Opens and Shorts in Series Circuits

In many cases, electronic technicians are required to repair a piece of equipment that
is no longer operating properly. The technician is expected to troubleshoot the
equipment and restore it to its original operating condition. To troubleshoot means
―to diagnose or analyze.‖ For example, a technician may diagnose a failed electronic
circuit by using a digital multimeter (DMM) to make voltage, current, and resistance
measurements. Once the defective component has been located, it is removed and
replaced with a good one. But here is one very important point that needs to be made
about troubleshooting: To troubleshoot a defective circuit, you must under-stand how
the circuit is supposed to work in the first place. Without this knowledge, your
troubleshooting efforts could be nothing more than guesswork.

Figure 1.9 Effect of an open in a series circuit. ( a ) Normal circuit with 1-A series
current. ( b ) Open path between points P 1 and P 2 results in zero current in all
parts of the circuit.

The Effect of an Open in a Series Circuit

An open circuit is a break in the current path. The resistance of an open circuit is
extremely high because the air between the open points is a very good insulator. Air
can have billions of ohms of resistance. For a series circuit, a break in the current
path means zero current in all components. Figure1.9a shows a series circuit that is
operating normally. With 40 V of applied voltage and 40Ωof total resistance, the series
current is 40V/40Ω = 1 A. This produces the following IR voltage drops across R1 ,
R2 , and R3 : V 1 = 1 A x 25Ω = 25 V, V 2 = 1 A x 10 Ω = 10 V, and V 3 = 1 A x
5 Ω = 5 V. Now consider the effect of an open circuit between points P 1 and P 2
in Fig.1.9b . Because there is practically infinite resistance between the open points,
the current in the entire series circuit is zero. With zero current throughout the series
circuit, each resistor’s IR voltage will be 0 V even though the applied voltage is still
40 V. To calculate V 1 , V 2 , and V3 in Fig.1.9 b , simply use 0 A for I . Then, V
1 = 0A x 25 Ω= 0 V, V 2 = 0 A x 10 Ω = 0 V, and V 3 = 0 A x 5 Ω = 0 V. But how
much voltage is across points P 1 and P2 ? The answer is 40 V. This might
surprise you, but here’s the proof: Let’s assume that the resistance between P 1
and P 2 is 40 x 10 9 Ω, which is 40 GΩ (40 gigaohms). Since the total resistance of a
series circuit equals the sum of the series resistances, RT is the sum of 25 Ω, 15 Ω,
10 Ω, and 40 GΩ. Since the 40GΩ of resistance between P1 and P2 is so much
larger than the other resistances, it is essentially the total resistance of the series
circuit. Then the series current I is calculated as 40 V/40 GΩ = 1 x 109 A = 1nA. For
all practical purposes, the current I is zero. This is the value of current in the entire
series circuit. This small current produces about 0 V across R 1 , R 2 , and R 3 ,
but across the open points P 1 and P 2 , where the resistance is high, the voltage is
calculated as Vopen = 1 x 10-9 A x 40 x 109 Ω = 40 V.

In summary, here is the effect of an open in a series circuit:

1. The current I is zero in all components.

2. The voltage drop across each good component is 0 V.

3. The voltage across the open points equals the applied voltage.

The Effect of a Short in a Series Circuit

A short circuit is an extremely low resistance path for current flow. The resistance
of a short is assumed to be 0 Ω. This is in contrast to an open, which is assumed to
have a resistance of infinite ohms. Let’s reconsider the circuit in Fig. 1.9 with R2
shorted. The circuit is redrawn for your convenience in Fig. 1.10. Recall from Fig. 1.9a
that the normal values of V1, V2 , and V3 are 25 V, 10 V, and 5 V, respectively.
With the 10Ω R2 shorted, the total resistance RT will decrease from 40Ωto 30Ω.
This will cause the series current to increase from 1A to 1.33 A. This is calculated as
40 V/ 30Ω = 1.33 A. The increase in current will cause the voltage drop across
resistors R1 and R3 to increase from their normal values. The new volt-age drops
across R1 and R3 with R2 shorted are calculated as follows:

V1 = 1 xR1 = 1.33 A x 25Ω, V3 = 1 x R3 = 1.33A x 5Ω

V1 = 33.3 V, V3 = 6.67 V
The voltage drop across the shorted R2 is 0 V because the short across R2
effectively makes its resistance value 0Ω. Then,V2 = 1 x R2 = 1.33 A x 0 Ω, V2 =
0V

Figure 1.10 Series circuit of Fig. 1.9 with R 2 shorted.

In summary, here is the effect of a short in a series circuit:

1. The current I increases above its normal value.

2. The voltage drop across each good component increases.

3. The voltage drop across the shorted component drops to 0 V.

The Effect of an Open in a Parallel Circuit

An open in any circuit is an infinite resistance that results in no current. However, in

parallel circuits there is a difference between an open circuit in the main line and an
open circuit in a parallel branch. These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 1.11. In Fig.
1.11a the open circuit in the main line prevents any electron flow in the line to all the
branches. The current is zero in every branch, therefore, and none of the bulbs can
light. However, in Fig.1.11b the open is in the branch circuit for bulb 1. The open
branch circuit has no current, then, and this bulb cannot light. The current in all the
other parallel branches is normal, though, because each is connected to the voltage
source. Therefore, the other bulbs light. These circuits show the advantage of wiring
components in parallel. An open in one component opens only one branch, whereas
the other parallel branches have their normal voltage and current.
Figure 1.11 Effect of an open in a parallel circuit. (a) Open path in the main line—no
current and no light for all bulbs. (b) Open path in any branch—bulb for that branch
does not light, but the other two bulbs operate normally.

The Effect of a Short in a Parallel Circuit

A short circuit has practically zero resistance. Its effect, therefore, is to allow exces-
sive current in the shorted circuit. Consider the example in Fig. 1.12. In Fig. 1.12a ,
the circuit is normal, with 1 A in each branch and 2 A for the total line current. How-
ever, suppose that the conducting wire at point G accidentally makes contact with the
wire at point H, as shown in Fig. 1.12b . Since the wire is an excellent conductor, the
short circuit results in practically zero resistance between points G and H. These two
points are connected directly across the voltage source. Since the short circuit
provides practically no opposition to current, the applied voltage could produce an
infinitely high value of current through this current path.

Figure 1.12 Effect of a short circuit across parallel branches. (a) Normal circuit. (b)
Short circuit across points G and H shorts out allbranches.

Capacitors

Capacitor is an electrical component composed of two conducting plates

separated by an insulating medium called dielectric.
 Formation : Capacitance is the property of a capacitor and is expressed as C. The
value of a capacitor is expressed as capacitance. It is the ability of a capacitor to
store charge. The capacitance is given by C= Q/V, where Q is charge stored on
plates and potential difference established between the plates is V.

Properties of a capacitor:-

Capacitor possesses the following properties:-

a) It has the ability to store change.

b) It opposes any change of voltage in the circuit in which it is connected.
c) It blocks DC.

Factors on which capacitance depends :-

Capacitance value of a capacitor depends upon the following factors :-

Plate area : C varies as A. A is plate area. Plate separation : C varies as 1/d. d is

plate separation. Here, i) Value of C (Capacitance) increases with the decrease of
distance between the two plates.

ii) Similarly, value of C decreases with the increases of distance

between plates.

Type of dielectric :- It depends upon relative permittivity of the material. Here, C varies
as relative permittivity.

Types of Capacitors:

Capacitors are of two types: (1) Fixed and (2) Variable. Fixed capacitors are also two
types (i) Electrolytic and (ii) Non - Electrolytic. Non-Electrolytic capacitor are divided in
to several parts .Those are (i) Mica capacitor,(ii) Ceramic capacitor and (iii) Paper
capacitor etc.

Capacitor Coding

The value of a capacitor is always specified in either microfarad or picofarad units of

capacitance. This is true for all types of capacitors. As a general rule, if a capacitor
(other than an electrolytic capacitor) is marked using a whole number such as 33,
220, or 680, the capacitance C is in picofarads (pF). Conversely, if a capacitor is
labeled using a decimal fraction such as 0.1, 0.047, or 0.0082, the capacitance C is
in microfarads ( F). There are a variety of ways in which a manufacturer may indicate
the value of a capacitor. What follows is an explanation of the most frequently
encountered coding systems.

Film-Type Capacitors

Figure 1.16 shows a popular coding system for film-type capacitors. The first two
numbers on the capacitor indicate the first two digits in the numerical value of the
capacitance. The third number is the multiplier, indicating by what factor the first two
digits must be multiplied. The letter at the far right indicates the capacitor’s tolerance.
In this coding system, the capacitance is always in picofarad units. The capacitor’s
breakdown voltage rating is usually printed on the body directly below the coded value
of capacitance.

Figure 1.16

Qn: Determine the value of capacitance for the film capacitors in figures a and b.
Mica Capacitors

Mica capacitors are coded using colored dots to indicate the capacitance value in
picofarads. Three different coding systems are shown in Fig. 1.17. The colour code is
best understood through an example.

Fig. 1.17.

The dots in the top row are read from left to right in the direction of the arrow. In the
bottom row, they are read in the reverse order from right to left. The first dot at the left
in the top row is black, indicating a mica capacitor. The next two color dots are blue
and red, for 62 as the first two digits in the numerical value of the capacitance. The
next dot, at the far right in the bottom row, is red, indicating a multiplier of 100.
Therefore, C = 62 x100 = 6200pF. The next dot is gold, indicating a capacitor
tolerance of 5%.

Chip Capacitors
Before determining the capacitance value of a chip capacitor, make sure it is a
capacitor and not a resistor. Chip capacitors have the following identifiable features:

1. The body is one solid color, such as off-white, beige, gray, tan, or brown.

2. The end electrodes completely enclose the end of the part.

Fig.1.18,

Three popular coding systems are used by manufacturers of chip capacitors. In all
three systems, the values represented are in picofarads. One system, shown in
Fig.1.18, uses a two-place system in which a letter indicates the first and second
digits of the capacitance value and a number indicates the multiplier (0 to 9). Thirty-
three symbols are used to represent the two significant figures. The symbols used
include 24 uppercase letters and 9 lowercase letters. In Fig.1.18, note that J3
represents 2200 pF.

VOLTAGE RATING OF CAPACITOR :-

1) paper & mica- 200-500 v DC

2) Ceramic – 1-12 KV DC.
3) Electrolytic capacitor :- (i) 25V, 150V, 450V DC, (ii) Miniature type – 6-
10 V DC.

Combination of Capacitors :
It has mainly two types of combinations : (1) Series combination and (2) Parallel
Combination.

Series Combination :- Here, (i) Charge of every capacitors Is Q, (ii) Voltage of total
no. of capacitors in series is VT = V1+V2+V3,

(iii) Value of combined capacitance is

1/C= 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3

Parallel combination

i) he quantity of charges differs thus, Q = Q1 +Q2 +Q3

ii) The applied V to each is the same.

iii) the total capacitance C = C1+ C2 + C3

Energy Stores in Capacitor :

Stores energy = ½ CV² Joules.

Ohmmeter indication of faults in capacitor :

1. If the pointer goes to zero and stay there then the capacitor is shorted.
2. If the pointer goes to low resistance side and then comes up to a reading less
than normal then it is leaky.
3. If Pointer does not go to low resistance value but proceeds to (Infinity) then it is
open.
4. If the Pointer goes to low value (Charged) and then proceeds to (Infinity) then it
is OK.

Measuring and Testing Capacitors

A capacitance meter is a piece of test equipment specifically designed to measure

the capacitance value of capacitors. Although capacitance meters can be purchased
as stand-alone units, many handheld and benchtop digital multimeters (DMMs) are
capable of measuring a wide range of capacitance values. For example, the benchtop
DMM shown in Fig.1.19, has five capacitance ranges: 2nF, 20nF, 200nF, 2000 nF,
and 20µF. To measure the value of a capacitor using this meter, insert the leads of
the capacitor into the capacitance socket, labeled CX, located in the upper right-hand
corner of the meter. Next, depress the CX (capacitance) button and select the desired
capacitance range. The meter will display the measured capacitance value. For best
accuracy, always select the lowest range setting that still displays the measured
capacitance value. Note that the polarity markings next to the capacitance socket
need to be observed when electrolytic capacitors are inserted. For nonelectrolytic
capacitors, lead polarity does not matter. Before inserting any capacitor in the socket,
it must be fully discharged to avoid damage to the meter.

Recall that capacitors are always coded in either microfarad or picofarad units but
never in nanofarad units. Although this is a standard industry practice, you will
nevertheless encounter the nanofarad unit of capacitance when you use meters
capable of measuring capacitance, such as that shown in Fig.1.19,. Therefore, it is
important to know how to convert between the nano-farad unit and either microfarad
or picofarad units. To convert from nanofarad units to picofarad units, simply move the
decimal point three places to the right.

For example, 33nF = 33 x 10-9 = F 33,000 x 10 -12

F = 33,000 pF. To convert from
nanofarads to microfarads, move the decimal point three places to the left. For
another example, 470nF = 470 x 10-9 F = 0.47 x 10-6 F = 0.47µF. When using meters
having nanofarad capacitance ranges, you will need to make these conversions to
compare the measured value of capacitance with the coded value.

Fig.1.19

Example. Suppose a film capacitor, coded 393J, is being measured using the meter
shown in Fig.1.19,. If the meter reads 37.6 on the 200nF range, (a) What is the
capacitance value in picofarad units? (b) Is the measured capacitance value within its
specii ed tolerance?

ANSWER
The capacitor code, 393J, corresponds to a capacitance value of 39,000 pF + 5%. (a)
A reading of 37.6 on the 200-nF range corresponds to a capacitance of 37.6 nF. To
convert 37.6 nF to picofarad units, move the decimal point three places to the right.
This gives an answer of 37,600 pF. (b) The acceptable capacitance range is
calculated as follows: 39,000 pF x 0.05 = 1950 pF. Therefore, the measured value of
capacitance can range anywhere from 37,050 pF to 40,950 pF and still be considered
within tolerance. Note that in nanofarad units, this corresponds to a range of 37.05 to
40.95 nF. Since the measured value of 37.6 nF falls within this range, the measured
capacitance value is within tolerance.

Leakage Resistance of a Capacitor

Consider a capacitor charged by a dc voltage source. After the charging voltage is

removed, a perfect capacitor would hold its charge indefinitely. Because there is no
such thing as a perfect insulator, however, the charge stored in the capacitor will
eventually leak or bleed off, thus neutralizing the capacitor. There are three leakage
paths through which the capacitor might discharge: (1) leakage through the dielectric,
(2) leakage across the insulated case or body between the capacitor leads, and (3)
leakage through the air surrounding the capacitor. For paper, film, mica, and ceramic,
the leakage current is very slight, or inversely, the leakage resistance is very high.
The combination of all leakage paths can be represented as a single parallel
resistance R across the capacitor plates, as shown in Fig.1.20,

Fig.1.20, capacitor-inductor analyzer

For paper, film, mica, and ceramic capacitors, the leakage resistance R is typically
100,000 MΩ or more. The leakage resistance is much less for larger capacitors such
as electrolytics, however, with a typical value of R ranging from about 500 k
up to 10 MΩ. In general, the larger the capacitance of a capacitor, the lower its
leakage resistance. Note that the leakage current in capacitors is fairly temperature-
sensitive. The higher the temperature, the greater the leakage current (because of
lower leakage resistance). The leakage resistance of a capacitor can be measured
with a DMM or an analog ohmmeter, but this is not the best way to test a capacitor for
leakage. The best way is to measure the leakage current in the capacitor while the
rated working voltage is applied across the capacitor plates. A capacitor is much more
likely to show leak-age when the dielectric is under stress from the applied voltage. In
fact, a capacitor may not show any leakage at all until the dielectric is under stress
from the applied voltage. To measure the value of a capacitor and test it for leakage,
technicians often use a capacitor-inductor analyzer like that shown in Fig. 16–27. This
analyzer al-lows the user to apply the rated working voltage to the capacitor while
testing for leakage. The amount of leakage acceptable depends on the type of
capacitor. Most nonpolarized capacitors should have no leakage at all, whereas
electrolytics will almost always show some. Pull-out charts showing the maximum
allowable leakage for the most common electrolytic capacitors are usually provided
with a capacitor-inductor analyzer.

Dielectric Absorption

Dielectric absorption is the inability of a capacitor to completely discharge to zero. It

is sometimes referred to as battery action or capacitor memory and is due to the
dielectric of the capacitor retaining a charge after it is supposedly discharged. The
effect of dielectric absorption is that it reduces the capacitance value of the capacitor.
All capacitors have at least some dielectric absorption, but electrolytics have the
highest amount. Dielectric absorption has an undesirable effect on circuit operation if
it becomes excessive. The dielectric absorption of a capacitor can be checked using
the capacitor-inductor analyser.

Troubles in Capacitors

Capacitors can become open or short-circuited. In either case, the capacitor is

useless because it cannot store charge. A leaky capacitor is equivalent to a partial
short circuit where the dielectric gradually loses its insulating properties under the
stress of applied voltage, thus lowering its resistance. A good capacitor has very high
resistance of the order of several megaohms; a short-circuited capacitor has zero
ohms resistance, or continuity; the resistance of a leaky capacitor is lower than
normal. Capacitor-inductor analyzers, should be used to test a capacitor. However, if
a capacitor-inductor analyzer is not available, an ohmmeter (preferably analog) may
be able to identify the problem. What follows is a general procedure for testing
capacitors using an analog ohmmeter.
 Checking Capacitors with an Ohmmeter

A capacitor usually can be checked with an ohmmeter. The highest ohm range, such
as R x 1 MΩ is preferable. Also, disconnect one side of the capacitor from the circuit
to eliminate any parallel resistance paths that can lower the resistance. Keep your
fingers off the connections, since body resistance lowers the reading. As shown in
Fig.1.21,, the ohmmeter leads are connected across the capacitor.

Fig.1.21, Checking Capacitors with an Ohmmeter

For a good capacitor, the meter pointer moves quickly toward the low-resistance side
of the scale and then slowly recedes toward infinity. When the pointer stops moving,
the reading is the dielectric resistance of the capacitor, which is normally very high.
For paper,film, mica, and ceramic capacitors, the resistance is usually so high that the
needle of the meter rests on the infinity mark (∞). However, electrolytic capacitors will
usually measure a much lower resistance of about 500 kΩ
to 10 MΩ. In all cases, discharge the capacitor before checking with the ohmmeter.
When the ohmmeter is initially connected, its battery charges the capacitor. This
charging current is the reason the meter pointer moves away from infinity, since more
current through the ohmmeter means less resistance. Maximum current flows at the
first instant of charge. Then the charging current decreases as the capacitor voltage
increases toward the applied voltage; therefore, the needle pointer slowly moves
toward infinite resistance. Finally, the capacitor is completely charged to the
ohmmeter battery voltage, the charging current is zero, and the ohmmeter reads just
the small leakage current through the dielectric. This charging effect, called capacitor
action, shows that the capacitor can store charge, indicating a normal capacitor. Note
that both the rise and the fall of the meter readings are caused by charging. The
capacitor discharges when the meter leads are reversed.
 Ohmmeter Readings

Troubles in a capacitor are indicated as follows:

1. If an ohmmeter reading immediately goes practically to zero and stays there, the
capacitor is short-circuited.

2. If a capacitor shows charging, but the final resistance reading is appreciably less
than normal, the capacitor is leaky. Such capacitors are particularly troublesome in
high-resistance circuits. When checking electrolytics, reverse the ohmmeter leads and
take the higher of the two readings.

3. If a capacitor shows no charging action but reads very high resistance, it may be
open. Some precautions must be remembered, however, since very high resistance is
a normal condition for capacitors. Reverse the ohmmeter leads to discharge the
capacitor, and check it again. In addition, remember that capacitance values of 100
pF, or less, normally have very little charging current for the low battery voltage of the
ohmmeter.

Replacing Capacitors

Approximately the same C and V ratings should be used when installing a new
capacitor. Except for tuning capacitors, the C value is usually not critical. Also, a
higher voltage rating can be used. An important exception, however, is the electrolytic
capacitor. Then the ratings should be close to the original values for two reasons.
First, the specified voltage is needed to form the internal oxide film that provides the
required capacitance. Also, too much C may allow excessive charging current in the
circuit that charges the capacitor. Remember that electrolytics generally have large
values of capacitance.

Inductors

Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current
varies. A long wire has more inductance than a short wire, since more conductor
length cut by magnetic flux produces more induced voltage. Similarly, a coil has more
inductance than the equivalent length of straight wire because the coil concentrates
magnetic flux. Components manufactured to have a definite value of inductance are
coils of wire, called inductors . The symbol for inductance is L , and the unit is the
henry (H).
The wire for a coil can be wound around a hollow, insulating tube, or the coil can be
the wire itself. This type is an air-core coil because the magnetic field of the current in
the coil is in air. With another basic type, the wire is wound on an iron core to
concentrate the magnetic flux for more inductance. Air-core coils are used in rf circuits
because higher frequencies need less L for the required inductive effect. Iron-core
inductors are used in the audio-frequency range, especially in the ac power-line
frequency of 60 Hz and for lower frequencies in general.

Measuring and Testing Inductors

Although many DMMs are capable of measuring the value of a capacitor, few are
capable of measuring the value of an inductor. Therefore, when it is necessary to
measure the value of an inductor, you may want to use a capacitor-inductor analyzer.
The capacitor-inductor analyzer can also test the quality ( Q ) of the inductor by using
something called a ringing test .

Another test instrument that is capable of measuring inductance L , capacitance C ,

and resistance R , is an LCR meter. A typical LCR meter is shown in Fig. 19–31.
Although this is a handy piece of test equipment, most LCR meters are not capable of
measuring anything except the value of a component. Note, however, that some LCR
meters are capable of making a few additional tests besides measuring the
component value

Troubles in Coils

The most common trouble in coils is an open winding. As illustrated in Fig. 19–32, an
ohmmeter connected across the coil reads infinite resistance for the open circuit. It
does not matter whether the coil has an air core or an iron core. Since the coil is
open, it cannot conduct current and therefore has no inductance because it cannot
produce induced voltage. When the resistance is checked, the coil should be
disconnected from the external circuit to eliminate any parallel paths that could affect
the resistance readings.

Direct Current Resistance of a Coil

A coil has dc resistance equal to the resistance of the wire used in the winding. The
amount of resistance is less with heavier wire and fewer turns. For rf coils with
inductance values up to several millihenrys, requiring 10 to 100 turns of fine wire, the
dc resistance is 1 to 20 , approximately. Inductors for 60 Hz and audio frequencies
with several hundred turns may have resistance values of 10 to 500 , depending on
the wire size.

The dc resistance and inductance of a coil are in series, since the same current that
induces voltage in the turns must overcome the resistance of the wire. Although
resistance has no function in producing induced voltage, it is useful to know the dc
coil resistance because if it is normal, usually the inductance can also be assumed to
have its normal value.

Open Coil

An open winding has ini nite resistance, as indicated by an ohmmeter reading. With a
transformer that has four leads or more, check the resistance across the two leads for
the primary, across the two leads for the secondary, and across any other pairs of
leads for additional secondary windings. For an autotransformer with three leads,
check the resistance from one lead to each of the other two. When the open circuit is
inside the winding, it is usually not practical to repair the coil, and the entire unit is
replaced. In some cases, an open connection at the terminals can be resoldered

Value Change

The value of an inductor can change over time because of core breakage, wind-ings
relaxing, or shorted turns. Note that a coil whose inductance value is changed may
check okay with an ohmmeter.To check the value of an inductor, use either a
capacitor-inductor analyzer or an LCR meter.