MATEC Web of Conferences 199, 01001 (2018) https://doi.org/10.

1051/matecconf/201819901001
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Forensic engineering - fib MC 2020 and existing structures

Stuart Matthews 1, A and Giuseppe Mancini 2
1 Building Research Establishment Ltd., Watford, WD25 9XX, UK & Convenor fib T10.1
2 Department of Structural & Geotechnical Engineering, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, Italy & Co-convenor fib T10.1

Abstract: The fib (Fédération Internationale du Béton) is developing a new fib Model Code for Concrete
Structures, under a working title of Model Code 2020 (MC2020). Numerous aspirational goals have been
identified for MC2020. It will be a single code dealing with both new and existing concrete structures,
which is both the design of new structures and all the activities relating to the assessment, interventions and
the through-life management and care of existing concrete structures, including matters relating to durability
and service life design. MC2020 will incorporate many improvements and extensions to the guidance
available in the current fib Model Code for Concrete Structures - fib Model Code 2010 (MC2010). The new
and extended models, in association with the other aspects of the updated guidance, will provide improved
technical capabilities for undertaking forensic engineering studies of existing concrete structures. These
concepts are illustrated by a number of case studies of existing concrete structures subject to damage /
deterioration / other inadequacies, as well as associated intervention works. Improved technical guidance
provisions will allow forensic engineers to gain a better understanding of the behaviour of existing concrete
structures, enabling better judgements to be made of how they behave in-service & what measures /
interventions are most appropriate to extend their useful life.

participants from around the world, which helped to define

and clarify the goals for MC2020.
1 Introduction to fib MC2020 project Amongst other matters, these have developed ideas on
A new fib Model Code for Concrete Structures, with a how to extend fib MC2010 and its treatment of durability
working title of Model Code 2020 (MC2020), is being design of new structures and of the assessment and
prepared. In June 2016 the fib Technical Council conservation of existing concrete structures. The breadth
approved the start of activities on the MC2020 project and extent of relevant material to be addressed in MC2020
under the auspices of COM10: Model Codes, which in turn is considerable and creates a significant challenge for
initiated Task Group 10.1: Model Code 2020 in October those preparing the new structural design and assessment
2016 to undertake the preparation of a single general code code.
fully integrating the provisions for the design of new MC2020 provides an important opportunity to further
concrete structures with matters relating to the through-life advance current approaches to the sustainable design,
management and care of existing concrete structures. construction and through-life care of concrete structures.
Accordingly, MC2020 will need to deal with both the Central to this will be how we formulate and verify
design of new structures and all the activities associated performance requirements for concrete structures within a
with the through-life management and care of existing holistic sustainability framework utilising the widely-
concrete structures, including matters such as in-service accepted ‘three pillars of sustainability’ of social,
assessment and interventions to extend the life / improve environmental and economic performance. Such an
the performance of these structures. approach provides a way to recognise the great benefits
To that end, MC2020 will take sustainability as a concrete structures provide to humankind’s global society,
fundamental requirement, based upon a holistic treatment along with their impacts on that society and the wider
of societal needs and impacts, life-cycle cost and environment, as well as their economic cost and return.
environmental impacts aligned with the United Nations Adopting this integrated life-cycle approach, the
Sustainable Development Goals [1]. requirements for social performance will have defining
MC2020 is an ambitious project building on the implications for subsidiary performance requirements
achievements of fib MC2010 [2] and its treatment of the critical to structural design and assessment procedures.
conservation of existing concrete structures. The vision These are matters such as human and environmental
for MC2020 is that the detail of its coverage of these safety, structural reliability, design service life, durability,
matters will go beyond the point reached by fib MC2010, serviceability and other social aspects, such as aesthetics,
recent ISO codes, such as ISO 16311 [3-6], and the adaptability, maintenance, etc.
activities to extend the application of the Eurocodes Based upon the wider social context, there may be
[eg. 7-9] to existing concrete structures. A number of fib requirements for specific performances such as the
technical workshops and discussions were held, involving robustness of the structure, the resilience of its
functionality, etc. There is ongoing debate about how

A Corresponding author: [email protected]

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
MATEC Web of Conferences 199, 01001 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201819901001
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these aspects, along with the verification of the associated timely feedback in the final stage of harmonisation of
performance requirements, might be best dealt with in the MC2020. The same principle will be applied to all topics
organisation of MC2020. While the approach adopted has addressed in MC2020.
to be philosophically robust, its implementation needs a A series of fib technical workshops and discussions,
practical and convenient methodology for its use. involving participants from around the world, have helped
There are many different (and competing) factors to define and clarify the goals for MC2020. So far these
which could form parts of the overall future of the design, events have been held in The Hague, Madrid, Lausanne,
construction and through-life care of concrete structures, Delft and Barcelona.
and therefore are potentially topics which might be At the time of writing there have also been MC2020
addressed by MC2020. international promotional and consultative events in
New concrete materials and technologies will be Brussels, Rotterdam, Tokyo, Cape Town, Adelaide, Sao
critical components to reducing the environmental impacts Paulo and Denver. Other events are planned. The above
of concrete construction. The simple substitution of events produced wide ranging discussions which touched
additions, such as fly ash and blast-furnace slag powders upon many topics including those noted below:
for cement, will not be enough. New binders, together • General concepts for sustainability and future model
with new admixtures and processing technologies, will be code advancement
needed. With their different chemistry, these pose new • Fundamental principles and reliability concepts for
challenges but also offer new opportunities. Important new and existing structures
considerations include their long-term performance and • Models and material characterisation for existing
durability of concretes made with them in demanding structures
service environments. • Inspection, maintenance and retrofitting of existing
The above issues also link to durability and service life structures, and
design [11], areas where the MC2020 project seeks to • Evaluation of, decision-making about and
encourage developments which will lead to advances management and care of existing structures.
including improvements in matters such as material In terms of specific points to be addressed in MC2020,
characterisation, deterioration modelling and many of these relate to the following:
environmental / performance monitoring. • Revision and / or extension of basic principles and
Discussions about the potential nature and coverage of concepts
MC2020 have highlighted the rapid pace of technical • Revision and / or development of principles of
development in a many areas including those relating to structural design and assessment
materials, design, numerical analysis, structural • Extension of the provisions on materials and their
assessment, monitoring, construction and interventions, to modelling
mention just a few. It is anticipated that the pace at which • Extension of the provisions on interface characteristics
such technological developments occur will continue to between different materials
increase. MC2020 needs to be future looking so that it is • Revision of the provisions for design and the
able to accommodate and not hinder future technological development of provisions for assessment
progress, thereby facilitating the ongoing evolution of • Extension of the provisions relating to construction and
concrete and reinforcing materials, associated interventions
technologies and the structural forms which might • Updating the provisions relating to conservation and
potentially be created using them. through-life management & care, and
However, the implications of the potential • Updating / extending the provisions on recycling,
developments in intervention materials and associated dismantlement and end of life aspects
technologies for protection, repair, rehabilitation and It is envisaged that MC2020 will provide a through-life
enhancement of the current condition and performance of management approach for new and existing structures
existing concrete structures should not be forgotten. These which includes consideration of matters such as:
are fertile areas of technological advance. • Sustainability objectives that balance social,
The inclusion in MC2020 of activities associated with environment and cost perspectives;
the through-life management and care of existing concrete • Promotion of structural safety, serviceability and
structures also poses substantial challenges, especially durability;
when the potential ramifications of damage and material • Use of advanced life-cycle cost methods,
deterioration are considered. Inclusion of these aspects • Reliability concepts, that take account of uncertainties
will require some restructuring of the current fib Model and risk;
Code document as it will be necessary to introduce • Use of performance-based concepts to remove
significantly more information about the processes and inappropriate constraints on the use of novel types
procedures involved. In order to keep MC2020 to a materials and approaches;
manageable size, it is proposed that valuable background • Use of improved models for assessment of initiation
technical material be contained in a suite of supporting fib and propagation phases of deterioration that consider
Bulletins, with these publications preferably being the structural, risk and reliability implications;
developed and made available as work on MC2020 • Provision of generalised models allowing for
progresses. Ideally these background documents will implementation of the level of approximation approach
disseminate of up-to-date results and the evolution of (see later);
MC2020 concepts and thinking, and will also allow for

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• Attention to new types of concrete and new techniques Finally, consideration will need to be given to new
for construction and interventions, ways of delivering MC2020, with digital delivery being
• Definition of test methods, and performance evaluation foreseen alongside the traditional hardbound book format.
of concrete; A digital delivery format will facilitate the periodic
• Worldwide knowledge of materials and structural maintenance of MC2020 by a standing committee, as well
behaviour, and recognises the differing needs of as its subsequent evolution.
engineering communities around the world;
• Recognition of the importance of robustness and
redundancy in the behaviour of structures; 2 Contemporary, recent, old and
• Paying particular attention to the effect of material innovative / new materials
degradation;
• Guidance on dealing with structural arrangements Adequate knowledge about the properties of the materials
which are not recognised in contemporary codes; used in an existing structure is an important aspect of the
• Treatment of the end-of-service-life issues such as assessment process, potentially allowing conclusions to be
demolition and disposal including safety and structural drawn about the adequacy of these materials relative to the
aspects, and structural and other performance requirements. Such
• Guidelines to practitioners when provisions in other information permits decisions to be made about the
standards are deficient or lacking. through-life management of the existing structure, along
It is envisaged that all fib Commissions, along with with the need for any interventions that are required to
members of the wider fib family, will contribute to the extend its useful life or upgrade its performance.
drafting of MC2020. It is also desirable that input should Of course the structures that we build today become
be received from all geographic regions (Africa, Asia, tomorrow’s existing structures, so those that are formed
Australasia, Europe, North and South America) to bring using today’s innovative / new materials will become part
insights that would not otherwise be gained. of the diverse population of existing structures built with
Additionally, it is proposed that liaison / cooperation an ever wider range of natural, manufactured, waste and
be sought with other international organisations working re-cycled materials. In the future this mix of materials will
on relevant topics, including bodies such as CEN, CIA, become even more diverse as concretes are made with
ISO, JCI, PCI, JCSS and RILEM. what we consider to be new binders, especially as these
Cooperation with international organisations is being come into general use.
sought via various mechanisms including the holding of As the number of concrete types increases and their
joint events, such as the joint fib, JCSS and RILEM hardened properties develop beyond those which are
Durability Workshop held in November 2017 in Delft, the currently available, this will add to the complexity and
Netherlands. Such events provide an important focus and diversity of the materials in use - which will, in turn,
stimulus for participation in the work on technical topics require a greater understanding of materials employed.
and give a basis for the exploration of the range of Up to now concrete properties (such as shrinkage,
technical practice employed in various regions of the creep, elastic modulus, those related to durability, etc)
world and by different professional groups. have generally been expressed as a function of the concrete
Another component of the activities to take the Model compressive strength, determined using standard tests.
Code work forward are the MC2020 Action Groups which However, with recent and ongoing developments in
have been established to focus on specific technical topics. concrete technology, it has been recognised for some time
Currently the following twelve Action Groups are in that it is necessary to break this linkage and thereby
existence / are envisaged: uncouple the different performance characteristics of a
AG1 Action Group: Databases concrete from its specified compressive strength. It is
AG2 Action Group: Shear and punching anticipated that use of microstructure models for concrete,
AG3 Action Group: Bond linking durability to porosity and transport coefficients,
AG4 Action Group: Durability & service life design will become an increasingly useful and commonly used
AG5 Action Group: Detailing design tools. Accordingly MC2020 is expected to include
AG6 Action Group: Fire appropriate constitutive relationships for the different
AG7 Action Group: Seismic design & assessment concrete properties. These aspects have particularly come
AG8 Action Group: Non-linear finite element modelling to the fore with the development of the concept of ‘defined
(AG: NLFEM) performance’ concretes.
AG9 Action Group: Structural health monitoring and The determination of the properties of the structural
testing (AG: SHM and testing) materials employed will require the use of suitable
AG10 Action Group: Robustness measurement methods and non-destructive testing /
AG11 Action Group: Fatigue sensing techniques, employed both at the site and in the
AG12 Action Group: Impact and explosion laboratory, as appropriate.
The vision for the MC2020 Action Groups is that they New understandings have come from recent
will draw together knowledge and expertise in their developments in cementitious materials and associated
respective technical topic areas, both within and outside programmes of material testing, in some cases finding
fib, as is appropriate in order to bring forward relevant unexpected changes in behaviours which are at odds with
contributions to MC2020. those previously observed and anticipated. The shrinkage
and creep properties of high and ultra-high performance

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concretes are examples of such findings - the measured structures, or the materials, from which they were
values are considerably greater than those predicted on the determined. Potentially this could have a significant
basis of past experience with lower grade concretes [12]. influence upon the expected durability performance and
Attention also has to be given to the properties of older the difference between the predicted performance and that
types of materials, such as plain reinforcing bars, which actually achieved. Measuring the ageing factors for
are not included in the scope of modern structural design materials and exposures directly relevant to the structure
codes, but which commonly have to be considered in to be built will increase the certainty of the analysis
relation to the assessment of existing concrete structures predicting potential in-service performance.
dating from earlier eras of construction.
Also account may need to be taken of the properties of
old concrete which could have been influenced by the
stress levels experienced by the concrete whilst in-service.
For example, Figure 1 illustrates how chloride diffusion
into concrete can be affected by the stress level
experienced by the concrete.

Fig. 2. Effect of ageing are not adequately described by ongoing

hydration (HS Müller, TG10.1 meeting, Barcelona 2017)

Fig. 1. Effect of structural loading stress on chloride diffusion

coefficient (HS Müller, TG10.1 meeting, Barcelona 2017)

This finding also suggests that laboratory measured

chloride diffusion coefficient values for use in design may
need to be adjusted to take account of the actual stress
situation which will be experienced in-service. This could
become an increasingly significant matter in the future as
the use of more highly stressed higher-strength concretes
(ie. UHPC / UHPFRC) increases.
The compressive strength and the carbonation
Fig. 3. Effects of structural loading stress on carbonation depth
resistance of old concretes are also influenced to varying (HS Müller, TG10.1 meeting, Barcelona 2017)
degrees by the stress levels experienced by the concrete
whilst in-service, as is illustrated by Figures 2 and 3. It is
apparent that the effects of ageing are not adequately
described by ongoing hydration and that interactions
between the loading and the environment also play an
important role, which introduces further factors which
need to be better understood and potentially taken into
account in assessments made upon existing concrete
structures.
Figure 4 illustrates the well-known relationship of how
the carbonation of concrete influences the chloride binding
capacity of concrete, with carbonation potentially
releasing bound chlorides to promote the corrosion of
embedded steel reinforcement. This is another factor that
may need to be taken into account in an assessment being Fig. 4. Effect of carbonation on chloride binding capacity of
made upon existing concrete structures. concrete (HS Müller, TG10.1 meeting, Barcelona 2017)
It is also important to recognise that current durability
models for the ingress of carbonation and chloride ions Finally, measurement methods have to be defined in
into concrete are based on limited data. For example, the order to determine the properties of structural materials in
ageing factor developed from European structures in a existing structures subject to deterioration.
limited number of exposure situations is used worldwide In all cases where material properties are measured,
for exposures which are not always the same as the both the mean values and the coefficient of variation have

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to be determined to facilitate reliability based assessments or insufficient or deficient detailing of the provided
of structural & durability / other performance material and / or of the member behaviour models. There
characteristics. is a need for improved models and the treatment of
uncertainties in models / model parameters for existing
structures and (phased) interventions.
3 Existing concrete structures Thus an important consideration is to include relevant
Existing concrete structures are often appreciably different structural models which apply not only to the design of
entities to the new concrete structures which contemporary new structures, but also to the determination of the load
design and construction practices create. The differences capacity / structural reliability, serviceability, remaining
generally relating to the age / period when the structures service life etc of existing structures taking account of:
were constructed, the implicit assumptions contained in • Load-carrying behaviours not considered in design /
the codes used for their design and in the supporting addressed in the formulation of contemporary design,
material / product standards of those earlier times. equations, such as compressive membrane action.
Depending upon the period of their construction, • Structures which utilise inappropriate / non-compliant
existing structures may contain obsolete structural details structural details / detailing including:
which do not comply with contemporary practices; a o Where the shear reinforcement is less than the
situation which may produce sub-optimal behaviour in prescribed minimum percentage
some regions of the structure for failure modes associated o Smooth reinforcing bars (without surface ribs)
with shear, punching and torsion. Clearly the implications o Non-compliant anchorage details / lap lengths, etc
of such structural details need to be evaluated. However, • Load carrying behaviours in deteriorated members and
this is not always an easy undertaking and work needs to structures, which are different to those of members that
be undertaken in MC2020 to provide assessment guidance have not experienced deterioration or damage. The
that enables proper consideration of the actual structural magnitude and nature of the differences typically
detailing of existing concrete structures. increases for greater degrees of deterioration / damage.
Existing structures are often composed of materials The forms of deterioration include:
with different characteristics to those employed in o Reinforcement corrosion / prestressing and the
concrete structures which are being built now. This associated adverse effects upon:
applies to both the cementitious materials and the  Reinforcement – concrete interface bond
reinforcements used.  Ductility of the steel
While the specified, typically 28 day, concrete strength  The properties / performance of concrete
was usually much lower than that which is employed members which have cracked
today, the actual (contemporary) strength in an existing o Degradation of the concrete by ASR, various types
concrete structure can be significantly higher depending of sulfate attack, freeze-thaw, acid attack, etc
upon the extent to which subsequent in-service hydration In regard to load-carrying behaviours not considered in
of the coarse cement particles took place. design which act to enhance structural capacity, in
The nature, condition and behaviour of existing addition to compressive membrane action mentioned
concrete structures can be investigated, allowing a above, there are also factors such as the increase in
prognosis to be made about their future condition and concrete strength above the specified characteristic value,
performance. However, investigations can be difficult to along with the change in concrete properties during the life
undertake and which leave significant uncertainties that of a concrete structure, which are not usually taken into
have to be addressed in the structural assessment process. account. In addition, advanced methods of structural
Existing structures may have experienced damage or analysis (eg. calibrated non-linear finite element analyses)
deterioration - it is important to establish what the are able to provide better / more accurate estimates of the
influence will be upon the current and future load capacity of individual members, as well as of
characteristics of the concrete and steel. This may be an assemblages of elements mobilising system / whole-
essential first step towards making structure management building behaviours.
and intervention decisions for an existing structure. In regard to load-carrying behaviours in deteriorated
Certain structural materials and components are not members and structures, the issue is mainly related to bond
used anymore, such as plain or indented reinforcing steel. deterioration in reinforced concrete. A reduced flexural
Consequently, most modern (contemporary) codes and bond strength permits reinforcement slip and, more
recommendations are based on the assumption that importantly, the development of an arching effect in
standardised ribbed reinforcing steel bars are used as flexural members.
reinforcement and, accordingly, modern codes do not Corrosion of reinforcement adversely affects the
include provisions for use or evaluation of previous types behaviour of concrete beams in various ways, typically
of reinforcing materials. Thus, modern design rules can increasing both the beam deflection and the width of
have limited applicability for use in the assessment of cracks at service load levels, and potentially greatly
older existing structures and therefore need to be applied reducing the strength at ultimate load. Corrosion of
with great care. reinforcement also modifies the type of failure
Accordingly it is intended that MC2020 will pay experienced; with the corrosion of stirrup (shear)
particular attention to the issues specific to existing reinforcement being observed to often have the most
structures, such as the effect of material degradation and / significant influence and to potentially result in the shear
failure of affected beams, whereas undamaged control

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beams failed in bending. Conversely it is also possible for ascertain the facts of the situation, rather than to attribute
short beams, which would normally fail in shear, to blame or liability.
collapse as a result of the rupture of the main longitudinal In a structural engineering context, forensic
reinforcement. Such a failure could occur if corrosion had engineering typically involves the investigation of various
produced severe pitting which greatly reduced the cross- types of failure of constructed facilities in order to
sectional area of the main reinforcement at some locations. determine the potential cause(s) of the failure, but also to
In these circumstances corrosion would have greatly identify the parties which bear responsibility for the event.
diminished the strength of the tie stabilising the in-beam This highlights an interesting difference in the foci of
arching behaviour mentioned above. building pathology and forensic engineering activities.
When fatigue effects are combined with corrosion While collapses and fires are dramatic forms of failure,
surface crack widths in concrete members can increase forensic engineering and building pathology studies also
dramatically, being up to twice those in members where examine failures / non-compliances in respect of
the reinforcement has not experienced corrosion - for the serviceability, durability or other forms of performance
same number of fatigue cycles. This typically results in requirement. Key components in these activities are
the complete debonding of the reinforcement. In the commonly investigation, sampling and testing, but these
situation where the reinforcement is not corroded, a may also include monitoring and various types of
surface crack in a concrete member would be expected to advanced analytical / simulation studies to aid the
increase in width by some 10-15% after several million interpretation of findings and development of prognoses
load cycles. Additionally, fretting fatigue which occurs in about past performance and / or future behaviours. These
the vicinity of cracks, perhaps generated by thermal and processes / procedures allow the potential influence of
shrinkage effects, accelerates the process of bar diameter various technical and organisation factors to be
reduction, so creating regions of weakness distributed systematically and rigorously examined.
along the length of the reinforcing bars. There are many examples of forensic engineering /
building pathology studies which identified necessary
improvements in design and construction practices,
4 Forensic engineering aspects resulting in a legacy of such improvements within the
wider construction industry. Ultimately such studies have
4.1 Components of ‘Forensic engineering’ improved the overall quality and safety of the constructed
assets forming the built environment; a situation which the
What is ‘Forensic engineering’ and what do practitioners public is commonly unaware of and generally takes for
mean by the use of the term? It is perceived that different granted. These studies have provided an extremely
practitioners apply the term in significantly different ways valuable source of carefully derived information which
and therefore assign appreciably different meanings to it. provides an important educational resource which,
The following definition of forensic engineering is amongst other matters, has contributed to the profession’s
taken from fib Bulletin 62 [13]: understanding of structural and material behaviours, the
Forensic engineering: The application of engineering evolution of design theory and analytical processes and
knowledge to the investigation and assessment of the contemporary standards of professional practice.
nature, condition and performance of an engineered Amongst others Carper [15] has reviewed the
system. Commonly this is associated with the use of contribution made by failure investigations / forensic
scientific methods and engineering principles to the study engineering studies to knowledge. He also outlines some
of the processes of deterioration or abnormal changes of the activities of the ASCE Technical Council on
within or failure of structures, buildings or other Forensic Engineering, which was established in 1985 [16].
constructed facilities or elements thereof; together with Forensic engineering / building pathology studies are
their causes, symptoms and remediation and the also employed to provide insight into the potential
associated methods of investigation and assessment. consequences of active deterioration and damage
Other terms are used for these and similar activities. processes, as well as allowing the study of ways in which
CIB – The International Council for Research and remedial / preventive works can be employed to improve
Innovation in Building and Construction – uses the term the performance or extend the useful life of existing
‘Building pathology’ and defines this to be ‘the systematic structures / constructed assets. Such types of studies can
treatment of building defects, their causes, their have significant sustainability benefits if they are able to
consequences and their remedies’. CIB’s work in this area prolong the effective use of existing constructed assets.
is undertaken within Commission CIB W086: Building It is also necessary to link the technical aspects of
Pathology, which is basically concerned with learning forensic engineering / building pathology activities with
from past and current building pathologies and the associated professional, ethical conduct and procedural
encouraging the systematic application of that knowledge aspects. These include matters such as how investigations
to the design, construction and management of buildings. are conducted, how data and evidence are gathered and
CIB Publication 393 [14] indicates that building analysed, what quality control measures are employed in
pathology provides a systematic scientific approach to the work, as well as how test results and other data are to
discovering what has gone wrong with a failed building be evaluated and interpreted to arrive at the final
and that a building pathologist is primarily concerned only assessment. Matters such as the chain of custody of
with what has happened and how it came to happen. CIB evidence can be critical in situations where criminal
W086 states that a building pathologist’s main focus is to prosecutions are anticipated.

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There are also growing expectations in some regions for different magnitudes of analysis and verification effort
of the world that those undertaking expert work / forensic – as portrayed pictorially in Figure 5.
investigations (or similar) should be accredited by an The lowest LoA Level (I) can be used when high
appropriate professional or regulatory body. Experts are accuracy is not required, such as for preliminary design or
also commonly expected to undertake regular continuing structural assessment activities. The highest LoA Level
professional development activities to enhance the (IV) would be used when the greatest accuracy is required,
standard of their professional practice and in support of such as when making an assessment of the global
their periodic revalidation. behaviour of a critical structure. Clearly undertaking a
Level I analysis would involve far less effort and cost than
performing Level IV analysis, which takes into account of
4.2 Some MC2020 developments
a wider range of mechanisms contributing to the transfer
It is proposed that MC2020 utilise the advances which of the applied loads or other actions to the supports.
have occurred in numerical analysis, monitoring and in
sensor techniques to improve the through-life care and
LoA IV: Most sophisticated analytical method

Accuracy of calculation
management of existing concrete structures.
While numerous aspirational goals have been LoA I: Simplest analytical methods
identified for MC2020, those particularly relevant to LoA
forensic investigations of existing concrete structures
IV
include structural (strength) assessment, as well as to
III
matters relating to durability and service life performance:
• Models for concrete deterioration processes not II
adequately addressed in fib MC2010 (eg ASR, various I
types of sulfate attack, freeze-thaw, acid attack, etc), Time / effort devoted to analysis
• Material deterioration models addressing propagation
stage deterioration of both reinforcement and concrete. Illustration of potential Levels of Approximation (LoA):
IV System / global assessment of critical structures / design of
• The influence of cracking, in association with special cases / situations
consideration of a wider range of aggressive service III In-depth elemental evaluation of existing structures /
environments and situations, upon the potential for design of special cases / situations
significant localised corrosion of reinforcing bars II Typical elemental design / assessment
intersecting cracks. I Preliminary design and assessment evaluation, non-
• Structural (mechanical) models for deterioration / governing limit state design / assessment outcome
damage effects
• Structural (mechanical) models for structures with Fig. 5. MC2020 Level of Approximation approach.
The figure portrays 4 potential levels of approximation /
inappropriate / non-compliant structural details /
sophistication in the forms of analysis that may be employed.
detailing including:
o Where the shear reinforcement is less than the
The results from a Level I analysis need to be
prescribed minimum percentage
appreciably more conservative than the results of higher
o Smooth reinforcing bars (without surface ribs)
LoA levels. The intention is that where possible the lower
o Non-compliant anchorage details / lap lengths,
LoA levels represent simplifications of the highest LoA
etc
level and corresponding produce appropriately more
• Material deterioration models and structural
conservative outcomes.
(mechanical) models for ‘repaired’ structures /
The LoA approach is a particularly useful approach
intervention behaviour
for activities undertaken for the verification of the
• Consideration of the use and value of monitoring data
performance of existing structures, where additional
/ the level of knowledge available for decision making
analytical effort may be able to demonstrate that a
in the through-life management and care of concrete
satisfactory level structural reliability or other form of
structures.
performance is being achieved; thereby avoiding the often
It is expected that non-linear FEM analysis will be
considerable expense and disruption associated with the
increasingly used in the future for both:
need to undertake a physical intervention to improve
• new structures characterised by high structural
structural performance.
complexity and/or special details or by use of special
The most appropriate level of approximation for the
materials, and for
case being considered will depend not only on the stage
• existing structures in both their original state or after
of verification process, e.g. initial or in-depth assessment,
interventions have been performed.
but also on the complexity and importance of the element
and the structure / under consideration. It is proposed that
4.2.1 Levels of Approximation (LoA) approach the LoA approach be employed for the assessment of
structural and other forms of performance, such as
Where practicable, it is proposed that MC2020 will offer durability / service life evaluation.
models providing different levels of sophistication and Walraven [17] mentions the use of the LoA approach
thereby different levels of approximation (LoA) / accuracy in the context of determining the real bearing capacity /
strength of existing structures. The first example is

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concerned with estimating the actual punching shear examples illustrate the use of a range of procedures that
resistance of thin bridge deck slabs supported on top of may be applied in forensic engineering investigations and
prestressed deck beams (spanning longitudinally). The structural assessments.
thin deck slab was subjected to increased traffic loading
but had an enhanced load bearing capacity due to its
5.1 Highway bridge A - Monitoring case study
ability to mobilise compressive membrane action.
Consideration of behaviours not taken into account in the This case study presents a real-time monitoring system
design code rules allowed the development of a structural based on MEMS technology clinometers installed on a
model which was able to show that the thin bridge deck concrete highway bridge in the south of Italy. The main
slabs had adequate punching shear resistance. goal was to provide the infrastructure owner with useful
Walraven’s [17] second example examines the information regarding bridge structural behaviour, in order
application of non-linear finite element modelling (say a to predict possible failures and damage / deterioration
LoA Level IV approach) to the verification of the safety processes, as well as to characterise bridge responses
of the immersed tube Mass Tunnel in the Netherlands under different load conditions.
when it was discovered that the cross-section of the The need for monitoring arose following the brittle
bending reinforcement in the bottom slab had been failure of one span on one carriage way during its
substantially reduced by corrosion. It was also indicated demolition. The failure occurred because of a discrepancy
that a much simpler analysis (perhaps a LoA Level I between the as-built drawings and the actual structural
approach) was also able to demonstrate that tunnel walls details, in particular with reference to the layout / location
and slabs were effectively precompressed axially by the of the pre-stressing tendons.
external ground water pressure and remained in The considered bridge consists of three central steel
compression, such that it was not necessary to close the spans connected to the north and south abutments by seven
tunnel as a result of the reinforcement corrosion which and nine pre-stressed concrete girders respectively. The
had been discovered in the tunnel base slab. east span was chosen for instrumentation due to its
accessibility. Figure 6 shows the plan view of the entire
4.2.2 Use of testing and monitoring procedures bridge. The pre-stressed concrete spans, similar to each
other, are about 40 m long and consist of a concrete deck
Testing and monitoring provides reliable data on the real supported by four pre-stressed concrete girders, connected
conditions and behaviour of structures, and may enable by five lateral beams. Five clinometers were installed on
reduction of uncertainties in the assessment and prediction each span, fixed to the core of the outermost beam.
of the performance of the structures. In-situ load testing In order to capture the bridge deformation under traffic
and proof loading may be a useful tool for the definition excitations, a total of 80 integrated MEMS were
of structural behaviour and for the updating of the instrumented on the bridge, 35 in the north and 40 in the
numerical models describing the structure; specific south spans, respectively. Sensors are positioned at the
provisions for the use of such special types of test on the bottom of every girder and are connected to a control unit
structure will be given in the MC2020. which sends data directly to the ‘Cloud’ in real-time.
Monitoring is becoming a fundamental tool to Figure 7 illustrates the instrumentation setup locations.
understand the evolution of structural behaviour with time
and to allow a predictive, instead of reactive, policy to be
5.1.1 SHM methodology
used to control when interventions are undertaken and
their form (eg. maintenance activities, targeted preventive Each sensor acquires data with a predetermined
works or remedial / reconstruction works). sampling frequency, identified on the basis of the
The developing availability of low-cost micro-sensors monitored parameters of interest, in this case inclinations.
(MEMS) will allow their extensive use in the measurement In particular, the bridge response is sampled sequentially
of local behaviours (eg. crack opening evolution, stress starting from the control unit at 100Hz for a predetermined
levels) and overall behaviour (eg. displacements, time interval.
rotations, accelerations). It is envisaged that MC2020 will In order to compare the deformation values obtained
give suggestions for the treatment of large data sets (Big through the installed monitoring system and the expected
Data) produced by monitoring. These processes are bridge structural behaviour, a FE model was developed
expected to involve the use of specific algorithms and by using the SAP2000 software. Deck members and bridge
the development of self-diagnosis procedures. system components were represented by beam elements to
obtain the lowering values of the external beams, on which
sensors have been installed. To better understand the
5 Case studies of existing concrete
structure, a thorough document review was carried out in
structures addition to a site visit in order to identify all pieces of
The following present some (simplified) case studies / information needed to construct the FE model, such as
application examples for existing concrete structures geometry, cross sections, material properties, boundary
which have experienced damage / deterioration / other conditions, and any changes in the structure over its life.
inadequacies and associated intervention works. These

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Figure 1. Bridge plan view

Fig 6. Plan view of highway bridge A

MEMS CLINOMETERS

MEMS CLINOMETERS

Fig 7. Positioning of Clinometers along the deck of highway bridge A

Using results from the FE model, threshold values have

been set, based upon information collected though the
5.1.2 SHM results
monitoring system at regular intervals. At every sensor
reading interval, thresholds are applied to the collected Figure 8 presents a time history of the readings
data. Two different threshold types are generated, obtained from one sensor positioned on the centreline of
depending on the structure security levels: the second span of the bridge. The graph shows the
1. Attention alert: is the first threshold level, at which rotations measured over time by the installed clinometer,
point the bridge has no critical behaviours. Starting compared with the rotations corresponding to the
from this point, the structure requires attention. calculated threshold values for the different alarm levels.
2. Critical / Trouble alert: when the structure has
reached a critical level which could lead to a partial
or total loss of service (permanent damage). At this
point, the structure demands immediate attention.

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Design traffic limit:

Effect of design loads
according to the NTC
2008 standard,
maximum load that
can be applied in
operation conditions
on the deck.
40t vehicle limit:
Effect on the bridge of
a single 40 tons
vehicle, maximum
weight limit for a
truck.

Fig 8. Safety assessment example for highway bridge A

Fig 9. MEMS Sensors installation in the monitored tunnel

The infrastructure being monitored is a double-arch
5.2 Tunnel monitoring case study tunnel, one for each direction of travel, about 2 km long,
housing a 3-lane roadway. The tunnel was constructed
This section illustrates the application of MEMS using a TBM machine, which installed precast concrete
clinometers as part of an innovative and advanced lining segments whilst tunnel excavation was undertaken.
structural health monitoring (SHM) system for tunnel Monitoring of the tunnel was necessary given the
monitoring. Owing to their unique design and presence of a landslip system which crosses the line of the
construction, tunnels call for rigorous SHM programmes tunnel, and is the source of the ongoing lateral soil
during both construction and operation phases. Indeed, displacements. While the earthflow displacements are
their continuous monitoring can serve to mitigate potential slow, they are ongoing continuously creating lateral soil
hazards, ensure better performance and facilitate in-depth movements in the order of one to several mm per year.
understanding of the overall structural behaviour. In The landslip-tunnel interaction is rather complex to
particular, data from a real-time monitoring system analyse, since it may be influenced by not only the
installed in a tunnel located in central Italy are presented – geological condition, the tunnel structure design and the
Figure 9 illustrates the instrumentation installed.

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construction environment, but also by the lack of arising from the environment, from the inherent sensor
information regarding the real infrastructure and soil noise etc...
behaviours during the working life of the tunnel. After the preliminary data processing, the parameters
of interest for the structural analysis are calculated in terms
of both displacements and rotations for the monitored
5.2.1 SHM methodology
tunnel points. The displacement shapes can thus be
The alarm indices are generally stipulated based on the derived for each instrumented tunnel transversal section at
total variations and the variation velocities of the a given moment in time, creating a powerful means of
monitored parameters, with the proviso that the warning monitoring infrastructure deformation in real-time.
value of the total variation should not be larger than the Figure 11 shows the development of the tunnel cross-
design value. sectional displacements with time (for a generic transverse
Short and long-term tunnel behaviours have been section) for the initial measurement time period. The
reproduced through finite element modelling in order to figure presents amplified movements (magnification
represent the structure’s pre-existing stress state at the time factor of 100) to show the rotational-translation effect on
of installation of the monitoring system and its theoretical the tunnel cross-sectional profile caused by the landslip
evolution expected over a 60 year period from tunnel movement.
excavation. The FE model was representative of the Deformed shape evolution
theoretical tunnel stress state at the beginning and at the
LANDSLIDE
end of monitoring. Threshold values were set, based on DIRECTION
8

the information collected at regular intervals by the

monitoring system. 6

The monitoring system was designed to systematically Undeformed

acquire information on the tunnel behaviour by reading the 4 shape
deformation response of the infrastructure while it is in
service. For this purpose, tunnel interior walls have been 2
instrumented with a total number of 762 MEMS
clinometers. The monitoring system provides arrays of 0
sensors around the tunnel circumference, installed at -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9

several transverse sections and integrated with -2

longitudinal connections (Figure 10), with there being
sufficient redundancy in the sections where the impact of
-4
the landslip on the tunnel is more significant.
-6

Mag. factor = 100

-8
Fig 11. Results for a selected tunnel transversal section
LONGITUDINAL
SENSORS
5.3 Monitoring of the external steel tendons of
TRANSVERSAL highway bridge B
SENSORS
External pre-stressing is increasingly being used,
especially in motorway bridge structures, due to the
substantial savings which can be made in terms of
Fig 10. Sensors positioning along the tunnel transversal section construction time. In such systems, internal and external
steel tendons are one of the main load-carrying
The sampling frequency has been set on the basis of components. This means that the deterioration or
the chosen parameter of interest. The overall monitoring breakage of these elements can be catastrophic for the
system has been set up to record real-time displacements entire structure. For this reason, real time monitoring of
of the infrastructure, so a number of accessory parameters pre-stressing tendons should provide useful information
such as temperature, humidity, readings and standard from the inside of the bridge subject to service loads,
deviation values etc. have been collected. The acquired detecting possible fatigue and damage / deterioration
data were stored on a ‘Cloud platform’ where they could processes.
be processed and analysed to obtain data useful for This section describes the application of MEMS
structural analysis. accelerometers in a high performance and cost-effective
A specific data processing algorithm was developed in SHM system for bridge structures.
order to analyse clinometer readings and to provide The monitored structure is a highway concrete bridge
efficient real time tunnel monitoring. Indeed, raw data located in the centre of Italy. It has spans of 120 m and a
from the clinometers was affected by “noise” generated by total length of about 580 m, with a cross-section height
several causes. For this reason, a specific data processing varying from 6.0 m (at the bearings) to 3.0 m (on the
framework was proposed in order to eliminate data errors centreline of the span).

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The monitoring was instigated to check the behaviour composition. Figure 12 shows the plan view of the
of external tendons with time after a failure of one tendon monitored concrete highway bridge B.
composed of 27 strands, by effect of an incorrect grout

1 x 71,4 m

4 x 120 m

1 x 42,6 m
Fig 12. Plan view of highway bridge B

SEGMENT 2 SEGMENT 1 SEGMENT 0 SEGMENT 1 SEGMENT 2

SENSORS

Fig 13. Clinometers positioning – transverse section of highway bridge B

MONITORED PERIOD

Fig 14. Data from one accelerometer on highway bridge B

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The improved technical capabilities should allow forensic

5.3.1 SHM methodology engineers gain a better understanding of the physical
behaviour of existing concrete structures, enabling them to
The described concrete bridge was instrumented with a make better judgements about how the structures have
continuous monitoring system for the real-time detection
behaved in-service or may potentially behave in the future
of the condition of the strands during the service life of the
(ie. prognoses about future behaviour), what level of
structure. Indeed, external bridge tendons have been
structural reliability they might be expected to have and
instrumented with a total of 88 tri-axial accelerometers, 2
what measures / interventions might be appropriate to
for each monitored tendon. extend their useful life.
The service life of tendons in pre-stressed structures The wider legacy of improved technical capabilities for
depends on the behaviour of the steel strands that form
undertaking forensic engineering studies should be better
them. Application of MEMS accelerometers can thus
understanding of the behaviour of structures and the
provide structure owners with a measure of the
processes / procedures involved in their creation and
fundamental properties necessary to predict the long-term
through-life care, along with improved design,
performance of the bridge. assessment, construction and intervention practices.
In particular, changes in the dynamic characteristics of
the monitored elements have been analysed by detecting
the shift in tendons’ natural frequencies. A specific data References
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possible to capture the bridge vibration and deformation 2010, Fédération Internationale du Béton (fib),
under traffic excitations and to obtain bridge modal Lausanne, Switzerland, published by Wilhelm Ernst
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measured under different traffic conditions as shown in 3. ISO 16311-1. Maintenance and repair of concrete
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period allowed the definition of a benchmark of International Organisation for Standardisation
measurements corresponding to the standard behaviour of (2011).
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exceptional external loads. structures – Part 2: Assessment of existing concrete
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have been collected and, consequently, threshold levels Standardisation (2011).
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6 Concluding comments 7. BSI Eurocode: Basis of structural design. BS EN
1990. London, BSI (2002).
The new and extended models to be incorporated in 8. BSI Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures.
MC2020, in association with the other aspects of the General rules and rules for buildings (including
updated guidance, should provide improved technical
National Annex). BS EN 1992-1-1. London, BSI
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• More accurate estimates of the actual strength / bearing National Annex). BS EN 1992-1-2. London, BSI
capacity of structures, especially as they age /
(2004).
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• Improved interpretation of data obtained from through-
Organisation for Standardisation (2012).
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• More effective ways of estimating the behaviour of Barcelona (11-12 December 2017).
‘repaired’ structures.

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13. fib Bulletin 62, Structural concrete: Textbook on 15. KL Carper, Quality and safety: The ultimate legacy
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