Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 7

Impacts of Palm Oil-based Biofuel Utilization Promotion Policy in the

EREM 78/2 Thai Transport Sector
Journal of Environmental Research,
Engineering and Management
Vol. 78 / No. 2 / 2022 Received 2022/02 Accepted after revision 2022/05
pp. 7–18
DOI 10.5755/j01.erem.78.2.30745
http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.78.2.30745

Impacts of Palm Oil-based Biofuel

Utilization Promotion Policy in the
Thai Transport Sector
Supannika Wattana, Buncha Wattana*
Solar Energy and Energy Resources Research Unit, Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University,
Kantarawichai, Mahasarakham, 44150, Thailand

Thanit Purathanung
Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, Kantarawichai, Mahasarakham, 44150, Thailand

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

This paper aims to provide an analysis of the impacts of the promotion policy of palm oil-based biofuel utiliza-
tion in the Thai transport sector for the period 2020–2037. For this purpose, three scenarios are developed to
represent different proportions of palm oil-based biofuel blending implemented in Thailand and their impacts
are analyzed through the application of the Low Emissions Analysis Platform (LEAP) model. The analysis re-
veals that an increase in the proportion of palm oil-based biofuel in a diesel mix would provide several notice-
able benefits, for example, help reducing diesel consumption, decreasing crude oil requirement, and mitigating
emissions of CO2 and PM2.5 – a major source of current environmental health problems. In addition, increased
proportion of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix would contribute to a growing demand for oil palm pro-
duction and a plantation area to meet an increase in palm oil-based biofuel production. A high demand for oil
palm production and plantation land requirement could, however, be emerging challenges. In order to address
these challenges, the effective strategies could include a plan for agricultural crop zoning, crop breeding, the
efficiency enhancement of biofuel conversion technology, the reduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides,
and the support from the government for research and development of second-generation biofuels. The anal-
ysis will be useful for Thai planners and policy makers to design policies to overcome the issues of energy and
food security as well as climate change problems.
Keywords: palm oil-based biofuel, transport sector, Thailand, energy, environment and agriculture.
8 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2

Introduction
Over the last four decades, oil has been one of the consumption by about 44% in 2021. In order to meet
major factors for driving the development of Thai the target, the palm oil-based biofuel production is
economy. In Thailand, consumption of petroleum expected to rise to 5.9 million liters per day in 2021 –
products accounted for more than 50% of final energy a more than three-fold increase as compared with the
consumption for the period 1986–2020 (EPPO, 2021). production in 2012 (DEDE, 2012). In accordance with
Over the entire period, diesel consumption accounted the plan, the government increased the proportion of
for more than 47% of total petroleum products. In ad- palm oil-based biofuel in petroleum diesel fuel from
dition, Thailand has limited domestic fossil resourc- 5% (B5) to 7% (B7) in 2014. In addition, with a view
es, and therefore, the country has mainly imported to increase the proportion of renewable energy, the
crude oil to supply the growing demand. During the Thai government has further developed the fourth
period 1986–2020, more than 70% of crude oil supply AEDP (AEDP2015) covering the period 2015–2036
has been imported from the Middle East, the ASEAN (DEDE, 2015). Under this plan, production of palm oil-
countries, Africa and Europe (EPPO, 2021). Such a based biofuel is estimated to grow significantly, from
high reliance on imported oil has, therefore, contrib- 3.3 million liters per day in 2015, to 14 million liters
uted to a lessening of energy security. per day in 2036. In order to meet the target, the pro-
With a view to improve the security of energy supply portion of palm oil-based biofuel in petroleum diesel
and to mitigate the environmental impacts, the gov- fuel would increase to 10% (B10) and 20% (B20) in
ernment has initiated several plans and strategies to 2019. This would help balance the domestic oil palm
promote the utilization of palm oil-based biofuel in market, stabilize prices of palm oil, and help mitigate
the transport sector since 2000s. In 2004, the first Al- environmental pollutions (EPPO, 2019). For Thai-
ternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP) has been land, palm oil has long been a major economic back-
developed for the period 2004–2011 with a view to bone of the Southern Thai economy. The promotion
promote biofuel utilization in the country (Precharjarn of palm oil utilization in the form of biofuel would be
& Prasertsri, 2010). The primary focus of this plan one suitable strategy for balancing between demand
was production mandates for biofuels, incentives and and supply for oil palm in the country. In addition to
research supports. In 2005, the government started the palm oil biofuel product, the Thai government has
to promote biodiesel production and utilization. As a also planned for alternative diesel fuel development,
result of the government’s promotion, B5 (a biofuel for example, a new energy crop development which
blend consisting of 5% palm oil-based biofuel and includes non-food crops like jatropha and micro al-
95% petroleum diesel fuel) has been on the petrole- gae. The development of non-food crops for biofuel
um market since 2005 (Wattana, 2014). In 2008, the has received much attention from researchers around
second AEDP covering the period 2008–2022 was the World in the last decade. A number of studies have
developed with the aim of increasing the proportion been conducted on the development of biofuel from
of renewable energy in the gross final energy con- jatropha and micro algae, for example, Surakasi et al.
sumption to 20% by 2022 (DEDE, 2008). According (2022), Bhuyar et al. (2021), Singh et al. (2021), Cham-
to this plan, the pure palm oil-based biofuel (B100) kalani et al. (2020).
production in 2022 would increase more than double In recognition of the importance of the promotion of
comparing with the production in 2008 (DEDE, 2008). palm oil-based biofuel consumption in Thailand, a
However, the second AEDP was revised in 2012 for number of research works have been conducted on
the purpose of developing the country to become the issues of palm oil–based biofuel promotion in
a ‘low-carbon society’. With this aim, the govern- Thailand. These studies have focused on various di-
ment developed the third AEDP (2012–2021). Under mensions including economic, energy, environmen-
this plan, biofuels were expected to help reduce oil tal, social and technical. For example, a number of
 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 9

studies have assessed the economic impacts of palm policy changes. Regarding the government’s policy as
oil-based biofuel in terms of subsidy, tax and prices discussed above, the biofuel utilization in the trans-
of biodiesel, cost of economic production for biodiesel portation sector would drop due to the replacement of
project, and life cycle cost of biodiesel, for example, ICEVs with EVs. This paper, therefore, aims to analyze
Laung-Iem and Thanarak (2021), Chantawong et al. the impacts of palm oil-based biofuel utilization pro-
(2020), Romprasert and Jermsittiparsert (2019) and motion policy in the Thai transport sector according
Siralertruksa et al. (2012a). Several studies have as- to the changes in the government’s policy on the bio-
sessed the energy impacts of palm oil-based biofuel, fuel promotion. This analysis would be beneficial for
for example, Nutongkaew et al. (2019), Prueksakorn policy planners and makers to design mechanisms to
et al. (2010), Pleanjai and Gheewala (2009) Pruek- balance between promotion of biofuel utilizations and
sakorn and Gheewala (2008) and Keson et al. (2015) EVs adoption in the transport sector.
have focused specifically on resource potential as-
sessment of palm oil-based biofuel production. Sev-
eral research works have been carried out an analysis Methods
of palm oil-based biofuel production implications on
the environment including Lecksiwilai and Gheewa- Analytical tool and scope of research
la (2020), Prapaspongsa et al. (2017), Permpool et al.
In order to assess the impacts of biodiesel on the en-
(2016), Wibul et al. (2012), Silalertruksa and Gheewa-
ergy and environment, the literature review provides
la (2012) and Raghareutai et al. (2010). A number of
several methodologies that are popular for analyzing
studies have focused on the technological advance-
the energy and environmental implications including
ment of biodiesel production processes including
MARKAL/TIMES, MESSAGE, EneryPLAN, LCA, CGE,
the works of Somnuk et al. (2019) and Roschat et al.
Input-Output (I-O) analysis and LEAP. A study from
(2017). Some studies have focused on the biodiesel
impacts on social dimension in terms of employ- Connolly et al. (2010) provides an insightful review
ment opportunities and perceptions of stakeholders of modelling tools for analyzing impacts on ener-
on biodiesel policy, for instance, Chantawong and gy systems including MARKAL/TIMES, MESSAGE,
Dhakal (2016) and Silalertruksa et al. (2012b). And, a EneryPLAN and LEAP. A number of studies (for ex-
recent study by Purathanung and Wattana (2021) has ample, Lecksiwilai & Gheewala, 2020; Prapaspongsa
assessed the implications of biodiesel consumption et al., 2017; Wibul et al., 2012; Silalertruksa & Ghee-
promotion in the transportation sector. In this study, wala, 2012; Pleanjai & Gheewala, 2009; Prueksakorn
various percentages of biodiesel blending including & Gheewala, 2008) have employed a Life Cycle As-
B7, B10 and B20 were developed for different scenar- sessment (LCA) to evaluate environmental impacts
ios in order to examine the impacts of the different of biodiesel across the whole life cycle. In addition,
degrees of biodiesel promotion on the energy, en- Chantawong et al. (2020) have employed Computable
vironment and agriculture. However, the transport General Equilibrium (CGE) to analyze the impacts of
sector in recent years has been experiencing a pro- biodiesel policies on the Thai economy. And Siraler-
found disruptive transition involving a shift from in- truksa et al. (2012b) have assessed the impacts of
ternal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) toward all biodiesel production on the employment in Thailand
zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). In April 2021, the Thai by applying I-O analysis.
government has shown strong interests in EVs by an- In this study, the analytical tool employed to assess
nouncing that Thailand aims to only sell ZEVs in the the scenario impacts is the Low Emissions Analysis
country from 2035 (The Bangkok Post, 2021). A policy Platform (LEAP) model. LEAP is a powerful and ver-
shift toward EVs would directly affect the biofuel utili- satile software system for integrated energy planning
zation promotion. Therefore, such changes in the gov- and climate change mitigation assessment (Heaps,
ernment’s policy would require new research studies 2022). LEAP can be used to track energy consumption,
to provide recommendations in accordance with such production and resource extraction in all sectors of an
10 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2

economy. LEAP supports a wide range of different for the analysis covers a projection period from 2020
modeling methodologies. On the demand side, it sup- to 2037. In this study, in order to assess the scenario
ports bottom-up accounting techniques and top-down impacts, the petroleum demand is expected to grow
modelling. LEAP also includes a range of optional annually by 3.2% (MOE, 2016).
specialized methodologies including stock-turnover
modeling for transport planning. On the supply side, Data consideration
LEAP provides a range of accounting, simulation In order to assess the scenario impacts, this paper
and optimization methodologies (Heaps, 2022). In requires a broad range of information on various di-
particular, LEAP has the advantages of ease-of-use, mensions including energy, environmental and ag-
data flexibility, adaptability to different scales and pol- ricultural. The aforementioned information includes
icy-friendly reporting. A number of studies have em- the existing and prospective biofuel policies, histor-
ployed LEAP to assess the implications of bioenergy ical data of crude oil supply and petroleum product
on the energy and environment including Kemausuor consumption. The information on the existing and
et al. (2015), Sritong et al. (2014), Suganthi and Samu- prospective policies of biofuel and the petroleum de-
el (2012), Pagnarith and Limmeechokchai (2009) and mand growth is available from the Ministry of Energy
Islas et al. (2007). (MOE) and the Department of Alternative Energy De-
This paper focuses on assessing the impacts of in- velopment and Efficiency (DEDE) (DEDE, 2008; DEDE,
creased proportion of palm oil-based biofuel in the 2015; DEDE, 2018). The historical data on crude oil
diesel mix on the energy, environmental and agri- supply, diesel consumption, biodiesel production and
cultural dimensions. Regarding the energy impacts, oil refinery capacity are collected from various Energy
three attributes (including projected diesel demand, Balance reports and Alternative Energy Situation re-
projected demand for palm oil-based biofuel and ports, published by the DEDE (DEDE, 2021a), (DEDE,
crude oil demand) were assessed. For the impacts on 2021b). The growth for petroleum demand is obtained
the environment, two attributes (including emissions from Thailand Energy Outlook developed by the MOE
of CO2 and PM2.5) were assessed. And the assess- (MOE, 2016). The data required calculating projected
ment of agricultural impacts focused on the projected oil palm production and projected land extensions for
demand for oil palm production and projected land growing crops, e.g., crop attainable yield is collected
extensions. from various sources (OAE, 2020; NSO, 2020; DEDE,
2019).
Scenario development
In this study, three scenarios (namely BAU, MOD and
ADV) were developed to assess the impacts of dif- Empirical Results and Discussions
ferent proportions of palm oil-base biofuel blending
implemented in Thailand. The development of these This paper analyzes the impacts of an increased pro-
three scenarios aims to examine the impacts of the portion of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix on
different degrees of palm oil-based biofuel promo- the energy, environmental and agricultural dimen-
tion on the energy, environment and agriculture. The sions. In this study, seven attributes are employed in
BAU scenario represented the current situation that order to assess the scenario impacts. These attrib-
B7 continues to be the main diesel market share. utes include projected diesel demand, projected de-
Under this scenario, 85% of the diesel market share mand for palm oil-based biofuel, crude oil demand,
would be B7, and B10 would account for only 15% of emissions of CO2 and PM2.5, projected demand for oil
the market share. In the MOD scenario, B10 would palm production and projected land extensions.
become the major share of the diesel market. In this
Impacts on energy
scenario, 80% of the diesel market share would be
B10, and B20 would account for 20% of the market For the impacts on energy, three attributes including
share. In the ADV scenario, 100% of the diesel mar- projected diesel demand, projected demand for palm
ket share would be B20. In this study, the time frame oil-based biofuel and crude oil demand are assessed.
 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 11

Projected demand for diesel in the would substantially increase. Fig. 2 shows that the
transport sector projected demand for palm oil-based biofuel in the
The results from Fig. 1 show that the demand for BAU scenario is expected to increase slightly from
diesel in the transport sector in the case of the BAU 1358 million liters in 2020, to 2359 million liters in
scenario is expected grow to 27 959 million liters in 2037. For the MOD scenario, the palm oil-based bio-
2037 – about a 74% increase as compared with die- fuel demand is expected to rise to 4116 million liters
sel consumption in 2020. In 2037, the MOD scenario in 2037 – an increase of 11% as compared with the
would result in a decrease of 11% (3188 million liters), BAU scenario. The demand for palm oil-based biofuel
in comparison with the demand for diesel in the BAU in the ADV scenario would rise to 6333 million liters
scenario. The diesel demand in the ADV scenario in in 2037 – a nearly double increase in comparison with
30000
2037 is estimated to rise to 7072 million liters (25%) the BAU scenario. A high increase in palm oil-based
lower than the demand in the BAU scenario. Such a 25000consumption would certainly result in a rise in
biofuel
reduction is mainly due to an increased proportion demand for oil palm production as well as future land
20000

(Million litres)
of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix under the extension for growing energy crops. In fact, a high de-
MOD and ADV scenarios. A decrease in the diesel de- mand15000
for oil palm production would be beneficial for
mand would provide numerous benefits; for example, various
10000 sectors. For example, a growing oil palm de-
regarding energy perspective, a reduction in diesel mand would help farmers gain higher income. A ris-
demand would help decrease primary energy require- 5000
ing growth in palm oil industry would also contribute
ments, especially crude oil, more than 70% of which
by a high
0 oil palm demand. However, a fast-growing
has been imported for the last four decades (EPPO Base BAU MOD ADV BAU MOD ADV
demand would year confront with the insufficient supply
2021). Therefore, the promotion of palm oil-based
issues. In 2020
order to supply sufficient demand2037
2027 for palm
biofuel utilization would help decrease crude oil im-
oil-based biofuel, and especially to achieve efficient
port and importantly help enhance the country’s se-
curity of energy supply. In terms of the environmental crop production practices, the government should
perspective, a decreased demand for diesel would carefully plan for oil palm plantation and suitable
help mitigate the environmental pollutions which are growing land for maximizing yield for oil palm.
mostly from incomplete fuel combustion in diesel en-
Projected demand for crude oil in the
gines, e.g., CO2 emissions and PM2.5.
transport sector
Projected demand for palm oil-based biofuel in
With a view to supply sufficient diesel demand, the
the transport sector
projected demand for crude oil under the BAU sce-
In response to the promotion of palm oil-based bio- nario is estimated to grow to 25 709 KTOE in 2037 – an
fuel utilization, the demand for palm oil-based biofuel increase of more than 70% from the demand level in

Fig. 1. Projected demand for diesel during the period 2020–2037 Fig. 2. Projected demand for palm oil-based biofuel

30000 7000

25000 6000

5000
20000
(Million litres)

4000
(Million litres)

15000
3000
10000
2000

5000 1000

0 0
Base BAU MOD ADV BAU MOD ADV Base BAU MOD ADV BAU MOD ADV
year year
2020 2027 2037 2020 2027 2037
12 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2

2020 (as shown in Table 1). In the case of MOD and in response to a decline in demand for diesel. For ex-
ADV scenarios, crude oil demand over the entire stud- ample, CO2 emissions, under the BAU scenario, would
ied period would decrease continuously as compared increase to 76.3 million tons in 2037 – a nearly double
with the BAU scenario. In the case of the MOD scenar- increase as compared with the 2020 level (as present-
io, for example, a decrease in the demand for crude ed in Table 2). In the case of the MOD and ADV sce-
oil would be 1207 KTOE in 2027 and would be higher narios, CO2 emissions in 2037 would be, respectively,
– 2931 KTOE – in 2037 as compared with the BAU sce- by 9.8% and 21.8% lower than the emissions level in
nario. A reduction in the projected demand for crude the BAU scenario. It is further observed that the ADV
oil, in the case of the ADV scenario, would reach 2677 scenario would contribute to highest CO2 savings, i.e.,
KTOE in 2027and 6502 KTOE in 2037, when comparing 16.6 million tons in 2037, as compared with the BAU
with the demand for crude oil in the BAU scenario. scenario. It is, therefore, clear that a decrease in CO2
These results, therefore, suggest that a higher pro- emissions in the transport sector would be attribut-
ed to a reduction in diesel demand. Such a reduction
portion of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix
would be due to a higher proportion of biodiesel in
would certainly result in a reduction of the demand for
fossil diesel as discussed earlier.
crude oil. For Thailand, decreased demand for crude
oil would provide benefits for the country in terms of Emissions of PM2.5
less oil import dependency and enhanced energy se-
The results from Table 3 show that emissions of
curity. For example, a decline in the demand for crude
PM2.5 under the BAU scenario are estimated to rise
oil could help reduce crude oil imports. A decreased
to 24.6 thousand tons in 2037 – an increase of 73%
import for crude oil would help improve the security
of energy supply if one considers the fact that more Table 2. CO₂ emissions in the transport sector
than 70% of crude oil supply has been imported over
the last four decades. Change from BAU Scenario
BAU Scenario
Year MOD Scenario AVD Scenario
(million tons)
Impacts on environment (million tons) (million tons)
2020 43.9 – –
This section assesses the environmental impacts of
an increased proportion of palm oil-based biofuel in 2027 57.2 (−3.2) (−7.3)
the diesel mix in terms of CO2 emissions and emis- 2037 76.3 (−7.5) (−16.6)
sions of Fine Particulate Matters (PM2.5). Notes: The number in brackets shows changes in CO₂ emissions com-
paring with the BAU scenario.
Table 1. Projected demand for crude oil in the transport sector

Change from BAU Scenario as compared with the emissions in 2020. In the MOD
BAU Scenario scenario, the emissions of PM2.5 in 2037 are estimat-
Year MOD Scenario AVD Scenario
(KTOE)
(KTOE) (KTOE) ed to drop by 11% as compared with the emissions
2020 14 803 – – under the BAU scenario. The emissions of PM2.5 in
2027 19 294 (−1207) (−2677) 2037, under the ADV scenario, would decrease by 6.2
2037 25 709 (−2931) (−6502) thousand tons (25%) as compared with the emissions
in the BAU scenario. The foregoing results clearly
Notes: The number in brackets shows changes in the demand for crude
oil comparing with the BAU scenario.
indicate that decreased emissions of PM2.5 would
be attributed to a reduction in diesel demand as dis-
cussed earlier in section 5.1. It is widely known that
CO2 emissions
diesel appears to be the main contributor of PM2.5
It appears that the impacts on environment would cor- emissions. This is because PM2.5 mostly derives
respond with the energy impacts. Table 2 reveals that from inefficient combustion, such as the use of die-
CO2 emissions in the transport sector would decrease sel fuels by motor vehicles, the widespread wood
 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 13

burning and chemical processes involving mainly die- oil palm production demand in 2037 is expected to
sel fumes and ammonia released by farm fertilizers. rise by about 16 million tons as compared with the
The problem of PM2.5 currently appears to be one of demand under the BAU scenario (as shown in Fig. 4).
the key topics for health discussion around the world A high increase in oil palm production would require
including Thailand. In recognition of the importance of more land and water for growing oil palm. Additional-
this problem, a number of studies (for example, Lin et ly, growing oil palm in Thailand also requires fertiliz-
al., 2020; Tsai et al., 2019; Hao et al., 2019) have been ers in order to achieve the optimal yield. In Thailand,
carried out an analysis of PM2.5 emissions from die- fertilizers, which are mostly chemical, are essential
sel engines with a view to provide strategies to help for growing crops. While most chemical fertilizers
alleviate PM2.5 issues. have been imported, organic fertilizers have been
domestically produced (MOAC, 2017). An increased
Agriculture demand for oil palm production would, therefore, in-
For the impacts on agriculture, two attributes (includ- tensify fertilizer import.
ing projected demand for oil palm production and pro-
jected land extensions) are assessed. Fig. 3. Oil palm demand for palm oil-based biofuel production
30
Table 3. Emissions of PM2.5 in the transport sector
30
25
Change from BAU Scenario 25
BAU Scenario 20
tonnes)
Year MOD Scenario AVD Scenario
(thousand tons)
(thousand tons) (thousand tons) 20
15
tonnes)

2020 14.2 – –
(million

15
10
2027 18.5 (−1.2) (−2.6)
(million

10
5
2037 24.6 (−2.8) (−6.2)
05
Notes: Number in brackets shows PM2.5 emissions changes comparing Base BAU MOD ADV BAU MOD ADV
0 year
with the BAU scenario.
Base
2020 BAU MOD
2027 ADV BAU MOD
2037 ADV
year
Oil palm production demand 2020 2027 2037

An increased proportion of palm oil-based biofuel in

the diesel mix in response to the government’s policy
Fig. 4. Changes in oil palm demand for the year 2027 and 2037
would certainly affect the agricultural sector. This is
because biodiesel is a product from energy crops, for
example, oil palm, jatropha and soy bean. In the case
of Thailand, oil palm appears to be a high commercial-
ly potential production among the existing Thailand’s 2037
major oil crops. The demand for oil palm production 2037
for the period 2020–2037 is presented in Fig. 3. In this
paper, it should be noted that in order to produce one
liter of palm oil-based biofuel 4 kg of oil palm fresh 2027
fruit bunches are needed (Nupueng et al., 2018). Fig.
2027
3 shows that the oil palm production demand under
the BAU scenario would increase to 9.4 million tons 0 5 10 15 20
in 2037 – approximately a 70% increase comparing 0 5 (million10tonnes) 15 20
with the oil palm production in 2020. Under the MOD ADV scenario MOD scenario
(million tonnes)
scenario, the oil palm demand in 2037 would be by ADV scenario MOD scenario
7 million tons higher than the production in the BAU Note: This figure presents the changes in oil palm demand in the MOD
scenario (as shown in Fig. 4). In the ADV scenario, the and ADV scenarios compared with the BAU scenario.

1,200
1,200
1,000
tension
ctare)

1,000
ion
e)
 30
14 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2
25

20
(million tonnes)

Future
15
land extensions demand for palm oil-based biofuel, crude oil demand,
emissions of CO2 and PM2.5, projected demand for oil
With10 the aim to supply the growing oil palm produc-
palm production and projected land extensions.
tion demand, future land required for oil palm culti-
5 The foregoing analysis suggests that the promotion
vation would increase accordingly. Over the period
2020–2037,
0 future land extensions under the BAU of biofuel utilization appears to provide several bene-
Base BAU MOD ADV BAU MOD ADV fits. For example, a high proportion of palm oil-based
scenario would
year increase by 221 thousand hectares as
shown in 2020Fig. 5. In the2027
MOD and ADV scenarios,2037 land biofuel in the diesel mix would help reduce demand
required for oil palm cultivation would be higher by 3 for diesel. The drop in the diesel demand would sub-
times and 5 times, respectively, than under the BAU sequently result in a decrease in the demand for
scenario (as presented in Fig. 5). An expansion of oil crude oil. For instance, the demand for crude oil in
palm plantation areas could have a serious impact on 2037, under the ADV scenario, would be lower than
food security and land use changes. For example, a the demand in the MOD and BAU scenarios by 16%
high increase in land requirement for growing oil palm and 25%, respectively. Regarding the impacts on en-
could result in a reduction of food crops plantation vironment, a higher proportion of palm oil-based bio-
2037 This would subsequently affect a decrease in
area. fuel in the diesel mix would help mitigate emission
food supply and hence supplement tremendous pres- of CO2 and PM2.5 – a major source of current envi-
sures on spike food prices (Brinkman et al., 2020). In ronmental health problems. For instance, in the ADV
terms of land use change, an expansion of plantation scenario, CO2 emissions in 2037 would be lower than
areas
2027 for oil palm in Thailand usually converts forest the emissions under the MOD and BAU scenarios by
area to agricultural area. The deforestation for mono- 13% and 22%, respectively. And emissions of PM2.5
culture crop cultivation could substantially result in a in 2037, under the ADV scenario, would be lower than
0 5 10 15 20
loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitats as well as in the emissions in the MOD and BAU scenarios by 16%
(million tonnes)
a worsening of global climate
ADV scenario change
MOD scenario and a cause of
and 25%, respectively. Considering the above discus-
soil degradation and flood risks (IIASA 2009). sion, it appears that the ADV scenario would provide
numerous benefits. However, it would require high-
Fig. 5. Increased land requirement for growing oil palm
er oil palm production as well as more land require-
ments than other scenarios. For instance, oil palm
1,200 demand in 2037, under the ADV scenario, would be by
54% and 170%, respectively, higher than the demand
1,000
Furutre land extension

in the case of the MOD and BAU scenarios. Further-

(Thousand hectare)

800 more, land extensions for oil palm cultivation under

the BAU, MOD and ADV scenarios in 2037 would be
600
about 2 times, 3 times and 5 times, respectively, high-
400 er than land requirements in 2020.
200 Based on the aforementioned inferences, it appears
that a high crop production demand and future land
0
BAU scenario MOD scenario ADV scenario extensions could be emerging challenges for promot-
ing biofuel utilization. In order to address these chal-
lenges, this paper proposes several strategies includ-
Policy implications ing a plan for agricultural crop zoning, crop breeding,
With an aim to provide strategies for developing sus- the efficiency enhancement of biofuel conversion
tainable biofuel utilization in Thailand, this study as- technology, the reduction of chemical fertilizers and
sesses the implications of an increased proportion of pesticides, and the support from the government for
palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix for the period research and development of second-generation bi-
of 2020–2037. In this study, seven attributes are em- ofuels.
ployed in order to assess the scenario impacts. These a Plan for agricultural crop zoning
attributes include projected diesel demand, projected One key strategy for maintaining a balance between
 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 15

food crops and energy crops production as well as en- intensify adverse impacts on the environment. More-
hancing productivity of crops is the agricultural crop over, an increased consumption of chemical fertilizers
zoning. In order to execute the strategy successfully, would further increase imported fertilizers. As dis-
the Thai government has so far developed a twen- cussed earlier, most chemical fertilizers used in Thai-
ty-year Agriculture and Cooperative Strategy (2017– land have been imported from China, Saudi Arabia
2036) (MOAC 2017). This strategy aims at increasing and Russia (MOAC, 2017). The promotion of the use
agricultural productivity and maintaining a balance of organic fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural
between food crops and energy crops production. residues would help utilizing agricultural wastes, low-
Consequently, an increase in future land extension er cost of crop production and help alleviating adverse
would not result in a lessening of food and energy se- environmental impacts.
curity. e Research and development of second-generation bio-
b Crop breeding fuels
In addition to the agricultural crop zoning, crop breed- As previously discussed, the production of biodiesel
ing would not only help enhance the attainable yield of from oil palm might contribute to food supply reduc-
crops but also help reduce plantation area for crops. tions and hence to a lessening of food security. Fur-
In fact, crop breeding appears to be an imperative thermore, additional fertilizers, water and land are
strategy under the global climate changes situation. required to grow more energy crops like oil palm.
The continuous rise of air temperature and CO2 lev- Second-generation biofuels could be an alternative
els caused by global climate change would alter the option for substituting first-generation biofuels which
rainfall patterns and distribution, and hence result are mostly produced from food crops. Second-gener-
in drought stress in plants. The drought stress could ation biofuels could be produced from non-food crops
severely affect crop’s growth and productivity. Crop including the waste from food crops, agricultural res-
breeding would help increase plant adaptability to idue, wood chips, and waste cooking oil (Groves et al.,
drought stress in plants, enhance plant tolerance and 2018). In order to practically drive the development of
ameliorate the adverse effects of water stress (Selei- second-generation biofuels in Thailand, the Thai gov-
man et al., 2021). ernment should take a leading role in promoting and
c Efficiency enhancement of biofuel conversion technol- supporting the undertaking of research and develop-
ogy ment on the second-generation biofuel technology.
The enhancement of the efficiency of biofuel conver-
sion (liters/ton) appears to be an essential strategy
for energy crop demand reduction. The advancement Conclusions
of biofuel conversion technology would be an effective This paper analyses the impacts of the promotion
way of increasing the efficiency of biofuel conversion policy of palm oil-based biofuel utilization in the Thai
and accordingly contributing to a decrease in crop transport sector for the period 2020–2037. The analysis
production demand as well as energy use in biofu- shows that the policy to promote a higher proportion
el conversion process. The undertaking of research of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix appears to
and development on advancing biofuel conversion
provide several benefits. For example, a high propor-
technology is essentially needed in order to establish
tion of a biodiesel blend would help decreasing diesel
country’s innovations on biofuels.
demand, reducing crude oil requirements, mitigating
d Reduction of chemical fertilizers and pesticides emissions of CO2 and PM2.5. However, a high propor-
Due to a substantial demand for oil palm production, tion of palm oil-based biofuel in the diesel mix would
the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides would require a considerable amount of oil palm and a large
increase significantly. This is because chemical fer- area for oil palm cultivation. Such a high crop produc-
tilizers and pesticides have been mostly applied in tion demand and large future land extensions could
the agricultural sector in Thailand in order to increase be emerging challenges for promoting biofuel utiliza-
crop yield (MOAC 2017). The increasing application of tion. Several strategies could be employed in order to
chemical fertilizers and pesticides would, however, address these challenges, and especially to develop
16 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2

sustainable biofuel utilizations. These strategies in- makers to design mechanisms to balance between
clude a plan for agricultural crop zoning, crop breed- promotion of biofuel utilizations and EVs adoption in
ing, the efficiency enhancement of biofuel conversion the transport sector.
technology, the reduction of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, and the support from the government for Acknowledgements
research and development of second-generation bi- This research was financially supported by Faculty of
ofuels. This paper further suggests that a compara- Engineering, Mahasarakham University (Grant year
tive analysis between the implementation of EV and 2020). The authors wish to extend appreciation to the
biofuel in the transport sector would provide a basis Solar Energy and Energy Resources Research Unit,
for identifying the trade-offs and co-benefits that may Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University for
exist. This would be beneficial for policy planners and providing research facilities.

References
Bhuyar, P., Sundararaju, S., Rahim, M. H. A., Maniam, G. P., & ewt_news.php?nid=47340. Accessed on 20 September 2021.
Govindan, N. (2021). Enhanced productivity of lipid extraction by DEDE (2021b). Thailand Alternative Energy Situation: 2012-
urea stress conditions on marine microalgae Coelastrum sp. 2020. Department of Alternative Energy Development and Ef-
for improved biodiesel production. Bioresource Technology Re- ficiency, Ministry of Energy, Bangkok, Thailand. https://www.
ports, 15, 100696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100696 dede.go.th/ewt_news.php?nid=47340. Accessed on 20 Sep-
Brinkman, M., Levin-Koopman, J., Wicke, B., Shutes, L., Kui- tember 2021.
per, M., Faaij, A. and van der Hilst, L. (2020). The distribution of DEDE (2019). Handbook for the Development and Investment
food security impacts of biofuels, a Ghana case study. Biomass in Renewable Energy Series 8 Biodiesel, Department of Alter-
and Bioenergy. 141, 105695; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombi- native Energy Development and Efficiency, Ministry of Energy,
oe.2020.105695 Bangkok, Thailand. https://www.dede.go.th/article_attach/h_
Chamkalani, A., Zendehboudi, S., Rezaei, N., & Hawboldt, biodisel.pdf. Accessed on 5 April 2021.
K. (2020). A critical review on life cycle analysis of algae bio- DEDE (2015) Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP2015).
diesel: current challenges and future prospects. Renewable Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency,
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 134, 110143. https://doi. Ministry of Energy, Bangkok. http://www.eppo.go.th/images/
org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110143 POLICY/ENG/AEDP2015ENG.pdf. Accessed on 5 April 2021.
Chantawong, A., Shobhakar, D., Kuwornu, J.K.M. and Farooq, DEDE (2012) Alternative Energy Development Plan (2012-
M.K. (2020). Impact of Subsidy and Taxation Related to Biofuels 2021). Department of Alternative Energy Development and
Policies on the Economy of Thailand: A Dynamic CGE Model- Efficiency, Ministry of Energy, Bangkok. https://weben.dede.
ling Approach. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 11, 909-929; go.th/webmax/content/10-year-alternative-energy-develop-
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-018-0417-4 ment-plan. Accessed on 5 April 2021.
Chantawong, A. and Dhakal, S. (2016). Stakeholders‘ percep- DEDE (2008) Renewable Energy Development Plan (2008-
tions on challenges and opportunities for biodiesel and bioetha- 2022). Department of Alternative Energy Development and
nol policy development in Thailand, Energy Policy, 91, 189-206; Efficiency, Ministry of Energy, Bangkok. https://www.dede.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.01.008 go.th/fileadmin/upload/pictures_eng/pdffile/Section_1.pdf.
Connolly, D., Lund,H., Mathiesen, B.V. and Leahy, M. (2010). A Accessed on 5 April 2021.
review of computer tools for analysing the integration of renew- EPPO (2021) Thailand energy statistical data: 1986-2020, Ener-
able energy into various energy systems, Applied Energy, 87(4), gy Planning and Policy Office, Bangkok, Thailand http://www.
1059-1082; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.09.026 eppo.go.th/index.php/th/energy-information/static-energy/
DEDE (2021a). Energy balance of Thailand: 2012-2020. Depart- summery-energy. Accessed on 14 January 2021.
ment of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, Min- EPPO (2019) EPPO Annual Report, Energy Planning and Poli-
istry of Energy, Bangkok, Thailand. https://www.dede.go.th/ cy Office, Bangkok, Thailand. http://www.eppo.go.th/images/
 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2 17

Infromation_service/EppoAnnualReport/EppoAnnualRe- MOE (2015). Thailand Energy Outlook 2015, Ministry of Energy,

port2019.pdf. Accessed on 14 January 2021. Bangkok, Thailand.
Groves, C., Sankar, M. and John Thomas, P. (2018). Second-gen- Nupueng, S., Oosterveer, P. and Mol, A.P.J. (2018). Implemen-
eration biofuels: exploring imaginaries via deliberative work- tating a palm oil-based biodiesel policy: The case of Thai-
shops with farmers. Journal of Responsible Innovation, 5(2), land, Energy Science & Engineering, 6, 643-657; https://doi.
149-169; https://doi.org/10.1080/23299460.2017.1422926 org/10.1002/ese3.240
Hao, Y., Gao, C., Deng, S., Yuan, M., Song, W., Lu, Z. and Qiu, Z. Nutongkaew, P., Waewsak, J., Riansut, W., Kongruang, C.
(2019). Chemical characterisation of PM2.5 emitted from motor and Gagnon, Y. (2019). The potential of palm oil production as
vehicles powered by diesel, gasoline, natural gas and methanol a pathway to energy security in Thailand, Sustainable Ener-
fuel. Science of the Total Environment. 674, 128-139; https:// gy Technologies and Assessments, 35, 189-203; https://doi.
doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.410 org/10.1016/j.seta.2019.07.002
Heaps, C.G. (2022). LEAP: The Low Emissions Analysis Plat- OAE (2020). Agricultural Statistics of Thailand 2020, Office of
form. [Software version: 2020.1.63] Stockholm Environment Agricultural Economics, Bangkok, Thailand.
Institute. Somerville, MA, USA. https://leap.sei.org. Pagnarith, K. and Limmeechokchai, B. (2009). Biomass and
IIASA (2009). Biofuels and Food Security: Implications of an ac- Solar Energy for Rural Electrification and CO2 Mitigation in
celerated biofuels production, International Institute for Applied Cambodia, International Journal of Renewable Energy, 4,
System Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria. http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/ 25-33; https://ph01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/RAST/article/
id/eprint/8984/1/XO-09-062.pdf. Accessed on 19 October 2021. view/26114.
Islas, J., Manzini, F. and Masera, O. (2007) A prospective study Permpool, N., Bonnet, S. and Gheewala, S.H. (2016). Green-
of bioenergy use in Mexico, Energy, 32, 2306-2320; https://doi. house Gas Emissions from Land Use Change due to Oil Palm
org/10.1016/j.energy.2007.07.012 Expansion in Thailand for Biodiesel Production, Journal of
Kemausuor, F., Nygaard, I. and Mackenzie, G. (2015). Pros- Cleaner Production, 134, 532-538; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
pects for bioenergy use in Ghana using long-range energy jclepro.2015.05.048
alternatives planning model, Energy, 93, 672-682; https://doi. Pleanjai, S. and Gheewala, S.H. (2009). Full chain energy anal-
org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.08.104 ysis of biodiesel production from oil palm in Thailand, Ap-
Keson, J., Ratchaniphont, A., Wongsai, S. and Wongsai, N. plied Energy, 86, 209-214; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apener-
(2015), Policy assessment of potential biodiesel feedstock gy.2009.05.013
supply in Thailand, Energy Procedia, 79, 710-718; https://doi. Prapaspongsa, T., Musikavong, C. and Gheewala, S.H. (2017).
org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.549 Life cycle assessment of palm biodiesel production in Thai-
Laung-Iem, K. and Thanarak, P. (2021). Forecasting of biodies- land: impacts from modelling choices, co-product utilisation,
el prices in Thailand using time series decomposition meth- improvement technologies, and land use change, Journal of
od for long term from 2017 to 2036. International Journal of Cleaner Production, 153, 435-447; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Energy Economics and Policy, 11(4), 593-600; https://doi. jclepro.2017.03.130
org/10.32479/ijeep.10666 Precharjarn S. & Prasertsri P. (2010) Thailand Biofuels Annual
Lecksiwilai, N. and Gheewala, S.H. (2020). Life cycle assessment 2010. USDA Foreign Agricultural Services, Gain Report Number
of biofuels in Thailand: Implications of environmental trade-offs TH0098, approved by Orestes Vasquez. http://www.unece.lsu.
for policy decisions, Sustainable Production and Consumption, edu/biofuels/documents/2010Aug/bf10_14.pdf. Accessed on
22, 177-185; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2020.03.004 28 May 2021.
Lin, Y.C., Li, Y.C., Amesho, K.T.T., Chou, F.C. and Cheng, P.C. Prueksakorn, K., Gheewala, S.H., Malakul, P. and Bonnet, S.
(2020). Filterable PM2.5, Metallic Elements, and Organic Car- (2010). Energy analysis of Jatropha plantation systems for bio-
bon Emissions from the Exhausts of Diesel Vehicles. Aerosol diesel production in Thailand, Energy for Sustainable Develop-
Air Quality Research. 20, 1319-132; https://doi.org/10.4209/ ment, 14(1), 1-5; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2009.12.002
aaqr.2020.02.0081 Prueksakorn, K. and Gheewala, S.H. (2008). Full chain ener-
MOAC (2017). The twenty-year agriculture and cooperative gy analysis of biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas L. in
strategy (2017-2036), Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Thailand, Environmental Science and Technology, 42(9), 3388-
Bangkok, Thailand. https://www.moac.go.th/moaceng-maga- 93; https://doi.org/10.1021/es7022237
zine-files-422991791792. Accessed on 16 August 2021. Purathanung, T. and Wattana, S. (2021). An Assessment of
18 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2022/78/2

the Implications of Biodiesel Consumption Promotion in the Renewable Energy, 131, 100-110; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Transportation Sector for Thailand, IOP Conference Series: renene.2018.07.039
Material Science and Engineering. 1163 012015; https://doi. Singh, D., Sharma, D., Soni, S. L., Inda, C. S., Sharma, S., Shar-
org/10.1088/1757-899X/1163/1/012015 ma, P. K., & Jhalani, A. (2021). A comprehensive review of
Raghareutai, T., Chavalparit, O. and Ongwandee, M. (2010). physicochemical properties, production process, performance
Development of environmental sustainability for the biodiesel and emissions characteristics of 2nd generation biodiesel
industry in Thailand, International Journal of Sustainable De- feedstock: Jatropha curcas. Fuel, 285, 119110. https://doi.
velopment & World Ecology, 363-369; https://doi.org/10.1080 org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119110
/13504509.2010.502752 Sritong, N., Promjiraprawat, K. and Limmeechokchai B. (2014).
Romprasert, S. and Jermsittiparsert, K. (2019). Energy Risk CO2 mitigation in the road transport sector in Thailand: Analysis
Management and Cost of Economic Production Biodiesel Proj- of energy efficiency and bio-energy, Energy Procedia, 52, 131-
ect, International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 9(6), 141; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.07.063
349-357; https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.8367 Suganthi, L. and Samuel, A. A. (2012). Energy models for de-
Roschat, W., Siritanon, T., Yoosuk, B., Sudyoadsuk, T. and mand forecasting-A review, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, 16, 1223-1240; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Promarak, V. (2017). Rubber seed oil as potential non-edible
rser.2011.08.014
feedstock for biodiesel production using heterogeneous cata-
lyst in Thailand, Renewable Energy, 101, 937-944; https://doi. Surakasi, R., Khan, M. Y., Sener, A. S., Choudhary, T., Bhattacha-
org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.09.057 rya, S., Singhal, P., Singh, B. and Chowdary, V. L. (2022). Anal-
ysis of environmental emission neat diesel-biodiesel-algae
Seleiman, M.F., Al-Suhaibani, N., Ali, N., Akmal, M., Alotaibi,
oil-nanometal additives in compression ignition engines. Jour-
M., Refay, Y., Dindaroglu, T., Abdul-Wajid, H.H. and Battaglia,
nal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2022, Article ID 3660233, 7 pages,
M.L. (2021). Drought stress impacts on plants and different ap-
2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3660233
proaches to alleviate its adverse effects. Plants, 10, 259; https://
The Bangkok Post (2021). “Govt ups E-car drive”. https://www.
doi.org/10.3390/plants10020259
bangkokpost.com/business/2089087/govt-ups-e-car-drive
Silalertruksa, T., Bonnet, S. and Gheewala, S.H. (2012a). Life (accessed May 10, 2021).
cycle costing and externalities of palm oil biodiesel in Thai-
Tsai, J.H., Chen, S.J., Lin, S.L., Huang, K.L., Hsueh, C.K., Lin, C.C.
land, Journal of Cleaner Production, 28, 225-232; https://doi.
and Li, P.M. (2019). Emissions of PM2.5-bound Polycyclic Aro-
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.07.022
matic Hydrocarbons and Metals from a Diesel Generator Fu-
Silalertruksa, T., Gheewala, S.H., Hu¨necke, K. and Fritsche, U.R. eled with Biodiesel Converted from Used Cooking Oil. Aerosol
(2012b). Biofuels and employment effects: Implications for so- Air Quality Research. 19, 1555-1565; https://doi.org/10.4209/
cioeconomic development in Thailand, Biomass and Bioenergy, aaqr.2019.04.0204
46, 409-418; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.07.019 Wattana, S. (2014). Bioenergy development in Thailand: chal-
Silalertruksa, T. and Gheewala, S.H. (2012). Environmental lenges and strategies. Energy Procedia, 52, 505-516; https://
sustainability assessment of palm biodiesel production in doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.07.104
Thailand, Energy, 43, 306-314; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ener- Wibul, P., Malakul, P., Pavasant, P., Kangvansaichol, K. and Pa-
gy.2012.04.025 pong, S. (2012). Life Cycle Assessment of Biodiesel Produc-
Somnuk, K., Soysuwan, N. and Prateepchaikul, G. (2019). tion from Microalgae in Thailand: Energy Efficiency and Global
Continuous process for biodiesel production from palm fatty Warming Impact Reduction, Chemical Engineering Transac-
acid distillate (PFAD) using helical static mixers as reactors, tions, 29, 1183-1188; https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1229198.

This article is an Open Access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).