UNIT 4.

Algebraic structures
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1) Define semigroup.

If a non-empty set S together with the binary operation * satisfying the following two properties

a) Closure property

b) Associative property

Then S is called a semigroup. It is denoted by (S, *)

2) If ‘a’ is a generator of a cyclic group G, then show that a−1 is also a generator of G.

Since ‘a’ is a generator of a cyclic group G. Then by definition x=an for any element x in G.

Now we have to prove that ¿ a−1 ¿ = ¿ a> ¿

Consider ¿ a−1 ¿ ={( a−1 )n ; n∈ Z }

= {a−n ; n ∈ Z }

= {a m; m ∈ Z }

= ¿ a> ¿

Hence ¿ a−1 ¿ = ¿ a> ¿

3) Prove that the identity of a subgroup is the same as that of the group.

Let G be a group. Let H be a subgroup of G.

Let e and e’ be the identity elements in G and H.

Now if a∈H, then a∈G and ae=a (∵e is the identity element in G)

Again if a∈H then ae’=a (∵e’ is the identity element in H)

ae = ae’ ⇒ e=e’.

4) State Lagrange’s theorem in group theory.

Le G be a finite group of order ‘n’ and H be any subgroup of G. Then the order of H divides the

order of G. That is, O(H)/O(G).

OR

The order of each subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.
5) Define homomorphism and isomorphism between two algebraic systems.

Semigroup homomorphism: Let (S, *) and (T, ∆ ) be any two algebraic system with binary

operation * and ∆ respectively.

A mapping f: S→T is said to be a semigroup Homomorphism if

f(a*b) = f(a) ∆ f(b), for all a, b∈ S.

A one-one, onto semigroup homomorphism is called an isomorphism.

6) When is a group (G, *) called abelian.

In a group (G, *) if a*b= b*a, for all a. b∈ G then the group (G, *) is called an abelian group.

Ex: (Z, +) is an abelian group.

Otherwise (G, *) is called non-abelian.

7) If a and b are any two elements of a group (G, *), show that G is an abelian group if and only if

(a*b)2=a2*b2.

Assume that G is abelian.

∴ a*b=b*a, a, b ∈ G……………………..(1)

Now a2*b2 = (a*a)*(b*b)

= a* [a*(b*b)] (* Associative)

= a*[(a*b) *b] (* Associative)

a2*b2 = a*[(b*a)*b] ( By equation 1)

= (a*b) *(a*b) (* Associative)

= (a*b)2

Conversely, assume that

(a*b)2 = a2*b2

(a*b) *(a*b) = (a*a)*(b*b)

a*[(b*a)*b] = a* [a*(b*b)] (* Associative)

By using left cancellation law we have

(b*a)*b = a*(b*b)

(b*a)*b = (a*b)*b

By using right cancellation law we have

Hence G is abelian.

8) Let (M, *, em) be a monoid and a∈M. If a invertible, then show that its inverse is unique.

Let b and c be elements of a monoid M such that

a*b = b*a = e and a*c = c*a = e …………………(1)

Now b = b* e

= b*(a*c)

= (b*a)*c

= e*c

=c

Thus Inverse is unique.

9) State any two properties of group.

(i) The identity element of a group is unique.

(ii) The inverse element of a group is unique.

10) Define a commutative ring.

The Ring (R, +, .) is called a commutative ring if ab = ba for a, b ∈ R.

11) Obtain all the distinct left cosets of {(0), (3)} in the group (Z6, +6) and find their union.

Let Z6 ={0, 1, 2, 4, 5}

H = {0, 3}

0+ H ={0, 3}= H

1+ H ={1, 4}

2+ H = {2, 5}

3+ H = {0, 3}= H

4+ H = {4, 1}= 1+ H

5+ H = 2+ H

∴ 0+ H, 1+H and 2+H are three distinct left coset of H. Their union is Z6 .
12) Show that the set of all elements ‘a’ of a group (G, *) such that a*x=x*a for every x ∈G is a

subgroup of G.

Clearly ex=xe=x for all x∈ G

∴ e ∈ H and H is non empty.

Now lat a, b ∈ H. Then ax = xa and bx =xb

Now bx = xb ⇒ b−1 (bx)b−1 = b−1(xb)b−1

⇒ (b−1b)xb−1 = b−1x(bb−1)

⇒ xb−1 = b−1x …………………. (1)

Now (ab-1)x = a(b-1x) = a(xb-1) (using 1)

= (ax)b-1

= (xa)b-1

= x(ab-1)

∴ (ab-1)x = x(ab-1)

∴ ab-1 ∈ H.

∴ H is a subgroup.

13) Let E={2, 4, 6, ….}. Show that {E, +}, {E, ×} are semigroups but not monoids.

Let E={2, 4, 6, 8, …..} be the set of all even numbers.

Then (E, +) is a semigroup.

But (E, +) is not a monoid since the additive identity element 0 ∉ E.

Also (E, ×) is not a monoid. Since multiplicative identity element 1∉ E.

14) Give an example of a commutative ring without identity.

The algebraic system (E, +, ×), where E is the set of all even integers is an example of

commutative ring without identity.

15) Define cyclic momoid.

A monoid (M, *) is said to be cyclic, if every element of M is of the form a n, a ∈ M and ‘n’ is an

integer.

i.e., x = an
 Such a cyclic monoid (M, *) is said to be generated by the element ‘a’. Here ‘a’ is called the generator

of the cyclic monoid.

16) Let S=Q×Q, be the set of all ordered pairs of rational numbers and given by (a, b)*(x, y)=(ax,

ay+b). Find the identity element of S.

Let (e1, e2) be the identity element of (S, *)

Then for any (a, b)∈ S, (a, b)*(e1, e2)=(a, b)

(ae1, ae2+b) = (a, b)

⇒ ae1 = a and ae2+b = b

b−b
e1 = 1 and e2 =
2

e2 = 0

∴ The identity element of the given S is given by (e1, e2) = (1, 0).

17) Show that in a group G, x2=x if and only if x=e.

Clearly e2=ee = e

Conversely, let x2 = x

xx = xe

x=e ( By left cancellation law)

18) Consider the group Z4={[0], [1], [2],[3]} of integers modulo 4. Let H={[0], [2]} be a subgroup of Z 4

under +4 (addition mod 4). Find the left cosets of H.

The left cosets of H are

[0]+H = {[0], [2]} = H

[1]+H = {[1], [3]}

[2]+H = {[2], [4]} = {[2], [0]} = {[0], [2]} = H

[3]+H = {[3], [5]} = {[3], [1]} = {[1], [3]} = 1+H

∴ [0]+H = [2]+H = H and

[1]+H = [3]+H are the two distinct left cosets of H in Z4.

Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G.

The map f: G → G/H such that f(x)= H*x, x ∈ G

is called a Natural Homomorphism of the group G onto the quotient group G/H.

20) Define integral domain. Give an example.

A commutative ring (R, +, .) with identity and without zero divisors is called an Integral domain.

(Z, +, .) is an integral domain.

21) Prove that the identity element of a group is unique.

Let (G, *) be a group.

Let e1 and e2 be two identity elements in G.

Suppose e1 is the identity, then

e1*e2 = e2*e1 = e2 ……………. (1)

Suppose e2 is the identity, then

e2*e1 = e1*e2 = e1 ……………. (2)

From (1) and (2) we get

e1 =e2.

Therefore, the identity element is unique.

22) Prove that every cyclic monoid (semigroup) is commutative.

Let (M, *) be a cyclic monoid whose generator is a ∈ M.

Then for any x, y ∈ M, we have

x = am, y = an, m, n are integers.

Now x*y = am * an

= am+n

= an+m

= an * am

x*y = y * x

Therefore, (M, *) is commutative or abelian

23) For any group G, if a2=e with a≠ e then G is abelian.

For a, b∈ G, we have a*b ∈ G.

Given a = a-1 and b = b-1.

a*b = (a*b)-1

= b-1*a-1

= b*a

a*b = b*a

Therefore G is abelian.

24) Let S={a, b}. Show that ( S S ,° ) is a non-commutative semigroup.

Here S has two elements.

∴ SS has four functions. Let it be f1, f2, f3, f4, where

f1(a) =a, f1(b) =b

f2(b) =a f2(b) =a

f3(b) =b f3(b) =b

f4(b) =b f4(b) =a

The composition of the function is given as follows:

Since the composition is associative, it follows that ( S S ,° ) is a semigroup.

From the above table, we have

f2° f3 = f2 ≠ f3 =f3° f2

Hence it is not commutative.

25) If f is a homomorphism of a group G into a group G' then prove that f preserves identities.

Let a∈ G.

Let f be a homomorphism from (G, *) into (G’, *).

Clearly f(a)∈ G’.

Now, f(a) *e’= f(a) [e’ is the identity in G’]

= f(a*e) [ e is the identity in G]

f(a) *e’ = f(a) * f(e) [f is homomorphism]

Therefore f preserves identities.

26) Define group. Give an example.

A non-empty set G together with the binary operation * . i.e., (G, *) is called a group if * satisfies

the following conditions.

(i) Closure: a*b∈ G, for all a, b ∈ G.

(ii) Associative: (a*b)*c = a* (b*c), for all a, b, c ∈ G.

(iii) Identity: There exists an element e∈ G called the identity element such that a*e=e*a=a, for all a

∈ G.

(iv) Inverse: There exists an element a-1∈ G called the inverse of ‘a’ such that

a* a-1=a-1*a = e, for all a ∈ G.

27) Define field. Give an example.

A commutative ring with identity (R, +, .) is called a field if every non-zero element has a

multiplicative inverse.

Thus (R, +, .) is a field if

(i) (R, +) is abelian group and

(ii) (R-{0}, .) is also abelian group.