Process State

As a process executes, it changes state:

new: The process is being created. running: Instructions are being executed. waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur. ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. terminated: The process has finished execution.

Processes

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Process Concept
Process a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion. A process includes:
program counter, stack, data section.
program counter

Process State Transition Diagram

new
admitted exit interrupt

heap

terminated

stack

ready

running

scheduler dispatch

data

I/O or event completion

I/O or event wait

waiting code

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Process Control Block (PCB)

OS bookkeeping information associated with each process: Process state, Program counter, CPU registers, CPU scheduling information, Memory-management information, Accounting information, I/O status information,
process id process state program counter registers memory limits list of open files

CPU Switching

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Process Scheduling Queues

Job queue set of all processes in the system. Ready queue set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute. Device queues set of processes waiting for an I/O device. Processes migrate between the various queues.
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Processes and OS Queues

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Process Scheduling

Schedulers
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) selects which process should be executed next and allocates CPU

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Schedulers
Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds) (must be fast) Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds, minutes) (may be slow; controls the degree of multiprogramming) Processes can be described as either:
I/O-bound process spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts CPU-bound process spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts
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Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process. Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching. Time dependent on hardware support.

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Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn can create other processes, forming a tree of processes. Resource sharing:
Parent and children share all resources, Children share subset of parents resources, Parent and child share no resources.

Process Creation (Cont.)

Address space:
Child has duplicate of parents address space, or Child can have a program loaded onto it.

UNIX examples:
fork system call creates new process and returns with a pid (0 in child, > 0 in the parent), exec system call can be used after a fork to replace the process memory space with a new program.

Execution:
Parent and children execute concurrently, Parent may wait until children terminate.

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Process Termination
Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to terminate it (exit)
Output data from child to parent (via wait) Process resources are deallocated by operating system

Cooperating Processes
An independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process. A cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process. Advantages of process cooperation:
Information sharing, Computation speed-up, Modularity, Convenience.

Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort) if:

Child has exceeded allocated resources, Task assigned to child is no longer required, If parent is exiting (some operating system do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates)
All children terminated - cascading termination

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Producer-Consumer Problem
A paradigm for cooperating processes in which a producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process:
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer, bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size.

Bounded-Buffer
(shared-memory solution)
public interface Buffer { // producers call this method public abstract void insert(Object item); // consumers call this method public abstract Object remove(); } import java.util.*; public class BoundedBuffer implements Buffer {

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// producers calls this method public void insert(Object item) { // Slide 17 } // consumers CSCI 315 Operating Systems Designcalls this method 18 public Object remove() { // Slide 18 }

private static final int BUFFER SIZE = 5; private int count; // number of items in the buffer private int in; // points to the next free position private int out; // points to the next full position private Object[] buffer; public BoundedBuffer() { // buffer is initially empty count = 0; in = 0; out = 0; buffer = new Object[BUFFER SIZE];

Bounded-Buffer
(shared-memory solution) public void insert(Object item) { while (count == BUFFER SIZE); // do nothing -no free buffers // add an item to the buffer ++count; buffer[in] = item; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE; }

Bounded-Buffer
(shared-memory solution) public Object remove() { Object item; while (count == 0); // do nothing -- nothing to consume // remove an item from the buffer --count; item = buffer[out]; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER SIZE; return item; }

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Interprocess Communication
(IPC)
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions Message system processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables IPC facility provides two operations:
send(message) message size fixed or variable receive(message)

Implementation Questions
How are links established? Can a link be associated with more than two processes? How many links can there be between every pair of communicating processes? What is the capacity of a link? Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable? Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?
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If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:

establish a communication link between them exchange messages via send/receive

Implementation of communication link

physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus) logical (e.g., logical properties)

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Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) send a message to process P receive(Q, message) receive a message from process Q

Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox

Properties of communication link

Links are established automatically A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes Between each pair there exists exactly one link The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional

Properties of communication link

Link established only if processes share a common mailbox A link may be associated with many processes Each pair of processes may share several communication links Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional

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Indirect Communication
Operations:
create a new mailbox, send and receive messages through mailbox, destroy a mailbox.

Indirect Communication
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive Who gets the message?

Primitives are defined as: send(A, message) send a message to mailbox A, receive(A, message) receive a message from mailbox A.
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Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.
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Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or nonblocking. Blocking is considered synchronous:
Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received. Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available.

Buffering
Queue of messages attached to the link; implemented in one of three ways:
1. Zero capacity 0 messages Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous). 2. Bounded capacity finite length of n messages. Sender must wait if link full. 3. Unbounded capacity infinite length. Sender never waits.
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Non-blocking is considered asynchronous

Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and continue. Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid message or null.
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