SEPTEMBER 2016

Special Briefing Report No.13

By Dietrich Remmert

WATER GOVERNANCE IN NAMIBIA:

A TALE OF DELAYED IMPLEMENTATION, POLICY
SHORTFALLS, AND MISCOMMUNICATION
Shutterstock

The water sector in Namibia has been hampered by poor • The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry should offi-
policy implementation since independence. This is the cially establish key governing institutions: the Water Advisory
result of: Council, the Water Regulator and the Water Tribunal as out-
lined in the 2013 Act
- Severe underinvestment •G  overnment should revive, endorse and implement the In-
- Limited capacity and technical skills tegrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) Plan for Na-
- Poor coordination among stakeholders mibia
- Weak regulation and enforcement •G  overnment should make provisions for and fast-track fi-
nance for key water infrastructure projects, including the re-
Mistrust and lack of communication between public institu- habilitation and modernisation of existing infrastructure
tions, the private sector and the general public has severely •G  overnment and stakeholders should realistically explore
limited problem-solving approaches. Schisms between techni- funding models for long-term water and sanitation infrastruc-
cal experts and policymakers need to be breeched as a matter ture needs
of urgency. This paper makes the following recommendations: • Government and stakeholders should initiate a transparent,
multi-sector and holistic dialogue regarding the water sector,
• Government should finalise and promulgate all regulations taking into account national development goals such as in-
for the Water Resources Management Act No. 11 of 2013 to dustrialisation and agriculture schemes and threats particular
ensure that the provisions in the Act are compliant with the climate change and pollution
law and legally binding
• Both public and private entities should place more emphasis

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 SEPTEMBER 2016

Glossary HPP Harambee Prosperity Plan

Aquifer Underground layer of water-bearing IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management
porous stone or earth MAWF Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry
Desalination  Process of removing salt from sea water MDGs Millennium Development Goals
to obtain potable water m3 Cubic Meters
Groundwater Water that exists beneath the earth’s sur MoHSS Ministry of Health and Social Services
face in underground streams and MoLR Ministry of Lands and Resettlement
aquifers MTEF Medium-Term Expenditure Framework
Potable water Water of adequate quality for safe human NamWater Namibia Water Corporation
consumption or freshwater NGO Non-governmental organisation
Surface water Water that collects on the ground and in NSSA Namibia Sanitation Situation Analysis Re-
rivers, lakes and oceans port
Water reticulation Piped-water supply, water running through NUST Namibia University of Science and
a network of pipes Technology
NWP National Water Policy White Paper 2000
List of Abbreviations NWRMR  Namibia Water Resource Management
Review
BMC Basin Management Committee PPP Private-Public-Partnership
CBM Community Based Management SOE State Owned Enterprise
CoW City of Windhoek UNAM University of Namibia
DWA Department of Water Affairs WDM Water Demand Management
EU European Union WRMA Water Resource Management Act 2004 /
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the 2013
United Nations WSASP Water Supply and Sanitation Policy 2008
GRN Government of Namibia

on Water Demand Management (WDM) and ensure that en- Namibia’s water and sanitation sector development since inde-
vironmental sustainability is actively pursued pendence can be captured, broadly under three themes:

Introduction - The establishment of increasingly complex and ambitious poli-

cies, laws, plans and regulations many of which remain frag-
It is almost a given that any policy document regarding wa- mented, incomplete, unenforced and unimplemented
ter will stress the fact that Namibia is one of the driest coun- - The loss of technical expertise and capacity from public institu-
tries in the SADC region. This is a consequence of the mostly tions to the private sector or retirement
sparse and highly variable rainfall in the country coupled with - The overall lack of public investment in tangible capital projects
very high evaporation rates. For example, the Integrated Water coupled with a growing maintenance backlog on the existing,
Resource Management (IWRM) Plan for Namibia notes that increasingly inadequate infrastructure
according to estimates roughly 97 percent of rainfall is lost
through evaporation while 2 percent and 1 percent end up as This paper gives a brief overview of the current status of the wa-
run-off surface water and recharge groundwater respectively. ter sector in Namibia including policy considerations, supply and
Therefore the arid nature of the country means that Namibia’s infrastructure challenges as well as relevant external political fac-
potable water 1 is an extremely precious and scarce resource.2 tors. The paper highlights pertinent issues and makes a number
of recommendations.
Besides being essential to life on earth water also plays an
important role in the socio-economic development of nations
Background
and their inhabitants. A great many economic activities require
a dependable, safe and affordable supply of water including It can be argued that in Namibia the water sector has not been
construction, mining, agriculture, hospitality and so forth. Neither given the attention from a governance perspective that it rightly
can hospitals, schools and universities operate optimally without deserves. At a cursory glance the theme of water supply and sani-
adequate water. Within the context of a developing country like tation in the country’s post-independence development has had
Namibia achieving optimal management and supply of water in and continues to have a fairly important role. During the past 25
a sustainable manner is a crucial development goal. Hence, any years the country has developed and revised, passed or initiated
limitations or shortfalls in the provision of safe water to Namibia’s a number of Acts, policies and regulations addressing the utili-
inhabitants will impact negatively on the development and wellbe- sation, management and protection of the nation’s scarce water
ing of the community as a whole. resources.3 Furthermore, the Government of Namibia (GRN) has

1
  Potable water = water that is safe to drink or use for food preparation.
2
The Government of Namibia, “Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia,” August 2010, 2.
3
Shirley Bethune and Oliver C. Ruppel, “Waterand Fisheries Related Statutory Law and Policy in Namibia” Ch. 11, in Environmental Law and Policy in Namibia, Oliver C.
Ruppel and Katharina Ruppel-Schlichting (eds.), 3rd Edition, 2016, 159-71.
2
 SEPTEMBER 2016

also strived to rectify and reform the institutions within the state Laws, Policies and Strategies
structure tasked with governing water supply, demand and sani-
tation inherited from the former apartheid regime.4 Last but not Soon after independence it was already apparent to the state
least, the state with the support of donors, civil society and private that the existing apartheid era policies that governed the wa-
business has invested in research, feasibility studies and com- ter sector were severely outdated and did not conform to the
munity engagement focusing on among others infrastructure de- new political order which explicitly emphasised human rights
velopment, education and information and decentralisation. The and equitable access to resources and opportunities for all
country can also look upon some physical achievements such citizens.7 Consequently, the nation has seen a number of re-
as the expansion of rural safe water supply since independence. form processes and fundamental changes to legislation and
regulation of the water sector over the past 25 years. These
Nevertheless, a closer look at the current water sector and espe- policies also form part of Namibia’s environmental law which
cially its governance aspects invariably bring to the fore a wide comprises a comprehensive and advanced legal framework
range of challenges and deficiencies.5 One very obvious current acknowledging the importance of sustainable use and protec-
example is the water crisis in the central area brought about pri- tion of the environment and its natural resources in today’s
marily by the failure of the state to address the situation as a mat- world. Notable documents include:
ter of national urgency. Another severe oversight is the long-term
and seemingly continuous lack of capital investment in the reha- - The Water Act No. 54 of 1956
bilitation and building of water supply infrastructure. In defence - The Namibia Water Corporation Act No. 12 of 1997
of the GRN, securing adequate potable water supplies for the na- - The National Water Policy White Paper 2000
tion and furthermore ensuring that it is managed in a sustainable - The Water Resource Management Act No. 24 of 2004
and environmentally sound manner in addition to being distributed - The Water Supply and Sanitation Policy 2008
equitably is a very tall order. As such the ‘issue’ of the water sector - The Integrated Water Resource Management Plan 2010
combines thematic sets of challenges and opportunities – properly - The Water Resources Management Act No. 11 of 2013
handling each set presents a considerable undertaking. However,
striking the correct balance between all sets, which are often in This section will focus primarily on policies exclusively tai-
competition, is probably the biggest challenge. lored towards freshwater and sanitation. Since independence
and particularly starting in the late 90s the state has sought
Over the past years, Namibia’s water sector has increasingly to transform the water and sanitation sector. In a nutshell the
come under pressure. Demand for water has steadily increased reforms can be summarised into three, interlinked aims: en-
driven by increased urbanisation, mining operations, a booming suring an equitable supply and access of potable water to all
construction sector and developments in the tourism and agri- citizens, shifting from a water supply to a Water Demand Man-
cultural sectors. Since 1990 Namibia has achieved respectable agement (WDM) approach and finally ensuring that Namibia’s
levels of economic growth. Conversely however, the water sector water resources are utilised in a sustainable and environmen-
has struggled to keep pace with these developments.6 tally sensible manner. These aims are reflected in policy princi-
ples and laws of most of the above listed documents in various
Table 1: Projected Water Demand for Namibia degrees of detail. There are currently two main policies that
Consumer Demand in million m3 per Annum guide the water and sanitation sector’s administration and de-
Group velopment in the country: the National Water Policy White Pa-
2008 2015 2020 2025 2030
per 2000 (NWP) and the Water Supply and Sanitation Policy
Urban 66 80 91.1 103.5 117.2
2008 (WSASP). Both policies emphasis similar core principles
Rural 10.3 10.6 10.9 11.1 11.4
Domestic with WSASP the latest policy giving additional guidance on the
Livestock 86.8 86.8 86.8 86.8 86.8
economic value of water, generating and availing information
to institutions and the public, capacity building and promoting
Irrigation 135.3 204.6 344.6 379.8 497.2
equitable use of water resources shared with neighbouring
Mining 16.1 17.2 18.1 19.1 20.3
countries. An assessment of the water sector’s policies and
Tourism 19.6 27.5 31.9 35.2 38.9 institutions, conducted under the Food and Agriculture Organi-
Total 334.1 426.7 583.4 635.6 771.7 sation of the United Nations (FAO) from 2012 summarises the
Source: The Government of Namibia, “Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Na- country’s priorities as follows:
mibia,” August 2010, 15.
“The broad priorities of the Namibian water sector are to
Table 1 above does not only project the rapid increase of wa- •Achieve the efficient allocation and assured, safe supply of
ter use but also shows how rising demand is steadily outstrip- water to the users;
ping supply. Namibia’s total estimated renewable freshwater •Ensure equitable access to water and sanitation services;
water resources comprise around 600 million cubic meters per •Contribute to long-term social and economic development;
annum a pitiful amount which will be overexploited at current •Ensure the environmental sustainability of water use and
rates of demand in less than 10 years. re-use;

4
Piet Hyens, “Water institutional reforms in Namibia”, in Water Policy 7, 2005, 89-106.
5
The Government of Namibia, “Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, August
2010.
6
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia,” 5-6.
7
 Potable water = water that is safe to drink or use for food preparation.
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 SEPTEMBER 2016

•Maintain water quality and prevent pollution; The current GRN policy does not only differ from but opposes
•Achieve full participation of all the stakeholders in water the state’s outdated laws leading in effect to a policy vacuum
issues; in the water sector. While this issue might be overplayed and
•Develop a strong institutional capacity from the local to the have little bearing on day-to-day operations it does pose severe
national level. concerns. For example specific policies that have been actively
•Secure access to water from the perennial rivers” 8 promoted and financed by government could be hampered by
legal challenges. Likewise, the lack of officiated regulations and
Overall, it could be argued that Namibia possesses a fairly outdated laws would make it difficult for government to enforce
comprehensive and progressive policy and legal framework for example policies intended to curtail unsustainable ground-
regarding the water and sanitation sector. Importantly, policy water abstraction.12 Instead of having access to clear and le-
takes into account the fragile and scarce reality of the country’s gally sound regulations communities and businesses could
water resources and stresses the principle of equitable access find themselves unwittingly confronted at best by capricious
for all citizens unlike pre-independence laws. Most local wa- bureaucratic interpretations of policy or at worst by lengthy and
ter experts and researchers consulted for this paper had few costly legal battles.
complaints about specific policies. From a legal perspective
however one significant issue has been raised. For all intents It is also conceivable that the unclear policy environment pos-
and purposes the policy environment of the nation is dogged es a barrier to investment in Namibia. Thus businesses both
by the fact that legally the water sector is still regulated by the local and foreign, but especially those dependent on a regular
apartheid era Water Act No. 54 of 1956. Enacted by the then and safe water supply could judge the country’s water policies
apartheid regime of South Africa the Act was selectively ap- as too risky and curtail business engagement and expansion.
plied to Namibia whereby some sections did not apply. The In contrast unscrupulous companies could exploit the policy
law disregards the ecological reality of Namibia and empha- vacuum to their gain causing environmental damage without
sises the use and control of water in a centralised and racial having to take accountability.
unequal manner in essence discriminating against the majority
of citizens. Unfortunately the Act remains in force since neither Finally, a number of locally based water experts have ex-
the Water Resource Management Act (WRMA) of 2004 nor pressed reservations with regards to the scope of the latest
of 2013 has been signed into law.9 Although in expert circles WRMA and policies. Dr Matrose-Goreses, NUST academic
there appears to be considerable uncertainty as to which Act and NamWater board member feels that in some sections the
and regulations are legal and which are applied in practice. 2013 Act is too prescriptive by for example stipulating meet-
ing protocols for individual governing bodies. She argues that
From a practical perspective it can be argued that the outdated these administrative details should have been reflected in the
law has little influence on the operation of the water sector. The regulations. Instead the current approach could hamper im-
WSASP in particular serves as a central policy and to its credit plementation due to the difficulty of even amending minor de-
has been commended as a progressive and sensible “guid- tails.13 Other experts take their criticism further noting that the
ing framework” for subsequent policy formulations.10 Further- incessant focus by government on formulating complex policy
more, Namibia’s Constitution and overarching environmental invariably impacts negatively on the application of the same by
laws such as the Environmental Management Act No. 7, 2007 already overtaxed state agencies. Taking stock of institutional
bolster the legal regime to address legal disputes that might reforms in Namibia’s water sector Heyns states:
arise from the water sector. Nevertheless, the current legal
framework is patchy and convoluted. When issues are taken “One of the pitfalls of institutional reform in a developing
to court such as the case of intensive groundwater abstraction country is that the rationale behind the reforms may have
by the Valencia mine the resulting ruling has been far from been based upon sound best practices in water resources
satisfactory within the context of post-independence policies.11 management, but when it comes to practical implementa-
Furthermore, the lack of ‘officially sanctioned regulations’ is a tion, there is a lack of human capacity or adequate funding
considerable concern. Various experts were of the opinion that available to meet the needs identified.”14
certain regulations under the 2013 Act were already followed,
while others could not say for sure. Curiously, the state does In other words the most comprehensive and sophisticated wa-
follow stipulations in the 2013 Act when for example constitut- ter policy is of no use for Namibia if it cannot be applied in a
ing a new Basin Management Committee (BMC). Government practical and sensible manner. Unfortunately, this assessment
is essentially operating in a legal ‘grey-area’. reflects many shortcomings in the implementation of policy
which will be covered in the next section.

8
J. Barnes, “Water related policies and institutions: Namibia”, February 2012, 3. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/okavango/CBR8_InstitutionalMappingNAM.pdf.
9
Shirley Bethune and Oliver C. Ruppel, 164-7.
10
J. Barnes, 7.
11
Legal Assistance Centre / Mills International Human Rights Clinic, Stanford Law School, “Not Coming Up Dry: Regulating the Use of Namibia’s Scarce Water Resources
by Mining Operations”, 2009.
12
 Ibid., 17-8.
13
Interview with Dr Matrose-Goreses, Windhoek, November 15, 2015.
14
Heyns, 105.

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 SEPTEMBER 2016

Governance Issues From the information above it can already be perceived that
the governance structure of Namibia’s water and sanitation
In many ways governance is the key factor that determines the sector is very complex and extensive. While complexity is not
overall performance of the water and sanitation sector. Gov- necessarily a drawback in itself it does however require a sig-
ernance is a contested term but broadly refers to the ability of nificant level of effectives and efficiency by individual institu-
institutions to implement policy and ensure competent and sen- tions. It is thus perhaps far from an ideal structure considering
sible administration and planning.15 Without ‘good governance’ Namibia’s status as a developing nation. As it stands the vari-
policies and regulations will not be properly and consistently ous institutions responsible for the water and sanitation sector
enforced, existing infrastructure will not be properly maintained are all struggling to meet their assigned responsibilities.
and planning for the future will likely be weak and ad-hoc. In
addition the public water sector institutions will struggle to suc- Overall, most of these challenges and shortcomings are well
cessfully advocate for more funds and resources at the na- known and documented. Thus for example the IWRM Plan
tional level having to compete against other sectors. provides a list of identified concerns and issues as part of a
comprehensive situation analysis in 2010. Many of these chal-
Since independence government’s efforts in the water sector lenges are both technical and particular to specific organisa-
can roughly be summarised as follows: tions within the water sector.18 Discussing this lengthy list of
• Reforming existing and creating new governance entities issue exceeds the scope of this paper. However, from these
• Developing and adopting progressive policies in line with the challenges emanate a number of common themes that really
constitution, environmental sustainability and international illustrate deep-seated, systemic weaknesses among the insti-
best practice tutions.
• Expanding potable water access especially in rural areas
• Decentralisation - devolving more responsibilities of water re-
Staff and Skills Deficits
sources and infrastructure management to regional and local
authorities and communities Undoubtedly one of the most crucial issue affecting public in-
• Conducting research, strategic plans and feasibility studies stitutions in the water sector is a severe lack of capacity includ-
• Promoting the concept of private-public-partnership to secure ing technical skills and overall staffing levels. This theme is
financing for infrastructure projects highlighted extensively in the critical literature and is echoed
by many experts spoken to during this paper’s research phase.
Undoubtedly, all the above points are of merit with regards to The IWRM Plan ‘Review and Assessment of Existing Situation’
improving governance of the water sector. That being said, all report for example states that:
experts consulted during the research of this paper stated un-
equivocally that poor implementation of policies and plans is “Staff retention is a difficult issue for all government and pri-
one of the most pertinent problems hampering the country’s vate water institutions and service providers because there
water sector. This clearly is a result of inadequate governance is a lack of skilled people and a continuous movement of
structures or in other words, weak institutions. skilled persons between the institutions.” 19

According to the WSASP the responsibilities of regulating and The inability of institutions involved in the water sector to at-
managing the water and sanitation sector in Namibia involve a tract and retain qualified staff has been a concern for many
considerable number of ministries and government institutions years. According to Heyns, the MAWF’s then Department of
as well as the Namibia Water Corporation or NamWater. Hence Water Affairs (DWA) lost many well-experienced staff to Nam-
for example the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement (MoLR) Water when the latter was created in December 1997. He fur-
is responsible for establishing water and sanitation services ther argues that during the sector’s reform process from the
for resettlement farms while the Ministry of Health and Social late 1990s onwards the Ministry failed to cultivate enough
Services (MoHSS) is tasked with promoting sensible sanitation young professionals who would be able to take over crucial
practices among communities. However, core competencies in technical and managerial tasks once older management staff
particular with regards to overall control, management, moni- retired in the mid-2000s. The newly created state owned utility
toring and assessment of the country’s water resources is the NamWater ‘benefited’ only for so long from the downsizing of
prerogative of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) located in the MAWF.20
(MAWF).16 It should be noted that NamWater in this paper is Data collected from the SOE’s annual reports, collated and
defined and treated as a public institution and therefore part published in the ‘Guide to the Namibian Economy 2013/14’ by
of government. After all, this State Owned Enterprise (SOE) is Robin Sherbourne shows a continuous decline of employees
technically owned by the state being mandated in the Namibia from 2001 – 2008. During that time period the total staff com-
Water Corporation Act No. 12, 1997 as “the sole member and plement was nearly halved from 1,160 to 601.21 NamWater’s
shareholder of the corporation.”17 Annual Report of 2015 states that it has an approved, perma-

15
Merilee S. Grindle, “Good Enough Governance Revisited”, February 2005, 1-2. https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/events-documents/1281.pdf
16
The Government of Namibia, “Water Supply and Sanitation Policy”, July 2008, 15-6.
17
The Government of Namibia, “Gazette: No. 12 Namibia Water Corporation Act, 1997”, No. 1703, October 10, 1997, 5.
18
“ Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, ii-xii.
19
Ibid., vii.
20
Heyns, 98 & 104.
21
Robin Sherbourne, “Guide to the Namibian Economy 2013/14”, October 2013, 296-8.

5
 SEPTEMBER 2016

nent workforce of 660 but only 584 post were filled. In addition sues have worsened since then.”27 This observation is general
the report highlights that most vacancies were located in the but without doubt also includes the skills deficit. Some experts
“Water Supply and Engineering & Scientific Services depart- involved in capacity building feel that public institutions don’t
ments”.22 Some losses could be put down to rationalisation attach enough importance to training and skills development.
and outsourcing. Nevertheless, for a corporation that has add- It is acknowledged in the IWRM report that skill development
ed considerably to its client base over the years this remains a efforts do not necessarily result in significant improvements.
questionable if not worrisome trend. Training and capacity building should not be considered as
a ‘silver bullet’. Instead they need to be combined with other
While usually less critical official government documentation sensible strategies such as monitoring performance and im-
and policies consistently acknowledge capacity and human re- proving operational and fiscal management.28 That said, the
sources challenges within the sector. The WSASP states that crucial observation is that for all the emphasis placed on poli-
water resource management is hampered among others by cies and reports on capacity building and training very little has
“limited human resource capacity” and places emphasis on im- translated into visible, tangible results. Indeed, judging by the
proving staffing and technical skill at public institutions.23 The current situation whereby the country is facing severe freshwa-
draft ‘Namibia Sanitation Situation Analysis Report’ (NSSA) of ter shortfalls in the central area, national capacity to manage
2009 funded by the European Union (EU) lists the skills deficit water resources has deteriorated further over the past years.
as a key strategic issue: “Lack of skills on sanitation issues at
all levels. Lack of appropriated formal educational training on The second issue concerning the lack of capacity and staff
sanitation.” The analysis also observed that in particular Re- is the haemorrhaging of qualified and experienced staff from
gional Councils and Local Authorities lacked adequate tech- public institutions. While some of this is due to retirement many
nical capacity.24 The 2010 IWRM Plan echoes the assertions other professionals move into the private sector. The IWRM
of the NSSA for the overall water sector. Among many other plan states that due to the limited pool of skilled people in the
shortcomings it was noted that the majority of Regional Coun- country both public and private water institutions struggle to at-
cils and Local Authorities had only weak management capac- tract and retain staff.29 While difficult to prove it is nonetheless
ity especially with regards to finances.25 Regrettably, lack of very probable that the private sector is at an advantage in the
technical capacity and human resources does not only affect competition for skilled staff being able to offer higher salaries
regional and local public institutions but is prevalent across all than the public sector. Furthermore, a number of profession-
levels of the water sector. als have privately expressed their reservation towards accept-
ing employment at a public water institution. Many are of the
Namibia remains a developing country with significant social, opinion that, in such institutions, technical and engineering ex-
economic and political problems. Hence, the skill and staff limi- pertise is considered secondary to management and political
tations hampering the country’s water and sanitation sector are acumen for which however they did not enter their profession.
understandable and should not come as a surprise. What does Unfortunately for the public sector overall it is no secret that it
surprise, however, are two related issues that are not as easily is considered on average more attractive to work for a smaller,
discernible from government and donor documentation. dynamic company than a large, lumbering bureaucracy.

Firstly, while capacity shortfalls have been mentioned in offi- It is fortunate for Namibia that the skills and expertise with re-
cial reports since at least the mid-90s, there are few visible gards to water resource management located in the private
concerted efforts apparent that seek to mitigate and reverse sector remains available for the country’s development. Over a
the situation. Fairly concrete steps and implementing options decade ago the NWRMR recommended that the private sector
to improve staffing levels and skills are given, for example, should be engaged especially with regards to sector planning,
in a report of the Namibia Water Resource Management Re- training and design and construction of water schemes. The
view (NWRMR) a comprehensive exercise undertaken for numerous available assessments and plans focusing on the
GRN around the late 90s and early 2000s. The review report water sector emanating from private firms and consultancies,
also identifies policy, institutional and technical shortcomings stands as an attest to the competencies of the private sector.
of which many were attributed to weak capacity.26 In turn the Hence for example the on-going research on the long-term op-
IWRM Plan published around seven years later lists a range tions for securing water supply to the nation’s central area is
of capacity building and training needs for government institu- conducted by a group of engineering and environmental con-
tions, service providers and stakeholders at large. However, sultancies contracted by the MAWF.30
more telling the document also observes that with regards to Likewise the comprehensive IWRM plan was developed by
the issues identified by the NWRMR: “Many of the findings at private sector businesses. The drawback of having Namibia’s
that stage are still true today and in certain cases some is- water sector expertise located in private businesses is the fact

22
 amWater, “Annual Report 2015”, 38.
N
23
“Water Supply and Sanitation Policy”, 1.
24
European Commission, “Namibia Sanitation Situation Analysis Report”, 2nd Draft, April 2009, 38 & 57.
25
“Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, 55-6.
26
The Government of Namibia, “Namibia Water Resource Management Review - Institutions & Community Participation: Theme Report”, n.d.
27
“Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, 53.
28
 Ibid., 56.
29
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 10.
30
See: http://namibiawateraugmentation.com

6
 SEPTEMBER 2016

that most implementation and project management roles lie • Private Sector – water supply and sanitation on private land-
within the public sector. Almost all bulk water supply infrastruc- for mining, industry and tourism 32
tures as well as local authorities’ water supply, reticulation and
sanitation systems are owned and managed by public insti- The complexity of this organisational structure is apparent.
tutions. Yet, as already mentioned, the country’s main failing According to the IWRM plan, international experience has
is the lack of implementation of plans and policies and poor demonstrated that “merging agencies or responsibilities has
management of water resources. frequently resulted in very little performance improvements.”
Nevertheless, there are numerous documented instances of
This divide around skills among public and private spheres is poor coordination and communication within the water and
proving detrimental for Namibia. While the available expertise sanitation sector both within and between institutions. Through-
is not lost to the nation as such, it is misaligned and cannot be out the IWRM plan reports reference is made of weak coor-
brought to bear fully to the areas in greatest need of it. dination and communication instances. Hence for example it
is stated that coordination between central and decentralised
Institutional Issues water management structures need to be improved.33 Given
the broad set of responsibilities spread among a multitude of
Aside from the three key shortcomings regarding water re- state as well as non-state actors it is essential that close co-
source management in the country there are a number of operation is fostered effectively to align activities and policies
additional issues. These are primarily weaknesses within the with each other.
governance structure. They include: the lack of coordination, Overall it appears that coordination and communication among
decentralisation challenges and the absence of key governing water sector institutions is still weak. It is for example unclear if
instruments. This section will briefly outline and discuss these the governments much promoted large-scale irrigation project
identified institutional issues. ‘Green Scheme’ has taken into account fragile and limited wa-
ter resources and climate change concerns. The Namibia Sec-
Coordination ond National Communication to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change published in 2011 states that
As already mentioned the list of government institutions in- a large proportion of the scheme located along the Okavango
volved in some form in Namibia’s water and sanitation sector River might not be viable in the long-term considering that cli-
is extensive. Given the crucial importance of water for human mate change will bring about a projected decrease of annual
survival and the complexities of managing such a natural re- rainfall in certain areas of the country.34
source the institutional list is justifiable. Nevertheless, Namib-
ia’s institutional arrangement with regards to the water sector It should also be noted that overall communication to the pub-
has spawned a number of challenges. System and organisa- lic and business fraternity regarding the water supply situa-
tional structure related problems are very common worldwide tion is oftentimes patchy and poor. For example active public-
and afflict all sectors of society. Therefore, it can also be ar- ity regarding the central area water shortages by the City of
gued that there is no uniform solution for such issues that can Windhoek (CoW) and Namwater’s have been negligible from a
be readily adopted. Namibia’s water sector reform process public relations perspective.
which began in the late 90s emphasised emulating the interna-
tional practice of separating roles and responsibilities among
Decentralisation
institutions as well as levels of government. Water resource
management is located on the national, regional, basin wide Reforms of institutions and organisational structures in the wa-
and local level. Furthermore, the WSASP places great impor- ter and sanitation sector went hand in hand with a further gov-
tance on community involvement and participation, an objec- ernment objective, decentralisation. This policy has been pro-
tive also vigorously promoted by the NWRMR.31 moted and pursued across most sectors of government since
the first years of an independent Namibia. Writing on the topic
Given the importance of water supply planning, infrastructure in 2000 Gerhard Tötemeyer defines it as follows:
development and resource management the following institu-
tions or sectors and their respective responsibilities are listed “Decentralisation entails a process of dividing and distribut-
below: ing authority, power and responsibility for programmes and
policy implementation to subunits, as well as reassigning
• MAWF – resource management, rural water supply and over- decision-making responsibilities to lower governmental units
all sector coordination on a geographical basis.” 35
• NamWater – bulk water supply
• Regional Authorities – water supply to small communities An important core feature of the policy is the active promotion
• Local Authorities – water supply, reticulation and sanitation or of community participation to address and partake in problem-
water reticulation and sanitation solving efforts thus giving citizens a direct stake in their own
31
“Water Supply and Sanitation Policy”, 3, 6, 8, 11 & 12.
32
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 8-9.
33
“Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, 16 & 40.
34
The Government of Namibia, “Namibia Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change”, July 2011, 75.
35
Gerhard Tötemeyer, “Decentralisation and State-building at the Local Level” in State, Society and Democracy: A Reader in Namibian Politics, Christiaan Keulder (ed.),
this Edition 2010, 108.

7
 SEPTEMBER 2016

development. For all intents and purposes the policy therefore mon across the country. Poor financial management and inap-
seeks to establish transparent and accountable local govern- propriate tariff settings by some authorities has forced the bulk
ance structures and develop a “culture of democracy at local supplier NamWater to step in and manage such accounts.40
level.” 36 According to the IWRM plan, there is considerable reluctance
among central government ministries to devolve more respon-
Overall the policy of decentralisation has and is being promot- sibilities to the regions due to patchy performance. However, it
ed aggressively in the water sector. should also be acknowledged that regional and local authori-
ties often lack the financial and human resource base to meet
In urban areas a combination of water supply, reticulation and their responsibilities.41
sanitation or water reticulation and sanitation responsibilities
have been devolved to municipalities, towns and villages. This CBM has been touted as a success particularly with regards
practice was already in place for larger settlements prior to to securing and expanding fresh water supply to rural com-
independence. In turn, Regional Councils where tasked with munities and settlements. However, very little detail is provided
similar duties for villages without councils and communal set- on this success apart from the establishment of water point
tlements. committees and associations. Figures cited on the coverage
of safe drinking water across the country are not consistent
The MAWF introduced the community based management across official documentation and frequently contradict each
(CBM) programme in the late 1990s with the objective of in- other. Research for this paper was unable to source current
volving rural communities in the management and administra- coverage figures. One of the few comparative graphs that
tion of local water resources. It was envisioned that local com- could be found indicates puzzlingly that the percentage of rural
munities would not only manage but also maintain the local households with access to fresh water rose from 50 to 79.9
water infrastructure via funds collected from the community.37 percent during 1991 – 2001, but decreased again to 62.8 per-
Finally, government initiated the establishment of BMCs (Basin cent by 2011. Furthermore, overall water supply fell from 87.2
Management Committees). percent in 2001 to 80% by 2011.42

BMCs are constituted from interested stakeholders including The IWRM plan report states that committees face financial
representatives from public and private organisations and their and management challenges in administrating and maintain-
main functions according to the WRMA of 2013 is: ing local water infrastructure and that water supply security
and pollution remain significant problems.43 In an interesting if
“To advise the Minister on matters concerning the protec- dated thesis, from UNAM graduate Clever Mapaure, a very dif-
tion, development, conservation, management and control ferent picture emerges of the CBM programme. In his 2009 the-
of water resources and water resource quality in its water sis Mapaure highlights the many tensions and conflicts among
management area.” 38 a group of rural communities and regional and national state
institutions brought about by the CBM programme. According
By 2011 eight BCMs had been established, a further commit- to his field research, conducted in three of Namibia’s northern
tee for the crucial Omaruru-Swakop basin in which Windhoek regions, CBM is viewed critically by many rural residents who
is located was constituted only recently. Water basins are de- see it either as an infringement on traditional authorities’ and
fined according to a specific water catchment area based on a customary law rule or as a centrally imposed measure to foist
certain geographical size. Overall, there are currently 11 clas- responsibility and cost of local water infrastructure on unpre-
sified and recognised basins in total. However, it should be pared and poor rural communities.44
noted that this is not necessarily a fixed figure.39
While Mapaure’s findings are difficult to verify, Wolfgang Wer-
To generalise, decentralisation in the water sector has brought ner – in a paper published under the CuveWater project in
with it a very mixed bag of successes, failures and intermedi- 2007, points out a number of policy deficiencies that could
ate results. While some progress has been made such as the lead to potential tensions between the committees, Communal
provision of clean water to many rural areas the decentrali- Land Boards, Traditional Authorities and Regional Councils.
sation approach continues to be plagued by a wide range of He notes that the proliferation of various local and regional in-
shortcomings and inefficiencies. Both Regional Councils and stitutions mostly concerned with promoting community partici-
many Local Authorities have struggled to meet their mandates. pation, has resulted in a complicated governance framework
Instances of smaller towns and villages being increasingly un- with uncoordinated mandates. He further notes that such insti-
able to maintain existing water and sanitation infrastructure not tutions will most likely erode power and influence of traditional
to mention expanding such services have become all too com- authorities.45 Writing more recently, Falk notes that the latest
36
Ibid., 109.
37
The Government of Namibia, “National Water Policy White Paper”, 2000, 19.
38
The Government of Namibia, “Gazette: No. 11 Water Resource Management Act 2013”, No. 5367, December 19, 2013, 24.
39
Interview with Greg Christelis, Windhoek, July 30, 2016.
40
“Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, 51.
41
Ibid., 44. & “Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 30.
42
The Government of Namibia, “Profile of Namibia: Facts, Figures and other Fundamental Information”, 2013. http://cms.my.na/assets/documents/p19dpmrmdp1bqf-
19s2u8pisc1l4b1.pdf
43
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 30.
44
Clever Mapaure “Water Wars: Legal Pluralism and Hydropolitics in Namibian Water Law”, 2009. http://wwwisis.unam.na/theses/mapaure2009.pdf

8
 SEPTEMBER 2016

Water Act has sought to remedy many inconsistencies regard- even vital governance mechanisms of the water sector. These
ing water point committees neglected in the Act of 2004. He, are the Water Advisory Council, Water Regulator, Water Tri-
however, acknowledges that “customary or community owner- bunal and the BMCs. While the last mechanism individually
ship” is still not addressed and emphasises that there is a need only covers a single basin its scope of responsibilities is broad
to harmonise the Act’s regulations with the Communal Land and is therefore included here. The responsibilities of each
Reform Act of 2002.46 of these mechanisms or governance instruments are summa-
rised in Table 2. Most of their powers are advisory only. Thus,
According to the IWRM plan, BMCs require considerable ca- for example, the Water Advisory Council is tasked with advis-
pacity building and funding to carry out their tasks. The 2013 ing the Minister on water policy development and resource
WRMA defines the roles and responsibilities of BMCs clearly. management.
In addition, the Act stipulates that the MAWF must provide
administrative and technical support to each committee and Table 2: Key Governance Instruments & Summary of
the Minister may authorise financial support.47 Nevertheless, Responsibilities
BMCs’ responsibilities are extensive and perhaps unrealistical- Name Responsibilities Status
Water Advisory Advises Minister on: water policy de- Only constitut-
ly so given existing challenges around coordination and com- Council velopment and review; water resource ed in Septem-
munication among governance institutions as well as funding management; water abstraction and use; ber 2016
constraints. It should also be noted that weak engagement and any matter raised by basin management
committees deemed pertinent enough
feedback from regional and national authorities would likely by the Council; any matter related to the
sap committee members’ commitment as well as community administration of the Act
engagement towards BMCs. An environmental expert involved Water Regula- Determines fees and tariffs for the Not constituted
tor provision of water as well as licence fees
in the support of committees was of the opinion that currently charges of water abstraction licence
most BMCs were weak or non-functional. holders; negotiates operational targets
with water service providers; monitors
performance and compliance of service
Decentralisation within the water and sanitation sector re- providers with regards to operational
mains a central GRN policy objective and has been on-going targets as well as compliance with water
for around two decades. The obstacles to and complexities of service plans and water management
strategies (conservation); notifies Minister
the policy’s implementation are substantial and persistent. Be of any non-compliance
that as it may, it is neither feasible nor desirable to roll back the Water Tribunal Appeal body to hear and decide on ap- Not constituted
policy considering the efforts, funds and institutional arrange- peals made to Minister regarding - refusal
to issue a water licence, licence issued
ments committed to decentralisation so far. to an operator to discharge effluent,
construct or operate water treatment plant
or waste disposal site, refusal to grant
Key Governing Instruments approval for transfer of licence, term of
licence, discretionary licence conditions,
For any law, policy or plan application and implementation re- refusal to renew licence; amendment or
quires actual resources and functional institutions. Namibia’s suspension or cancellation of licence;
driller licence penalty payment
line ministries are subdivided into directorates and depart- Basin Man- Advises Minister on matters of protection, Most BMCs
ments that are tasked with specific responsibilities and tasks agement Com- development, conservation management have been
mittees and control of the respective basin’s water constituted
and ideally appropriately staffed and resourced to fulfil their du-
resources; makes recommendations on
ties. Responsibilities are determined by policy and regulations water licence applications to Minister;
that in turn rely on the institution’s organisational workings and promotes community engagement with
management of basin’s water resources;
structure to be implemented and enforced.
prepares or initiates a basin IWRMP;
makes recommendations to Minister
The complexity of water resource management, its cru- regarding licence holders; monitors and
reports on effectiveness on policies in
cial importance for human survival and not least Namibia’s
achieving sustainable water management;
democratic dispensation necessitate the establishment of collects, manages and shares relevant
governance mechanisms within and across institutions. It is data including: irrigation; helps resolve
conflict related to water resources;
interesting to mention that the need for such mechanisms was
coordinates with regional councils & local
already recognised early in the previous century. In 1932 the authorities were appropriate and conducts
Water Ordinance passed by the South West African Adminis- a water research agenda
Water Point Manages and controls the supply of water Large number
tration made provision for a Water Board to advise the govern- Committees at a specified water point/rural water sup- of committees
ment on water issues. The NWRMR reform process proposed & Local Water ply scheme or part thereof in existence
among others the creation of a Cabinet committee on water Committees
(Rural water
resources and an independent price regulator.48 supply)
The Water Resource Management Act of 2013 sets out no Source: The Government of Namibia, “Gazette: No. 11 Water Resource Management Act
less than four entities that can be classified as important or 2013”, No. 5367, December 19, 2013

45
Wolfgang Werner, “Integrated Land and Water Management: Policy and Institutional Issues”, CuveWaters Papers, No. 1, October 2007. 18-9.
Thomas Falk, “Governance of Rural Water Supply in Namibia”, in Environmental Law and Policy in Namibia, Oliver C. Ruppel and Katharina Ruppel-Schlichting (eds.),
46 

3rd Edition, 2016, 174-5.

47
“Gazette: No. 11 Water Resource Management Act 2013”, 24-5.
48
Heyns, 94 & 99.

9
 SEPTEMBER 2016

According to the Act, the Water Regulator and Tribunal have that whenever stakeholders do get together there is a likeli-
national decision making powers. Among others, the former hood that some relevant parties are left out of the discussion
determines tariffs for charges by water service providers and which could lead to skewed and biased decisions ignoring oth-
the latter hears and decides on appeals brought against the er viewpoints and expertise. Furthermore, recommendations
minister’s decisions for example in refusing to issue a water and decisions taken at such meetings would essentially be ad
abstraction licence.49 hoc and therefore more likely to be ignored or withdrawn. Such
an approach could also cause rifts among stakeholders within
Even a cursory overview of the tasks and powers of the four the water sector and breed resistance towards policy that is
governance instruments reveals their crucial role in managing perceived as being one-sided. According to a host of media
and guiding the whole water sector. In a nutshell then, the role reports over the past months, there has been a noticeable
of these mechanisms is to provide official forums for experts, growing dread in the private sector and the public at large with
policy- and decision makers and stakeholders to deliberate on regards to the water crisis in the central area. Unfortunately,
and to both make informed recommendations and decisions overall poor communication on the part of the authorities re-
pertaining to the sustainable management and development of garding the crisis and its management has only heightened
the nation’s water resources. Indeed it can be argued that as a businesses concerns. In a similar vein, in media reports resi-
legal framework the 2013 Act and the mechanisms stipulated dents have repeatedly complained about the perceived unfair
in it, seeks to ensure a most sensible management of national saving measures imposed on private households while waste-
fresh water resources taking into account equally environmen- ful GRN facilities such as schools are ‘let off the hook’. The is-
tal, social, economic and political aspects. sue is further compounded by the lack of discussion platforms
through which businesses and private individuals can engage
It is therefore no less disturbing to note that only the BMCs government.51
have been constituted. To date all other governance instru-
ments exist only on paper. All water experts consulted for this Thirdly, the absence of formal governance instruments in which
paper either confirmed that none of these mechanisms (ex- a broadly representative group of stakeholders can discuss
cluding BMCs) were in place or did not have any knowledge critical issues and plans makes a mockery of transparency and
of their existence. The lack of three key governance instru- accountability. Given the lack of regular and formal meetings
ments within the water sector is undoubtedly directly related to deliberations leading to decisions would be difficult to re-con-
the creeping national water crisis. Essentially, this means that struct. Consequently, policy- and decision makers could more
there are no standing official forums where senior government easily shirk their responsibilities for weak policy implementa-
officials, political appointees and stakeholders can review, dis- tion or overarching decisions. Paradoxically, this situation also
cuss and come to decisions or recommendations regarding is- negates the positive if not always successful work of the CBM
sues affecting the water sector. programme as well as the BMCs. With regards particularly to
the latter what is the point of this mechanism’s existence if ba-
Clearly this has had a detrimental effect on policy implementa- sin stakeholders cannot easily communicate their concerns at
tion. Firstly, since there are no regular, official forums to com- the national level?
municate and coordinate activities between public institutions,
vital review, recommendation and decision making processes Water as a Priority in the Harambee
are likely stalled. In turn, these delays will severely affect Prosperity Plan
planned initiatives and timelines for existing projects as well
as the overall management of the water sector. For example, The lack of governance mechanisms raises concerns around
the poor progress in terms of water infrastructure develop- the latest approach to the management of the sector. In April
ment in the country is to a significant extent the result of weak 2016 the government released its new Harambee Prosperity
communication and coordination. It is furthermore conceivable Plan (HPP). This plan is seen by GRN as a blueprint to ad-
that, on a political level, water sector representatives find it dress core national issues and advance the development of
hard to advocate for more and urgent funding given that the the country and the living standards of its citizens.
sector administration is disorganised and gives out contradic-
tory messages. Hence for example publicly announced over- The plan includes water as a priority under infrastructure de-
all costs for water and sanitation infrastructure needs have velopment and sets out seven proposed strategies regarding
jumped from single to double billion N$ figures in the course of water supply and security. This is undoubtedly a commendable
just six years. The national budget has repeatedly prioritised step towards acknowledging the importance of the water sec-
infrastructure development in the transport, military and public tor by President Hage Geingob’s administration and outlining
service sector while only limited provisions have been made specific actions endorsed by the country’s political leadership.
for water and sanitation.50 The desired outcome of these strategies is that 100 percent of
the population should have access to potable water by 2020
Secondly, the lack of regulated discussion platforms means and that adequate water should be available for “industrialisa-

49
Shirley Bethune and Oliver C. Ruppel, 168-70.
50
Rowland Brown, “Fiscal Sustainability and Growth: A Difficult Balancing Act”, April 2016, 16, 18-9.
51
See for example: Frank Steffen, “Wassernot führt zu Sparzwang”, Allgemeine Zeitung, August 1, 2016. http://www.az.com.na/nachrichten/wassernot-fhrt-zu-sparzwang/;
Neil Weatherman, “Water crisis, We should be concerned”, Windhoek Observer, May 26, 2016. http://www.observer.com.na/opinions/6249-water-crisis-we-should-be-
concerned; New Era, “Water crisis: How did we get here?”, June 10, 2016. https://www.newera.com.na/2016/06/10/water-crisis-here/

10
 SEPTEMBER 2016

tion and land servicing and housing development”. The seven took place at the start of June and shortly thereafter saw the
strategies including implementation or planning deadlines are official appointment of the committee. The committee with the
listed as follows: support of a technical committee was instructed to develop a
detailed plan to avert a worsening of the central water crisis by
1. Establishment of a Cabinet Committee on Water Supply Se- August.56 The President expressed his grave concern about
curity by June 2016 the crisis and asserted that his government would address the
2. Implementation of a national water resource monitoring sys- situation.57 Notwithstanding the President’s positive assertion,
tem by March 2017 it is highly unfortunate that it had to take the HPP to initiate
3. Infrastructure development to utilise newly discovered, such a mechanism, given that the NWRMR already recom-
northern underground water resources - plan ready by Sep- mended such instruments over 10 years ago.
tember 2016
4. Development of the Windhoek Managed Aquifer Recharge Strategy number three - infrastructure development to access
project - plan ready by July 2016 recently discovered groundwater resources in the north - holds
5. Construction of a coastal seawater desalination plant by much promise. Yet very little concrete information about the
February 2019 size and viability as well as environmental considerations of
6. Completion of the Neckartal dam construction by February this resource is known.58 Given particularly the general envi-
2019 ronmental sensibilities and dangers of groundwater pollution,
7. Create incentives to locate industry sites closer to water re- prioritising the development of this resource is premature.
sources, proposals by July 2017 52 Contrary to point three, strategy six - the completion of the
Neckartal Dam - was already planned and endorsed, construc-
Overall, the seven strategies are sound. A number of them are tion having started at the start of 2014, long prior to HPP.59 Fur-
uncontroversial and have been advocated in policy documents thermore, experts, engineers and environmentalists spoken to
and by experts for some time. Strategies number two and four for this paper were united in their criticism of the project stating
are both solid recommendations in the IWRM plan report “Re- that the dam’s eventual contribution to national water security
view and Assessment of Existing Situation” - the former is a would be minimal.
key recommendation and it is stated that “the level of data col-
lection, processing, analysis, management and archiving” re- Proposed strategy number five (the construction of a desalina-
quires strengthening. Furthermore, water aquifer recharge and tion) plant has been mooted in both government and private
water banking are endorsed as part of necessary infrastructure circles for a considerable time. Overall, there seems to appear
developments.53 The WSASP surprisingly makes no mention a grudging consensus among experts and government officials
of information and data improvement. However, it does in prin- for the need of such a plant. An opinion survey carried out by
ciple support the development of unconventional projects such South African based academics in 2014 found overwhelming
as aquifer recharging.54 The CoW is currently laying out con- support among government, private business and NamWater
siderable investment in order to establish the aquifer recharge respondents for the construction of a desalination plant for min-
project as an emergency water supply measure for the cen- ing needs.60 Nevertheless, there have been dissenting voices
tral area.55 It should be noted that a number of experts have towards desalination particularly with regards to the high cost
criticised government’s tardiness in exploring and providing of building and operating such a plant. Disagreements around
funding for this and similar projects as they have long been desalinated water supplied by the Areva built and owned plant
considered feasible. Furthermore, it should be noted that the at the coast have already cropped up. According to a media
current project is focused on abstraction rather than recharge. report in June, the Town Council of Swakopmund opposed
To ensure the long-term viability of the project it will be vital that recent water tariff increases by NamWater, stating that the
the recharge component will be implemented consistently and council was not consulted when Areva agreed to NamWater’s
with environmental acumen. request to supply desalinated water for the town. This water as
Given the lack of key governance mechanisms to date, the opposed to groundwater is considerably more expensive.61 In
creation of a Cabinet Committee on Water Supply Security is turn uranium mining operations at the coast are also consider-
of great significance. According to media reports, President ing constructing their own plants in an effort to reduce costs.62
Hage Geingob was personally briefed on the nation’s water
issue and specifically on the central area crisis. The briefing The HPP advocates that such an undertaking could possi-

52
“ The Government of Namibia, “Harambee Prosperity Plan”, April 2016, 51-2.
53
“Development of an Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia: Review and Assessment of Existing Situation”, viii & xi.54 “Water Supply and Sanitation
Policy”, 7 &14.
54
“Water Supply and Sanitation Policy”, 7 &14.
55
Upper Swakop Basin Management Committee, Presentation “City of Windhoek: Drought Response Plan”, June 22, 2016.
56
Theresia Tjihenuna, “Windhoek still ignores water restrictions”, The Namibian, July 21, 2016. http://www.namibian.com.na/Windhoek-still-ignores-water-restric-
tions/43239/read
57
Elvis Muraranganda, “N$24 billion needed to solve water shortage …Geingob says situation is scary”, New Era, June 8, 2016. https://www.newera.com.na/2016/06/08/
n24-billion-needed-solve-water-shortage-geingob-situation-scary/
58
Helvy Shaanika, “Ohangwena aquifer Namibia’s best water backup plan”, New Era, June 21, 2016. https://www.newera.com.na/2016/06/21/ohangwena-aquifer-namibi-
as-best-water-backup-plan/
59
Luqman Cloete, Ndanki Kahiurika, “Neckartal construction starts amid water challenge”, The Namibian, February 2, 2014. http://www.namibian.com.na/index.
php?id=119562&page=archive-read
Kahilu Kajimo-Shakantu, Lukas Kavela & Winston Shakantu, “Applicability and constraints of delivering water infrastructure via public private partnership”, in Procedia -
60 

Social and Behavioral Sciences, 119, 2014, 867 – 76.

11
 SEPTEMBER 2016

bly be initiated as a Private-Public-Partnership (PPP). Given also arise regarding the compatibility of water sector strategies
the expressed interest by mining companies in constructing with other crucial sector strategies. Hence for example industry
a desalination plant a PPP approach sounds promising. The growth programmes are proposed under Economic Transfor-
financing of large, public infrastructure projects in Namibia has mation yet no reference is made to ensuring that these are
been promoted by government for some time. In this regard a non-water intensive.67 Under the “Hunger Poverty” issue, the
dedicated PPP Policy was approved by Cabinet in 2012. The strategy of improved agricultural output is highlighted which
government has also set up a ‘PPP Unit’ Directorate in April includes among others the “expansion of the Green Scheme to
2015 to scrutinise potential projects and ascertain their feasi- improve food security”. Food security is very important within
bility. In addition a PPP Bill is currently in preparation to ensure Namibia’s development context but large-scale traditional ir-
legislative oversight.63 However, to date there are only a hand- rigation initiatives will put extensive pressure on dwindling
ful of existing PPP projects in Namibia. water supplies. As mentioned previously it is not clear if this
circumstance has been taken into consideration for the Green
Opinions among experts and observers on government’s PPP Scheme plan. Apart from promoting debushing projects, no
policy are divided. Most hydrologists and water engineers references are made in the HPP to Climate Smart Agriculture,
consulted for this research paper felt that they constituted the strategies that focus on climate change adaption and mitiga-
most viable option in guaranteeing the country’s water supply tion measures with regards to agriculture.68
arguing that the state, NamWater and local authorities were
increasingly unable to manage and supply the resource. Such In a final observation of the HPP strategies for the water sec-
an argument might make economic sense socially and po- tor it should be noted that most of them focus on increasing
litically however it is fraught with difficulties. Some observers the supply of freshwater in the country. Given the current and
have expressed concern that an aggressive PPP policy would looming near future shortages of water in various localities of
hand-over control of a critical, public resource to private enti- Namibia this is understandable. However, national policy since
ties whose primary objectives are about profits as opposed to at least the late 90s has emphasised the importance of utilis-
equitable and sustainable national development. The WSASP ing water resources in a sustainable and sensible manner by
stresses that water is a public good which should be available advocating WDM. Freshwater is a valuable, fragile and above
to all citizens at an affordable cost.64 Apart from the real pos- all finite resource in Namibia. Expanding the water supply sys-
sibility that PPP water supply would be too costly for many tem is undoubtedly necessary - however it impacts upon the
Namibians, it could conflict with the CBM approach and overall environment, increases infrastructure and maintenance costs
democratic dispensation. Elected public officials are answer- and can encourage wastage. Among others the WDM strategy
able to their electorate, private businesses only answer to their attempts:
shareholders and clients. International development NGOs
have been critical of PPPs especially with regards to large “..the reduction of inefficient consumer demand to reduce
projects noting that such arrangements can often side-line the the pressure and reliance on conventional water resources
poorer segments of society. In a critical 2014 report on PPPs and infrastructure. By reducing demand, through a variety
in the agricultural sector Oxfam states: of approaches, Water Demand Management provides an
equivalent outcome to supply augmentation. This, in turn,
“…mega-PPPs are inherently risky in sub-Saharan African results in a net financial benefit to the supplier as well as its
countries, where governments have low levels of govern- customers and benefits to the environment.”69
ment effectiveness, challenges in regulating markets and
difficulties in including the voices of the poor in policy… Evi- Therefore a nearly exclusive national strategy of expanding
dence shows that in contexts with poor governance, PPPs water supply is counterproductive in the long-term. It is highly
can also provide opportunities for corruption and political unfortunate that the HPP does not explicitly highlight WDM.
gain.” 65
Two academic literature meta-reviews of PPP studies, one fo-
cusing on healthcare the other on PPPs in developing coun- Finance and Technical Considerations
tries published in 2014 and 2013 respectively, find that there
is very limited empirical evidence demonstrating the effec- Water and sanitation infrastructure projects are capital inten-
tiveness of the PPPs approach to date.66 The technical and sive and Namibia is a developing nation. It is therefore perhaps
finance section will provide further detail on the PPP approach. understandable that water and sanitation infrastructure has
only expanded marginally since independence. It should be
When reviewing the remainder of the HPP Strategy questions noted that a countrywide, detailed summary of actual financial

61
Marc Springer, “Wassernot führt zu Tarifstreit”, Allgemeine Zeitung, Mai 9, 2016. http://www.az.com.na/lokales/wassernot-f-hrt-zu-tarifstreit.430981
62
Marc Springer, “Wenn um Wasser gepokert wird”, Allgemeine Zeitung, Mai 9, 2016. http://www.az.com.na/lokales-kommentar/wenn-um-wasser-gepokert-wird.430977
63
Brigitte Weidlich, “Go PPP Go”, Insight Namibia, April 2016, 21-2.
64
“Water Supply and Sanitation Policy”, 3.
65
Robin Willoughby, “Moral Hazard? ‘Mega’ public–private partnerships in African agriculture”, September 1, 2014, 15.
66
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Netherlands, “Public-Private Partnerships in developing countries: A systematic literature review”, IOB Study, No. 378, April 2013; Jens
K. Roehrich, Michael A. Lewis & Gerard George, “Are public-private partnerships a healthy option? A systematic literature review”, in Social Science & Medicine, 113,
2014, 110-19.
67
“Harambee Prosperity Plan”, 28-30.
68
Ibid., 30.
69
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 27.

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 SEPTEMBER 2016

investments and requirements over the past years exceeds municipalities, local authorities and rural customers have and
the scope of this paper. It has proven rather challenging to continue to struggle to pay for water supply.
easily ascertain both overall as well as specific costs for water Various water experts and economists have over the years
infrastructure and supply as well as operational costs. Never- pointed out that much of the country’s water infrastructure is
theless, some observations can and should be made regard- old and often in poor condition. It is noticeable that many of the
ing finance of the water sector. ‘supply infrastructure development’ projects mentioned over
Publicly available cost estimations for various water and sani- the past years in NamWater’s Annual Reports are not new but
tation components have diverged significantly. In addition it is concern rehabilitation and maintenance work. The latest An-
seldom clear what exactly cost estimations entail. Media re- nual Report from 2015 notes that significant funds are required
ports cite various figures announced by senior civil servants to replace old infrastructure, stating: “the corporation requires
or politicians often with the vague reference to on-going and funds in excess of N$ 5 billion to maintain the capacity to sup-
planned projects. It is also not always clear if costs mentioned ply its existing customers.”74 It is unfortunate that overall the
relate to just new or also include rehabilitation and mainte- Annual Reports summary provide only limited information. In
nance of existing infrastructure. Overall it seems that most cost particular cost breakup graphs are extremely basic and past
quoted are very broad with the aim of meeting current as well annual financial categories and figures are sometimes contra-
as medium-term needs with regards to water supply and sani- dictory from report to report. The 2014 report contains informa-
tation countrywide. What is remarkable is that roughly compa- tion on a five year maintenance plan totalling around N$ 40
rable figures to meet planned water infrastructure needs have million to address the maintenance backlog.75 No mentioning
ballooned significantly over the past five years. The IWRM plan is made of this plan and its progress in the 2015 report.
published in 2010 provides a fairly detailed cost table based
on water and sanitation targets for Namibia according to Vision According to the media some government officials have re-
2030 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). While cently expressed the vision of pumping potable water across
targets slightly diverge deepening on the document or plan it Namibia to areas most in need. This year information surfaced
is safe to say that Namibia aims for no less than 100% potable that GRN has also expressed interest in providing water to
water supply and 80% for total sanitation coverage by 2030. Botswana in the long-term. It is not at all clear if this vision con-
Taking into account national budget provisions for water in- stitutes official policy or if it has even been explored properly.
frastructure from 2008/09 (N$93 million) the estimated invest- Water and engineering experts have noted that both the finan-
ment gap constitutes just under N$ 2.8 billion.70 In 2012, two cial and technical obstacles to such a vision are tremendous.
years later, the media cities a figure of N$ 14 billion announced For example dedicated costing for a 1.8 meter diameter steel
by the MAWF at the ‘Namibia Water Investment Conference’. pipeline running from the coast to the central area has been
The funds were intended to finance 300 planned infrastructure put at no less than N$ 6.7 billion. This figure excludes pumping
projects including rehabilitation and upgrading of existing in- stations, the associated desalination plant and running costs.76
frastructure.71 In turn the cited largest challenges to the construction of a de-
salination plant are the initial high cost of construction and high
Surprisingly this figure nearly doubles four years later. During operational energy requirements. As a result desalinated water
a recent Cabinet briefing on the water situation MAWF Deputy per cubic meter (m3) is very costly. According to figures pub-
Permanent Secretary Abraham Nehemia cited the estimated lished in NamWater’s 2015 Annual Report the corporation paid
cost of N$ 24 billion for on-going and current projects.72 High around N$ 204 million and in turn sold just over 4.2 million m3
maintenance costs, in addition with the depreciation of Namib- of “potable desalinated water”. This translates into around N$
ia’s currency, probably accounts for part of the considerable 48 per m3 in comparison the bulk water supplied to the CoW
rise in the total cost estimate since 2010. Nevertheless, the comes at a cost of N$ 17.77 per m3.77
accuracy of these spiralling cost estimates is doubtful. The other alternative for supply augmentation envisions the
tapping of the Okavango River availing bulk water supply via a
As the one and only bulk water supplier in the country Nam- pipeline to the northern regions all the way to central Namibia.
Water should and does play an important role in managing and Detailed costing analysis of such a supply system estimate the
expanding national water infrastructure. The utility is mandated total construction cost of such a project at N$ 9.6 billion. This
to operate on a cost-recovery basis in an attempt to cover the figure would include pump stations, engineering oversight and
full cost of bulk water supply. But as many observers have necessary power infrastructure upgrade.78 The Okavango op-
pointed out over the years since the SOE’s creation in 1997 tion could also prove highly controversial with neighbouring
this has proven both administratively and politically challeng- countries that share the river watercourse.
ing.73 As the discussion on decentralisation illustrates many

70
“Integrated Water Resource Management Plan for Namibia”, 4-5.
Namibian Sun, “Rural sanitation a big challenge – Mutorwa”, September 14, 2012. http://www.namibiansun.com/content/agri/rural-sanitation-big-challenge-
71 

%C3%A2%E2%82%AC%E2%80%9C-mutorwa
72
Ndanki Kahiurika, “N$2b needed to bring water to Windhoek”, The Namibian, June 9, 2016. http://www.namibian.com.na/N$2b-needed-to-bring-water-to-Wind-
hoek/41510/read
73
Sherbourne, 297-8.
74
Namibia Water Corporation Ltd, “Annual Report 2015”, 20.
75
Namibia Water Corporation Ltd, “Annual Report 2014”, 36.
76
Upper Swakop Basin Management Committee, Public discussion event, June 22, 2016.
77
Namibia Water Corporation Ltd, “Annual Report 2015”, 22 & 26.

13
 SEPTEMBER 2016

Given the significant financial outlays involved it is unavoid- year government has allocated around N$ 1.2 billion primarily
able for government to explore alternative funding options for for the on-going Neckartal Dam, rural water pipeline construc-
at least part of the water and sanitation infrastructure needs. tion and the government Green Scheme.84 Furthermore, the
The PPP approach discussed earlier and actively supported by MTEF has set aside N$ 688 million for the Windhoek Aquifer
GRN is one such approach. Two researchers from the Univer- recharge project to be spent over a period of two financial years
sity of Greenwich, David Hall and Emanuele Lobina, have pub- 2017/18 – 18/19.85 In addition government has allocated N$
lished a very interesting and critical analysis of global finance 3.6 billion for a “bulk water supply” project intended to realise
and funding for water and sanitation infrastructure utilising pri- the water augmentation of the central area from the Okavango
marily financial data. They argue that, within the water sector, River. However, the first funds towards this project, around N$
the donor- advocated PPP model relying on private capital is 156 million will only be made available in 2018/19. While these
neither attractive to the private sector nor more beneficial com- budget allocations are positive, only limited finance has been
pared to public finance.79 Firstly they argue that there exists allocated in this fiscal year. The total allocated funds in the
no prior best-practice example for private finance, noting that MTEF are also far from meeting the purported N$ 24 billion
developed countries historically funded their water infrastruc- required.
ture with public finances utilising taxation and continue to do
so.80 Secondly, they state that the approach has so far failed in
External Political Factors
garnering significant amounts of private capital suggesting it is
seen as a ‘high risk, low-return’ scenario by private business. The public discussions and debates around the water supply
Finally they refute the assertion that private funding is critical and sanitation sector are dominated by technical, financial and
arguing that most developing countries could finance water economic considerations. This is understandable considering
infrastructure needs through public funds.81 The researchers the professional background of many people involved in the
conclude: sector. This circumstance, however, can and does obscure
other issues and debates that are pertinent when it comes to
“Donors should stop encouraging countries to try to finance understanding the workings and obstacles within the sector.
development of sewerage systems through cost recovery These factors can be roughly defined as being social or politi-
from users, and stop encouraging countries to believe that cal in nature rather than specific to water. Moreover, they tend
the private sector will make any significant contribution to to have little to do with water per se but are complex and often
investment in sanitation. They should instead help countries hidden aspects that arguably play a large role in the govern-
to build the taxation capacity needed to finance this invest- ance of Namibia. These aspects are often sensitive and bar-
ment, and focus aid on the countries in greatest need of as- ley researched and therefore this section will only touch upon
sistance.”82 some of them - the intention being to stimulate a wider and
more honest debate about these factors.
Hall and Lobina’s study published in 2012 dismisses potential
public funding shortfalls in developing countries due to eco- While researching the water sector it is noticeable that many
nomic slowdowns. Given the current uncertainties of Namibia’s water experts are frustrated with the seeming inability of policy
economic performance this might have not been a realistic as- makers and politicians to take major decisions for which they
sessment. Nevertheless, their study should not be disregarded. feel that, from a technical perspective at least, there exist clear
Astute observers of Namibia’s recent and current government guidance and recommendations. Yet, high political appointees
budgets, including numerous economists have noted repeat- in general have to deal with a whole range of regional and na-
edly and with growing concern that GRN consistently spends tional challenges. Water supply and sanitation take their place
large amounts on the military, new public office buildings and among many sectors that require urgent attention. Poverty, un-
ineffective SOEs, amongst others while neglecting critical sec- employment, lack of affordable housing and land to name but a
tors such as water and energy. few are all high on the agenda and it should be therefore come
Conversely there seems to be a tentative trend of local busi- as no surprise that many institutions and senior decision mak-
nesses, particularly in the central area to seek ways to mini- ers are likely overwhelmed and find it increasingly challenging
mise their dependency on water supplied by the state by mak- to prioritise and budget. Considering Namibia’s development
ing contingency plans such as optimising water use, procuring status, the proposition can safely be made that the HPP is a
large potable water tanks and drilling private boreholes.83 very ambitious plan and it is plausible that current governance
capacity will not be adequate for its implementation.
Government, in the current Medium-Term Expenditure Frame-
work (MTEF) has in its development budget made provisions Some observers of water issues in the country have also noted
for water infrastructure construction. In the current financial privately that senior technical and engineering staff and con-

Upper Swakop Basin Management Committee, Public discussion event, June 22, 2016.
78 

79
David Hall & Emanuele Lobina, “Financing Water and Sanitation: Public realities”, March 2012, 3.
80
Ibid., 4-6.
81
Ibid., 7-9 & 13-14.
82
Ibid., 18.
83
James Cumming, Andre Kuschke & Indileni Nanghonga, “The economic effects of a water shortage in Central Namibia”, September 18, 2015, 6. .
84
Rowland Brown, 9.
85
Ibid., 11 & 18.

14
 SEPTEMBER 2016

sultants often find it hard to have a candid discussion on water •G  overnment should finalise and promulgate all regulations
issues at higher institutional levels which often place more em- for the Water Resources Management Act No. 11 of 2013 to
phasis on political and diplomatic acumen rather than purely ensure that the provisions in the Act are compliant with the
technical professional ability. law and legally binding
•M  AWF should officially establish key governing institutions:
The process of decision-making within government and gov- the Water Advisory Council, the Water Regulator and the Wa-
ernment institutions in Namibia should also be scrutinised ter Tribunal as outlined in the 2013 Act
more critically. Apart from being subjected to cumbersome and • Government should revive, endorse and implement the
often ineffective bureaucratic review and approval processes, IWRM plan
the culture of many ministries often seems to discourage civil •G  overnment should make provisions for and fast-track fi-
servants from proactively exploring and implementing practical nance for key water infrastructure projects, including the re-
problem-orientated solutions. The multi-layered, complicated habilitation and modernisation of existing infrastructure
organisation of the civil service structure and the segmenta- • Government and stakeholders should realistically explore
tion and sharing of roles and responsibilities with many SOEs funding models for long-term water and sanitation infrastruc-
also makes it difficult to address sector issues in a harmonised, ture needs
persistent and coherent way. Moreover, senior staff operating • Government and stakeholders should initiate a transparent,
in such a structure might find it easier to defer critical decisions multi-sector and holistic dialogue regarding the water sector,
or push them to another institution to avoid potential blame. taking into account national development goals such as in-
Finally, easy freshwater access is something that many mid- dustrialisation and agriculture schemes and threats particular
dle-income and higher-income groups in the country take for climate change and pollution
granted including policy and decision makers. Much of the • Both public and private entities should place more emphasis
physical infrastructure is located out of sight. Local authorities on WDM and ensure that environmental sustainability is ac-
and municipalities seek to sustain water supply as long as pos- tively pursued
sible and only tentatively introducing WDM measures. Hence,
overall water shortage situations do not really affect people’s This paper has sought to provide a broad yet critical overview
lives unless they turn into crises or directly affect sectors like of the water and sanitation sector situation in which the country
farming or water-intensive industry. Poorer segments of soci- finds itself after 26 years of independence. Perversely, the cur-
ety who feel the brunt of water shortages much earlier tend rent water crisis in the central area of Namibia could actually
have fewer chances to voice their grievances and are more lead to positive long-term development within the water sector
easily ignored by decision-makers. It is clear that apart from which has in the past often been side-lined by other develop-
managing water resources more sensibly there needs to be a ment considerations. Establishing and realising funding mod-
change in mind-set among many citizens with regards to the els for new water infrastructure as important as it is, should
use of this precious resource.86 go hand-in-hand with a critical and open reflection of national
socio-economic goals with respect to the water situation. The
Conclusion & Recommendations GRN cannot and should not be responsible alone for address-
ing the multitude of water resource management issues in the
Governance challenges within the water sector are many country. Indeed, all citizens need to rethink their attitude and
and multi-faceted. Similar to other sectors in Namibia water activities with regards to their use of this precious resource.
and sanitation is hampered by poor implementation of overall
sound if ambitious policies. This is the result of a combination
of factors including severe underinvestment, limited capacity
and technical skills, poor coordination among stakeholders
and weak regulation and enforcement.

It is imperative for Namibia’s long-term positive and sustain-

able socio-economic development that these issues are ad-
dressed progressively and constructively. Mistrust and lack of
communication between public institutions, the private sector
and the general public severely limits problem-solving ap-
proaches. Schisms between technical experts and policymak-
ers need to be breeched as a matter of urgency. Besides vital
technical and environmental considerations it is equally impor-
tant that stakeholders commit to engage on the complex issue
of water resource management in a far more open, sober and
frank dialogue. Following is a list of suggest recommendations
which are not exhaustive but nevertheless vital:

Examples of international, academic discourse on similar issues mentioned in this section see: Geeta, Gandhi Kingdon, et al. “A rigorous review of the political economy
86 

of education systems in developing countries”, April 2014; Douglass North, Daron Acemoglu, Francis Fukuyama & Dani Rodrik, “Governance, Growth and Development
Decision-making”, April 2008.

15
 SEPTEMBER 2016

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Falk, Thomas, “Governance of Rural Water Supply in Na- Shaanika, Helvy, “Ohangwena aquifer Namibia’s best water
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Notes

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Notes

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 SEPTEMBER 2016

About the Author

Dietrich Remmert is an IPPR Research Associate and has worked intermittently for the Institute on a range of
research projects since 2004. He holds a Master’s degree in Peace Studies and International Politics from the
Eberhard Karls University in Tьbingen, Germany. He has over a decade of wide-ranging experience in the public
sector predominantly in the field of health and communication as well as education and public policy analysis.
He has worked for the Namibian government, donor and civil society organisations.

About Democracy Report

Democracy Report is a project of the IPPR which analyses and disseminates information relating to the legisla-
tive agenda of Namibia’s Parliament. The project aims to promote public participation in debates concerning the
work of Parliament by publishing regular analyses of legislation and other issues before the National Assembly
and the National Council.

About IPPR
The Institute for Public Policy Research (IPPR) is a not-for-profit organisation with a mission to deliver independent,
analytical, critical yet constructive research into social, political and economic issues that affect development in
Namibia. The IPPR was established in the belief that free and critical debate informed by quality research promotes
development.

© IPPR 2016

Incorporated Association Not for Gain Registration Number 21/2000/468

Directors: M M C Koep, D Motinga, N Nghipondoka-Robiati, J Ellis, G Hopwood (ex-officio)

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20