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UNIT-4:
Algebraic Structures and Number Theory:
Algebraic Structures: Algebraic Systems, Examples, General Properties, Semi Groups
and Monoids, Homomorphism of Semi Groups and Monoids, Group, Subgroup, Abelian
Group, Homomorphism, Isomorphism, Number Theory: Properties of Integers, Division
Theorem, The Greatest Common Divisor, Euclidean Algorithm, Least Common Multiple,
Testing for Prime Numbers, The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, Modular Arithmetic
(Fermat‘s Theorem and Euler‘s Theorem)

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UNIT-4
Algebraic Structures
Algebraic Systems with One Binary Operation
Binary Operation
Let S be a non-empty set. If f : S × S → S is a mapping, then f is called a binary
operation or binary composition in S.
The symbols +, ·, ∗, ⊕ etc are used to denote binary operations on a set.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S ⇒ + is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a · b ∈ S ⇒ · is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S ⇒ ◦ is a binary operation in S.
 For a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ S ⇒ ∗ is a binary operation in S.
 This is said to be the closure property of the binary operation and the set S is said to be
closed with respect to the binary operation.
Properties of Binary Operations
Commutative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b = b ∗ a, then ∗ is said to be
commutative in S. This is called commutative law.
Associative: ∗ is a binary operation in a set S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c), then ∗ is said to
be associative in S. This is called associative law.
Distributive: ◦, ∗ are binary operations in S. If for a, b, c ∈ S, (i) a ◦ (b ∗ c) = (a ◦ b) ∗ (a ◦ c), (ii)
(b ∗ c) ◦ a = (b ◦ a) ∗ (c ◦ a), then ◦ is said to be distributive w.r.t the operation ∗.
Example: N is the set of natural numbers.
(i) +, · are binary operations in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b ∈ N and a · b ∈ N. In
other words N is said to be closed w.r.t the operations + and ·.
(ii) +, · are commutative in N, since for a, b ∈ N, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.
(iii) +, · are associative in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iii) is distributive w.r.t the operation + in N, since for a, b, c ∈ N, a · (b + c) = a · b + a ·
c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.
(iv) The operations subtraction (−) and division (÷) are not binary operations in N,
3
sincefor 3, 5 ∈ N does not imply 3 − 5 ∈ N and 5 ∈ N.
Example: A is the set of even integers.
(i) +, · are binary operations in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b ∈ A and a · b ∈ A.
(i) +, · are commutative in A, since for a, b ∈ A, a + b = b + a and a · b = b · a.
(ii) +, · are associative in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c.
(iv) · is distributive w.r.t the operation + in A, since for a, b, c ∈ A, a ·
(b + c) = a · b + a · c and (b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

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Example: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be an operation on S defined by a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S.

Determine whether ◦ is commutative and associative in S.
Solution: Since a ◦ b = a for a, b ∈ S and b ◦ a = b for a, b ∈ S.
⇒ a ◦ b ≠ b ◦ a.
∴ ◦ is not commutative in S.
Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a for a, b, c ∈ S.
∴ ◦ is associative in S.
Example: ◦ is operation defined on Z such that a ◦ b = a + b − ab for a, b ∈ Z. Is the operation ◦ a
binary operation in Z? If so, is it associative and commutative in Z?
Solution: If a, b ∈ Z, we have a + b ∈ Z, ab ∈ Z and a + b − ab ∈ Z.
⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.
⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.
∴ ◦ is commutative in Z.
Now
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) + c − (a ◦ b)c
= a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c
=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc
and
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a + (b ◦ c) − a(b ◦ c)
=a + b + c − bc − a(b + c − bc)
=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac + abc
=a + b − ab + c − ac − bc + abc
⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c). ∴
◦ is associative in Z.
′ ′
Example: Fill in blanks in the following composition table so that ◦ is associative in S = {a,b,c,d}.
◦ a b c d
a a b c d
b b a c d
c c d c d
d

Solution: d ◦ a = (c ◦ b) ◦ a[∵ c ◦ b = d]
=c ◦ (b ◦ a) [∵ ◦ is associative]
=c ◦ b
=d
d ◦ b = (c ◦ b) ◦ b = c ◦ (b ◦ b) = c ◦ a = c.
d ◦ c = (c ◦ b) ◦ c = c ◦ (b ◦ c) = c ◦ c = c.

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d ◦ d = (c ◦ b) ◦ (c ◦ b)
=c ◦ (b ◦ c) ◦ b
=c ◦ c ◦ b
=c ◦ (c ◦ b)
=c ◦ d
=d
Hence, the required composition table is

◦ a b c d
a a b c d
b b a c d
c c d c d
d d c c d

Example: Let P (S) be the power set of a non-empty set S. Let ∩ be an operation in P (S). Prove
that associative law and commutative law are true for the operation in P (S).

Solution: P(S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.

Let A,B ∈ P(S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P(S).
∴ ∩ is a binary operation in P (S).
Also A ∩ B = B ∩ A
∴ ∩ is commutative in P (S).
Again A ∩ B, B ∩ C, (A ∩ B) ∩ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) are subsets of S.

∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) ∈ P (S).
Since (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
∴ ∩ is associative in P (S).
Algebraic Structures
Definition: A non-empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations is called an
algebraic structure or an algebraic system.
If ◦ is a binary operation on G, then the algebraic structure is written as (G, ◦).
Example: (N, +), (Q, −), (R, +) are algebraic structures.
Semi Group
Definition: An algebraic structure (S, ◦) is called a semi group if the binary oper-ation ◦ is
associative in S.
That is, (S, ◦) is said to be a semi group if
(i) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S
(ii) (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) for all a, b, c ∈ S.
Example:
1. (N, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N and a, b, c ∈ N ⇒ (a + b) + c =a+ (b + c).
2. (Q, −) is not a semi group. For 5,3/2 , 1 ∈ Q does not imply (5 – 3/2 ) −1 = 5 −(3/2 −1).
3. (R, +) is a semi group. For a, b ∈ R ⇒ a + b ∈ R and a, b, c ∈ R ⇒ (a + b) + c = a+ (b + c).

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Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a for all a, b ∈ S. Show that (S, ◦) is a semi group.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ S ⇒ a ◦ b = a ∈ S.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in S. Let a, b, c ∈ S, a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ b = a
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ c = a.
⇒ ◦ is associative in S.
∴ (S, ◦) is a semi group.
Example: The operation ◦ is defined by a ◦ b = a + b − ab for all a, b ∈ Z. Show that (Z, ◦) is a
semi group.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a ◦ b = a + b − ab ∈ Z.
∴ ◦ is a binary operation in Z.
Let a, b, c ∈ Z.
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a + b − ab) ◦ c
=a + b − ab + c − (a + b − ab)c
=a + b + c − ab − bc − ac + abc

a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b + c − bc)
=a + (b + c − bc) − a(b + c − bc)
=a + b + c − bc − ab − ac +
abc ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).

⇒ ◦ is associative in Z. ∴ (Z, ◦) is semi group.

Example: (P (S), ∩) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.
Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.
Let A, B ∈ P (S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∩ B ∈ P (S).
∴ ∩ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).
∴ (A ∩ B) ∩ C, A ∩ (B ∩ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∩ B) ∩ C
= A ∩ (B ∩ C)
∴ ∩ is associative in P (S).
Hence (P (S), ∩) is a semi group.
Example: (P (S), ∪) is a semi group, where P (S) is the power set of a non-empty set S.
Solution: P (S)= Set of all possible subsets of S.
Let A, B ∈ P (S).
Since A ⊆ S, B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ S ⇒ A ∪ B ∈ P (S).
∴ ∪ is a binary operation in P (S). Let A, B, C ∈ P (S).
∴ (A ∪ B) ∪ C, A ∪ (B ∪ C) ∈ P (S). Since (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
∴ ∪ is associative in P (S).
Hence (P (S), ∪) is a semi group.

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Example: Q is the set of rational numbers, ◦ is a binary operation defined on Q such that a ◦ b = a
− b + ab for a, b ∈ Q. Then (Q, ◦) is not a semi group.
Solution: For a, b, c ∈ Q,
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = (a ◦ b) − c + (a ◦ b)c
=a − b + ab − c + (a − b + ab)c
=a − b + ab − c + ac − bc + abc
a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a − (b ◦ c) + a(b ◦ c)
=a − (b − c + bc) + a(b − cbc)
=a − b + c − bc + ab − ac + abc.
Therefore, (a ◦ b) ◦ c ≠ a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Example: Let (A, ∗) be a semi group. Show that for a, b, c in A if a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c ∗ b,
then (a ∗ b) ∗ c = c ∗ (a ∗ b).
Solution: Given (A, ∗) be a semi group, a ∗ c = c ∗ a and b ∗ c = c ∗ b.
Consider
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) [∵ A is seme group]
=a ∗ (c ∗ b) [∵ b ∗ c = c ∗ b]
=(a ∗ c) ∗ b [∵ A is seme group]
=(c ∗ a) ∗ b [∵ a ∗ c = c ∗ a]
=c ∗ (a ∗ b) [∵ A is seme group].
Homomorphism of Semi-Groups
Definition: Let (S, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two semi-groups. A mapping f : S → T such that for any
two elements a, b ∈ S, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) is called a semi-group homomorphism.
Definition: A homomorphism of a semi-group into itself is called a semi-group en-domorphism.
Example: Let (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) be semigroups and f : S1 → S2 and g : S2 → S3 be
homomorphisms. Prove that the mapping of g ◦ f : S1 → S3 is a semigroup homomorphism.
Solution: Given that (S1, ∗1), (S2, ∗2) and (S3, ∗3) are three semigroups and f : S1 →
S2 and g : S2 → S3 be homomorphisms.
Let a, b be two elements of S1.
(g ◦ f)(a ∗1 b) = g[f(a ∗1 b)]
= g[f(a) ∗2 f(b)] (∵ f is a homomorphism)
= g(f(a)) ∗3 g(f(b)) (∵ g is a homomorphism)
=(g ◦ f)(a) ∗3 (g ◦ f)(b)
∴ g ◦ f is a homomorphism.
Identity Element: Let S be a non-empty set and ◦ be a binary operation on S. If there exists an
element e ∈ S such that a ◦ e = e ◦ a = a, for a ∈ S, then e is called an identity element of S.

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Example:
(i) In the algebraic system (Z, +), the number 0 is an identity element.
(ii) In the algebraic system (R, ·), the number 1 is an identity element.
Note: The identity element of an algebraic system is unique.

Monoid
Definition: A semi group (S, ◦) with an identity element with respect to the binary operation ◦
is known as a monoid. i.e., (S, ◦) is a monoid if S is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary operation
in S such that ◦ is associative and there exists an identity element w.r.t ◦.
Example:
1. (Z, +) is a monoid and the identity is 0.
2. (Z, ·) is a monid and the identity is 1.

Monoid Homomorphism
Definition: Let (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) be any two monoids, em and et denote the identity elements
of (M, ∗) and (T, ◦) respectively. A mapping f : M → T such that for any two elements a, b ∈
M,
f(a ∗ b) = f(a) ◦ f(b) and
f(em) = et
is called a monoid homomorphism.

Monoid homomorphism presents the associativity and identity. It also preserves

−1 −1
commutative. If a ∈ M is invertible and a ∈ M is the inverse of a in M, then f(a ) is the
−1 −1
inverse of f(a), i.e., f(a ) = [f(a)] .

Sub Semi group

Let (S, ∗) be a semi group and T be a subset of S. Then (T, ∗) is called a sub semi group of (S,
∗) whenever T is closed under ∗. i.e., a ∗ b ∈ T, for all a, b ∈ T .

Sub Monoid
Let (S,∗) be a monoid with e is the identity element and T be a non-empty subset of S. Then
(T, ∗) is the sub monoid of (S, ∗) if e ∈ T and a ∗ b ∈ T , whenever a, b ∈ T . Example:
1. Under the usual addition, the semi group formed by positive integers is a sub semi group of
all integers.
2. Under the usual addition, the set of all rational numbers forms a monoid. We denote it (Q,
+). The monoid (Z, +) is a submonid of (Q, +).
3. Under the usual multiplication, the set E of all even integers forms a semi group.
This semi group is sub semi group of (Z, ·). But it is not a submonoid of (Z, ·), because 1≠ E.

Example: Show that the intersection of two submonoids of a monoid is a monoid.

Solution: Let S be a monoid with e as the identity, and S1 and S2 be two submonoids of S.
Since S1 and S2 are submonoids, these are monoids. Therefore e ∈ S1 and e ∈ S2.

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Since S1 ∩S2 is a subset of S, the associative law holds in S1 ∩S2, because it holds in S.
Accordingly S1 ∩ S2 forms a monoid with e as the identity.

Invertible Element: Let (S,◦) be an algebraic structure with the identity element e in S w.r.t
◦. An element a ∈ S is said to be invertible if there exists an element x∈ S such that a ◦ x = x ◦
a = e.
Note: The inverse of an invertible element is unique.
From the composition table, one can conclude
1. Closure Property: If all entries in the table are elements of S, then S closed under ◦.
2. Commutative Law: If every row of the table coincides with the corresponding column,
then ◦ is commutative on S.
3. Identity Element: If the row headed by an element a of S coincides with the top row, then a
is called the identity element.
4. Invertible Element: If the identity element e is placed in the table at the intersection of the
′ ′ ′ ′ −1 −1
row headed by a and the column headed by b , then b = a and a = b.
2
Example: A = {1, ω, ω }.
2
· 1 ω ω

1 1 ω ω2
2
ω ω ω 1

ω2 ω2 1 ω
From the table we conclude that
1. Closure Property: Since all entries in the table are elements of A. So, closure property is
satisfied.
st nd rd st nd rd
2. Commutative Law: Since 1 , 2 and 3 rows coincides with 1 , 2 and 3 columns

respectively. So multiplication is commutative on A.

3. Identity Element: Since row headed by 1 is same as the initial row, so 1 is the identity
element.
−1 −1 2 2 −1
4. Inverses: Clearly 1 = 1, ω = ω , (ω ) = ω.

Groups
Definition: If G is a non-empty set and ◦ is a binary operation defined on G such that the
following three laws are satisfied then (G, ◦) is a group.
Associative Law: For a, b, c ∈ G, (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c)
Identity Law: There exists e ∈ G such that a ◦ e = a = e ◦ a for every a ∈ G, e is called an
identity element in G.
Inverse Law: For each a ∈ G, there exists an element b ∈ G such that a◦b = b◦a = e, b is called
an inverse of a.
Example: The set Z of integers is a group w.r.t. usual addition.
(i). For a, b ∈ Z ⇒ a + b ∈ Z
(ii). For a, b, c ∈ Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(iii). 0 ∈ Z such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a for each a ∈ G

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∴ 0 is the identity element in Z.

(iv). For a ∈ Z, there exists −a ∈ Z such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
∴ −a is the inverse of a. (Z, +) is a
group.
Example: Give an example of a monoid which is not a group.
Solution: The set N of natural numbers w.r.t usual multiplication is not a group.
(i). For a, b ∈ N ⇒ a · b.
(ii). For a, b, c ∈ N, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
(iii). 1 ∈ N such that 1 · a = a · 1 = a, for all a ∈ N.
∴ (N, ·) is a monoid.
(iv). There is no n ∈ N such that a · n = n · a = 1 for a ∈ N.
∴ Inverse law is not true.
∴ The algebraic structure (N, ·) is not a group.
Example: (R, +) is a group, where R denote the set of real numbers.
Abelian Group (or Commutative Group): Let (G, ∗) be a group. If ∗ is com-mutative that is
a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G then (G, ∗) is called an Abelian group.
Example: (Z, +) is an Abelian group.
2 2
Example: Prove that G = {1, ω, ω } is a group with respect to multiplication where 1, ω, ω
are cube roots of unity.
Solution: We construct the composition table as follows:

2
· 1 ω ω
2
1 1 ω ω
2 3
ω ω ω ω =1
2 2 3 4
ω ω ω =1 ω =ω
3
The algebraic system is (G, ·) where ω = 1 and multiplication · is the binary opera-tion on G.
From the composition table; it is clear that (G, ·) is closed with respect to the oper-ation
multiplication and the operation · is associative.
1 is the identity element in G such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.
Each element of G is invertible
1. 1· 1 = 1 ⇒ 1 is its own inverse.
2 3 2 2
2. ω · ω = ω = 1 ⇒ ω is the inverse of ω and ω is the inverse of ω in G.
∴ (G, ·) is a group and a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G, that is commutative law holds in
G with respect to multiplication.
∴ (G, ·) is an abelian group.

88

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is an abelian group with respect

Example: Show that the set G = {1, −1, i, −i} where i =
1
to multiplication as a binary operation. Solution: Let us construct the composition table:

· 1 −1 i −i
1 1 −1 i −i
-1 −1 1 −i i
I i −i −1 1
−i −i i 1 -1

From the above composition, it is clear that the algebraic structure (G, ·) is closed and
satisfies the following axioms:
Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c).
Since
1 · (−1 · i) = 1 · −i = −i
(1 · −1) · i = −1 · i = −i
⇒ 1 · (−1 · i) = (1 · −1) · i
Similarly with any other three elements of G the properties holds.
∴ Associative law holds in (G, ·).
Existence of identity: 1 is the identity element in (G, ·) such that 1 · a = a = a · 1, ∀ a ∈ G.
Existence of inverse: 1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1 ⇒ 1 is inverse of 1.
(−1) · (−1) = 1 = (−1) · (−1) ⇒ −1 is the inverse of (−1)
i · (−i) = 1 = −i · i ⇒ −i is the inverse of i in G.
−i · i = 1 = i · (−i) ⇒ i is the inverse of −i in G.
Hence inverse of every element in G exists.
Thus all the axioms of a group are satisfied.
Commutativity: a · b = b · a, ∀a, b ∈ G hold in G.
1 · 1 = 1 = 1 · 1; − 1 · 1 = −1 = 1 · −1
i · 1 = i = 1 · i; i · −i = −i · i = 1 etc.
Commutative law is satisfied.
Hence (G, ·) is an abelian group.
Example: Prove that the set Z of all integers with binary operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = a + b
+ 1, ∀ a, b ∈ Z is an abelian group. Solution:
Closure: Let a, b ∈ Z. Since a + b ∈ Z and a + b + 1 ∈ Z.
∴ Z is closed under ∗.
Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ Z.
Consider (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (a + b + 1) ∗ c
=a + b + 1 + c + 1
=a + b + c + 2
also

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a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ (b + c + 1)
=a + b + c + 1 + 1
=a + b + c + 2
Hence (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) for a, b, c ∈ Z.

Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Z. Let e ∈ Z such that e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a, i.e., a + e + 1

=a
⇒ e = −1
e = −1 is the identity element in Z.
Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Z. Let b ∈ Z such that a ∗ b = e.
⇒ a + b + 1 = −1
b = −2 − a
∴ For every a ∈ Z, there exits −2−a ∈ Z such that a∗(−2−a) = (−2−a)∗a = −1.
∴ (Z, ∗) is an abelian group.
Example: Show that the set Q+ of all positive rational numbers forms an abelian group under
the composition defined by ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3 for a, b ∈ Q+. Solution: Q+ of the set of all
positive rational numbers and for a, b ∈ Q+, we have the operation ◦ such that a ◦ b = ab/3.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Since ab∈ Q+ and ab/3∈ Q+.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ Q+ ⇒ (a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Since (a ◦ b) ◦ c = ( ab/3 ) ◦ c =[ab/3 .c]/3 = a/3( bc/3 ) = a/3 (b ◦ c) = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
Existence of Identity: Let a ∈ Q+. Let e ∈ Q+ such that e ◦ a = a.
i.e., ea/3 = a
⇒ ea − 3a = 0 ⇒ (e − 3)a = 0
⇒e−3=0 (∵ a ≠ 0)
⇒e=3
∴ e = 3 is the identity element in Q+.
Existence of Inverse: Let a ∈ Q+. Let b ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ b = e.
⇒ab/3 = 3
b = 9/a (∵ a ≠ 0)
∴ For every a ∈ Q+, there exists 9/a ∈ Q+ such that a ◦ 9/a = 9/a ◦ a = 3.
Commutativity: Let a, b ∈ Q+ ⇒ a ◦ b = b ◦ a.
Since a ◦ b = ab/3=ba/3 = b ◦ a.
(Q+, ◦) is an abelian group.

Exercises: 1. Prove that the set G of rational numbers other than 1 with operation ⊕ such that
a ⊕ b = a + b − ab for a, b ∈ G is abelian group.

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2. Consider the algebraic system (G, ∗), where G is the set of all non-zero real numbers and ∗
ab
is a binary operation defined by: a ∗ b = 4, ∀a, b ∈ G. Show that (G, ∗) is an
Addition modulo m
We shall now define a composite known as ―addition modulo m‖ where m is fixed integer.
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing
the ordinary sum of a and b by m, then the addition modulo m of a and b is r symbolically
a +m b = r, 0 ≤ r < m.
Example: 20 +6 5 = 1, since 20 + 5 = 25 = 4(6) + 1, i.e., 1 is the remainder when 20+5 is
divisible by 6.
Example: −15 +5 3 = 3, since −15 + 3 = −12 = 3(−5) + 3.
Multiplication modulo p
If a and b are any two integers, and r is the least non-negative reminder obtained by dividing
the ordinary product of a and b by p, then the Multiplication modulo p of a and b is r
symbolically
a ×p b = r, 0 ≤ r < p.

Example: Show that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian group with respect to addition
modulo 5.
Solution: We form the composition table as follows:
+5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3

Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of G, the set G is closed with
respect to addition modulo 5.
Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G, (a +5 b) +5 c and a +5 (b +5 c) leave the
same remainder when divided by 5.
i.e., (a +5 b) +5 c = a +5 (b +5 c)
(1 +5 3) +5 4 = 3 = 1 +5 (3 +5 4) etc.
Existence of Identity: Clearly 0 ∈ G is the identity element, since we have
0 +5 9 = 4 = 9 +5 0,∀ a ∈ G.
Existence of Inverse: Each element in G is invertible with respect to addition modulo 5.
0 is its own inverse; 4 is the inverse of 1 and 1 is the inverse of 4.
2 is the inverse of 3 and 3 is the inverse of 2 with respect to addition modulo 5 in G.
Commutativity: From the composition table it is clear that a+5 b = b+5 a, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
Hence (G, +5) is an abelian group.

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Example: Show that the set G= {1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian with respect to multipli-cation
modulo 5.
Solution: The composition table for multiplication modulo 5 is
×
5 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4
2 2 4 1 3
3 3 1 4 2
4 4 3 2 1
From the above table, it is clear that G is closed with respect to the operation ×5 and the
binary composition ×5 is associative; 1 is the identity element.
Each element in G has a inverse.
1 is its own inverse
2 is the inverse of 3
3 is the inverse of 2
4 is the inverse of 4, with respect to the binary operation ×5.
Commutative law holds good in (G, ×5).
Therefore (G, ×5) is an abelian group.
Example: Consider the group, G = {1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17} under multiplication
−1 −1 modulo
−1 18.
Construct the multiplication table of G and find the values of: 5 , and .
7 17
Example: If G is the set of even integers, i.e., G = {· · · , −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, · · · } then prove that
G is an abelian group with usual addition as the operation. Solution: Let a, b, c ∈ G.
∴ We can take a = 2x, b = 2y, c = 2z, where x, y, z ∈ Z.
Closure: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b ∈ G.
Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) ∈ G.
Associativity: a, b, c ∈ G ⇒ a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
Since
a + (b + c) = 2x + (2y + 2z)
=2[x + (y + z)]
=2[(x + y) + z]
=(2x + 2y) + 2z
=(a + b) + c
Existence of Identity: a ∈ G, there exists 0 ∈ G such that a + 0 = 0 + a = a. Since a + 0 =
2x + 0 = 2x = a and 0 + a = 0 + 2x = 2x = a
∴ 0 is the identity in G.
Existence of Inverse: a ∈ G, there exists −a ∈ G such that a+(−a) = (−a)+a = 0.
Since a + (−a) = 2x + (−2x) = 0 and (−a) + a = (−2x) + 2x = 0.
∴ (G, +) is a group.
Commutativity: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a + b = b + a.
Since a + b = 2x + 2y = 2(x + y) = 2(y + x) = 2y + 2x = b + a.
∴ (G, +) is an abelian group.

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ab
Example: Show that set G = {x| x = 2 3 for a, b ∈ Z} is a group under multipli-cation.
p q r s lm
Solution: Let x, y, z ∈ G. We can take x = 2 3 , y = 2 3 , z = 2 3 , where p, q, r, s, l, m ∈ Z.
We know that (i). p + r, q + s ∈ Z
(ii). (p + r) + l = p + (r + l), (q + s) + m = q + (s + m).
Closure: x, y ∈ G ⇒ x · y ∈ G.
p q r s p+r q+s
Since x · y = (2 3 )(2 3 ) = 2 3 ∈ G. Associativity: x, y, z ∈ G ⇒ (x · y) · z = x · (y · z)
p q r s lm
Since (x · y) · z = (2 3 2 3 )(2 3 )
=2(p+r)+l3(q+s)+m

=2p+(r+l)3q+(s+m)
p q rs l m
=(2 3 )(2 3 2 3 )
=x · (y · z)
0 0
Existence of Identity: Let x ∈ G. We know that e = 2 3 ∈ G, since 0 ∈ Z.
p q 0 0 p+0 q+0 p q 0 0 p q p q
∴x · e = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = 2 3 = x and e · x = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = x. ∴ e ∈ G such
that x · e = e · x = x
00
∴ e = 2 3 is the identity element in G.
Existence of Inverse: Let x ∈ G.
−p −q
Now y = 2 3 ∈ G exists, since −p, −q ∈ Z such that
p q −p −q 0 0 −p −q p q 00
x · y = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = e and y · x = 2 3 2 3 = 2 3 = e.
p q −p −q
∴For every x = 2 3 ∈ G there exists y = 2 3 ∈ G such that x ·y = y ·x = e. ∴ (G, ·) is a
group.

Example: Show that the sets of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠ 0 w.r.t
the operation ∗ defined by (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is a group. Is the commutative?
Solution: Let G = {(a, b)| a, b ∈ R and a ≠ 0}. Define a binary operation ∗ on G by (a, b) ∗ (c,
d) = (ac, bc + d), for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G. Now we show that (G, ∗) is a group.
Closure: (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) ∈ G.
Since a ≠ 0, c ≠ 0 ⇒ ac ≠ 0.
Associativity: (a, b), (c, d), (e, f) ∈ G ⇒ {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗(e, f)}.
Since {(a, b) ∗ (c, d)} ∗ (e, f) = (ac, bc + d) ∗ (e, f)
= (ace, (bc + d)e + f)
= (ace, bce + de + f)
Also (a, b) ∗ {(c, d) ∗ (e, f)} = (a, b) ∗ (ce, de + f)
= (a(ce), b(ce) + de + f)
= (ace, bce + de + f)
Existence of Identity: Let (a, b)∈G. Let (x, y)∈ G such that (x, y)∗(a, b)=(a,b)∗(x, y)=(a, b)
⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (a, b)

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⇒ xa = a, ya + b = b

⇒ x = 1, (∵ a ≠ 0) and ya = 0 ⇒ x = 1 and y = 0 (∵ a ≠ 0)
⇒ (1, 0) ∈ G such that (a, b) ∗ (1, 0) = (a, b).
∴ (1, 0) is the identity in G.
Existence of Inverse: Let (a, b) ∈ G. Let (x, y) ∈ G such that (x, y) ∗ (a, b) = (1, 0)
⇒ (xa, ya + b) = (1, 0)
1 −b
⇒ xa = 1, ya + b = 0 ⇒ x = a , y = a
∴ The inverse of (a, b) exits and it is (1/a,-b/a ).
Commutativity: Let (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G ⇒ (a, b) ∗ (c, d) ≠ (c, d) ∗ (a, b)
Since (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) and (c, d) ∗ (a, b) = (ca, da + b).
∴ G is a group but not commutative group w.r.t ∗.
−1 −1 −1
Example: If (G, ∗) is a group then (a ∗ b) = b ∗ a for all a, b ∈ G.
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G and e be the identity element in G.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Let a ∈ G ⇒ a ∈ G such that a∗ a =a ∗a=e and b∈ G ⇒ b ∈ G such that b∗ b =b ∗ b =
e.
−1
Now a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ G and (a ∗ b) ∈ G.
Consider
−1 −1 −1
(a ∗ b) ∗ (b ∗ a ) = a ∗ [b ∗ (b −1 ∗ a )] (by associativity law)
−1 −1
=a ∗ [(b ∗ b )∗ a ]

−1 −1
= a ∗ (e ∗ a ) (b ∗b = e)
−1
=a∗a (e is the identity)
=e
and
−1
(b ∗ a−1) ∗ (a ∗ b) = b −1 ∗ [ a−1 ∗ (a ∗ b)]
−1 −1
=b ∗ [(a ∗ a) ∗ b]
−1
=b ∗ [e ∗ b]
−1
=b ∗b
=e
−1 −1 −1
⇒ (a ∗ b) ∗ (b ∗ a ) = (b ∗ a−1 ) ∗ (a ∗ b) = e
−1 −1 −1
(a ∗
b) =b ∗a for all a, b ∈ G.
Note:
−1 −1 −1

1. (b a ) = ab
−1 −1 −1 −1
2. (abc) =c b a
3. If (G, +) is a group, then −(a + b) = (−b) + (−a)
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4. −(a + b + c) = (−c) + (−b) + (−a).

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Theorem: Cancelation laws hold good in G, i.e., for all a, b, c ∈ G a ∗ b = a ∗ c ⇒ b = c (left

cancelation law) b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c (right cancelation law).
Proof: G is a group. Let e be the identity element in G.
−1 −1 −1
a ∈ G ⇒ a ∈ G such that a ∗ a = a ∗ a = e.
Consider
a∗b=a∗c
−1 −1
⇒a ∗ (a ∗ b) = a (a ∗ c)
−1 −1
⇒(a ∗ a) ∗ b = (a ∗ a) ∗ c (by associative law)
−1
⇒ e ∗ b = e ∗ c (a is the inverse of a in G)
⇒ b = c (e is the identity element in G)
and
b∗a=c∗a
−1 −1
⇒ (b ∗ a)a = (c ∗ a) ∗ a
−1 −1
⇒ b ∗ (a ∗ a ) = c ∗ (a ∗ a ) (by associative law)
−1
⇒ b ∗ e = c ∗ e (∵ a ∗ a = e)
⇒ b = c (e is the identity element in G)
Note:
1. If G is an additive group, a + b = a + c ⇒ b = c and b + a = c + a ⇒ b = c.
2. In a semi group cancelation laws may not hold. Let S be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices over
integers and let matrix multiplication be the binary operation defined on S. Then S is a semi
group of the above operation.
 1 0  0 0  0 0
If A=  ; B=   ;C=  , then A, B, C ∈ S and AB = AC, we observe that left
 0 0  0 1 1 0

cancellation law is not true in the semi group.

3. (N, +) is a semi group. For a, b, c ∈ N
a + b = a + c ⇒ b + c and b + a = c + a ⇒ b = c.
But (N, +) is not a group.
In a semigroup even if cancellation laws holds, then semigroup is not a group.

Example: If every element of a group G is its own inverse, show that G is an abelian group.
−1 −1
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G. By hypothesis a = a, b = b.
−1
Then ab ∈ G and hence (ab) = ab.
Now
−1
(ab) = ab
−1 −1
⇒b a = ab
⇒ ba = ab
∴ G is an abelian group.

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Note: The converse of the above not true.

For example, (R, +), where R is the set of real numbers, is abelian group, but no element
except 0 is its own inverse.
2
Example: Prove that if a = a, then a = e, a being an element of a group G.
2
Solution: Let a be an element of a group G such that a = a. To prove that a = e.
2
a = a ⇒ aa = a
−1 −1 −1
⇒(aa)a = aa ⇒ a(aa ) = e
−1
⇒ ae = e [∵ aa = e] ⇒ a = e [∵ ae = a]
2
Example: In a group G having more than one element, if x = x, for every x ∈ G.
Prove that G is abelian.
2 2 2
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G. Under the given hypothesis, we have a = a, b = b, (ab) = ab.
2 2 2
∴ a(ab)b = (aa)(bb) = a b = ab = (ab) = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b
⇒ ab = ba (Using cancelation laws)
∴ G is abelian.
2 2 2
Example: Show that in a group G, for a, b ∈ G, (ab) = a b ⇔ G is abelian. (May. 2012)
2 22
Solution: Let a, b ∈ G, and (ab) = a b . To prove that G is abelian.
Then
2 2 2
(ab) = a b

⇒ (ab)(ab) = (aa)(bb)
⇒ a(ba)b = a(ab)b (by Associative law) ⇒ ba = ab, (by cancellation
laws)
⇒ G is abelian.
2 22
Conversely, let G be abelian. To prove that (ab) = a b .
2 22
Then (ab) = (ab)(ab) = a(ba)b = a(ab)b = (aa)(bb) = a b .
***Example: If a, b are any two elements of a group (G, ·), which commute. Show that
−1
1. a and b commute
−1
2. b −1and a−1commute
3. a and commute.
b
Solution: (G, ·) is a group and such that ab = ba.
−1 −1
1. ab = ba ⇒ a (ab) = a (ba)
−1 −1
⇒ (a a)b = a (ba)
−1
⇒ eb = (a b)a
−1
⇒ b = (a b)a
−1 −1 −1
⇒ ba = [(a b)a]a
−1 −1
=(a b)(aa )
−1
=(a b)e
−1
=a b

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−1
⇒a and b commute.
−1 −1
1 ab = ba ⇒ (ab)b = (ba)b
−1
⇒ a(bb ) =
−1
(ba)b ⇒
−1
ae = b(ab )
−1
⇒ a = b(ab )
−1 −1 −1
⇒ b a = b [b(ab )]
−1 −1
=(b b)(ab )]
−1
=e(ab )
−1
=ab
−1
⇒b and a commute.
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
2 ab = ba ⇒ (ab) = (ba) b a =a b
−1 −1
⇒a and b are commute.
Order of an Element
Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G, then the least positive integer n if it exists such
n
that a = e is called the order of a ∈ G.
The order of an element a ∈ G is be denoted by O(a).
Example: G = {1, −1, i, −i} is a group with respect to multiplication. 1 is the identity in G.
1 2 3
1 = 1 = 1 = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(1) = 1.
2 4 6
(−1) = (−1) = (−1) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−1) = 2.
4 8 12
i =i =i = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(i) = 4.
4 8
(−i) = (−i) = · · · = 1 ⇒ O(−i) = 4.
5
Example: In a group G, a is an element of order 30. Find order of a .
Solution: Given O(a) = 30
30 5
⇒a = e, e is the identity element of G. Let O(a ) = n
5n
⇒ (a ) = e
5n
⇒a = e, where n is the least positive integer. Hence 30 is divisor of 5n.
∴ n = 6.
5
Hence O(a ) = 6

Sub Groups
Definition: Let (G, ∗) be a group and H be a non-empty subset of G. If (H, ∗) is itself is a
group, then (H, ∗) is called sub-group of (G, ∗).
Examples:
1. (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +).

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2. The additive group of even integers is a subgroup of the additive group of all
integers.
3. (N, +) is not a subgroup of the group (Z, +), since identity does not exist in N under
+.
Example: Let G = {1, −1, i, −i} and H = {1, −1}.
Here G and H are groups with respect to the binary operation multiplication and H is a subset
of G. Therefore (H, ·) is a subgroup of (G, ·).
Example: Let H = {0, 2, 4} ⊆ Z6. Check that (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).
Solution: Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
+6 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 4 5 0
2 2 3 4 5 0 1
3 3 4 5 0 1 2
4 4 5 0 1 2 3
5 5 0 1 2 3 4
∴ (Z6, +6) is a group.

H= {0, 2, 4}.

+6 0 2 4
0 0 2 4
2 2 4 0
4 4 0 2

The following conditions are to be satisfied in order to prove that it is a subgroup.

(i). Closure: Let a, b ∈ H ⇒ a +6 b ∈ H.
0, 2 ∈ H ⇒ 0 +6 2 = 2 ∈ H.
(ii). Identity Element: The row headed by 0 is exactly same as the initial row.
∴ 0 is the identity element.
−1 −1 −1
(iii). Inverse: 0 = 0, 2 = 4, 4 = 2.
Inverse exist for each element of (H, +6).
∴ (H, +6) is a subgroup of (Z6, +6).
Theorem: If (G, ∗) is a group and H ⊆ G, then (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if
(i) a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ b ∈ H;
−1
(ii) a ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H.
Proof: The condition is necessary
Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗).
To prove that conditions (i) and (ii) are satisfied.

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Since (H, ∗) is a group, by closure property we have a, b ∈ H ⇒ ab ∈ H.

−1
Also, by inverse property a ∈ H ⇒ a ∈ H.

The condition is sufficient:

Let (i) and (ii) be true. To prove that (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗).
We are required to prove is: ∗ is associative in H and identity e ∈ H.
That ∗ is associative in H follows from the fact that ∗ is associative in G. Since H is nonempty,
−1
let a ∈ H ⇒a ∈ H (by (ii))
−1 −1
∴ a ∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ aa ∈ H (by (i))
⇒ e ∈ H (∵ aa−1 ∈ H ⇒ aa−1 ∈ G ⇒ aa−1 = e, where e is the identity in G.)
⇒ e is the identity in H.
Hence H itself is a group.
∴ H is a subgroup of G.

Example: The set S of all ordered pairs (a, b) of real numbers for which a ≠ 0 w.r.t the
operation × defined by (a, b) × (c, d) = (ac, bc + d) is non-abelian. Let H= {(1, b)| b ∈ R} is a
subset of S. Show that H is a subgroup of (S, ×).
Solution: Identity element in S is (1, 0). Clearly (1, 0) ∈ H.
Inverse of (a, b) in S is (1/a,-b/a ) (∵ a ≠ 0)
Inverse of (1, c) in S is (1, -c/1 ), i.e., (1, −c)
−1
Clearly (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, c) = (1, −c) ∈ H.
Let (1, b) ∈ H.
−1
(1, b) × (1, c) = (1, b) × (1, −c)
= (1.1, b.1 − c) = (1, b − c) ∈ H (∵ b − c ∈ R)
−1
∴ (1, b), (1, c) ∈ H ⇒ (1, b) × (1, c) ∈ H ∴ H is a
subgroup of (S, ×).
Note: (1, b) × (1, c) = (1.1, b.1 + c)
=(1, b + c)
=(1, c + b)
=(1, c) × (1, b)
∴ H is an abelian subgroup of the non-abelian group (S, ×).
Theorem: If H1 and H2 are two subgroups of a group G, then H1 ∩ H2 is also a subgroup of
G.
Proof: Let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group G.
Let e be the identity element in G.
∴ e ∈ H1 and e ∈ H2. ∴ e ∈ H1 ∩
H2.
⇒ H1 ∩ H2 ≠ ϕ.
Let a ∈ H1 ∩ H2 and b ∈ H1 ∩ H2.

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∴ a ∈ H1, a ∈ H2 and b ∈ H1, b ∈ H2.

−1
Since H1 is a subgroup, a ∈ H1 and b ∈ H1 ⇒ ab ∈ H1.
−1
Similarly ab ∈ H2.
−1
∴ ab ∈ H1 ∩ H2.
−1
Thus we have, a ∈ H1 ∩ H2, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 ⇒ ab ∈ H1 ∩ H2.
∴ H1 ∩ H2 is a subgroup of G.
Example: Let G be the group and Z={x ∈ G| xy=yx for all y∈G}. Prove that Z is a subgroup of
G.
Solution: Since e ∈ G and ey = ye, for all y ∈ G. It follows that e ∈ Z.
Therefore Z is non-empty.
Take any a, b ∈ Z and any y ∈ G. Then
(ab)y = a(by)
=a(yb), since b ∈ Z, by = yb
=(ay)b
=(ya)b
=y(ab)
This show that ab ∈ Z.
Let a ∈ Z ⇒ ay = ya for all y ∈ G.
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ a (ay)a = a (ya)a
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒ (a a)(ya ) = (a y)(aa )
−1 −1 −1 −1
⇒e(ya ) = (a y)e ⇒ a y = ay
−1
This shows that a ∈ Z.
−1
Thus, when a, b ∈ Z, we have ab ∈ Z and a ∈ Z.
Therefore Z is a subgroup of G.
This subgroup is called the center of G.
Homomorphism
′
Homomorphism into: Let (G, ∗ ) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G into
′ ′
G . If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G into G .
′
Homomorphism onto: Let (G, ∗ ) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a mapping from G onto
′ ′
G . If for a, b ∈ G, f(a∗b) = f(a)·f(b), then f is called homomorphism G onto G .
Also then G′ is said to be a homomorphic
′ image of G. We write this as f(G)  G′. ′
Isomorphism: Let (G, ∗
) and (G , ·) be two groups and f be a one-one mapping of G onto G .
′
If for a, b ∈ G, f(a ∗ b) = f(a) · f(b), then f is said to be an isomorphism from G onto G .
Endomorphism: A homomorphism of a group G into itself is called an endomor-phism.
Monomorphism: A homomorphism into is one-one, then it is called an monomor-phism.
Epimorphism: If the homomorphism is onto, then it is called epimorphism.
Automorphism: An isomorphism of a group G into itself is called an automorphism.

100

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′ be the multiplicative group. Then

Example: Let G be the additive group of integers and G
′ x ′
mapping f : G → G given by f(x) = 2 is a group homomorphism of G into G .

x y ′ x y ′
Solution: Since x, y ∈ G ⇒ x + y ∈ G and 2 , 2 ∈G ⇒2 · 2 ∈G .
x+y x y
∴ f(x + y) = 2 = 2 · 2 = f(x) · f(y).
′
⇒ f is a homomorphism of G into G .
′
Example: Let G be a group of positive real numbers under multiplication and G be a group of
′
all real numbers under addition. The mapping f : G → G given by f(x) = log10 x. Show that f
is an isomorphism.
Solution: Given f(x) = log10 x.
′
Let a, b ∈ G ⇒ ab ∈ G. Also, f(a), f(b) ∈ G .

∴ f(ab) = log10 ab = log10 a + log10 b = f(a) + f(b).

′
⇒ f is a homomorphism from G into G .
Let x1, x2 ∈ G and f(x1) = f(x2)

⇒ log10 x1 = log10 x2

⇒ 10
log x log x
10 1
= 10 10 2

⇒ x 1 = x2
⇒ f is one-one.
y y
⇒ f(10 ) = log10(10 ) = y.
′ y y
∴ For ever y ∈ G , there exists 10 ∈ G such that f(10 ) = y
⇒ f is onto.
′
∴ f an isomorphism from G to G .
+
Example: If R is the group of real numbers under the addition and R is the
group of positive R+ be defined by f(x) = e x, then real
show that f
numbers under the multiplication. Let f : R →
is an isomorphism.
+ x
Solution: Let f : R → R be defined by f(x) = e .

f is one-one: Let a, b ∈ G and f(a) = f(b)

a b
⇒e =e
a b
⇒ log e = log e
⇒ a log e = b log e
⇒a=b
Thus f is one-one.
+ log c
f is onto: If c ∈ R then log c ∈R and f(log c) = e =c
+
Thus each element of R has a pre-image in R under f and hence f is onto.
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a+b a b
f is Homomorphism: f(a + b) = e = e .e = f(a).f(b) Hence f is an isomorphism.

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−1
Example: Let G be a multiplicative group and f : G → G such that for a ∈ G, f(a) = a .
Prove that f is one-one and onto. Also, prove that f is homomorphism if and only if G is
commutative.
−1
Solution: f : G → G is a mapping such that f(a) = a , for a ∈ G. (i).
To prove that f is one-one.
−1 −1
Let a, b ∈ G. ∴ a , b ∈ G and f(a), f(b) ∈ G.
Now f(a) = f(b)

−1 −1
⇒a =b

⇒ (a−1) −1 = (b−1) −1
⇒a=b
∴ f is one-one.

(ii). To prove −1
that f is onto.
Let a ∈ G. ∴ a ∈ −1 −1 −1
= a.
G such that f(a ) = (a )
∴ f is onto.

(iii). Suppose f is a homomorphism.

For a, ∈ G, ab ∈ G. Now f(ab) = f(a)f(b)

⇒ (ab)
−1 −1 −1
=a b ⇒ b−1a−1 = a−1b−1

⇒ (b−1a −1) −1 = (a −1b−1) −1

⇒ (a−1) −1(b−1) −1 = (b−1) −1(a−1)−1

⇒ ab = ba
∴ G is abelian.
(iv). Suppose G is abelian ⇒ ab = ba, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
−1
For a, b ∈ G, f(ab) = (ab)
= b−1a−1

=a−1b−1
=f(a)f(b)
∴ f is a homomorphism.

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102

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Number Theory
Properties of Integers
Let us denote the set of natural numbers (also called positive integers)by N and the set of
integers by Z.
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3...} and Z = {...., −2, −1, 0, 1, 2...}.
The following simple rules associated with addition and multiplication of these inte-gers are
given below:
(a). Associative law for multiplication and addition
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc), for all a, b, c ∈ Z.
(b). Commutative law for multiplication and addition a + b = b + a and ab = ba, for all a, b ∈
Z.
(c). Distritbutive law a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca, for all a, b, c ∈ Z.
(d). Additive identity 0 and multiplicative identity 1
a + 0 = 0 + a = a and a.1 = 1.a = a, for all a ∈ Z.
(e). Additive inverse of −a for any integer a
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
Definition: Let a and b be any two integers. Then a is said to be greater than b if a − b is
positive integer and it is denoted by a > b. a > b can also be denoted by b < a.

Basic Properties of Integers

Divisor: A non-zero integer a is said to be divisor or factor of an integer b if there exists an
integer q such that b = aq.
If a is divisor of b, then we will write a/b (read as a is a divisor of b). If a is divisor of b, then
we say that b is divisible by a or a is a factor of b or b is multiple of a. Examples:
(a). 2/8, since 8 = 2 × 4.
(b). −4/16, since 16 = (−4) × (−4).
(c). a/0 for all a ∈ Z and a ≠ 0, because 0 = a.0.
Theorem: Let a, b, c ∈ Z, the set of integers. Then,
(i). If a/b and b ≠ 0, then |a| ≤ |b|.
(ii). If a/b and b/c, then a/c.
(iii). If a/b and a/c, then a/b + c and a/b − c.
(iv). If a/b, then for any integer m, a/bm.
(v). If a/b and a/c, then for any integers m and n, a/bm + cn.
(vi). If a/b and b/a then a = ±b.
(vii). If a/b and a/b + c, then a/c.
(viii). If a/b and m ≠ 0, then ma/mb.
Proof:
(i). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq, where q ∈ Z.
Since b ≠ 0, therefore q ≠ 0 and consequently |q| ≥ 1.
Also, |q| ≥ 1 ⇒ |a||q| ≥ |a|
⇒ |b| ≥ |a|.
(ii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
b/c ⇒ c = bq2, where q2 ∈ Z.

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∴ c = bq2 = (aq1)q2 = a(q1q2) = aq, where q = q1q2 ∈ Z. ⇒ a/c.

(iii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
a/c ⇒ c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z.
Now b + c = aq1 + aq2 = a(q1 + q2) = aq, where q = q1 + q2 ∈ Z.
⇒ a/b + c.
Also, b − c = aq1 − aq2 = a(q1 − q2) = aq, where q = q1 − q2 ∈ Z.
⇒ a/b − c.
(iv). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq, where q ∈ Z.
For any integer m, bm = (aq)m = a(qm) = aq, where a = qm ∈ Z.
⇒ a/bm.
(v). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
a/c ⇒ c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z.
Now bm + cn = (aq1)m + (aq2)n = a(q1m + q2n) = aq, where q = q1m + q2n ∈ Z
⇒ a/mb + cn.
(vi). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
b/a ⇒ a = bq2, where q2 ∈ Z.
∴ b = aq1 = (bq2)q1 = b(q2q1)
⇒ b(1 − q2q1) = 0
q2q1 = 1 ⇒ q2 = q1 = 1 or q2 = q1 = −1
∴ a = b or a = −b i.e., a ±b. (vii). We have a/b ⇒ b
= aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
a/b + c ⇒ b + c = aq2, where q2 ∈ Z
Now, c = b − aq2 = aq1 − aq2 = a(q1 − q2) = aq, where q = q1 − q2 ∈ Z.
⇒ a/c.
(viii). We have a/b ⇒ b = aq1, where q1 ∈ Z.
Since m ≠ 0, mb = m(aq1) = ma(q1)
⇒ ma/mb.
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
Common Divisor: A non-zero integer d is said to be a common divisor of integers a and b if
d/a and d/b.

Example:
(1). 3/ − 15 and 3/21 ⇒ 3 is a common divisor of 15, 21.
(2). ±1 is a common divisor of a, b, where a, b ∈ Z.

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Greatest Common Divisor: A non-zero integer d is said to be a greatest common divisor

(gcd) of a and b if
(i). d is a common divisor of a and b; and
(ii). every divisor of a and b is a divisor of d.
We write d = (a, b)=gcd of a, b.
Example: 2, 3 and 6 are common divisors of 18, 24.
Also 2/6 and 3/6. Therefore 6 = (18, 24).
Relatively Prime: Two integers a and b are said to be relatively prime if their greatest
common divisor is 1, i.e., gcd(a, b)=1.
Example: Since (15, 8) = 1, 15 and 8 are relatively prime.
Note:
(i). If a, b are relatively prime then a, b have no common divisors.
(ii). a, b ∈ Z are relatively prime iff there exists x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = 1.
Basic Properties of Greatest Common Divisors:
(1). If c/ab and gcd(a, c) = 1 then c/b.
Solution: We have c/ab ⇒ ab = cq1, q1 ∈ Z.
(a, c) = 1 ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such that
ax + cy = 1.
ax + cy = 1 ⇒ b(ax + cy) = b
⇒ (ba)x + b(cy) = b ⇒ (cq1)x + b(cy) = b ⇒ c[q1x + by] = b
⇒ cq = b, where q = q1x + by ∈ Z ⇒ c/b.

(2). If (a, b) = 1 and (a, c) = 1, then (a, bc) = 1.

Solution: (a, b) = 1, there exist x1, y1 ∈ Z such that
ax1 + by1 = 1
⇒ by1 = 1 − ax1——————-(1)
(a, c) = 1, there exist x2, y2 ∈ Z such that
ax2 + by2 = 1
⇒ cy2 = 1 − ax2——————-(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
(by1)(cy2) = (1 − ax1)(1 − ax2)
2
⇒ bcy1y2 = 1 − a(x1 + x2) + a x1x2 ⇒ a(x1 + x2 −
ax1x2) + bc(y1y2) = 1
⇒ ax3 + bcy3 = 1, where x3 = x1 + x2 −ax1x2 and y3 = y1y2 are integers.
∴ There exists x3, y3 ∈ Z such that ax3 + bcy3 = 1.

(3). If (a, b) = d, then (ka, kb) = |k|d., k is any integer.

Solution: Since d = (a, b) ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such that
ax + by = d.
⇒ k(ax) + k(by) = kd ⇒ (ka)x + (kb)y = kd

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∴ (ka, kb) = kd = k(a, b)

a b
(4). If (a, b) = d, then ( d , d ) = 1.
Solution: Since (a, b) = d ⇒ there exist x, y ∈ Z such that ax + by = d.
⇒( ax+by)/d = 1
⇒ (a/d)x + (b/d)y = 1
Since d is a divisor of both a and b, a/d and b/d are both integers.
Hence (a/d,b/d) = 1.

Division Theorem (or Algorithm)

Given integers a and d are any two integers with b > 0, there exist a unique pair of integers q
and r such that a = dq + r, 0 ≤ r < b. The integer‘s q and r are called the quotient and the
remainder respectively. Moreover, r = 0 if, and only if, b|a.

Proof:

Consider the set, S, of all numbers of the form a+nd, where n is an integer.

S = {a - nd : n is an integer}

S contains at least one nonnegative integer, because there is an integer, n, that ensures a-nd ≥
0, namely

n = -|a| d makes a-nd = a+|a| d2 ≥ a+|a| ≥ 0.

Now, by the well-ordering principle, there is a least nonnegative element of S, which we will
call r, where r=a-nd for some n. Let q = (a-r)/d = (a-(a-nd))/d = n. To show that r < |d|, suppose
to the contrary that r ≥ |d|. In that case, either r-|d|=a-md, where m=n+1 (if d is positive) or
m=n-1 (if d is negative), and so r-|d| is an element of S that is nonnegative and smaller than r,
a contradiction. Thus r < |d|.

To show uniqueness, suppose there exist q,r,q',r' with 0 ≤ r,r' < |d|

such that a=qd + r and a =q'd + r'.

Subtracting these equations gives d(q'-q) = r'-r, so d|r'-r. Since 0 ≤ r,r' < |d|, the difference r'-r
must also be smaller than d. Since d is a divisor of this difference, it follows that the
difference r'-r must be zero, i.e. r'=r, and so q'=q.

Example: If a = 16, b = 5, then 16 = 3 × 5 + 1; 0 ≤ 1 < 5.

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Euclidean Algorithm for finding the GCD

An efficient method for finding the greatest common divisor of two integers based on the
quotient and remainder technique is called the Euclidean algorithm. The following lemma
provides the key to this algorithm.
Lemma: If a = bq + r, where a, b, q and r are integers, then gcd(a, b)=gcd(b, r).
Statement: When a and b are any two integers (a > b), if r1 is the remainder when a is
divided by b, r2 is the remainder when b is divided by r1, r3 is the remainder when r1 is
divided by r2 and so on and if rk+1 = 0, then the last non-zero remainder rk is the gcd(a, b).

Proof:

By the unique division principle, a divided by b gives quotient q and remainder r,

such that a = bq+r, with 0 ≤ r < |b|.

Consider now, a sequence of divisions, beginning with a divided by b giving quotient q 1 and
remainder b1, then b divided by b1 giving quotient q2 and remainder b2, etc.

a=bq1+b1,
b=b1q2+b2,
b1=b2q3+b3,
...
bn-2=bn-1qn+bn,
bn-1=bnqn+1

In this sequence of divisions, 0 ≤ b1 < |b|, 0 ≤ b2 < |b1|, etc., so we have the sequence
|b| > |b1| > |b2| > ... ≥ 0. Since each b is strictly smaller than the one before it, eventually one
of them will be 0. We will let bn be the last non-zero element of this sequence.

From the last equation, we see bn | bn-1, and then from this fact and the equation before it, we
see that bn | bn-2, and from the one before that, we see that bn | bn-3, etc. Following the chain
backwards, it follows that bn | b, and bn | a. So we see that bn is a common divisor of a and b.

To see that bn is the greatest common divisor of a and b, consider, d, an arbitrary common
divisor of a and b. From the first equation, a-bq1=b1, we see d|b1, and from the second,
equation, b-b1q2=b2, we see d|b2, etc. Following the chain to the bottom, we see that d|bn.
Since an arbitrary common divisor of a and b divides b n, we see that bn is the greatest
common divisor of a and b.

Example: Find the gcd of 42823 and 6409.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 42823 and 6409, we have
42823= 6.6409+ 4369, r1= 4369,
6409= 1.4369+2040, r2= 2040,
4369= 2.2040+289, r3 = 289,
2040= 7.289+ 17, r4 = 17,
289= 17.17+ 0,
r5 = 0
∴ r4 = 17 is the last non-zero remainder. ∴ d = (42823, 6409) = 17.

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Example: Find the gcd of 826, 1890.

Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 826 and 1890, we have
1890= 2.826+ 238,r1= 238
826= 3.238+ 112,r2= 112
238= 2.112+ 14,r3 = 14
112= 8.14 + 0, r4 = 0
∴ r3 = 14 is the last non-zero remainder. ∴ d = (826, 1890) = 14.

****Example: Find the gcd of 615 and 1080, and find the integers x and y such that gcd(615,
1080) = 615x + 1080y.
Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 615 and 1080, we have
1080 = 1.615 + 465, r1 = 465 − − − − − (1)
615 = 1.465 + 150, r2 = 150 − − − − − (2)
465 = 3.150 + 15, r3 = 15 − − − − − −(3)
150 = 10.15 + 0, r4 = 0 − − − − − − − (4)
∴ r3 = 15 is the last non-zero remainder.
∴ d = (615, 1080) = 15. Now, we find x and y such that
615x + 1080y = 15.
To find x and y, we begin with last non-zero remainder as follows.
d = 15 = 465 + (−3).150; using (3)

=465 + (−3){615 + (−1)465}; using (2)

=(−3).615 + (4).465
=(−3).615 + 4{1080 + (−1).615}; using (1)
=(−7).615 + (4).1080
=615x + 1080y
Thus gcd(615, 1080) = 15 provided 15 = 615x + 1080y, where x = −7 and y = 4.
Example: Find the gcd of 427 and 616 and express it in the form 427x + 616y.
Solution: By Euclid Algorithm for 427 and 616, we have
616= 1.427+189,r1 = 189. ...... (1)
427= 2.189+49,r2 = 49. ......... (2)
189= 3.49+ 42, r3 = 42. ........... (3)
49= 1.42+ 7,r4 = 7. ............... (4)
42= 6.7 + 0,r5 = 0. ................. (5)
∴ r5 = 7 is the last non-zero remainder.
∴ d = (427, 616) = 7. Now, we find x and y such that
427x + 616y = 7.
To find x and y, we begin with last non-zero remainder as follows.
d = 7 = 49 + (−1).42; using (4)
=49 + (−1){189 + (−3).49}; using (3)
=4.49 − 189
=4.{427 + (−2).189} − 189; using (2)
=4.427 + (−8).189 − 189
=4.427 + (−9).189
=4.427 + (−9){616 + (−1)427}; using (1)
=4.427 + (−9).616 + 9.427
=13.427 + (−9).616

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Thus gcd(427, 616) = 7 provided 7 = 427x + 616y, where x = 13 and y = −9.

Example: For any positive integer n, prove that the integers 8n + 3 and 5n + 2 are relatively
prime.
Solution: If n = 1, then gcd(8n + 3, 5n + 2)=gcd(11, 7) = 1.
If n ≥ 2, then we have 8n + 3 > 5n + 2, so we may write
8n + 3 = 1.(5n + 2) + 3n + 1, 0 < 3n + 1 < 5n + 2
5n + 2 = 1.(3n + 1) + 2n + 1, 0 < 2n + 1 < 3n + 1
3n + 1 = 1.(2n + 1) + n, 0 < n < 2n + 1
2n + 1 = 2.n + 1, 0<1<n
n = n.1 + 0.
Since the last non-zero remainder is 1, gcd(8n + 3, 5n + 2) = 1 for all n ≥ 1.
Therefore the given integers 8n + 3 and 5n + 2 are relatively prime.
Example: If (a, b) = 1, then (a + b, a − b) is either 1 or 2.
Solution: Let (a + b, a − b) = d ⇒ d|a + b, d|a − b.
Then a + b = k1d ....... (1)
and a − b = k2d ......... (2)
Solving (1) and (2), we have
2a = (k1 + k2)d and 2b = (k1 − k2)d
∴ d divides 2a and 2b
∴ d ≤gcd(2a, 2b) = 2 gcd(a, b) = 2, since gcd(a, b) = 1 ∴ d = 1 or 2.
Then 2a + b = k1d.......... (1)
and a + 2b = k2d ............ (2)

3a = (2k1 − k2)d and 3b = (2k2 − k1)d

∴ d divides 3a and 3b
∴ d ≤gcd(3a, 3b) = 3 gcd(a, b) = 3, since gcd(a, b) = 1 ∴ d = 1 or 2 or 3.
But d cannot be 2, since 2a + b and a + 2b are not both even [when a is even and b is odd, 2a
+ b is odd and a + 2b is even; when a is odd and b is even, 2a + b is even and a + 2b is odd;
when both a and b are odd 2a + b and a + 2b are odd.] Hence d = (2a + b, a + 2b) is 1 or 3.

Least Common Multiple (LCM)

Let a and b be two non-zero integers. A positive integer m is said to be a least common
multiple (lcm) of a and b if
(i) m is a common multiple of a and b i.e., a/m and b/m,
and
(ii) c is a common multiple of a and b, c is also a multiple of m
i.e., if a/c and b/c, then m/c.

In other words, if a and b are positive integers, then the smallest positive integer that is divisible
by both a and b is called the least common multiple of a and b and is denoted by lcm(a, b).
Note: If either or both of a and b are negative then lcm(a, b) is always positive.
Example: lcm(5, -10)=10, lcm(16, 20)=80.

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Prime Numbers
Definition: An integer n is called prime if n > 1 and if the only positive divisors of n are 1
and n. If n > 1 and if n is not prime, then n is called composite.

Examples: The prime numbers less than 100 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41,
43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, and 97.

Theorem: Every integer n > 1 is either a prime number or a product of prime numbers.

Proof: We use induction on n. The theorem is clearly true for n = 2. Assume it is true for
every integer < n. Then if n is not prime it has a positive divisor d ≠ 1, d ≠ n. Hence n = cd,
where c ≠ n. But both c and d are < n and > 1 so each of c, d is a product of prime numbers,
hence so is n.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Theorem: Every integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of prime factors in

only one way, a part from the order of the factor.

Proof:

There are two things to be proved. Both parts of the proof will use he Well-ordering
Principle for the set of natural numbers.
(1) We first prove that every a > 1 can be written as a product of prime factors. (This
includes the possibility of there being only one factor in case a is prime.)
Suppose bwoc that there exists a integer a > 1 such that a cannot be written as a product of
primes.
By the Well-ordering Principle, there is a smallest such a.
Then by assumption a is not prime so a = bc where 1 < b, c < a.
So b and c can be written as products of prime factors (since a is the smallest positive
integer than cannot be.)
But since a = bc, this makes a a product of prime factors, a contradiction.
(2) Now suppose bwoc that there exists an integer a > 1 that has two different prime
factorizations, say a = p1 ··· ps = q1 ··· qt , where the pi and qj are all primes. (We allow
repetitions among the pi and qj . That way, we don‘t have to use exponents.)
Then p1| a = q1 ··· qt . Since p1 is prime, by the Lemma above, p1| qj for some j .
Since qj is prime and p1 > 1, this means that p1 = qj .
For convenience, we may renumber the qj so that p1 = q1 .
We can now cancel p1 from both sides of the equation above to get p2 ··· ps = q2 ··· qt . But
p2 ··· ps < a and by assumption a is the smallest positive integer with a non–unique prime
factorization.
It follows that s = t and that p2,...,ps are the same as q2,...,qt , except possibly in a different
order.
But since p1 = q1 as well, this is a contradition to the assumption that these were two
different factorizations.
Thus there cannot exist such an integer a with two different factorizations
4
Example: Find the prime factorisation of 81, 100 and 289. Solution: 81 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 3

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2 2
100 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 2 × 5
2
289 = 17 × 17 = 17 .a1 a2 a b b b
Theorem: Let m = p p ...p k and n = p 1 p 2 ...p k . Then

min(a ,b )
1 2 k 1 2 k
min(a ,b )
gcd(m, n) = p1 1 1 × p2 2 2 × ... × pk min(ak,bk)
=∏
pimin(ai,bi), where min(a, b) represents the minimum of the two numbers a and b.
max(a ,b )
lcm(m, n) = p1 1 1 × p2max(a2,b2) × ... × pkmax(ak,bk)
=∏ max(ai,bi)
pi , where max(a,b) represents the maximum of the two numbers a and b.

Theorem: If a and b are two positive integers, then gcd(a, b).lcm(a, b) = ab.

Proof: Let prime factorisation of a and b be

m= pa 11 pa22 ...pakk and n = pb11 pb22 ...pbkk

min(a ,b ) min(a ,b ) min(a ,b )

Then gcd(a, b) = p1 1 1 × p2 2 2 × ... × pk k k and
max(a ,b ) max(a ,b ) max(a ,b )
lcm(m, n) = p1 1 1 × p2 2 2 × ... × pk k k
We observe that if min(ai, bi) is ai(or bi) then max(ai, bi) is bi(or ai), i = 1, 2.., n.

Hence gcd(a, b).lcm(a, b)

min(a ,b ) min(a ,b ) min(a ,b max( a ,b ) max( a ,b ) max( a ,b )

= p1)2 2 1 1 × p2 × ... × pk
kk ×p 1 1 1 .p 2 2 2 ...p k k k
[min(a ,b )+max(a ,b )] [min(a ,b )+max(a ,b )] [min(a ,b )+max(a ,b )]
=p1 1 1 1 1 .p2 2 2 2 2 ...pk k k k k

(a +b ) (a +b ) (a +b )
=p1a1 1
a2.p2 ak
1 2 2
...pk
b1
k
b2
k
bk
=( p p ...p )( p p ...p )
1 2 k 1 2 k
=ab.

Example: Use prime factorisation to find the greatest common divisor of 18 and 30.
Solution: Prime factorisation of 18 and 30 are
1 2 0 1 1 1
18 = 2 × 3 × 5 and 30 = 2 × 3 × 5 .

gcd(18, 30) = 2min(1,1) × 3 min(2,1) × 5min(0,1)

1 1 0
=2 × 3 × 5
=2 × 3 × 1
=6.

Example: Use prime factorisation to find the least common multiple of 119 and 544.
Solution: Prime factorisation of 119 and 544 are
0 1 1 5 0 1
119 = 2 × 7 × 17 and 544 = 2 × 7 × 17 .

lcm(119, 544) = 2max(0,5) × 7max(1,0) × 17max(1,1)

5 1 1
=2 × 7 × 17
=32 × 7 × 17

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=3808.

Example: Using prime factorisation, find the gcd and lcm of

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(i). (231, 1575) (ii). (337500, 21600). Verify also gcd(m, n). lcm(m, n) = mn.

Example: Prove that log3 5 is irrational number.

Solution: If possible, let log3 5 is rational number.
⇒ log3 5 = u/v , where u and v are positive integers and prime to each other.
∴ 3u/v = 5
u v
3i.e., 5 = = n, say.
This means that the integer n > 1 is expressed as a product (or power) of prime numbers (or a
prime number) in two ways.
This contradicts the fundamental theorem arithmetic.
∴ log3 5 is irrational number.
Example: Prove that√ 5 is irrational number.
Solution: If possible, let√ 5 is rational number.
⇒√5 = u/v, where u and v are positive integers and prime to each other.
⇒ u2 = 5v2 ..............................................(1)
⇒ u2 is divisible by 5
⇒ u is divisible by 5 i.e., u = 5m .........(2)
∴ From (1), we have 5v2 = 25m2 or v2 = 5m2
i.e., v2 and hence v is divisible by 5
i.e., v = 5n ........ (3)
From (2) and (3), we see that u and v have a common factor 5, which contradicts the
assumption.
∴ √5 is irrational number.

Testing of Prime Numbers

Theorem: If n > 1 is a composite integer, then there exists a prime number p such
that p/n and p ≤√n.
Proof: Since n > 1 is a composite integer, n can be expressed as n = ab, where
1 < a ≤ b < n. Then a ≤√n.
If a >√n, then b ≥ a >√n.
∴ n = ab >√n.√n = n, i.e. n > n, which is a contradiction.
Thus n has a positive divisor (= a) not exceeding√n.
a > 1, is either prime or by the Fundamental theorem of arithmetic, has a primefactor. In ither
ase, n has a prime factor≤√n.

Algorithm to test whether an integer n > 1 is prime:

Step 1: Verify whether n is 2. If n is 2, then n is prime. If not goto step 2.

Step 2: Verify whether 2 divides n. If 2 divides n, then n is not a prime. If 2 does not divides
n, then goto step (3).
Step 3: Find all odd primes p ≤ √n.If there is no such odd prime, then n is prime otherwise,
goto step (4).
Step 4: Verify whether p divides n, where p is a prime obtained in step (3). If p divides n,
then n is not a prime. If p does not divide n for any odd prime p obtained in step (3),
then n is prime.

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Example: Determine whether the integer 113 is prime or not.

2
Solution: Note that 2 does not divide 113. We now find all odd primes p such that p ≤ 113.
2 2
These primes are 3, 5 and 7, since 7 < 113 < 11 .
None of these primes divide 113.
Hence, 113 is a prime.

Example: Determine whether the integer 287 is prime or not.

2
Solution: Note that 2 does not divide 287. We now find all odd primes p such that p ≤ 287.
2 2
These primes are 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13, since 13 < 287 < 17 .
7 divides 287.
Hence, 287 is a composite integer.
Modular Arithmetic
Congruence Relation

If a and b are integers and m is positive integer, then a is said to be congruent to b modulo m,
if m divides a − b or a − b is multiple of m. This is denoted as

a≡ b(mod m)

m is called the modulus of the congruence, b is called the residue of a(mod m). If a is not
congruent to b modulo m, then it is denoted by a ̸≡b(mod m).
Example:
(i). 89 ≡ 25(mod 4), since 89-25=64 is divisible by 4. Consequently 25 is the residue of
89(mod 4) and 4 is the modulus of the congruent.

(ii). 153 ≡ −7(mod 8), since 153-(-7)=160 is divisible by 8. Thus -7 is the residue of
153(mod 8) and 8 is the modulus of the congruent.

(iii). 24 ̸≡3(mod 5), since 24-3=21 is not divisible by 5. Thus 24 and 3 are incon-gruent
modulo 5
Note: If a ≡ b(mod m) ⇔ a − b = mk, for some integer k
⇔ a = b + mk, for some integer k.

Properties of Congruence
Property 1: The relation ‖Congruence modulo m‖ is an equivalence relation. i.e., for all
integers a, b and c, the relation is

(i) Reflexive: For any integer a, we have a ≡ a(mod m)

(ii) Symmetric: If a ≡ b(mod m), then b ≡ a(mod m)

(iii) Transitive: If a ≡ b(mod m) and b ≡ c(mod m), then a ≡ c(mod

m).

Proof: (i). Let a be any integer. Then a − a = 0 is divisible by any fixed positive integer m.
Thus a ≡ a(mod m).

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∴ The congruence relation is reflexive.

(ii). Given a ≡ b(mod m)
⇒ a − b is divisible by m ⇒ −(a − b) is
divisible by m ⇒ b − a is divisible by
m
i.e., b ≡ a(mod m).
Hence the congruence relation is symmetric.
(iii). Given a ≡ b(mod m) and b ≡ c(mod m)
⇒ a − b is divisible of m and b − c is divisible by m. Hence (a −
b) + (b − c) = a − c is divisible by m
i.e., a ≡ c(mod m)
⇒ The congruence relation is transitive.
Hence, the congruence relation is an equivalence relation.
Property 2: If a ≡ b(mod m) and c is any integer, then
(i). a ±c ≡ b ±c(mod m)
(ii). ac ≡ bc(mod m).
Proof:
(i). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.
Now (a ±c) − (b ±c) = a − b is divisible by m.
∴ a ± c ≡ b ± c(mod m).
(ii). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.
Now, (a − b)c = ac − bc is also divisible by m.
∴ ac ≡ bc(mod m).
Note: The converse of property (2) (ii) is not true always.
Property 3: If ac ≡ bc(mod m), then a ≡ b(mod m) only if gcd(c,m) = 1. In fact, if c is an
m
integer which divides m, and if ac ≡ bc(mod m), then a ≡ b mod[ ]
gcd(c, m)
Proof: Since ac ≡ bc(mod m) ⇒ ac − bc is divisible by m.
i.e., ac − bc = pm, where p is an integer.
m
⇒ a − b= p( )
c
m
∴ a ≡ b[ mod ( )] , provided that m is an integer.
c c
Since c divides m, gcd(c, m) = c.
m
Hence, a ≡ b mod [ ]
gcd(c, m)
But, if gcd(c, m) = 1, then a ≡ b(mod m).

Property 4: If a, b, c, d are integers and m is a positive integer such that a ≡ b(mod m) and c
≡ d(mod m), then
(i). a ±c ≡ b ±d(mod m)
(ii). ac ≡ bd(mod m)
n n
(iii). a ≡ b (mod m), where n is a positive integer.

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114

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Proof: (i). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.

Also c ≡ d(mod m) ⇒ c − d is divisible by m.

∴ (a − b) ± (c − d) is divisible by m. i.e., (a ±c) −

(b ±d) is divisible by m. i.e., a ±c ≡ b ±d(mod
m).
(ii). Since a ≡ b(mod m) ⇒ a − b is divisible by m.
∴ (a − b)c is also divisible by m.
∴ (c − d)b is also divisible by m.
∴ (a − b)c + (c − d)b = ac − bd is divisible by m. i.e., ac − bd is divisible by m.
i.e., ac ≡ bd(mod m). ........................ (1)
(iii). In (1), put c = a and d = b. Then, we get
a2 ≡ b2(mod m). .............. (2)
Also a ≡ b(mod m). ....... ...... (3)
3 3
Using the property (ii) in equations (2) and (3), we have a ≡ b (mod
m)
Proceeding the above process we get

n n
a ≡ b (mod m), where n is a positive integer.

Fermat’s Theorem p−1 p−1

If p is a prime and (a, p) = 1 then a − 1 is divisible by p i.e., a ≡ 1 (mod p).

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Proof
We offer several proofs using different techniques to prove the statement .
If , then we can cancel a factor of from both sides and retrieve the first version
of the theorem.
Proof by Induction
The most straightforward way to prove this theorem is by by applying the induction principle. We
fix as a prime number. The base case, , is obviously true. Suppose the
statement is true. Then, by the binomial theorem,

Note that divides into any binomial coefficient of the form for . This

follows by the definition of the binomial coefficient as ; since is prime,

then divides the numerator, but not the denominator.

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Taken , all of the middle terms disappear, and we end up

with . Since we also know that ,
then , as desired.

Example: Using Fermat‘s theorem, compute the values of

302
(i) 3 (mod 5),
302
(ii) 3 (mod 7) and
302
(iii) 3 (mod 11).

Solution: By Fermat‘ s theorem, 5 is a prime number and 5 does not divide 3, we have

35−1≡ 1 (mod 5)
34 ≡ 1 (mod 5)
75
(34)75≡ 1 (mod 5)

3300≡ 1 (mod 5)
2
3302≡ 3 = 9 (mod 5)

3302≡ 4
(mod 5) ............ (1)
Similarly, 7 is a prime number and 7 does not divide 3, we have
6
3 ≡ 1 (mod 7)
6 50 50
(3 ) ≡ 1 (mod 7)
300
3 ≡ 1 (mod 7)
302 2
3 ≡ 3 = 9 (mod 7)
302
3 ≡ 2 (mod 7) ........... (2)
and 11 is a prime number and 11 does not divide 3, we have
10
3 ≡ 1 (mod 11)
10 30 30
(3 ) ≡ 1 (mod 11)
300
3 ≡ 1 (mod 11)
302 2
3 ≡ 3 = 9 (mod 11) ............ (3)
201
Example: Using Fermat‘s theorem, find 3 (mod 11).
13332
Example: Using Fermat‘s theorem, prove that 4 ≡ 16 (mod 13331). Also, give an
example to show that the Fermat theorem is true for a composite integer. Solution:
(i). Since 13331 is a prime number and 13331 does not divide 4.
By Fermat‘s theorem, we have
13331−1
4 ≡ 1 (mod 13, 331)
13330
4 ≡ 1 (mod 13, 331)
13331
4 ≡ 4 (mod 13, 331)
13332
4 ≡ 16 (mod 13, 331)
(ii). Since 11 is prime and 11 does not divide 2.

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By Fermat‘s theorem, we have

11−1
2 ≡ 1 (mod 11)
10
i.e., 2 ≡ 1 (mod 11)
10 34 34
(2 ) ≡ 1 (mod 11)
340
2 ≡ 1 (mod 11) ............(1)
Also, 5
2 ≡ 1 (mod 31)
5 68 68
(2 ) ≡ 1 (mod 31)
340
2 ≡ 1 (mod 31) ............(2)

From (1) and (2), we get

340
2 − 1 is divisible by 11 × 31 = 341, since gcd(11, 31) = 1.
340
i.e., 2 ≡ 1 (mod 341).
Thus, even though 341 is not prime, Fermat theorem is satisfied.

Euler’s totient Function:

Euler's totient function counts the positive integers up to a given integer n that are
relatively prime to n. It is written using the Greek letter phi as ϕ(n), and may also be called
Euler's phi function. It can be defined more formally as the number of integers k in the range
1 ≤ k ≤ n for which the greatest common divisor gcd(n, k) is equal to 1. The integers k of this
form are sometimes referred to as totatives of n.
Computing Euler's totient function:

where the product is over the distinct prime numbers dividing

Example: Find ϕ(21), ϕ(35), ϕ(240)

Solution:
ϕ(21) = ϕ(3 × 7)
1 1
= 21 (1  )(1  )
3 7
= 12

ϕ(35) = ϕ(5 × 7)
1 1
= 35 (1  )(1  )
5 7
= 24

ϕ(240) = ϕ(15 × 16)

4
=ϕ(3×5× 2 )
1 1 1
=240 (1  )(1  )(1  )
3 5 2
= 64

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ϕ(n)
Euler’s Theorem: If a and n > 0 are integers such that (a, n) = 1 then a ≡ 1(mod n).
Proof:
Consider the elements r1 , r2 ,…, r  ( n) of (Z/n) the congruence classes of integers that
are relatively prime to n.
For a(Z/n) the claim is that multiplication by a is a permutation of this set; that is,
the set { ar1 , ar2 ,…, ar ( n) } equals (Z/n). The claim is true because multiplication by a is a
function from the finite set (Z/n) to itself that has an inverse, namely multiplication by 1/a (mod n)
Now, given the claim, consider the product of all the elements of (Z/n), on one hand, it
is r1 r2 ,…r ( n) . On the other hand, it is ar1 ar2 …ar ( n) . So these products are congruent
mod n
r1 r2 …r ( n)  ar1 ar2 …ar ( n)

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r1 r2 …r ( n)  a (n) r1 r2 …r ( n)

1  a (n)
where, cancellation of the ri is allowed because they all have multiplicative inverses(mod n)
Example: Find the remainder 29202 when divided by 13.
Solution: We first note that (29,13)=1.
Hence we can apply Euler's Theorem to get that 29ϕ(13) ≡1(mod13).
Since 13 is prime, it follows that ϕ(13)=12, hence 2912≡1(mod13).
We can now apply the division algorithm between 202 and 12 as follows:
202=12(16)+10
Hence it follows that 29 =(29 ) ⋅2910≡(1)26⋅2910≡2910(mod13).
202 12 26

Also we note that 29 can be reduced to 3 (mod 13), and hence:

2910≡310=59049≡3(mod13)2
Hence when 29202 is divided by 13, the remainder leftover is 3.

Example: Find the remainder of 99999999 when divided by 23.

Solution: Once again we note that (99,23)=1, hence it follows that 99ϕ(23) ≡1(mod23).
Once again, since 23 is prime, it goes that ϕ(23)=22, and more
appropriately 9922≡1(mod23).
We will now use the division algorithm between 999999 and 22 to get that:
999999=22(45454)+11
Hence it follows that
99999999=(9922)45454⋅9911≡145454⋅9911≡711=1977326743≡22(mod23).
Hence the remainder of 99999999 when divided by 23 is 22.
Note that we can solve the final congruence a little differently as:
9911≡711=(72)5⋅7=(49)5⋅7≡35⋅7=1701≡22(mod23).
There are many ways to evaluate these sort of congruences, some easier than others.
Example: What is the remainder when 1318 is divided by 19?
Solution: If yϕ (z) is divided by z, the remainder will always be 1; if y, z are co-prime
In this case the Euler number of 19 is 18
(The Euler number of a prime number is always 1 less than the number).
As 13 and 19 are co-prime to each other, the remainder will be 1.

Example: Now, let us solve the question given at the beginning of the article using the
concept of Euler Number: What is the remainder of 192200002/23?
Solution: The Euler Number of the divisor i.e. 23 is 22, where 19 and 23 are co-prime.
Hence, the remainder will be 1 for any power which is of the form of 220000.
The given power is 2200002.
Dividing that power by 22, the remaining power will be 2.
Your job remains to find the remainder of 192/23.
As you know the square of 19, just divide 361 by 23 and get the remainder as 16.

Example: Find the last digit of 555.

Sol: We first note that finding the last digit of 555 can be obtained by reducing 555 (mod 10),
that is evaluating 555(mod10).
We note that (10, 55) = 5, and hence this pair is not relatively prime,
however, we know that 55 has a prime power decomposition of

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55 = 5 x 11. (11, 10) = 1,

hence it follows that 11ϕ(10) ≡1(mod10).
We note that ϕ(10)=4. Hence 114≡1(mod10), and more appropriately:
555=55⋅115=55⋅114⋅11≡512⋅(1)4⋅11≡34375≡5(mod10)
Hence the last digit of 555 is 5.

Example: Find the last two digits of 33334444.

Sol:
We first note that finding the last two digits of 33334444 can be obtained by reducing
33334444 (mod 100).
Since (3333, 100) = 1, we can apply this theorem.
We first calculate that ϕ(100)=ϕ(22)ϕ(52)=(2)(5)(4)=40.
Hence it follows from Euler's theorem that 333340≡1(mod100).
Now let's apply the division algorithm on 4444 and 40 as follows:
4444=40(111)+4
Hence it follows that:
33334444≡(333340)111⋅33334≡(1)111⋅33334(mod100)≡334=1185921≡21(mod100)
Hence the last two digits of 33334444 are 2 and 1.

Previous questions
1. a) Prove that a group consisting of three elements is an abelian group?
b) Prove that G={-1,1,i,-i} is an abelian group under multiplication?
2. a) Let G= {-1,0,1} . Verify that G forms an abelian group under addition?
b) Prove that the Cancellation laws holds good in a group G.?
3. Prove that the order of a-1 is same as the order of a.?
4. a) Explain in brief about fermats theorem?
b) Explain in brief about Division theorem?
c) Explain in brief about GCD with example?
5. Explain in brief about Euler’s theorem with examples?
6. Explain in brief about Principle of Mathematical Induction with examples?
7. Define Prime number? Explain in brief about the procedure for testing of prime numbers?
8. Prove that the sum of two odd integers is an even integer?
9. State Division algorithm and apply it for a dividend of 170 and divisor of 11.
10. Using Fermat’s theorem, find 3201 mod 11.
11. Use Euler’s theorem to find a number between 0 and 9 such that a is congruent to 71000 (mod 10)
12. Find the integers x such that i) 5x≡4 (mod 3) ii) 7x≡6 (mod 5) iii) 9x≡8 (mod 7)
13. Determine GCD (1970, 1066) using Euclidean algorithm.
14. If a=1820 and b=231, find GCD (a, b). Express GCD as a linear combination of a and b.
15. Find 117 mod 13 using modular arithmetic.

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