TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 16 April 2024

DOI 10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341

Experimental investigation of
OPEN ACCESS tungsten–nickel–iron alloy,
EDITED BY
Abdelmageed A. Elmustafa,
Old Dominion University, United States
W95Ni3.5Fe1.5, compared to
REVIEWED BY
Shahrokh Hatefi,
copper monolithic bullets
Nelson Mandela University, South Africa
Pradeep Kumar M.,
Anna University, India
T. Abhishek 1, Dola Sundeep 2*, C. Chandrasekhara Sastry 1*,
*CORRESPONDENCE
K. V. Eswaramoorthy 2, Gagan Chaitanya Kesireddy 1,
Dola Sundeep, Bobbili Veera Siva Reddy 1, Rakesh Kumar Verma 3,
[email protected]
C. Chandrasekhara Sastry, Sachin Salunkhe 4,5, Robert Cep 6 and Emad Abouel Nasr 7
[email protected]
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and
RECEIVED 07 February 2024 Manufacturing (IIITDM) Kurnool, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India, 2Department of Electronics and
ACCEPTED 29 February 2024 Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and Manufacturing
PUBLISHED 16 April 2024 (IIITDM) Kurnool, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India, 3Electronics and Radar Development Establishment
CITATION
(LRDE), Defence Research and Development Organization, Bangalore, Karnataka, India, 4Department of
Abhishek T, Sundeep D, Biosciences, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences,
Chandrasekhara Sastry C, Eswaramoorthy KV, Chennai, India, 5Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gazi University Faculty of Engineering, Ankara,
Kesireddy GC, Siva Reddy BV, Verma RK, Türkiye, 6Department of Machining, Assembly and Engineering Metrology, Faculty of Mechanical
Salunkhe S, Cep R and Abouel Nasr E (2024), Engineering, VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia, 7Department of Industrial
Experimental investigation of Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
tungsten–nickel–iron alloy, W95Ni3.5Fe1.5,
compared to copper monolithic bullets.
Front. Mech. Eng 10:1383341.
doi: 10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341
Introduction: The demand for improved small arms ammunition has led to
COPYRIGHT
exploring advanced materials and manufacturing techniques. This research
© 2024 Abhishek, Sundeep, Chandrasekhara
Sastry, Eswaramoorthy, Kesireddy, Siva Reddy, investigates the machining characteristics of CM and WNF alloy bullets, aiming
Verma, Salunkhe, Cep and Abouel Nasr. This is to enhance ballistic performance and durability.
an open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Methods: Bullet profile-making trials were conducted to evaluate the impact of
License (CC BY). The use, distribution or
machining parameters such as cutting speed and feed. The study also considered
reproduction in other forums is permitted,
provided the original author(s) and the variables including surface roughness, cutting temperature, and hardness, alongside
copyright owner(s) are credited and that the a detailed morphological analysis, The evaluation utilized an orthogonal array and
original publication in this journal is cited, in
MCDM approach, incorporating the TOPSIS method for decision-making processes.
accordance with accepted academic practice.
No use, distribution or reproduction is
Results: The findings reveal that WNF alloy bullets exhibit 3.01% to 27.95% lower
permitted which does not comply with these
terms. machining temperatures, 24.88%-61.85% reduced surface roughness, and
19.45%-34% higher microhardness compared to CM bullets. Moreover, CM
bullets demonstrated higher machining temperatures, resulting in 47.53%
increased tool flank wear. WNF bullets showed a 24.89% reduction in crater
wear and a 38.23% decrease in compressive residual stress in bullet profiles,
indicating superior machining performance.

Discussion: The superior machining performance of WNF alloy bullets suggests

their potential to improve the ballistic performance and durability of small arms
ammunition. The reduced tool wear and favorable machining parameters
highlight WNF alloy's advantages for military and defense applications. A
ballistic impact analysis using a finite element method (FEM) model in Abaqus
software further supports the potential of WNF alloy bullets, providing a solid
foundation for future advancements in bullet manufacturing technologies.

KEYWORDS

bullet, defense, machining, morphology, residual stress

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1 Introduction of the workpiece material remain unchanged (Thirumavalavan et al.,

2019; Sastry et al., 2020b; Hariharan et al., 2020; Rajamanickam et al.,
The science behind manufacturing a bullet is an essential part of 2020; Selvakumar et al., 2020).
ballistics operations. It plays a vital role in making, firing, ejecting, and Much work has been carried out in dry machining conditions for
fragmenting the bullet (Ma et al., 2004). In the defense sector, a non- the defense and aerospace sectors owing to the retention of surface
standard dimension is crucial for identifying the key features that chemical and physical properties, which are also classified as green
influence operation. As bullets and casings are fired or ejected from machining (cleaner production) (Sastry et al., 2020b). For most of their
the gun barrel, definite signature characteristics are left behind in the work, scientists and researchers have analyzed machining operations
form of striations on the bullet and along the barrel passage of the gun. using optimal cutting parameters, factors, and their equivalent responses
The essential operation of making bullets is the casting operation using the Taguchi orthogonal array method (Navukkarasan et al., 2020).
(Banerjee et al., 2022), where the molten metal is poured in a cope Though an orthogonal array provides a wide-based solution, it has its
and drag operation and then further subjected to machining cycles. It fair share of drawbacks as it is a single-response variable analysis of the
found wide applications in making pointed, cylindrical, and cylindro- responses to the factors (Sastry et al., 2020b; Navukkarasan et al., 2020).
conical profiles (Li et al., 2022). These have been made into various sizes, The method does not create a vertical plane to consider all the factors
and testing has been carried out for both standard and non-standard equally and mixed attributes are not taken into full consideration for
dimensions to decrease the roughness factor. Augmenting the hardness detailed machining operations (Gopinath et al., 2021; Pradeep et al.,
factor was found to be the primary requirement for a bullet profile. To 2021; Praveen Raj Navukkarasan et al., 2021). The multi-criteria
ensure they meet the standards, ball grooves were provided, and highly decision-making process ensures all the factors and responses based
homogeneous alloys were considered as alternatives to copper (Banerjee on the weighted criteria are considered in an equal vector plane (Praveen
et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022), increasing the efficiency and reducing air Raj Navukkarasan et al., 2021). Researchers have adopted Artificial
resistance significantly. However, even new alloy materials caused the Neural Networks (ANN), Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Grey
bullet to drift from its trajectory to the intended target, as decreased System Theory (GREY), Technique for Order Preference by Similarity
weight leads to accuracy deviations (Ma et al., 2004; Banerjee et al., 2022; to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), Particle Swarm Optimization (PSA), and
Li et al., 2022). Elimination and Choice Translating Reality (ELECTRE) techniques to
The essential design criteria of bullets should address and solve develop common objectives for identifying the best input factors
two primary problems. In the gun barrel, they should form a complete correlated to the measured responses. The drawbacks of these
seal in the gun bore, as a weak seal would cause a leakage in the optimization techniques compared to the technique for preference
propellant area of charge, thereby decreasing the accuracy and by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) are high iterations and
efficiency of the intended operation. Excess friction between the complex algorithms, as TOPSIS uses simple elementary weighted
gun barrel and bullet must be reduced (Sastry et al., 2019a). These operations to provide a close-to-ideal solution (Sastry et al., 2019a;
form the core of internal ballistics, ensuring bullets are produced to Sastry et al., 2019b; Gopinath et al., 2021; Praveen Raj Navukkarasan
high standards with minimal surface imperfections, improving et al., 2021).
accuracy. An array of bullet molds with various design profiles and To the authors’ knowledge, no work has yet compared
calibers are available from manufacturers such as RCBS, PJ, and DM. machining and making bullet profiles with tungsten–nickel–iron
With these specialized molds, bullets can be made on an as-needed alloy, W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 (WNF) to copper monolithic (CM) bullets.
basis, based on the time- and cost-effective material. Although bullets The factors considered for the machining operation of the bullet
can be cast in various shapes and sizes, the bulk of the material is profile are cutting speed and feed, and analogous responses are
removed through a diamond turning operation (Sastry et al., 2019a; surface roughness, cutting temperature, and hardness. A detailed
Sastry et al., 2019b), which must be a controlled cycle operation. Both morphological study is done for the workpieces, chips, and tools
cast and jacketed bullets are available commercially, but casting and used for bullet making, as indicated in Supplementary Figure S1.
removing bulk material as scrap is convenient for testing non- Residual stress analyses are carried out for WNF and copper
standard dimensions (Sastry et al., 2019b). As a reference standard monolithic (CM) bullets to study the changes in surface
for ballistic identification, the actual bullet signature in terms of shape, attributes. A complete simulation model is also considered,
size, material, and color of all physical standard bullets is identified thereby adapting the work to a real-time environment.
and duplicated when testing the method and surface attributes of the
bullets (Ma et al., 2004; Sastry et al., 2019a; Sastry et al., 2019b;
Banerjee et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022). 2 Materials and methods
The environment of the machining operation can be divided into
dry and wet machining conditions. The presence of cutting fluids 2.1 Workpiece for machining the
increases chip removal, decreases friction, and causes a drop in bullet profile
temperature. However, it also leads to a harmful user environment,
which causes severe, irreversible problems for machining operators The workpieces in this experiment are tungsten–nickel–iron
(Sastry et al., 2019b). The change in surface attributes is also observed alloy W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 and copper monolithic bullets whose
for soluble-oil mixed coolants, which are generally used for all dimensions are ɸ13.1 mm in diameter and 25 mm in length. The
machining conditions. However, a drastic change is observed in the workpiece used is described in Supplementary Figures S2A, B. The
surface properties and roughness, which is a significant drawback of the physical and chemical properties of the tungsten–nickel–iron alloy
functional coolants used in the machining cycle (Sastry et al., 2020a). In W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 and copper monolithic bullets are listed in
the present day, dry machining is used as it ensures the surface attributes Supplementary Tables S1, S2, respectively.

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TABLE 1 Chemical composition and physical attributes of the W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 alloy.

Responses concerning CM tube W95Ni3.5Fe1.5

factors
Cutting temperature speed: 2,500 rpm;
feed: 0.059 mm/min

Surface roughness speed: copper:

2000 rpm; WNF: 2,500 rpm; feed: copper:
0.055 mm/min; WNF: 0.051 mm/min

Microhardness speed: 2,500 rpm; feed:

0.059 mm/min

2.2 Machine: CNC lathe specifications S2C–F. The computer numerical control (CNC) lathe machine in the
Central Institute of Tool Design (CITD), MSME Tool Room,
Hardinge designed and built series turning centers for making bullet Government of India, Hyderabad, was used to machine the bullet
profiles close to tolerance limits, as indicated in Supplementary Figures profiles. The machine specifications are highlighted in Supplementary

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TABLE 2 Chemical composition and physical attributes of the CM and WNF bullets.

Responses concerning factors CM tube W95Ni3.5Fe1.5

Cutting temperature (parameter: feed plays an important role in determining
the cutting temperature in both copper and WNF)

Surface roughness (parameter: speed plays an important role in determining

the cutting surface roughness in both copper and WNF)

Microhardness (parameter: speed plays an important role in determining the

microhardness in both copper and WNF)

Table S3. The A2-5 spindle nose, with a horsepower of 15 kW and high Figures S2J, K. The bullet profile machined for the WNF and CM bullets
spindle speeds, allowed wide trial variations before finalizing the factor is depicted in Supplementary Figures S2L, M.
variables. The machining was carried out using an A4SM short-
projection Kennametal tool, which is depicted in Supplementary
Figures S2G–I. The insert used for machining is a titanium 2.3 Dry machining—environment
aluminum nitride-coated tool, as bullet profile-making requires high
hardness and a stable tool holder for the given dimension of the Dry machining is classified as a clean manufacturing technique.
workpiece. The design data of the workpiece for the bullet module In dry machining, the components used for material cutting, the
are depicted in CAD, and drawing images are depicted in Supplementary tool, and the parameters are evaluated carefully before the operation

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begins (Sastry et al., 2019a). As dry machining involves high friction, ϑij
wj *rij i
1, 2, . . . . . . 27; j
1, 2, . . . . . . 5.
a coated tool makes a vast difference in curtailing friction (Sastry
et al., 2019b). Although dry machining is classified as green and The weighted matrixes are highlighted in Supplementary Tables
clean-environment machining, its significant disadvantage lies in the S7, S8 for dry machining of WNF and CM tubes.
tangling of chips generated in the tooltip, affecting the cutting zone
area and creating a poor surface finish (Sastry et al., 2020a) and Step 3. Every option that is an ideal alternative to the best alternative
excess temperature, which induces wear (Praveen Raj Navukkarasan performance (S+ ) and the worst alternative performance (S−) was
et al., 2021). Considering these two aspects, the cutting process and ascertained. If the jth criterion has a decisive outcome,
 
its associated parameters should be optimized for the specific S
maxSij   j ∈ J ormin Sij   j ∈ J′ , i
1, 2, . . . . . . 27 ,
+

machining and workpiece material conditions.

where S+ delineates a decisive (positive) ideal solution, tabulated
in Supplementary Table S9.
2.4 Orthogonal array experiment
Step 4. In this progression, the execution of the criteria has been
Taguchi’s design technique was adopted to condense the
estimated as the best elective separation (D+ij) from the S+
number of required iterations. The orthogonal array set of
solutions and the worst elective separation (D−ij) from the S−
Taguchi is widely adopted for many manufacturing/machining
values. The D+ij and D−ij values are resolved utilizing the
problems (Sastry et al., 2019a), as it efficiently classifies and
accompanying condition. Supplementary Table S11 shows the
identifies the factors and responses as independent planes (Sastry
attainment of each alternative under the ideal and unfavorable
et al., 2019b). Furthermore, reducing the number of experiments
conditions in dry machining conditions for CM and WNF.
reduces the cost and time of analyzing all the experiment runs. With












the addition of signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, the individual traits of the 27
2
factors are well established in this design (Sastry et al., 2020a). For D+i
ϑij − S+j  ,
i
1
machining bullets for defense applications, the responses are cutting












temperature (Tc), surface roughness (Ra), and hardness (VHN). The 
27
2
nose radius and depth are kept constant based on the machining D−i
ϑij − S−j  ,
profile. The factors and responses are showcased in Supplementary i
1

Table S4. The orthogonal array with factors and responses for dry
machining of WNF and CM bullets is tabulated in where i = 1, 2, 3 . . ..27.
Supplementary Table S5.
Supplementary Table S5 shows that WNF material’s Step 5. The closeness coefficient (Ci) values are obtained for each
temperature and surface roughness decrease and hardness alternative using the accompanying equation
increases in each of the experimental conditions compared to D−i
CM machining conditions. To ensure a common vector space Ci
i
1, 2, . . . . . . .27; 0 ≤ Ci ≤ 1.
D−i + D+i
that will bring in all the responses and factors in one vector
plane is obtained, a multi-criteria method is used to obtain The ideal alternative is conscripted according to the preference rank-
conditions close to ideal for machining the bullet profile. ordered by the Ci value, which is very important to the ideal solution, as
highlighted in Supplementary Table S11. The respective input values are
tabulated in Supplementary Table S12. After the machining operation,
2.5 Multi-criteria decision-making: TOPSIS the close-to-ideal solution is evaluated. Supplementary Table S12 is
further sectioned based on the characterization requirement by using the
Step 1. The TOPSIS method is considered the ideal mechanism wire-EDM facility for microstructure, surface morphology, chip study,
for appropriately culling the alternatives as it works toward a and residual stress analyses. The samples are cleaned, polished, and
normalized value. Simo’s weighting procedure is used to allocate etched to clearly depict the surface after machining in dry conditions to
the rank of each output response, tabulated in ensure no undue chips are present during inspection. The tool wear was
Supplementary Table S6. analyzed to understand the effect of the machining conditions. X-ray
diffraction (XRD) using a central XRD facility was done to understand
Supplementary Tables S7, S8 use the following equation to the compressive stress on the machined surface for the CM and
develop the normalized performance matrix (rij): WNF material.
Xij
rij






i
1, 2, . . . . . . 27; j
1, 2, . . . . . . 5,
mi
1 Xij
2
3 Results and discussion
where i = number of alternatives (experimental runs), j = number of
criteria (output responses), and xij = normalized value of the ith 3.1 Taguchi and ANOVA
experimental run associated with the jth output response.
The Taguchi method was adopted for the repetitive processes
Step 2. The product of the normalized value merges the weighted with a smaller, better signal-to-noise ratio. The graphic and its
normalized matrix (ϑij) into the weighted values: respective values are tabulated in Tables 1, 2.

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TABLE 3 ANOVA for dry machining of CM bullets. TABLE 4 ANOVA for dry machining of W95Ni3.5Fe1.5; ANOVA for cutting
temperature.
ANOVA for cutting temperature
ANOVA for cutting temperature
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Speed 2 40.562 20.2811 7.88 0.003
Speed 2 0.000000 0.000000 1.17 0.329
Feed 2 49.179 24.5897 9.56 0.001
Feed 2 0.000000 0.000000 7.44 0.003
Error 22 56.613 2.5733
Error 22 0.000000 0.000000
Lack of fit 4 48.744 12.1860 27.87 0.000
Lack of fit 4 0.000000 0.000000 27.25 0.000
Pure error 18 7.869 0.4372
Pure error 18 0.000000 0.000000
Total 26 146.355
Total 26 0.000000
ANOVA for surface roughness
ANOVA for surface roughness
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Speed 2 0.501685 0.250843 29.21 0.000
Speed 2 96.1030 48.0515 382.07 0.000
Feed 2 0.002281 0.001140 0.13 0.876
Feed 2 0.5788 0.2894 2.30 0.124
Error 22 0.188902 0.008586
Error 22 2.7669 0.1258
Lack of fit 4 0.114547 0.028637 6.93 0.001
Lack of fit 4 2.3041 0.5760 22.41 0.000
Pure error 18 0.074355 0.004131
Pure error 18 0.4627 0.0257
Total 26 0.692869
Total 26 99.4487
ANOVA for microhardness
ANOVA for microhardness
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Source DF Adj. SS Adj. MS F-value p-value
Speed 2 4759.8 2379.88 164.05 0.000
Speed 2 0.000001 0.000001 15.58 0.000
Feed 2 246.8 123.40 8.51 0.002
Feed 2 0.000000 0.000000 2.69 0.090
Error 22 319.2 14.51
Error 22 0.000001 0.000000
Lack of fit 4 185.1 46.27 6.21 0.003
Lack of fit 4 0.000001 0.000000 100.81 0.000
Pure error 18 134.1 7.45
Pure error 18 0.000000 0.000000
Total 26 5325.7
Total 26 0.000002

Analysis results of speed and feed concerning cutting 3.2 Ramification of responses: temperature,
temperature, surface roughness, and microhardness for dry surface roughness, and hardness
machining conditions at a significance level of 0.05 (confidence
level of 95%) are tabulated in Tables 3, 4 for CM and WNF, From the graphical data represented in Figure 1, the WNF shows
respectively. The rate commitment of each factor determined 3.01%–27.95% lower machining temperatures, 24.88%–61.85%
from analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized as the measure increased surface roughness, and 9.45%–34% increased
for determining the impact of each factor. microhardness values than the CM material, as indicated in
From Tables 1, 2, applying the Taguchi method, the smaller Supplementary Table S13 (Sastry et al., 2019a).
and more significant the signal-to-noise ratio, the better. For The temperature is attributed to the material’s density factor
ideal cutting temperature and microhardness, a speed of and softness (Sastry et al., 2019a). The WNF bullet profile density
2,500 rpm and a feed of 0.059 mm/min are the ideal cutting is lower than the CM bullet, which aids in the machining condition
parameters for dry machining conditions. A speed of 2,000 rpm with the presence of a lower number of inclusions
and a feed of 0.055 mm/min and a speed of 2,500 rpm and a feed (Chandrasekhara Sastry et al., 2021; Praveen Raj Navukkarasan
of 0.059 mm/min are the ideal cutting parameters for surface et al., 2021; Bairapudi et al., 2022; Pradeep et al., 2022; Su et al.,
roughness for CM and WNF, respectively, with significance given 2022; Sundeep et al., 2022). Additionally, the minimal presence of
toward a smaller signal-to-noise ratio. From ANOVA (Tables 3, sulfur, a consequence of delicate grain structures, and the uniform
4), it is found that feed plays a prominent role in determining the secondary distribution of particles aid in machinability at lower
cutting temperature in dry machining. Meanwhile, speed plays an temperatures for WNF profiles. With a high presence, copper
important role in determining surface roughness and material increases temperatures drastically due to the attenuation
microhardness. in cutting forces experienced during machining (Sastry et al.,

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FIGURE 1
Comparison of temperature, surface roughness, and microhardness for copper and tungsten alloy compared to experimental order.

2020a). The addition of a small percentage of tin compensates for machining at higher speeds, high tensile stresses are applied due to
this increase, but a small addition would not form the β′ phase as the augmented temperature of machining and disoriented surge in
that would increase hardness, leading to the formation of a duplex surface roughness (waviness pattern); a decrease in the
and thereby causing a decrease in cutting temperature (Sastry et al., microhardness value is observed, as indicated in the CM bullet
2020a; Sastry et al., 2020b). An increase in cutting temperature, as profile (Sastry et al., 2020a). A detailed analysis of the tool wear and
with an increase in speed values, has an overall effect on the workpiece surface morphology is required to understand the
increased surface roughness of the machined bullet profile, as is ramifications of the responses to the bullet machining factors.
witnessed in the case of the CM bullet profile, which is a
determinant factor (Evans and Bryan, 1999; Sastry et al.,
2020a). The cutting temperature in the machining zone is 3.3 Ramifications of tool wear
essential as it directly affects surface roughness and
microhardness properties (Sastry et al., 2019a; Sastry et al., A temperature increase in the machining zone when making the
2019b; Rajamanickam et al., 2020). Because copper is soft and bullet profile significantly affects the cutting tool (Sastry et al., 2019b;
has several stress inducers, it increases the temperature during Sastry et al., 2020a). Cutting temperature increases with increased
machining, causing drastic material surface changes, as depicted in cutting speed and feed and affects the workpiece material
the morphology section. The presence of stress inducers and many and the tool.
inclusions leads to the presence of coarse grains that substantially The tool life is diminished by micro-voids in the surface of the
increase the temperature. This temperature increase has a CM alloy, which can be seen during the machining cycle. The zinc
profound effect on the machining zone, as the tool, which is a combines with sulfur compounds to form zinc sulfide inclusions.
rigid material, will impart a higher cutting force on the softer These inclusions cause the formation of micro-holes in the surface.
copper material, thereby increasing the tensile residual stress in the The presence of tin and nickel increases the hardness of the surface.
material (Sastry et al., 2019b). The CM bullet profile has a lower However, due to its inherent softness, forming a built-up edge is
microhardness value owing to its inherent softness, which is a unavoidable (Sastry et al., 2019b), causing flank wear, which
significant drawback compared to the WNF material. With further increased by 47.53% in CM compared to WNF, as indicated in

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FIGURE 2
Crater and flank wear of W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 and CM bullets. (A, B, D, E) show the side profile of flank wear of tool used for WNF and CM bullet; (G-I, K) show the
crater wear of WNF and CM bullet; (C, I, F, L) are AFM 3D wear morphological patterns of flank and crater wear of CM and WNF and CM work tool.

Supplementary Table S14. Substantial flank wear is witnessed in the nullifies the attributes of an ideal bullet profile (Chandrasekhara
case of copper alloy, as indicated in Figure 2, and a waviness pattern Sastry et al., 2021; Praveen Raj Navukkarasan et al., 2021;
develops in and around the region of the machining zone. Generally, Bairapudi et al., 2022; Pradeep et al., 2022; Sundeep et al.,
crater wear conditions are ascertained due to chemical attack or 2022). A chip may be formed along the surface curls and
interaction during the machining operation. Crater wear is not exits along the rake face. The workpiece residual stress in the
witnessed when making WNF bullets. However, in the case of sub-surface plays a vital role in determining the solid-phase
CM tubes, a significant amount of deterioration on the surface is removal during bullet profile-making (Su et al., 2022). The
witnessed in the tool area around the crater regions indicated in friction coefficient witnessed in the WNF is higher than that
Figure 2B (Sastry et al., 2019a). The chemical reaction between in the CM material, owing to its high hardness and self-
sulfides and inclusions induces this. The crater and flank wear is also lubricating properties. Because less heat is generated at the
attributed to the increase in abrasion, as the CM material’s softness tool–chip interface, fewer craters and micro-holes are
causes attenuation in surface roughness and an increase in cutting observed in Figure 3 for WNF.
force due to the presence of inclusions. The nickel in the WNF acts
as a self-lubricant, which causes a decrease in temperature during
bullet making (Sastry et al., 2019b). The crater wear component is 3.5 Residual stress analysis
abated by 24.89% in the WNF compared to the CM owing to its
lower cutting temperatures and nickel acting as a lubricant (Sastry With an increase in hardness value and temperature
et al., 2020a). ascertained during the making of the bullet profile in the area
of the tool–chip–workpiece interface, stress is induced on the
sub-layers of the workpiece. This stress is in the form of tensile/
3.4 Surface morphology study compressive factors Sastry et al., 2020b; Jhansi et al., 2023;
Umadevi et al., 2023. With an increase in temperature owing
During bullet making, the chip slides over the tool-rake to the hardness of the workpiece, the tool wear increases, risking
surface. The quality of the surface is important because an failure during the machining cycle (Navukkarasan et al., 2020).
unsmooth surface causes friction in the firing nozzle, which The integrity of the surface is also affected by the effect of

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FIGURE 3
(A, B, E, F) surface morphology of WNF and CM bullets; and (E, F, G, H) are chip morphology of WNF and CM bullets.

localized temperature, which augments the presence of residual and a simultaneous sin2 ψ method was used to calculate the
tensile stress (Gopinath et al., 2021; Praveen Raj Navukkarasan residual stress factor in the sub-surface of the workpiece, as
et al., 2021). The amount of residual stress must be calculated, as indicated in Supplementary Table S15 (Figure 4).
it determines the surface integrity of surface and sub-surface Supplementary Table S15 shows a compressive residual
characteristics that determine the application of the bullet stress attenuation of 38.23% in the WNF bullet profile
(Chandrasekhara Sastry et al., 2021; Sundeep et al., 2022). For compared to the CM material. From the slope of the curve
bullet profiles designed to pierce armor shields, concrete blocks, shown in Figure 4 and the calculation of the same using the
and other objects, it is essential to assess the residual factor on sin 2 ψ method, it is observed that the induced stress is
the surface of the workpiece. A central XRD facility was used, compressive (Praveen Raj Navukkarasan et al., 2021).

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FIGURE 4
XRD graph plotting for (A) W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 and (B) CM bullets.

Additionally, the increase in width of the XRD plot indicates grades of copper should be used to induce the characteristics
that the stress factor has increased in the compressive factor in required for the operation.
the case of the WNF bullet compared to CM material
(Chandrasekhara Sastry et al., 2021). The tool life is
increased as tensile stress is reduced, as indicated in 3.6 Finite element analysis
Figure 2, as the temperature of machining is lower in the
WNF than in the CM, causing less tensile stress in the The increase in gun culture, such as through unlicensed arms
machining zone. Furthermore, the nickel that is the primary sales across the globe, hinders public and premises’ security.
alloying element in the tungsten alloy has high hardness and, This opens a wide range of research on the development of
aided by the presence of chromium, leads to a fine grain size in sophisticated arms that are easy to handle, have less mass, have
the machining region. The average grain size of WNF is 53 µm high thrust velocity, and have high bullet penetration (Jena et al.,
compared to CM grains at 92 μm, which aids in pinning the 2019). This motivated us to analyze the performance of the two
austenite grain boundaries observed when making tungsten fabricated pistol bullets in terms of penetration into aluminum
alloy (Bairapudi et al., 2022; Pradeep et al., 2022; Sundeep targets of different thicknesses. The bullet dynamics at the
et al., 2022). Fine grain will induce higher microhardness and contact point of the aluminum target plate are analyzed using
thereby increase the factor of stress (compressive factor), as it finite element analysis (FEM). The study considered the size,
will not allow load or applied stress from an external part to go velocity, and angular velocity of the fabricated CM and WNF
through subsequent layers of the bullet profile. With the bullets. The angle of impact was 0° to obtain maximum velocity
decreased hardness of the CM material, owing to its soft and achieve maximum penetration through the target. The FEM
nature and coarse structure, the compressive factor is analysis considers the detailed geometry and a relevant CAD
minimal, and this causes the strength of the bullet profile to model of a bullet with dimensions of 25 mm × 13.1 mm, as
be susceptible to substantial friction in real time. The minimal shown in Supplementary Figure S2K, for the CM and WNF
peak width indicates a higher dislocation density owing to a bullets. The two aluminum targets are 100 × 100 × 3 mm and
higher tensile residual stress factor and an increase in 100 × 100 × 9 mm cuboids with a density of 2.7 g/cc, Young’s
microstrain in the material due to the machining cycle modulus of 70 GPa, and Poisson’s ratio of 0.33, as shown in
(Evans and Bryan, 1999; Su et al., 2022). When making bullet Supplementary Table S16. The properties of the CM and WNF
profiles or test pieces for piercing, high impact resistance, bullet are mentioned in Tables 1, 2. The masses of the bullets
secondary aging/heat treatment conditions, or alternative were 119.1 g and 146.5 g, respectively, for the CM and WNF

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Abhishek et al. 10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341

FIGURE 5
(A, G) and (D, I) Initial position of CM and W95Ni3.5Fe1.5 bullets when fired at the 3-mm aluminum target with a velocity of 350 m/s, (B, E, J)
penetrating points of CM and WNF at 3mm and 9mm aluminum targets, (C, F) final position of CM and WNF bullets through 3mm aluminum target, (G, E)
time difference in course of penetration of bullets, (H, K) impact and failure analysis of both bullets.

TABLE 5 Comparison of bullet deformation before and after penetrating the target.

Material Thickness Initial size of the Final size of the Initial velocity Final velocity
(mm) bullet (mm) bullet (mm) (m/s) (m/s)
CM 3 25 24.72 350 277.9

WNF 3 25 24.8 350 272.6

CM 9 25 24.12 350 221.5

WNF 9 25 23.02 350 304.2

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Abhishek et al. 10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341

bullets. The non-linear dynamic ballistic impact analysis was • ANOVA indicated significant effects of feed and speed on
performed on Abaqus software. machining responses, with optimal parameter combinations
The target is fixed in Lancaster (U1 = U2 = U3 = R1 = R2 = R3 = 0), identified for superior performance via the TOPSIS statistical tool.
and the bullet’s velocity has assigned a muzzle velocity of 350 m/s • WNF outperformed the CM material, showing lower
in all the cases with a period of 100 µs. The analyses of both the machining temperatures, surface roughness, and higher
bullets are instituted from the contact point of the target as shown microhardness due to its density and composition,
in Figures 5A, G and Figures 5D, I for the CM and WNF bullets to enhancing tool wear and surface integrity.
nullify the deceleration of air friction. The 2D quad and 3D • Tool wear mechanisms varied significantly between materials;
hexahedral meshing are used for the bullet and the aluminum copper’s softness increased flank wear and surface
target plates, respectively. Although free mesh increases the deterioration, while nickel in the alloy acted as a lubricant,
number of components and computational cost, the differences reducing wear and improving surface finish.
in constraints between models that use a 2D triangle or 3D • FEM confirmed the superior ballistic performance of WNF
tetrahedral elements are proportionally more minor. As stated bullets, particularly in penetration capability, making the
above, using 2D quad or 3D hexahedral elements can help reduce WNF material preferable for short-range arms fabrication.
element use, solution precision, and computational time (Kumar • The study highlighted the crucial role of material selection and
et al., 2017). Figures 5B, E, J show the penetration point of both machining parameters in optimizing bullet performance for
CM and WNF bullets through the 3-mm and 9-mm aluminum defense applications, offering insights for improving
targets. Both the bullets penetrated through the 3-mm aluminum machining processes and bullet design effectiveness.
target, as seen in Figures 5G, E, with a difference in time as
indicated during penetration. The CM bullet penetrated the 3-mm
aluminum target at 75 µs and traveled a distance of 27.58 mm Data availability statement
from the initial point. A penetration time of 75 µs with a low
traveling distance of 24.33 mm is observed in the WNF bullet. The original contributions presented in the study are included in
Because both bullets penetrated the 3-mm targets, the thickness of the article/Supplementary material; further inquiries can be directed
the target was increased to 9 mm to observe the failure. Figures to the corresponding authors.
5H, J show the impact analysis of both bullets through the 9-mm
aluminum targets. From Figure 5H, we can observe the
penetration failure of the CM bullet, which deformed the target Author contributions
plate of 28.73 mm without completing the path of the target. The
WNF bullet has penetrated through the 9-mm target with a TA: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation,
penetration time of 50 µs and a traveled distance of 16.33 mm Methodology, Writing–original draft. DS: Conceptualization,
through the target, as shown in Figures 5K. Figures 5C, F show the Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition,
final position of the CM and WNF bullets through the 3-mm Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources,
aluminum target, and Figure 5K shows the final position of the Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original
WNF bullet at 100 µs. The CM and WNF bullets traveled a draft, Writing–review and editing. CC: Conceptualization, Data
distance of 30.21 mm and 29.42 mm, respectively, through the curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation,
3-mm target and 28.73 mm and 31.01 mm, respectively, in the 9- Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software,
mm aluminum target. All the details regarding the material, size, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft,
and properties considered for the analysis are tabulated in Table 5. Writing–review and editing. KE: Conceptualization, Data
Based on the above simulation, the optimum results were achieved curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation,
from the WNF bullet over conventional copper bullets, which can Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software,
penetrate a 9-mm aluminum target. Designing a short-range Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft,
bullet with this novel WNF material can improve the Writing–review and editing. GK: Conceptualization, Data
penetration capacity. A real-time ballistic impact analysis can curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation,
be performed with these novel bullet materials to further study the Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software,
firing range of these bullets. Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft. BS:
Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding
acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration,
4 Conclusion Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization,
Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. RV:
The study investigates the machining of bullet profiles for Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding
defense sector applications, presenting significant findings acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration,
derived from various analyses. Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization,
Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. SS: Funding
• Optimal cutting parameters for dry machining conditions acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Software,
were identified using the Taguchi method, improving Supervision, Writing–original draft. RC: Formal Analysis,
cutting temperature, surface roughness, and microhardness. Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing–review

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Abhishek et al. 10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341

and editing. EA: Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Conflict of interest

Writing–review and editing.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
Funding construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the

research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The authors Publisher’s note
extend their appreciation to King Saud University for funding this
work through Researchers Supporting Project number All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
(RSP2024R164), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors, and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
Acknowledgments claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
endorsed by the publisher.
The authors acknowledge the Director, Department of Mechanical
Engineering and Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and Supplementary material
Manufacturing Kurnool, for providing the laboratory to perform the
experiments. The authors also thank the Defence Research and The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online
Development Organisation (DRDO) laboratories for providing at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmech.2024.1383341/
facilities to conduct tests and materials for conducting the experiments. full#supplementary-material

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