly accelerate in a clockwise direction (in the front view).
Everything we have been referring to is the initial

position of the loop. After the loop has turned 90
degrees, we are now at the final position of the loop.
This is a very basic illustration of how an electric

motor works. Current is placed through wire loops in
magnetic fields which causes the loops to rotate
converting electric potential energy to mechanical
energy.
Now let’s look at how the magnetic flux changes

from the initial to final positions.
The initial magnetic flux through the loop is zero.
The final magnetic flux through the loop is nonzero.
The magnetic flux through the loop changes, which
means there is an induced magnetic field, an
induced emf, and an induced current in the loop. We
need to use Lenz’ law to determine the direction of
the induced current.
In the side view, the magnetic flux is out of the page and increasing. In order to resist this change in
magnetic flux, the induced magnetic field is into the screen (in the side view). According to the alternate
right-hand rule, the fingers curl into the screen in the direction of the induced magnetic field inside the
loop, thumb points clockwise (in the side view) in the direction of the induced current in the loop.
In other words, in electric motors, there is an induced

emf and an induced current caused by the change in
the magnetic flux in the loops of the motor, and that
induced current is opposite the direction of the current
placed in the loops to cause the loops to rotate. This
induced current decreases the current in a turning
electric motor. This concept is called back emf and is
present in all electric motors when they are rotating.
Realize this back emf is not present when the electric

motor is not rotating. In other words, when an electric
motor is first starting up, the current through the
electric motor is larger than when the electric motor is
running at a constant angular velocity. This lack of
back emf when an electric motor is not moving can
cause lights which are on the same circuit to dim
when an electric motor is first starting up and can
even cause a circuit breaker to trip if something
suddenly binds the electric motor causing it to stop
rotating which brings the back emf to down zero and
suddenly increases the current in the circuit above the
maximum current allowed through the circuit breaker.4
4
Yes, I have done this. ☺
Inductance
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Let’s look at a basic circuit. Before time t = 0, the switch in the circuit is open and zero current
flows through the open loop. At time t = 0, the switch is closed and remains closed. From this
perspective, a clockwise current, I, is now in the circuit. Up to this point we have assumed the
current appears instantaneously in the circuit. You should realize that, in the real world, nothing
changes instantaneously. So, let’s look at what really happens when the switch closes.
According to the alternate right-hand rule, the clockwise current, I, in the circuit causes a magnetic field
which is out of the page outside the loop and a magnetic field which is into the page inside the loop. In other
words, this circuit is a loop which initially, before time t = 0, has zero magnetic flux in it
and, as soon as the switch is closed, the loop has magnetic flux in it. We know, according
to Faraday’s law, that a changing magnetic flux induces an emf and can induce a current.
We can use Lenz’ law to determine the direction the induced current would be in the loop:
● Initially, there is zero magnetic flux.
● Finally, there is a B field which is into the page inside the loop.
o Note: Only the magnetic field inside the loop causes a magnetic
flux inside the loop.
● Therefore, the magnetic flux is increasing.
● Lenz’s law states that an induced magnetic field is created to counteract the change in magnetic flux.
● Therefore, the induced magnetic field is out of the page.
● According to the alternate right-hand rule, an induced current would be counterclockwise in the loop
from this perspective.
● This means the current in the circuit does not instantly change from 0 to I. The current in the circuit
takes time to transition from 0 to I, because, the circuit itself opposes the change in current.
● This opposition of a circuit to a change in current in that same circuit is called self-inductance.
● In general, opposition to a change in current in a conductor is called inductance.
To get to the equation for inductance, we need to return to the simple circuit example and the basic
concept of Faraday’s law.
● Induced emf is proportional to change in magnetic flux with respect to time.
● The magnitude of magnetic flux equals the magnetic field times the area of the loop
times the cosine of the angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the
direction of the area.
● Assuming the area and angle are not changing with respect to time, the induced
emf is proportional to the change in the magnetic field with respect to time.
● An example of a magnetic field around a current carrying wire is the one which
surrounds an infinitely long current carrying wire which we have derived previously.
o “a” is the straight-line distance perpendicular out from the wire to the
location of the B field.
● This means the induced emf in a conductor is proportional to change in current in
the conductor with respect to time.
An inductor is a circuit element with a known inductance.

The equation for the inductance of an inductor is:
● “L” is the inductance of the inductor.
● The simplest version of an inductor is a small, ideal solenoid. Because a solenoid is in the shape
of a coil, the symbol for an inductor looks like the coils of a miniature solenoid.
● The units for inductance are henrys, H.
0488 Lecture Notes - Inducance - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 3

It is important to understand the difference between resistance, resistivity, resistors, inductance, self-
inductance, and inductors.
● Resistance is an opposition to current. (concept)
o The units for resistance are ohms, Ω.
o The resistance of a circuit is often assumed to be zero. (self-resistance?)
o A resistor is a circuit element with a specific resistance. (physical object)
▪ “R” is the resistance of a resistor.
▪ A resistor is made of a material with a material property called
resistivity, ρ.
● The units for resistivity are ohm meters, Ω•m.
▪ A resistor can be added to a circuit to change the resistance of the circuit.
▪ A resistor can be added to a circuit diagram to model the resistance of the circuit itself.
● Inductance is an opposition to changes in current. (concept)
o The units for inductance are henrys, H.
o The opposition of a circuit to the change in the current in that circuit is called self-
inductance. (concept)
▪ The self-inductance of a circuit is often assumed to be zero.
o An inductor is a circuit element with a specific inductance. (physical object)
▪ “L” is the inductance of an inductor.
▪ A typical shape for an inductor is a small, ideal solenoid.
● There is no material property called “inductivity” because
the inductance of an inductor is mostly caused by the
shape, not the material, of the inductor. A magnetic material in its core
can affect the inductance through its magnetic permeability, but not the
material of the wire coil.
▪ An inductor can be added to a circuit to change the inductance of the circuit.
▪ An inductor can be added to a circuit diagram to model the self-inductance of the
circuit itself.
Considering the most common shape for an inductor is a small, ideal solenoid, let’s look at that case
specifically. We have two different equations for induced emf which we can set equal to one another:
●
o N is the total number of loops or coils in the solenoid shaped inductor.
o We can cancel out dt on both sides of the equation
●
o Take the integral of the whole equation.
o Both N and L are constants and can be taken out from their integrals.
o Substitute in the equation for the magnitude of magnetic flux.
●
o In an ideal solenoid, angle between magnetic field and loop area vector is always 0°.
o We have the equation for an ideal solenoid which we derived earlier.
▪ n is the turn density of the solenoid.
▪ We already defined N as the total number of loops in the solenoid,
▪ Therefore, the curly , is the entire length of the ideal solenoid.
● !"#$%&%'% . (Inductance does not equal solenoid length.)
● (L for a resistor is its length not its inductance. ☺)
●
o The inductance of an ideal solenoid is determined by:

▪ N, the number of turns: A, the cross-sectional area: , solenoid length.
▪ μ, the magnetic permeability of the space inside the solenoid. For an ideal solenoid
with nothing inside it, that equals the magnetic permeability of free space.
▪ μ, the magnetic permeability of the core material, replaces μ0 when the solenoid
has a core material such as iron.
● Inductance does not depend on current through the solenoid!
o Resistance does not depend on current either!
Next, we are going to derive the equation for the energy stored in the magnetic field
generated in an inductor as charges move through the inductor. To do that, we
need to discuss an LR circuit. A circuit with an inductor and a resistor in it. Initially,
at time t < 0, the switch is open. At time t = 0, the switch is closed. The current will
increase from zero to some steady-state current, I. We are not going to derive the
time-dependent equations for LR circuits today, we will do that in a future lesson.
Using Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule, starting from the lower left-hand corner we get:
●
o Electric potential across the battery goes up because the battery is
adding electric potential energy to the circuit.
o Electric potential across the inductor goes down because electric
potential energy is being stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
o Electric potential across the resistor goes down because the
resistor dissipates electric potential energy from the system.
o We can now multiply this whole equation by the circuit current, I.
●
o We get the equation for power for each circuit element:
▪ The rate at which energy is being added to the circuit by the battery.
▪ The rate at which energy is being stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
▪ The rate at which energy is being dissipated by the resistor.
● We can now look specifically at the rate at which energy is being stored in the magnetic field of
the inductor.
● We now have an equation for the energy stored in the magnetic field generated in an inductor as
charges move through the inductor.
o That energy is only present when current is passing through the inductor. This is because
the magnetic field generated in the inductor is due to the charges moving through the
inductor. If the charges are not moving, there is no magnetic field in the inductor.
A capacitor functions differently:

● The energy stored in a capacitor is stored in the electric field of the capacitor.
o The energy stored in a capacitor can remain when a
capacitor is disconnected from a circuit because
charges can remain separated on the plates of the
capacitor which would maintain the electric field
between the plates of the capacitor.

LR Circuits - Review for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism
http://www.flippingphysics.com/apcem-lr-circuits.html
This LR circuit is a circuit with a battery, a resistor, an inductor, and a switch.

Before time t = 0, the switch is open. At time t = 0, the switch is closed and
remains closed. A few general things to realize:
● The initial current in the circuit, at time t = 0, is zero.
● The inductor opposes the change in current in the circuit which is what
causes the current to change from its initial current of zero to its final
steady state current.
● After a long time, the inductor behaves like any other ideal wire in a
circuit and has zero resistance. In other words, after a long time the
current has reached its maximum value and behaves as if the inductor is not there.
Let’s determine equations for the limits. To do so, we use Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
starting in the lower left-hand corner of the circuit:
We can use this equation to determine the remaining limits.
And now we can derive the equation for current in this LR circuit as a function of time.
Going back to the Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule equation:
● In this problem a = 0 and, because I varies from 0 to , u is always positive (or zero).
0490 Lecture Notes - LR Circuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 2

Note, this fits our limits because:
●
We can also determine the time rate of change of current as a function of time:
Again, this fits our limits because:
And we can determine the time constant, !:
And the graphs:

You can consider the derivative of current with respect to time to be the acceleration of moving objects.
Amps are coulombs per second. So, amps per second are coulombs per second squared. The time rate of
change of current is the rate at which the current is changing, just like acceleration is the rate at which
velocity is changing.
0490 Lecture Notes - LR Circuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 2 of 2

LC Circuits
http://www.flippingphysics.com/apcem-lc-circuits.html
This LC circuit is a circuit with a capacitor, an inductor, and a switch.

Before time t = 0, the switch was open for a long time. At time t = 0, the
switch is closed and remains closed. A few general things to realize:
● The initial charge on the capacitor must be nonzero, if it were
zero, nothing would happen when the switch is closed.
● The initial current in the circuit must be zero because there was
no current in the open circuit before the switch was closed.
● The inductor opposes the change in current in the circuit which is
why it takes time for the current to change from zero.
● The current through the inductor is from the charges leaving the
capacitor to flow through the circuit, therefore, as current through
the inductor increases, charge on the capacitor decreases.
● The electric field in the capacitor is decreasing in magnitude and
the magnetic field in the inductor is increasing in magnitude.
● Once the charge is completely discharged, q = 0, the inductor
has its maximum magnitude magnetic field and the current
through the inductor is at its maximum.
● Current will continue to flow and build up charges on the plates of
the capacitor, however, the orientation of the positive and
negative plates will be reversed, and the current is decreasing.
● Eventually the current through the inductor will reduce to zero
and charge will be at a maximum on the plates of the capacitor.
● Repeat the whole cycle in reverse.
● This is simple harmonic motion!
o A horizontal mass-spring system is a good analogous
situation.
Now let’s derive equations for the LC Circuit, starting with the total
energy in the circuit:
● Typically, we use uppercase symbols for constants and

lowercase symbols for variables.
● We know
● We can take the derivative with respect to time of the total energy equation. We know the
derivative of total energy in the LC circuit equals zero because these are all ideal components
with zero resistance. In other words, no energy is being dissipated from the system.
● We need to use the chain rule for both energy expressions because time is not a variable in
either energy expression, however, both charge, q, and current, i, are changing with respect to
time.
0491 Lecture Notes - LC Circuits - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 3

● The equation definition for simple harmonic motion is:
● Therefore, we know the angular frequency of an LC circuit And we can determine the period of an
LC Circuit:
● And we know a general equation which satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation:
● For this specific LC circuit the initial charge on the capacitor is Qmax , therefore, the phase
constant is zero.
● We can also determine current in an LC circuit as a function of time and an equation relating
current maximum to charge maximum.
● We can also derive the current maximum using the equation for total energy in the LC circuit.
● We can determine equations for energy as functions of time.

&
Below are two screenshots of the LC circuit animation. Honestly, you need to watch and hear the
discussion of everything going on the animation to understand it.

Equations to Memorize for
AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism
http://www.flippingphysics.com/apcem-equations.html
I am definitely not a fan of rote memorization, however, sometimes there are good reasons to memorize
equations. Here are my suggestions for AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism memorization
● Quantization of charge:
o e = elementary charge:
● The Law of Charges:
o Two charges with opposite signs attract one another.
o Two charges with the same sign repel one another.
● The electric field around a point charge:
o
● You do not have to memorize it, it is on the Table of Information, however, it seems to come up
quite often. The relationship between the Coulomb’s law constant and vacuum permittivity:
o
● Electric field around a continuous charge distribution: (memorize and know how to derive)
o
● The charge densities:
o
● The symbol for electric flux of Gauss’ law never appears on the equation sheet and it does not
clarify that the charge is the charge enclosed in the Gaussian surface:
o
● If the net charge inside a closed Gaussian surface is zero, then the net electric flux through the
Gaussian surface is zero.

● Equation for electric flux for a flat surface in a uniform electric field is not on the equation sheet:
o
● The electric potential difference across a uniform electric field. Remember d is the straight-line
distance parallel to the electric field.
o
● They only have 2 out of the 3 energy stored in a capacitor equations:
0492 Lecture Notes - Equations to Memorize for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 3

o
● Only 1 of the equations for electric power is on the equation sheet:
● When we add a resistor in series, the equivalent resistance increases.

● When we add a resistor in parallel, the equivalent resistance decreases.
o
● When we add a capacitor in series, the equivalent capacitance decreases.
● When we add a capacitor in parallel, the equivalent capacitance increases.
o
o We can see the relationships from the equations provided on the
equation sheet, however, it comes up often enough that it is good to
memorize and, if you need to confirm what you memorized, just look
at the equation sheet.
● None of the equations for RC or LR circuits are on the equation
sheet, however, I do not suggest you memorize them. Instead, I
suggest you know how to find their limits, know their general
shapes, memorize the time constants, and memorize that one
time constant represents the time for a 63.2% change.

o
o
o
▪ One time constant represents the time for a 63.2%
change.
● We can do the same thing for an LR circuit:
● For Ampère’s law, the equation sheet does not identify it is the current inside the Amperian loop:
o
● Motional emf. But of course, you need to know how to derive this motional emf equation and
remember this assumes the velocity and magnetic field are at right angles relative to one another.
o
▪ In this motional emf equation, “L” stands for the length of the conductor.
● The inductance of an ideal solenoid (and how to derive it). Mostly so you remember what
inductance does and does not depend on:
o
o The inductance of an ideal solenoid is determined by:
▪ N, the number of turns: A, the cross-sectional area: , solenoid length.
▪ μ, the magnetic permeability of the space inside the solenoid. For an ideal solenoid
with nothing inside it, that equals the magnetic permeability of free space.
▪ μ, the magnetic permeability of the core material, replaces μ0 when the solenoid
has a core material such as iron.
● Inductance does not depend on current through the solenoid!
o Resistance does not depend on current.
o Capacitance does not depend on charge on the plates or ΔV
across the plates.
● The angular frequency of LC circuits, and therefore, all the simple harmonic motion equations for
LC circuits.
o Energy oscillates back and forth between electric potential energy stored in the electric field of
the capacitor and magnetic potential energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.
o
▪ (The above Simple Harmonic Motion equations did not make the video. It’s
probably not worth memorizing them.)

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Flipping Physics Lecture Notes:

Electric Charges and Electric Fields

Let’s begin with Electric Charge:

The Law of Charges states that:

o is the vector version.

o is the scalar version and has no direction.

Note that Coulomb’s Law is similar to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation:

- Coulomb’s Law: and the Universal Law of Gravitation:

The Law of Conservation of Charge:

- The equation for an electric field and its units are:

so the gravitational field has a similar format:

Conductors vs. Insulators:

Quick review of charge densities:

Side view, cross section: Front view:

● The units for electric flux are

Usually, electric flux is through some sort of closed surface. So,

Electric flux for Area 5 (top): To understand why cosθ5 = a/c, we

Let’s now do another example. Let’s determine the electric flux

Notice we cannot use

This is Gauss’ law!

Notice then that, if the net charge inside a closed Gaussian

Let’s do another example using Gauss’ law. Determine the

We pick a Gaussian surface such that it is a cylinder with ends

And notice what happens if we have two infinite parallel

The electric field outside the planes of charges cancels

And between the two planes of charges, the electric

And we have begun our journey towards determining the

Notice that a positively charged particle moving through

A few loose ends:

The electrostatic force is a conservative force, therefore:

difference the charge went through:

Let’s determine the electric potential difference when

Points a1 and a2 are on an equipotential surface. An equipotential surface (or line):

In order to understand how useful it is that electric potential

Because this is a continuous charge distribution, we need

And from there we can determine the electric field at point P.

1) The electric field inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium equals zero.

3) The electric field just outside the surface of a conductor in

a. If the electric field had a component parallel to the surface of

b. If we zoom way in on the surface of the conductor in

A capacitor is a way to store electric potential

Capacitance, C, is defined as the magnitude of

The basic idea is:

0472 Lecture Notes - Capacitors - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 1 of 3

0472 Lecture Notes - Capacitors - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 2 of 3

The capacitor in the disposable camera:

0472 Lecture Notes - Capacitors - Review for AP Physics C E&M.docx page 3 of 3

Electric current, I, is defined as the derivative of charge with respect to time:

Let’s look at charges flowing in a wire:

The resistance of a wire, R, is defined as

A unit which is often used when it comes to electricity is the kilowatt-hour:

however, it is a unit of energy. And we know:

The Basics of Electric Circuits:

Light Bulb Capacitor Switch

Ammeter Voltmeter Inductor

When an anthropomorphic1 charge has no choice but to go through

The electric potential difference across the battery equals the

(If you’d prefer to look at this in terms of the electric potential

We know Ohm’s law: ; therefore, …