JEE MAIN 2024

Important Formulas
For Physics
 Physics and Measurement
Important Formulae

1. Physical quantity-
One physical quantity can be represented in terms of one or more units.

Amount of physical quantity(Q)=nu

n= numerical value or magnitude

u= unit

Types of the physical quantity

1) Scalar Quantity

The quantities having magnitude only are known as scalar quantities.

It does not specify the direction.
Examples-Distance, time, work, energy, etc

2) Vector Quantity

The quantities having both directions as well as magnitude are known as vector quantities.
It has a specific direction.
Examples - Displacement, force, velocity, acceleration, momentum, etc.

3) Tensor Quantity

Scalar and vector are special cases of a tensor.

Tensors are represented in the multi-dimensional array, i.e., in different directions, tensors will have different magnitudes.

If a tensor has only magnitude and no direction, it is called a scalar (a tensor of rank zero).

If a tensor has magnitude and one direction, it is called a vector (a tensor of rank one).

Examples are stress, The moment of inertia, coefficient of viscosity.

4) Ratio Quantity

When a physical quantity is the ratio of two similar quantities.

2. Fundamental and Derived Quantities -

1) Fundamental Quantities

Those physical quantities are independent of all other quantities and cannot be expressed in terms of other basic quantities.
Length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity.

2) Derived Quantities

Derived Quantities are products and ratios of the fundamental quantities that exist in a system of units and these quantities can be expressed in terms of
other basic quantities.
e.g., Area, Density, Force, Pressure, etc.

Fundamental and derived units:-

Fundamental units:- The units of fundamental or basic quantities are called fundamental units or base units.

Derived units:- The units of those physical quantities which can be expressed as the combination of fundamental units are called derived units.

3. System of unit-
A complete set of units, for all kinds of physical quantities (both fundamental and derived ), is known as a system of units.

Types of System of Unit

C.G.S. system- In this system, fundamental units are centimetres (cm), grams (g) and second (s).

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 M.K.S. System- In this system, fundamental units are meter(m), kilogram(kg) and second (s).

F.P.S. system- In this system foot(ft), pound(lb) and second(s) are used for the measurement of length, mass and time respectively.

S.I. System- It is known as the International System of Units. There are seven fundamental quantities in this system.

Fundamental Quantity Fundamental Units Symbol

Length meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd

1. Practical units of length

Name Symbol Conversion in m

1 fermi 1 fm m
1 X-ray unit 1 XU m
1 Angstrom m
1 micron m
1 Astronomical unit 1 AU
1 Light year 1 ly
1 Parsec 1 Pc 3.26 light year

2. Practical units of mass

Name Symbol Conversion in kilogram (Kg)

1 Chandra Shekhar Unit 1 CSU

= 1.4 times the mass of the sun
1 Metric tonne 1 Metric tonne 1000 kg
1 Quintal 1 Quintal 100 kg
1 Atomic mass unit 1 amu

3. Practical Units of Time

1 year =365.25 days = Sec

Lunar Month- 29.53 days (29 days 12 hours and 44 minutes)

1 Solar year- 366.25 sidereal days = 365.25 average solar day

1 Average Solar Day= part of the solar year

1 solar second = part of the mean solar day

4. Dimension-
The dimension of physical quantity may be defined as the power to which fundamental quantities must be raised in order to express the given physical
quantities.

For representing dimensions of different quantities, we use the following symbols:

1. Mass - M

2. Length - L

3. Time - T

4. Electric current - A

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 5. Temperature - K

6. Amount of substance- mol

7. Luminous intensity - cd

Dimension formula and SI units for some important physical quantities-

Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient

All these quantities will have the same dimensional formula which is equal to

While the SI unit of Frequency and velocity gradient is ,

And SI unit of angular frequency and angular velocity is

Note:- Angle is a dimensionless quantity

Work, Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy, Torque

All these quantities will have the same dimensional formula which is equal to

All these quantities will have the same unit in the SI system which is equal to

Momentum, Impulse, Angular momentum, Angular impulse

Momentum and Impulse both have the same dimensional formula which is equal to

And Both have the same SI unit which is equal to

Angular Momentum and Angular Impulse have the same dimensional formula which is equal to

and have the same SI unit which is equal to

Dimensionless Quantities

The quantities which do not have dimensions are known as Dimensionless Quantities.

Because these quantities are the ratio of two similar quantities.

Example.

1. Strain

2. Refractive index

3. Relative density

4. Poisson's ratio

So all these quantities are dimensionless.

Or they have a dimensional formula which is equal to .

And all these quantities are unitless.

Heat, Latent heat, Specific heat capacity and Temperature

1. Temperature-

Dimensional formula- (where K represents Kelvin)

SI unit- Kelvin

2. Heat

Dimensional formula-

SI unit- Joule

3. Latent heat

Its dimensional formula is equal to

And its SI unit is equal to or

4. Specific heat capacity

Dimensional formula-

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 SI unit-

Surface tension

Dimensional formula-

SI unit-

Vander waals constant (a and b)

Where a and b are called Vander Waal's constant.

1) Vander Waal's constant (a)

Dimension-

Unit-

2) Vander waal 's constant (b)

Dimension-

Unit-

Voltage, Resistance and resistivity

1) Voltage (V)

Dimension-

Unit- Volt

2) Resistance (R)

Dimension-

Unit- Ohm

3) Resistivity ( )

Dimension-

Unit- Ohm - meter

Permittivity of free space and dielectric constant (k)

1) The permittivity of free space( )

Dimension-

Unit- or farad/metre

2) dielectric constant (k)

Dimension-

Unit- Unitless

Magnetic Field ,Permeability of free space, Magnetic flux and self inductance

1) Magnetic Field (B)

Dimension-

Unit-

2)Permeability of free space

The dimension of permeability of free space ( )-

SI unit-

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 3) Magnetic flux ( )

Dimension-

Unit- Weber or Volt-second

4) Coefficient of self-induction (L)

Dimension-

Unit- Henry

5. Application of Dimensional analysis-

To find the dimension of the physical constant

We can find the dimension of a physical constant by substituting the dimensions of physical quantities in the given equation

1. Gravitational constant

2. Planck's Constant(h):-

Dimensional formula-

SI unit- Joule-sec

3. Rydberg constant (R)

Dimension-

Unit-

To convert a physical quantity from one system to another

As we know, the measure of a physical quantity is constant, i.e., nu=constant.

If the dimension of a quantity in one system is and in another system, the dimension is ,

then

Check the dimensional correctness

It is based on the principle of homogeneity. According to this principle, both sides of an equation must be the same.

It also states that only those physical quantities with the same dimensions can be added or subtracted.

If the dimension of each term on both sides is the same, then the equation is dimensionally correct, otherwise not.

A dimensionally correct equation may or may not be physically correct.

To find the unit of physical quantity in a given system

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 Let physical quantity be a force

So [F]=

If we replace M, L, and T in the dimensional formula of the physical quantity with fundamental units of the required system, we will get the unit of that
physical quantity.

Now we want to find the unit of Force in the SI system

Which is or Newton

As a research tool to derive new relations

For example, we can derive a relation for the Time period of a simple pendulum.

If

where

So Equating exponents of similar quantities

a=0, b=1/2, c=-1/2

We get

6. Significant Figures:-
Significant figures are the figures of a number that express a magnitude to a specified degree of accuracy.

1) All non-zero digits are significant

For example-

42.3 -Three significant figure

238.4 -Four significant figure

33.123 -five significant figure

2) Zero becomes a significant figure if it exists between two non-zero digits

For example-

2.09 - Three significant figures

8.206 -Four significant figures

6.002 -Four significant figures

3) For leading zero(s), the zero(s) to the left of the first non-zero digits are not significant.

For example-

0.543 - three significant figures

0.069 - two significant figures

0.002 -one significant figure

4) The trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are not significant. But if the decimal point is there then they will be counted in significant
figures.

For example-

4.330- Four significant figures

433.00- five significant figures

343.000- six significant figures

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 5) Exponential digits in scientific notation are not significant.

For example- 1.32 X 10-2 -three significant figures

7. Rounding Off:-
Rounding off figures during calculation helps to make the calculation of big digits easier. While rounding off measurements, we use the following rules
by convention:

(1) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.

Example: x=7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x=3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.

(2) If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by one.

Example: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9, again x = 12.78 is rounded off to 12.8.

(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is raised by one.

Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758 is rounded off to 6.8.

(4) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is left unchanged if it is even.

Example: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 on rounding off, again x = 12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.

(5) If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one if it is odd.

Example: x = 3.750 is rounded off to 3.8, and again x = 16.150 is rounded off to 16.2.

Significant Figures in Calculation:-

1. Rules for addition and subtraction-

The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having different precisions should be reported to the same number of decimal places as are presen
in the number having the least number of decimal places.

For example:-

1) 33.3+3.11+0.313=36.723 but here the answer should be reported to one decimal place as the 33.3 has the least number of decimal place(i.e. only one
decimal place), therefore the final answer=36.7

2) 3.1421+0.241+0.09=3.4731 but here the answer should be reported to two decimal places as the 0.09 has the least number of the decimal place(i.e.
two decimal places), therefore the final answer=3.47

2 Rules for multiplication and division-

The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of significant figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the
calculation:-

For example:-

1) 142.06 x 0.23=32.6738 but here the least precise term is 0.23 which has only two significant figures, so the answer will be 33.

8. Errors of measurements
If are a measured value

then

where am = true value

then

1)Absolute Error for nth reading = = true value - measured value

So =

2) Mean absolute error

3) Relative error or Fractional error

The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured.

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4) Percentage error

8.1- Error in sum and Error in difference of two physical quantities

1) Error in sum (x=a+b)

Absolute error in x is is given by

where

= absolute error in measurement of a

= absolute error in measurement of b

= absolute error in measurement of x

The percentage error in the value of x is is given by

2) Error in difference (x=a-b)

Absolute error in x is is given by

Percentage error in the value of x is is given by

8.2- Error in product and Error in division of two physical quantities

1) Error in product

Maximum fractional error is given by

where

= absolute error in measurement of a

= absolute error in measurement of b

= absolute error in measurement of x

The percentage error in the value of x is given by

2) Error in division

The maximum fractional error in x is given by

The percentage error in the value of x is given by

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 23. Force in non-uniform Circular Motion

Ft = mat

m = mass

ac= centripetal acceleration

at = tangential acceleration

Fc = centripetal force

Work Energy and Power

1. Work Important Formulae

Work-

Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through a certain distance along the direction of the force.

Work done by a constant force-

1. The scalar product of the force vector ( ) and the displacement vector ( )

2. The product of the magnitude of force magnitude of displacement and cosine of the angle between them

3. If the number of forces , are acting on a body and it shifts from position vector to position vector

Then

4. Units-

SI Unit-Joule

CGS Unit- Erg

5. Dimension-

6. Dependence of work done by a constant force

Nature of Work Done-

1. Positive Work-

Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to displacement.

Means

Where is the angle between force vectors and displacement vector

Maximum work =

E.g When you move a block by pulling it then work done by you on the block is positive

2. Negative Work

Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to displacement.

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 Means

Where is the angle between force vectors and displacement vector

Minimum work=

E.g When a body is made to slide over a rough surface, the work done by the frictional force is negative

3. Zero work

Under three conditions, Work can be zero

a. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement

Means

E.g-When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is always zero.

b. If there is no displacement (means s = 0)

E.g- When a person tries to displace a wall by applying a force and can't able to move the wall

So the work done by the person on the wall is zero.

c. If there is no force acting on the body (means F=0)

E.g-Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work done by variable force-

Force is a vector quantity. So it has a magnitude as well as direction. A variable force means when its magnitude or its direction or both varies with
position.

And work done by the variable force is given by -

Where is a variable force and is a small displacement

When Force is time-dependent

And we can write

So,

Where and are force and velocity vector at any instant.

Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement Graph

The area under the force-displacement curve with the proper algebraic sign represents work done by the force.

Work done by the frictional force-

1. Work done by the frictional force is zero -

When the force applied on a body is insufficient to overcome the friction.

2. Work done by the frictional force is negative

When the force is large enough to overcome the friction

3. Work done by the frictional force is positive

When force is applied on a body, which is placed above another body ,the work done by the frictional force on the lower body

maybe positive.

Work Done in Conservative and Non-Conservative Field-

1. Conservative field-

In the conservative field, work done by the force depends only upon the initial and final position.

In the conservative field, work done by the force does not depend on the path.

In the conservative field, work done by the force along a closed path is zero.

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 2. Conservative force-

The forces of these type of fields are known as conservative forces.

Example: Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces, the spring force

3. Non-Conservative field-

In Non- conservative field, work done by the force depends on the path followed between any two positions/points.

In Non-conservative field, work done by the force along a closed path is non-zero.

4. Non-Conservative Force-

The forces corresponding to Non-Conservative field are known as non-conservative forces.

Non-Conservative Force is dissipative.

Example: Frictional force, Viscous force

2. Energy
Energy-

1. The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for doing work.

2. It is a scalar quantity

3. Dimension-

4. Unit-

SI unit - Joule

CGS - Erg

and,

5. Mass energy equivalence-

Einstein’s special theory of relativity shows that material particle itself is a form of energy.

The relation between the mass of a particle m and its equivalent energy is given as

Where c = velocity of light in vacuum.

E.g - If m =1kg then

6. Various forms of energy

Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)

Chemical energy

Electrical energy

Sound energy

Heat energy

Light energy

7. Transformation of energy-

Conversion of energy from one form to another is possible through various devices and processes.

Examples are -

Bulb- Electrical energy gets converted into light energy.

Speaker-Electrical energy gets converted into sound energy.

Heater- Electrical energy gets converted into heat energy

Mechanical Energy-

Mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the energy associated with the motion and

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 position of an object.

3. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy-

The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.

E.g-Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.

1. The expression for kinetic energy

Where

2. Kinetic Energy is always positive.

3. Work-energy theorem-

Net work done by all the forces acting on a particle is equal to a change in its kinetic energy.

Where

This theorem is valid for a system in the presence of all types of forces (external or internal, conservative or non-conservative).

5. Relation of kinetic energy with linear momentum

….. (1)

and, P = mv or v=p/m ….. (2)

put this value of v in equation (1)

Put we get

Where

4. Potential energy-
Definition-

Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces.

In the space occupied by conservative forces, every point is associated with a certain energy which is called the energy of

position or potential energy.

Change in potential energy -

Change in potential energy between any two points is defined as the work done by the associated conservative force

in displacing the particle between these two points without any change in kinetic energy.

......(1)

Where,

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 We can define a unique value of potential energy only by assigning some arbitrary value to a fixed point called the reference

point.

Whenever and wherever possible, we take the reference point at infinite and assume potential energy to be zero there.

i.e; if take and then from equation (1)

In the case of conservative force (field), potential energy is equal to the negative of work done in shifting the body from

reference position to the given position.

Types of potential energy-

Potential energy generally is of three types:

Elastic potential energy, Electric potential energy, and Gravitational potential energy

1. Potential Energy stored when a particle displaced against gravity

Where

2. Potential Energy stored in the spring-

Restoring force = (or spring force)

Where k is called the spring constant.

Work done by restoring the force

Potential Energy

Where

The relation between Conservative Force and Change in potential energy -

For only conservative fields F equals the Negative of the rate of change of potential energy with respect to position.

The three-dimensional formula for potential energy-

For only conservative fields F equals the negative gradient of the potential energy.

Where is del operator

And,

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 So,

Where =Partial derivative of U w.r.t. x (keeping y and z constant)

=Partial derivative of U w.r.t. y (keeping x and z constant)

=Partial derivative of U w.r.t. Z (keeping x and y constant)

Potential energy curve

A graph plotted between the potential energy of a particle and its displacement from the center of force is called a potential energy curve.

The figure shows a graph of the potential energy function U(x) for one-dimensional motion. As we know that negative gradient of the potential energy
gives force.

Nature of force-

1. Attractive force -

If is positive (means on increasing x, U is increasing)

Then F is negative in direction i.e. force is attractive in nature.

In the graph, this is represented in region BC.

2. Repulsive force-

If is negative (means on increasing x, U is decreasing)

Then F is positive in direction i.e. force is repulsive in nature.

In the graph, this is represented in the region AB.

3. Zero force

If is zero (means on increasing x, U is not changing ) then F is zero

Points B, C, and D represent the point of zero force.

These points can be termed as a position of equilibrium.

Types of equilibrium

If the net force acting on a particle is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium.

Means For equilibrium

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 Equilibrium of particles can be of three types-

1. Stable equilibrium

When a particle is displaced slightly from a position, then a force acting on it brings it back to the initial position, it is said to be in the
stable equilibrium position.

is positive.

i.e; the rate of change of is positive

Potential energy is minimum.

A marble is placed at the bottom of a hemispherical bowl.

2. Unstable equilibrium

When a particle is displaced slightly from a position, then a force acting on it tries to displace the particle further away from the equilibrium
position, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

is negative

i.e; rate of change of is negative

Potential energy is maximum.

A marble balanced on top of a hemispherical bowl.

3. Neutral equilibrium

When a particle is slightly displaced from a position then it does not experience any force acting on it and continues to be in equilibrium in the
displaced position, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

i.e; the rate of change of is zero.

Potential energy is constant.

A marble is placed on a horizontal table.

5. Conservation of Energy-
1. Conservation of Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy.

According to Conservation of Mechanical Energy, If only conservative forces act on a system,

The total mechanical energy remains constant.

By work-energy theorem, we have or ....(1)

And the change in potential energy in a conservative field is

Or, ……..(2)

From equation (1) and (2)

We get,

Means,

Or, E is constant in a conservative field

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 i.e.; if the kinetic energy of the body increases its potential energy will decrease by an equal amount and vice versa.

2. Law of conservation of total energy-

If some non-conservative force like friction is also acting on the particle, the mechanical energy is no more constant.

It changes by the amount of work done by non-conservative forces.

i.e;

The lost energy is transformed into heat or in other forms of energy. But the total energy remains constant.

So, according to the Law of conservation of total energy “Energy may be transformed from one kind to another but it cannot be created or destroyed.
The total energy in an isolated system is constant.”

6. Vertical circular motion

This is an example of non-uniform circular motion.

A particle of mass m is attached to a light and inextensible string. The other end of the string is fixed at O and

the particle moves in a vertical circle of radius r is equal to the length of the string as shown in the figure.

Tension at any point on the vertical loop

Consider the particle when it is at the point P and the string makes an angle θ with vertical.

Forces acting on the particle are:

T = tension in the string along its length,

And, mg = weight of the particle vertically downward.

Hence, the net radial force on the particle is

And,

Where r = length of the string

So,

Or, Tension at any point on the vertical loop

Since the speed of the particle decreases with height,

Hence, tension is maximum at the bottom, where cos θ = 1 (as θ = 0).

Similarly,

Velocity at any point on the vertical loop-

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 If u is the initial velocity imparted to the body at the lowest point then, the velocity of the body at height h is given by

Velocity at the lowest point (A) for the various conditions in Vertical circular motion.

1. Tension in the string will not be zero at any of the points and the body will continue the circular motion.

2. Tension at highest point C will be zero and the body will just complete the circle.

3. A particle will not follow the circular motion. Tension in the string becomes zero somewhere between points B and C whereas velocity
remains positive. Particle leaves the circular path and follows a parabolic trajectory

4. Both velocity and tension in the string become zero between A and B and the particle will oscillate along a semi-circular path.

5. The velocity of the particle becomes zero between A and B but the tension will not be zero and the particle will oscillate about the point A.

Critical Velocity-

It is the minimum velocity given to the particle at the lowest point to complete the circle.

7. Power-
1. Definition-

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.

2. Dimension -

2. Units-

SI- Watt or Joule/sec

CGS- Erg/sec

4. Average power-

5. Instantaneous power-

Where,

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 i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force with velocity

6. Power expressed as the rate of change of kinetic Energy

Where,

8. Collision
The interaction between two or more objects is called a collision.And during this interaction strong force acts between two or more bodies for a short
time as a result of which the energy and momentum of the interacting particle change.

Stages of collision-

There are three distinct identifiable stages in collision

1. Before the collision.-

The interaction forces are zero

2. During the collision-

The interaction forces are very large and this forces act for a very short time. And because of this interaction forces the energy and
momentum of the interacting particle change.

3. After the collision-

The interaction forces are zero

Momentum and energy conservation in collision

The magnitude of the interacting force is often unknown, therefore, Newton’s second law cannot be used. But the law of conservation of momentum is
useful in relating the initial and final velocities.

1. Momentum conservation-

In a collision the effect of external forces such as gravity or friction is not taken into account as due to small duration of collision (t)
average impulsive force responsible for collision is much larger than external force acting on the system and since this impulsive force is
'Internal' therefore the total momentum of the system always remains conserved.

2. Energy conservation-

In a collision 'total energy' is also always conserved. Here total energy includes all forms of energy such as mechanical energy, internal
energy, excitation energy, radiant energy, etc.

But in a collision Kinetic energy may or may not be conserved.

Coefficient of restitution-

The ratio of the relative velocity of separation to the relative velocity of approach.

Types of collision-

1. On the basis of conservation of kinetic energy

a. Perfectly elastic collision

In this collision,

Coefficient of restitution e = 1

Ex- Bouncing of ball with same velocity after the collision with ground.

b. Inelastic collision

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 In this collision

Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1

As

The loss in kinetic energy appears in other forms, such as heat , sound etc.

Ex- Collision between two billiard balls. All majority of collision belong to this category.

c. Perfectly inelastic collision.

If in a collision two bodies stick together or move with same velocity after the collision, the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.

Coefficient of restitution e = 0

Ex-Collision between a bullet and a block of wood is an example of perfectly inelastic collision, if after collision the bullet remains
embedded in the block, and block and bullet move together.

2. On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies

a. Head-on or one-dimensional collision

In a head-on collision the motion of colliding particles before and after the collision is along the same line .

b. Oblique collision

If directions of motion of colliding particles after collision is not along the initial line of motion of colliding particles , then the collision is
called oblique.

Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly Elastic Head on Collision-

In Perfectly Elastic Collision,

Law of conservation of momentum and that of Kinetic Energy hold good.

…….(1)

…….(2)

From equation (1) and (2)

We get, …..(3)

Or, we can say Relative velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation

And

So in Perfectly Elastic Collision

e=1,

From equations (1),(2), (3)

We get

……(4)

Similarly, ...... (5)

Special cases of head-on elastic collision

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 1. Equal mass in case of perfectly elastic collision

Then,

Or, Velocity mutually interchange

2. If a massive projectile collides with a light target (i.e )

Since so we use

Putting in equation (4) and (5)

We get

3. If the target particle is massive in case of elastic collision (i.e; )

Since

So, the lighter particle recoil with same speed and the massive target particle remain practically at rest.

i.e;

Perfectly elastic oblique collision-

Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.

By law of conservation of momentum

Along x-axis-

….. (1)

Along y-axis-

…..(2)

By law of conservation of kinetic energy

….(3)

And In Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision

Value of e=1

So along line of impact (here along in the direction of )

We apply e=1

And we get ….. (4)

So we solve these equations (1),(2),(3),(4) to get unknown.

Special condition

Then, from equation (1), (2) and (3)

We get,

i.e; after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two bodies of equal masses (if the second body is at rest), the scattering angle would be
.

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Head on inelastic collision-

1. In Inelastic Collision Law of conservation of momentum hold good but kinetic energy is not conserved .

…… (1)

2. In inelastic collision (0 < e < 1)

….. (2)

From equations (1),(2)

We get,

……(3)

Similarly, ...... (4)

3. Special case

A sphere of mass m moving with velocity u hits inelastically with another stationary sphere of same mass.

As,

So, or, ....(5)

By conservation of momentum

As,

So ….(6)

From equation (5) and (6)

We get,

4. Loss in kinetic energy

Loss in K.E = Total initial kinetic energy – Total final kinetic energy

…. (7)

From equation (3) , (4) and (7)

We can write, Loss in kinetic energy in terms of e as

Perfectly inelastic collision-

73
In Perfectly Inelastic Collision - Two bodies stick together after the collision ,so there will be a final common velocity (v)

1. When the colliding bodies are moving in the same direction

By the law of conservation of momentum

Loss in kinetic energy

2. When the colliding bodies are moving in the opposite direction

By the law of conservation of momentum

If v is positive then the combined body will move along the direction of motion of mass

If v is negative then the combined body will move in a direction opposite to the motion of mass

Loss in kinetic energy

Rotational Motion
Important Formulae

1. Rigid body rotation

Rigid body-

It is defined as a system of particles in which the distance between each pair of particles remains constant.

This means the shape & size do not change during the motion.

Translation motion-

If a body is moving such that a line drawn between any two of its internal points remain parallel to itself.

All the particles of the body move along parallel paths.

All the particles of the body follows 1 D motion.

Example- Motion of a body along a straight line.

Rotational motion-

A rigid body is said to be in pure rotation if every particle of the body moves in a circle and centre of all the circles lie on a straight line called the
axis of rotation.

The line joining any two internal points does not remain parallel.

Example-motion of wheels, gears, motors.

Some important terms-

1. System-

A system is a collection of any number of particles interacting with one another and are under observation for analysing the situation.

2. Internal forces-

74
 And angular acceleration =

And we know that

And torque due to friction force =

So,

As

So Condition for pure rolling on an inclined plane

Where = limiting coefficient of friction

And let t= time taken by the body to reach the lowest point

So using

We get,

Gravitation
Important Formulae

1. Newton's law of Gravitation

According to Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between their centres.

Due to gravitational force, Each particle in this universe attracts every other particle.

The direction of this force is along the line joining the particles.

Let two particles of masses and separated by a distance r exert a Force F on each other

And Magnitude of F is given as

Or,

Where

Force

Gravitational constant

Masses

Distance between masses

The vector form of formula

94
 According to Newton's law of gravitation

Or

Where Position vector

Here negative sign indicates that the direction of is opposite to that of

And

So,

Means Gravitational force between two bodies form an action and reaction pair.

i.e. the forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

This is in accordance with Newton's third law of motion

Universal Gravitational Constant (G)

If and r=1 m then F=G

I.e Universal gravitational constant is equal to the Gravitational force between two bodies each having unit mass and their centers are placed unit
distance apart.

Value of G is

Its Dimension Formula is

Value of G does not depend upon the nature & size of bodies

Also, it is also independent of the nature of medium between two bodies.

Properties of Gravitational Force

1. Always attractive

2. It is the central force

3. Weakest force (Ratio of between two electrons is )

4. It is a conservative force

5. It is independent of the medium between the particles.

6. Gravitational force is long range-force.

7. Principle of superposition is valid for Gravitational Force

The gravitational force between two particles is independent of the presence or absence of other particles.

95
 Force on a particle (m) due to the number of particles ( , , , etc)

is the resultant of forces due to individual particles ( , , , etc)

I.e-

2. Acceleration due to gravity

The Gravitational Force exerted by the earth on a body is known as the gravitational pull of gravity. And this force will produce an acceleration in the motion
of a body.

And this is known as the acceleration due to gravity.

This is denoted by g.

it is given by formula

And in term of density of earth

Using

we get

Its average value is on the surface of the earth.

It is a vector quantity and its direction is always towards the centre of the earth/Planet.

Dimension-

Its value depends upon the mass, radius, and density of the Earth/Planet.

It is independent of mass, shape and density of the body situated on the surface of the Earth/planet.

i.e Value of g will be the same for a light as well as heavy body if both are situated on the surface of the Earth/planet.

3. Factors affecting the value of acceleration due to gravity (g)

The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) changes its value due to the following factors

1. The shape of the earth

2. Height above the earth's surface

3. Depth below the earth's surface

4. Axial rotation of the earth.

Variation of 'g' due to the shape of the earth

96
 Earth has an elliptical shape as shown in fig.

Where Equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than the polar radius.

Or

Where Radius of the equator

Radius of pole

So

In fact

Or we can say Weight increases as the body is taken from equator to pole.

Variation in 'g' due to height-

Value of g at the surface of the earth (at distance r=R from earth center)

Value of g at height h from the surface of the earth (at a general distance r=R+h from earth center)

Where

97
As we go above the surface of the earth, the value of g decreases

So

Where gravity at a height h from the surface of the earth.

The radius of earth

height above the surface

Value of 'g' at

if

No effect of earth gravitational pull at infinite distance.

Value of g when h < < R

Formula

1. Value of g

So

2. The absolute decrease in the value of g with height

3. The fractional decrease in the value of g with height

4. Percentage decrease in the value of g with height

Variation in 'g' due to depth-

Value of g at the surface of the earth (at d=0)

Value of g at depth d from the surface of the earth (at a general distance r=(R-d) from earth centre)=g'

And

98
Means Value of g' decreases on going below the surface of the earth.

So

Value of 'g' at the centre of the earth

At the centre

So

i.e., Acceleration due to gravity at the centre of the earth becomes zero.

The absolute decrease in the value of g with depth

The fractional decrease in the value of g with depth

The value of g decreases with depth.

Percentage decrease in the value of g with depth

Note- The rate of decrease of gravity outside the earth (h<<R) is double that of inside the earth

Variation in 'g' due to Rotation of earth-

As the earth rotates about its axis

Let its angular velocity is about an axis as shown in the figure..

As shown in the figure.

=The angle between the equatorial plane at that point and line joining that point to the centre of the earth.

For the poles =90 and for equator =0

From applying Newton's 2nd law along the line joining point P and centre.

Where g' is the value of acceleration due to gravity at point P.

99
 So we get

The apparent weight of body decrease with an increase in angular velocity ( )

Apparent weight of the body varies from point to point because each point has different latitude and magnitude of centrifugal force varies with the
latitude of the place.

For Pole, =90

So

I.e value of g at the poles is independent of angular velocity of earth.

For equator, =0

I.e Decrease in the value of g is maximum at the equator

Weightlessness due to rotation of the earth-

Weightlessness means g'=0

So

As (For equator)

Where Angular velocity for which a body at the equator will become weightless

The time period of Rotation of earth for which body at the equator will become weightless

Where Radius of earth

And using

We get

And

Relation of gravity at the poles and equator

After considering the effect of rotation, and the elliptical shape of the earth

Where gravity at the pole

gravity at equator

4. Mass and Density of Earth

Mass of Earth-

Using Newton’s law of gravitation we can estimate the mass of the earth

mass of earth

Gravitational constant

Density of Earth

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 As

Where density of earth

So

Inertial mass

Also known as the mass of material of body which measures its inertia.

From Newton’s second law of motion

So

Where

inertial mass

external force

1. Gravity has no effect on inertial mass.

2. Inertial mass is independent of size, shape, and state of the body.

Gravitational Mass-

It is mass which determines the gravitational pull acting upon it.

Let F= gravitational pull on a body of mass

applying Newton’s law of gravitation

We have

So we get

Where Gravitational mass

Gravitational field intensity

Tip-Spring balance measure gravitational mass.

Mass (m)

1. It is the quantity of matter contained in the body.

2. Its SI unit- Kg

3. Its dimension is

4. It is a scalar quantity.

5. It Can never be zero

6. Its value does not change with g.

Weight (W)

1. It is an Attractive force exerted by the earth on anybody.

2. S.I. Unit: Newton or Kg - wt

3. Dimension-

4. It is a vector quantity

101
 5. It changes its value according to the value of g

6. At and at the centre of earth g = 0, So W is equal to zero there.

5.Gravitational field Intensity

Gravitational field-

It is space or surrounding in which a material body feels the gravitational force of attraction.

Gravitational field Intensity-

It is the force experienced by a unit mass at a point in the field.

It is denoted by I

If the mass of a body is m then I is given by

1. It is a vector quantity

2. If the field is produced by a body M the direction of its Gravitational field Intensity is always towards the center of gravity of M.

3.

4.
Gravitational field due to Point mass-

If the point mass M is producing the field and test mass is at distance r as shown in fig

So Force is given as

And the corresponding I is given by

Where

1.

Means As the distance (r) of test mass from point (M) Increases I decreases.

2.
Superposition of Gravitational field-

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The net Intensity at a given point due to different point masses (M1,M2,M3…) can be calculated by doing the vector sum of their individual intensities

Point of zero intensity-

Let m1 and m2 are separated at a distance d from each other

And P is the point where net Intensity= =0

Then P is the point of zero intensity

Let point P is at distance x from m1

Then For point P =0

Then

And

Gravitational field line-

Field line of Isolated mass-

Field lines are radially Inward

103
 As

So we can say that the intensity of the gravitational field at a point P in the field of Isolated mass is equal to the acceleration of test mass placed at that
point P.

Properties of Gravitational field line-

1. The line includes arrows which represent the direction of the gravitational field.

2. The magnitude of the gravitational field is proportional to the number of field lines crossing a unit area perpendicular to them.

The lines never cross

3. Lines do not form closed loops

6. Gravitational field due to various bodies

1. Gravitational field due to uniform circular ring

At the center of ring

At a point on its Axis

Where,

The distance of the point P along the Axis of the ring, from its center .

a= radius of the ring

2.Gravitational field Intensity due to uniform disc

For Uniform disc

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 Angle with axis

Radius of disc

At the center of the disc

At a point on its axis

3.Gravitational field Intensity due to spherical shell/hollow sphere

Radius of shell

Position of Point

Mass of spherical shell

Inside the surface

on the surface

Outside the surface

105
4.Gravitational field Intensity due to uniform solid sphere

Inside surface

on the surface

Outside surface

7.Gravitational Potential
In a gravitational field potential V at a point, P is defined as negative of work done per unit mass in changing the position of a test mass from some reference
point to the given point.

Note-usually reference point is taken as infinity and potential at infinity is taken as Zero.

We know that

So

And

Gravitational potential

Field Intensity

small distance

We can also write

Means a negative gradient of potential gives the intensity of the field .

The negative sign indicates that in the direction of intensity the potential decreases.

106
 It is a scalar quantity.

Gravitational Potential at a distance 'r' -

If the field is produced by a point mass then

So

at

Gravitational Potential difference -

In the gravitational field, the work done to move a unit mass from one position to the other is known as Gravitational Potential difference.

If the point mass M is producing the field

Point A and B are shown in the figure.

=Gravitational potential at point A

=Gravitational potential at point B

the distance of mass at

distance of mass at

=The gravitational potential difference in bringing unit mass m from point A to point B in the gravitational field produced by M.

Superposition of Gravitational potential-

The net gravitational potential at a given point due to different point masses (M1,M2,M3…) can be calculated by doing a scalar sum of their individual
Gravitational potential.

107
 mass

distances

Point of zero potential-

Let m1 and m2 are separated at a distance d from each other

And P is the point where net Gravitational potential

Then P is the point of zero Gravitational potential

Let point P is at distance x from m1

Then For point P

So

8. Gravitational potential due to various bodies

1. Gravitational potential due to Uniform circular ring-

108
 distance from ring

radius of Ring

Potential

At a point on its Axis

At the centre

2. Gravitational Potential due to Uniform disc-

Radius of disc

M-mass of disc

At the center of the disc

At a point on its axis

109
3. Gravitational Potential due to spherical shell -

Radius of shell

distance from the center of the shell

Inside the surface

on the surface

Outside the surface

4. Gravitational Potential due to Uniform solid sphere-

Radius of sphere

Mass of sphere

distance from the center of sphere

Inside the surface

on the surface

110
 Outside the surface

Tip-

9. Gravitational Potential Energy

It is the amount of work done in bringing a body from to that point against gravitational force.

It is Scalar quantity

SI Unit: Joule

Dimension :

Gravitational Potential energy at a point-

If the point mass M is producing the field

Then gravitational force on test mass m at a distance r from M is given by

And the amount of work done in bringing a body from to r

And this is equal to gravitational potential energy

So

gravitational potential energy

Mass of source-body

mass of test body

distance between two

Note- U is always negative in the gravitational field because Force is attractive in nature.

Means As the distance r increases U becomes less negative

I.e U will increase as r increases

And for , U=o which is maximum

Gravitational Potential energy of discrete distribution of masses -

Net Gravitational Potential Energy

The distance of masses from each other

Change of potential energy -

if a body of mass m is moved from to

111
 Then Change of potential energy is given as

change of energy

distances

If then the change in potential energy of the body will be negative.

I.e To decrease potential energy of a body we have to bring that body closer to the earth.

The relation between Potential and Potential energy -

As

But

So

Where Potential

Potential energy

distance

Gravitational Potential Energy at the center of the earth relative to infinity-

mass of body

Mass of earth

The gravitational potential energy at height 'h' from the earth's surface -

Using

The potential energy at the height

Radius of earth

Relation between gravitational field and potential-

Gravitational field and potential are related as

Where E is Gravitational field

And V is Gravitational potential

And r is the position vector

And Negative sign indicates that in the direction of intensity the potential decreases.

112
Then

Work Done Against Gravity-

The gravitational potential energy at height 'h' from the earth's surface

Is given by

So at the surface of earth put h=0

We get

So if the body of mass m is moved from the surface of earth to a point at height h from the earth's surface

Then there is a change in its potential energy.

And this change in its potential energy is known as work done against gravity to move the body from earth surface to height h.

Where work done

change in Potential energy

distances

Putting r1=R , and r2=R+h

So

1. when 'h' is not negligible

2. when 'h' is very small

As

But is small as compared to earth's radius

So

3. If h = nR then

10. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Kepler gives three empirical laws which govern the motion of the planets which are known as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

As we know that planets are large natural bodies rotating around a star in definite orbits.

So, Kepler laws are-

(a) The law of Orbits:

It is Kepler's First Law.

Every planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit. And the sun will be at one of the foci of the ellipse.

(b) The law of Area:

113
It is Kepler's 2nd law.

According to this, the line joining the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time which clearly means that areal velocity is constant. So
according to this law, a planet will move slowly when it is farthest from the sun and more rapidly when it is nearest to the sun. You can find it similar to the
law of conservation of angular momentum.

For the below figure

Area of velocity =

Where

Areal velocity

small area traced

Kepler's 2nd law is Similar to the Law of conservation of momentum

As

where

Angular momentum

(c) The law of periods:

It is Kepler's 3rd law.

According to this, the square of the Time period of revolutions of any planet around the sun is directly proportional to

the cube of the semi-major axis of that particular orbit.

For the below figure

Where

semi major Axis

The shortest distance of the planet from the sun (perigee)

Largest distance of the planet from the sun (apogee)

So if T=Time period of revolution

Then according to Kepler's 3rd law.

114
or

11. Escape Velocity-

Escape velocity is defined as the minimum velocity an object must have in order to escape from the planets gravitational pull.

Escape velocity ( in terms of the radius of the earth)

Using

We get

Escape velocity

Radius of earth

And using

For the earth

Escape velocity is independent of the mass of the body.

Escape velocity is independent of the direction of projection of the body.

Escape velocity depends on the mass and radius of the earth/planet.

If the body projected with velocity less than escape velocity ( )

In this case, the first body will reach a certain maximum height ( )

And after that, it may either move in an orbit around the earth/planet or may fall back down towards the earth/planet.

escape velocity

Projection velocity of the body

Radius of planet

If a body is projected with a velocity greater than escape velocity ( )

Then By the law of conservation of energy

Total energy at surface = Total energy at infinity

And using

We get

new velocity of the body at infinity=

projection velocity

Escape velocity

Escape energy-

115
 Energy to be given to an object on the surface of the earth so that it's total energy is 0

Mass of planet

mass of the body

Gravitational constant

12.Orbital Velocity of Satellite

Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity which is required to put the satellite into its orbit around the earth.

Where

Position of satellite from the centre of earth

Orbital velocity

If r=(R+h) where R is the radius of the earth

then:

Dependence of Orbital Velocity

1. Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of satellite and is always along the tangent of the orbit.

2.It depends upon the mass of the central body and radius of orbit

means, Greater the value of radius of orbit, less be the orbital velocity

If satellite is close to the earth’s surface,

As h<<<R or

and using

So

Where

Orbital velocity

116
 Radius of Earth

Angular momentum of satellite

Angular momentum

mass of satellite

Orbital velocity of the satellite

Relation of escape velocity and orbital velocity

we know that ;

and

Where

Orbital velocity

Escape velocity

or

Or we can say that

If the speed of satellite is made times the original speed, then it will escape from the gravitational pull of the earth.

Shape of orbit of satellite

If , then satellite does not remain in it's circular path rather it traces a spiral path and falls on earth

Satellite revolves in circular path

satellite move along the parabolic path and will escape from gravitational pull.

satellite will escape but now the of motion will be hyperbolic.

Here,

V= velocity of body

- orbital velocity of a body

- escape velocity of a body

13.Time period and energy of a satellite

The time period of satellite-

It is the time taken by satellite to go once around the earth.

And the time period (T) of the satellite is given by

Where

radius of orbit

Time period

Mass of planet

If the satellite is very close to the earth’s surface,

i.e., h<<<R,

117
 then
or

The time period of a satellite in terms of density

Density of planet

Time period

Gravitational constant

for earth

Height of Satellite-

Putting the value of time period in the above formula we can calculate the height of the satellite from the surface of the earth.

The energy of Satellite-

When a satellite revolves around a planet in its orbit, it possesses both kinetic energy (due to orbital motion) and potential energy (due to its position against
the gravitational pull of earth).

And these energies are given by

Where

And

Energy Graph of satellite

Where

Energy distribution in an elliptical orbit

118
 In this Total Energy

Where

Binding Energy (B.E.)-

The minimum energy required to remove the satellite from its orbit to infinity is called Binding Energy.

And It is given by

where

Work done in changing the orbit-

When the satellite is transferred to a higher orbit i.e as shown in the figure.

Where

14.Geostationary and polar satellites

Geostationary Satellite-

That satellite which appears stationary relative to the earth is called geostationary or geosynchronous satellite.

A geostationary satellite will stay the same place above the earth always, such a satellite is never at rest. Geostationary satellite appears stationary due to its
zero relative velocity with respect to that place on earth.

It is also known as parking orbit.

Now, you can say that the time period of the geostationary satellite is also 24 hours or 86400 sec.

So T= 24 hours or 86400 sec.

and we know that the Height of Satellite is given by

119
 So putting T= 24 hours or 86400 sec.

We get the height of geostationary satellite from the surface of the earth

as h = 6R = 36000 km

Its a sense of rotation should be the same as that of earth about its own axis.

i.e., in an anti-clockwise direction (from west to east).

A geostationary satellite is used for telecommunication, weather forecasting, etc.

Polar satellite-

Polar satellite is a satellite whose orbit is perpendicular or at right angles to the equator.

or in simple words, it passes over the north and south poles as it orbits the earth.

It can also be used as a communication satellite for countries/areas near the poles

where Geostationary satellites have no / Poor coverage.

15.Weightlessness
There are basically three cases of weightlessness -

1. When objects fall freely under gravity -

When a man is in a free-falling lift, then he will feel the weightlessness.

2.When a satellite revolves in its orbit around the earth -

Because of this, the astronauts will feel weightlessness in the satellite.

3. When bodies are at null points in outer space -

As we go up from the earth’s surface the gravitational pull of the earth goes on decreasing and the gravitational pull of the moon’s increasing. There i
a point when both the gravitational force will be equal and opposite, that null the weight of the body and we feel weightlessness.

Weightlessness in a Satellite.

The acceleration of the satellite is towards the centre of the earth.

Let us suppose a body of mass m placed on a surface inside the satellite moving around the earth.

Then force on the body are -

As the reaction becomes 0.

And from the Laws of motion, we know that the reaction on a body will give its weight.

So, the body will feel weightlessness in the satellite.

120
 Mechanical Properties of Solids
Important Formulae

1. Elasticity
The property of matter by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force is called elasticity.

2. Stress and its types-

Stress-

When a force is applied on a body, it is deformed to a small or large extent depending upon the nature of the material of the body and the magnitude of the
deforming force.

The internal restoring force acting per unit area of the cross-section of the deformed body is called stress and is denoted by .

The magnitude of stress,

Unit of stress: or Pascal(Pa)

Dimension of stress:

Types of stress:

1. Longitudinal stress/ Normal stress: In Longitudinal stress, the force is applied normal to the surface.

It is of two types:

a. Tensile stress: Longitudinal stress produced due to increase in length of a body under a deforming force is called tensile stress.

b. Compressive stress: Longitudinal stress produced due to decrease in length of a body under a deforming force is called compressional
stress.

Fig: Tensile Stress Fig: Compressive Stress

2. Shearing stress/ tangential stress: If two equal and opposite deforming forces are applied parallel to the cross-sectional area of the cylinder, there is a
relative displacement between the opposite faces of the cylinder. The restoring force per unit area developed due to the applied tangential force is know
as tangential or shearing stress.

121
 In this case, deforming force is applied tangential to one of the faces.

Area for calculation is the area of the face on which force is applied.

It produces change in shape, volume remaining the same.

Fig:- Shearing stress

3. Volume stress:

It produces change in volume and density, shape remaining the same.

It occurs in solids, liquids or gases

In case of fluids only bulk stress can be found.

It is equal to change in pressure because change in pressure is responsible for change in volume.

3.Strain and it's types-

Strain -

Strain is defined as the ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration.

122
 It has no dimensions and units as it is the ratio of two similar kind of physical quantities.

Types of strain:-

1. Longitudinal strain:- If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain produced in the body is called longitudinal strain.

If the length increases from its natural length, the longitudinal strain is called tensile strain.

If the length decreases from its natural length, the longitudinal strain is called compressive strain.

Fig: Tensile strain

Fig: Compressive strain

2. Shear strain:- If the deforming force produces a change in the shape of the body without changing its volume, strain produced is called shearing strain

It is defined as angle in radians through which a plane perpendicular to the fixed surface of the cubical body gets turned under the effect of tangential
force.

123
 Fig:- Shearing strain

Example:- when a book is pressed with the hand and pushed horizontally.

Fig:- A book subjected to a shearing stress

3. Volume Strain:- If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone the strain produced in the body is called volumetric strain.

Fig:- Volumetric strain

4. Stress-strain Curve.
The relation between the stress and the strain or a given material under tensile stress can be plotted on a graph called the strain stress curve.

124
 Fig:-A typical stress-strain curve for a metal.

The stress-strain curves vary from material to material. These curves help us to understand how a given material deforms with increasing loads.

1. When the strain is small (i.e., in region OA) stress is proportional to strain. This is the region where the Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point A is called
proportional limit and slope of line OA gives the Young’s modulus (Y) of the material of the wire.

2. If the strain is increased a little bit, i.e., in the region AB, the stress is not proportional to strain. However, the wire still regains its original length after
the removal of stretching force. This behaviour is shown up to point B known as elastic limit or yield-point. The region OAB represents the elastic
behaviour of the material of wire.

3. If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit B, i.e., between BC, the strain increases much more rapidly and if the stretching force is removed the
wire does not come back to its natural length. Some permanent increase in length takes place.

4. If the stress is increased further by a very small amount, a very large increase in strain is produced (region CD) and after reaching point D, the strain
increases even if the wire is unloaded and ruptures at E. In the region DE, the wire literally flows. The maximum stress corresponding to D after which
the wire begins to flow and breaks is called breaking or tensile strength. The region BCDE represents the plastic behaviour of the material of wire.

Types of materials:-

a. Ductile material:- If the large deformation in the material takes place between elastic limit and fracture point (or)

if the material is having large plastic region, then that material is called ductile material.

a. Brittle material:- If the material breaks down soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is called as brittle material.

b. Elastomers:- These materials only have elastic region (i.e., no plastic region). For example:- rubber

5.Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that if the deformation is small, the stress in a body is proportional to the corresponding strain, i.e.,

Where E is called as Modulus of elasticity and it depends on the nature of the material and temperature of the body and is independent of the dimensions of th
body.

Unit of Modulus of elasticity= N/m2

Modulus of elasticity is of three types:-

a. Young's Modulus(Y):- It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.

b. Shear Modulus or Modulus of rigidity(G):- It is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the shearing strain.

c. Bulk Modulus(B):- It is defined as the ratio of volume stress to the volume strain.

125
 where P=increase in pressure , V= original volume, =change in volume

The negative sign indicates that with the increase in pressure, volume decreases by .

Compressibility(C):- The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called as compressibility.

Unit of compressibility:- N-1m2

Poisson's ratio:- The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio ( ).

a. Lateral strain : The ratio of change in radius or diameter to the original radius or diameter is called lateral strain.
b. Longitudinal strain : The ratio of change in length to the original length is called longitudinal strain.

where negative sign is due to decrease in the transverse length

6.Work done in stretching a wire

When a body is in its natural shape, its potential energy corresponding to the molecular forces is minimum. When deformed, internal forces appear and work
has to be done against these forces. Thus, the potential energy of the body is increased. This is called the elastic potential energy.

Suppose a wire having natural length L and cross-sectional area A is fixed at one end and is stretched by an external force applied at the other end.

The elastic potential energy of the stretched wire is:

We can also write,

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7. Relation Between Volumetric Strain, Lateral Strain and Poisson’s Ratio

Let us long rod have a length L and radius 'r', then volume of this rod =

Now, Differentiating both the sides of , we get

Now, dividing both the sides by volume of rod , i.e., , we get ,

So we can say that,

Volumetric strain = Longitudinal strain + 2(Lateral strain)

Also, can be written as,

This is because ,

Special case -

When , then . It means that the substance is incompressible, so there is no change in volume.
If a material having = 0, it means lateral strain is zero. So, when a substance is stretched its length increases without any decrease in diameter.

For example - cork has . Also, in this case change in volume is maximum.

Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Important Formulae

1. Pressure In A Fluid
Fluids-

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 Kinetic theory of Gases
Important Formulae

1.States Of Matter
The matter is defined as any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume.

A state of matter is one of the distinct forms in which matter can exist. The states of matter are broadly classified in three states -

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas

However there is a fourth state (Plasma) also, but that is not in the scope of our syllabus.

Solid - A solid is a state of matter in which particles are arranged such that their shape and volume are relatively stable. In this, the constituents of a
solid tend to be packed together much closer than the particles in a gas or liquid.
Liquid - A liquid is a state of matter which is a nearly incompressible fluid and it conforms to the shape of its container but retains a constant volume
independent of pressure. It means that the volume is not changing with pressure.
Gas - A gas is defined as a state of matter consisting of particles that have neither a defined volume nor a defined shape.

2. Kinetic Theory Of Gases Assumptions

Ideal gas - It is a hypothetical gas (which is not real gas), whose molecules occupy negligible space and have no interactions (Force of interaction is very
less), and which consequently obeys the gas laws exactly.

So, the ideal gas does not exist in real, but for study we take some assumption to make the gas ideal and we can apply some laws which are only valid for idea
gases. These assumptions are -

1. The size of the molecules is negligible in comparison to intermolecular distance ( ).

2. The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical, rigid and perfectly elastic point masses (It means that when they collide with each other, then there is no
loss of energy while collision).
3. The molecules of a given gas are all identical but these molecules are different than those of another gas.
4. The volume of molecules is negligible in comparison to the volume of gas.
5. Molecules of a gas moves randomly in all possible direction with all possible velocities.
6. The speed of gas molecules varies from zero and infinity.
7. The gas molecules keep on colliding among themselves as well as with the walls of containing vessel. These collisions are perfectly elastic (no loss of
energy).
8. The time spent in a collision between two molecules is negligible in comparison to time between two successive collisions (i.e., time required to
travel mean free path).
9. The number of collisions per unit volume in a gas remains constant.
10. No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.
11. Gravitational attraction among the molecules is negligible due to extremely small masses and very high speed of molecules.
12. Molecules constantly collide with the walls of container due to which their momentum changes. The change in momentum is transferred to the walls of
the container and due to this Pressure is exerted by gas molecules on the walls of the container.
13. The density of gas does not changes at any point of container.

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3.The Gas Laws
BOYLE'S LAW-

It states that, for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

We can also write the above equation as,

So,

We can represent the Boyle's law through the various graph, which is shown as -

CHARLE'S LAW -

It states that, if the pressure remaining constant, the volume of the given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

From the above statement we can conclude the following equations -

So,

This equation can also be written in terms of density and temperature as -

We can represent the Charle's law through the various graph, which is shown as -

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Gay-Lussac’s law or pressure law -

If the volume remains constant, then the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

So, We can conclude the above statement in the following equation -

The graphical representation of Gay-Lussac's law is -

AVAGADRO'S LAW -

Equal volume of all the gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.

It implies that -

N = Number of molecules in a particular gas.

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

It states that when any two gases at the same pressure and temperature are allowed to diffuse into each other, then the rate of diffusion of each gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of the density of the gas.

So we can say that,

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 Where, r = rate of diffusion of gas

= Density of the gas

M = Molecular weight of the gas

= Root mean square velocity

Now, from the above equation, we can write,

DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE -

It states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases occupying a vessel is equal to the sum of the individual pressures which each gases
exert if it alone occupied the same volume at a given temperature.

Now, let us have a mixture of 'n' gases, so from the above statement we can conclude that -

Here, P = Pressure exerted by the mixture of gases

P1,P2. . . . . . Pn = Partial pressure of the component gases.

4. Ideal Gas Equation

Ideal gas equation-

The equation which relates the pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T) of the given state of an ideal gas is known as an ideal gas equation or
equation of state.

From Boyle’s law, we get .....(1)

and From Charle’s Law, we get ....(2)

And from Avogadro’s Law, we get .... (3)

And from equation (1), (2), (3)

we can write

So Ideal Gas Equation is given as

where

T= Temperature

P= pressure of ideal gas

V= volume

n= numbers of mole

R = universal gas constant

Universal gas constant (R)-

At S.T.P. the value of the universal gas constant is the same for all gases.

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 And its value is given as

Boltzman's constant (k)-

It is represented by per mole gas constant.

i.e

Specific gas constant (r)-

It is represented by per gram gas constant.

5. Real Gas And Equation

Real gas- The gases which do not obey gas Laws are called Real gas.

Two main factors because of which Real gas deviates from ideal gas are:

1) Presence of force of attraction between molecules.

2) The size of molecules are not negligible.

The gases actually found in nature are called real gases.

From the ideal gas equation, we get

For exactly one mole of an ideal gas

The quantity is called the compressibility factor and should be a unit for an ideal gas.

Plotting the experimentally determined value of for exactly one mole of various real gases as a function of pressure P

shows a deviation from identity as shown in the below graph.

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 Similarly, real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour as a function of temperature as shown in the below graph.

From the above graphs, we can say that A real gas behaves as an ideal gas most closely at low pressure and high temperature.

Real gas equation- Real gas equation, For n moles of gas is given by

....... (1)

Where a and b are called Vander wall's constant having dimensions and units as follows:

As we know the ideal gas equation as PV=nRT...... (2)

From equations (1) and (2) we can say that

The real gas equation is nothing but the ideal gas equation with two corrections (i.e Volume correction and Pressure correction)

These corrections are given by Vander Waal's. So the real gas equation is also known as Vander Waal's gas equation.

1. Volume correction- Due to the finite size of the molecules the effective volume of gas becomes (V –nb).

2. Pressure correction- Due to the presence of intermolecular force in real gases, the effective pressure of gas becomes

6. Pressure Of An Ideal Gas

Consider an ideal gas (consisting of N molecules each of mass m) enclosed in a cubical box of side L as shown in the below figure.

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1. Instantaneous velocity-

Any molecule of gas moves with velocity in any direction

And Due to the random motion of the molecule

2. The time during a collision-Time between two successive collisions with the wall A1

3. Collision frequency (n): It means the number of collisions per second.

4. Change in momentum: This molecule collides with A1 wall (A1) with velocity vx and rebounds with velocity (-vx)
The change in momentum of the molecule is given by

As the momentum remains conserved in a collision,

the change in momentum of wall A1 is

5. Force on the wall: Force exerted by a single molecule on the A1 wall is equal to the rate at which the momentum is transferred to the wall by this molecule

The total force on the wall A1 due to N molecules

where

6. Pressure-As pressure is defined as force per unit area, hence the pressure on A1 wall

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So Total pressure inside the container is given by

Using total mass= M=mN

Pressure due to an ideal gas is given as

where

mass of one molecule

N = Number of the molecule

= RMS velocity

7. The Maxwell Distribution Laws

Various types of speeds of ideal gases-

Root mean square speed- It is defined as the square root of the mean of squares of the speed of different molecules.

1. As the Pressure due to an ideal gas is given as

Where

R = Universal gas constant

M = molar mass

P = pressure due to gas

= density

2. I.e With the rise in temperature, rms speed of gas molecules increases.

3. I.e With the increase in molecular weight, rms speed of the gas molecule decreases.

4. The rms speed of gas molecules does not depend on the pressure of the gas (if the temperature remains constant)

Most probable speed-This is defined as the speed which is possessed by maximum the fraction of the total number of molecules of the gas.

I.e

Average speed-It is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of molecules in a gas at a given temperature.

and according to the kinetic theory of gases

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 The relation between RMS speed, average speed, and most probable speed

Maxwell’s Law -

The (Root mean square velocity) gives us a general idea of molecular speeds in a gas at a given temperature. So, it doesn't mean that the speed of each
molecule is .

Many of the molecules have speed less than and many have speeds greater than . So, Maxwell derived an equation that describes the distribution of
molecules in different speeds as -

So, from this formula, you have to remember a few key points -

1.

2.

Conclusions from this graph -

1. This graph is between number of molecules at a particular speed and speed of these molecules.

2. You can observe that the is maximum at most probable speed.

3. This graph also represent that .

4. This curve is asymmetric curve.

5. From this curve we can calculate number of molecules corresponds to that velocity range by calculating area bonded by this curve with speed axis.

Effect of temperature on velocity distribution :

With rising of temperature, the curve starts shifting right side and become broader as shown as -

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8. Mean Free Path
On the basis of kinetic theory of gases, it is assumed that the molecules of a gas are continuously colliding against each other. So, the distance travelled by a
gas molecule between any two successive collisions is known as free path.

There are assumption for this theory that during two successive collisions, a molecule of a gas moves in a straight line with constant velocity. Now, let us
discuss the formula of mean free path -

Let be the distance travelled by a gas molecule during n collisions respectively, then the mean free path of a gas molecule is defined as -

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Here, is the mean free path.

It can also be written as -

Now, let us take d = Diameter of the molecule,

N = Number of molecules per unit volume.

Also, we know that, PV = nRT

So, Number of moles per unit volume =

Also we know that number of molecules per unit mole =

So, the number of molecules in 'n' moles = nNA

So the number of molecules per unit volume is

So,

If all the other molecules are not at rest then,

Now, if and m = mass of each molecule then we can write -

So,

9. Degree of freedom
The degree of freedom of systems is defined as the possible independent motions, systems can have.

Or

The degree of freedom of systems is defined as the number of independent coordinates required to describe the system completely.

The independent motions can be translational, rotational or vibrational or any combination of these.

So the degree of freedom is of three types :

(i) Translational degree of freedom
(ii) Rotational degree of freedom
(iii) Vibrational degree of freedom

The degree of freedom is denoted by .

And it is given by

Where

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 Value of degree of freedom for

1.Monoatomic gas-

A monoatomic gas can only have a translational degree of freedom.

I.e

Example- He, Ne, Ar

2. Diatomic gas

A diatomic gas can have three translational degrees of freedom and two rotational degrees of freedom.

I.e

Example- H2 , O2 , N2

3. Triatomic gas-

A triatomic gas can have three translational degrees of freedom and three rotational degrees of freedom.

I.e

Example- H2O

Note-

The above degrees of freedom are shown at room temperature. Further at high temperature, in the case of diatomic or polyatomic molecules,
the atoms within the molecule may also vibrate with respect to each other. In such cases, the molecule will have 2 additional degrees of freedom, due to
vibrational motion. I.e One for the potential energy and one for the kinetic energy of vibration.

So A diatomic molecule that is free to vibrate (in addition to translation and rotation) will have 7 degrees of freedom.

10. The kinetic energy of ideal gas-

In ideal gases, the molecules are considered as point particles. The point particles can have only translational motion and thus only
translational energy. So for an ideal gas, the internal energy can only be translational kinetic energy.

Hence kinetic energy (or internal energy) of n mole ideal gas

1. kinetic energy of 1 molecule

where k = Boltzmann’s constant

and

i.e Kinetic energy per molecule of gas does not depends upon the mass of the molecule but only depends upon the temperature of the gas.

2. kinetic energy of 1 mole ideal gas

i.e Kinetic energy per mole of gas depends only upon the temperature of the gas.

3. At T = 0, E = 0 i.e. at absolute zero the molecular motion stops.

The relation between pressure and kinetic energy

As we know ......(1)

And K.E. per unit volume= ...... (2)

So from equation (1) and (2), we can say that

i.e. the pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to the two-third of the mean kinetic energy of translation per unit volume of the gas.

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 Law of Equipartition of Energy-

According to this law, for any system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed among its various degrees of freedom.

I.e Each degree of freedom is associated with energy

1. At a given temperature T, all ideal gas molecules will have the same average translational kinetic energy as

2. Different energies of a system of the degree of freedom f are as follows

11.Specific Heat Of A Gas

Specific heat - The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one Kelvin.

Now for gases, we have several types of specific heat, but here we will discuss basically two types of specific heat -

1. Specific heat at constant volume(cv) -It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 1°C or 1 Kelvin
at constant volume.

It is given as -

If 1 mole of gas is placed at the place of unit mass is considered, then this specific heat of gas is called molar specific heat at constant volume and is
represented by Cv (Here C is capital)

So, for molar specific heat -

2. Specific heat at constant pressure (cp) -It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 1°C or 1
Kelvin at constant pressure.

It is given as -

If 1 mole of gas is placed at the place of unit mass is considered, then this specific heat of gas is called molar specific heat at constant pressure and is
represented by Cp (Here C is capital)

So, for molar specific heat at constant pressure -

12.Mayer's Formula
Molar Specific heat of the gas at constant volume=

and Molar Specific heat capacity at constant pressure=

Mayer’s formula gives the relation between and as

or we can say that molar Mayer’s formula shows that specific heat at constant pressure is greater than that at constant volume.

Specific Heat in Terms of Degree of Freedom

1.Molar Specific heat of the gas at constant volume ( )

For a gas at temperature T, the internal energy

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Also, as we know for any gas heat supplied at constant volume

From the equation (i) and (ii)

where

f = degree of freedom

R= Universal gas constant

2. Molar Specific heat of the gas at constant pressure ( )

From Mayer’s formula, we know that

3. Atomicity or adiabatic coefficient ( )

It is the ratio of to

Value of is always more than 1

for Monoatomic gas

for Diatomic gas

for Triatomic gas

Gaseous Mixture

If two non-reactive gases A and B are enclosed in a vessel of volume V.

In the mixture n1 mole of Gas A (having Specific capacities as and , Degree of freedom and Molar mass as ) is mixed with

n2 mole of Gas B (having Specific capacities as and ,Degree of freedom and Molar mass as )

Then Specific heat of the mixture at constant volume will be

Similarly, Specific heat of the mixture at constant pressure will be

And adiabatic coefficient ( ) of the mixture is given by

Also

Similarly, the Degree of freedom of mixture is given as

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 Similarly, the molar mass of the mixture

Thermodynamics
Important Formulae

1.Introduction To Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics : It is a branch of science which deals with the exchange of energy in the form of heat or work between system and surroundings. It deals
with the conversion of the heat energy into mechanical energy and vice-versa.

Thermodynamic system and surroundings : The collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules which are confined within certain
boundaries (either fixed or moveable) such that it has a certain value of pressure, volume and temperature is called a thermodynamic system.

Anything outside the thermodynamic system to which energy or matter is exchanged is called its surroundings.

Example : Suppose there is Piston-cylinder arrangement which contains any gas within it, then the gas enclosed in a cylinder fitted with a piston forms the
thermodynamic system but the atmospheric air which is outside the cylinder, movable piston are surroundings.

Thermodynamic system are classified in three major categories -

(i) Open system : It exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings.

(ii) Closed system : It exchange only energy (not matter) with the surroundings.

(iii) Isolated system : It exchange neither energy nor matter with the surroundings.

2.Thermodynamic State Variables And Equation Of State

Thermodynamic variables : Any thermodynamic system can be described by specifying some of the variables i.e; its pressure(P), volume(V),
temperature(T), internal energy(U) and the number of moles(n). These parameters are called thermodynamic variables.

Extensive and Intensive properties/variables -

Intensive properties do not depend on the amount of matter that is present. These are bulk properties. Examples of intensive properties are - Density,
Temperature ets.
Extensive properties are those properties which depend on the amount of matter that is present. Examples of extensive properties are - Volume, Weight
etc.

Equation of state - The relation between the thermodynamic variables (P, V, T) of the system is called equation of state.

For n moles of an ideal gas, equation of state is PV = nRT

For n moles of a real gas equation of state is

Thermodynamic process : The process of change of state of a system involves change of thermodynamic variables such as pressure P, volume V and
temperature T of the system. The process is known as thermodynamic process.

Some important processes are -

(i) Isothermal process (ii) Adiabatic process (iii) Isobaric process (iv) Isochoric process

(v) Cyclic and non-cyclic process (vi) Reversible and irreversible process

Later, we will study all these process one by one in detail.

State and path function -

State or Point function does not depend on the path followed by the thermodynamic process but it depends on the final and initial position of the process.

Path function depends on the path followed by a thermodynamic process and not on the initial and final states of the system. Example of point function is
Internal energy and example of path function is Heat and work.

3.Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Thermodynamic equilibrium : When all the thermodynamic variables attain a steady value i.e. they do not change with respect to time, the system is said to
be in the state of thermodynamic equilibrium. For the system to attain thermodynamic equilibrium, the following equilibrium must be attained -

(i) Mechanical equilibrium : There is no unbalanced force between the system and its surroundings. There is no pressure gradient.

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 (ii) Thermal equilibrium : There is a uniform temperature in all parts of the system and is same as that of surrounding. There is no temperature
gradient.

(iii) Chemical equilibrium : There is a uniform chemical composition throughout the system and the surrounding. There is no concentration gradient.

Quasi-static process - A quasi-static process is a thermodynamic process which happens slowly enough for the system such that each state will remain in
internal equilibrium.

Example of quasi-static compression - when the volume of a system changes at enough slow rate to allow the pressure to remain constant throughout the
system

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

If systems A and B are each in thermal equilibrium and B and C are in thermal equilibrium with each other, then A and C are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

Zeroth law leads to the concept of temperature. All bodies in thermal equilibrium must have a common property. This common property is called
temperature.

4.Heat, Internal Energy And Work - Thermodynamics

Quantities Involved in the First Law of Thermodynamics -

(a) Heat (Q) : It is the energy that is transferred between a system and its environment because of the temperature gradient.

(b) Work (W) : Work can be defined as the energy that is transferred from one body to the other owing to a force that acts between them.

(C) Internal energy (U) : Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed by the system due to molecular motion and molecular configuration.

Types of internal energy -

Due to molecular motion internal energy is kinetic internal energy (UK).

Due to molecular configuration, it is called internal potential energy (UP).

Important points :

1. Heat and work are path-dependent quantities and Internal energy is point function.

2.
3. The area of P-v diagram on volume axis give the work done in a reversible process. Also for quasistatic process work is given by

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 4. And for a cyclic process the clockwise area will show positive work and the anticlockwise area will show negative work done.

5. The internal energy of an ideal gas is totally kinetic and is given by

So, the Internal energy of an ideal gas is the function of temperature only.

6. For heat transfer -

(for change of state)

(for change in temperature)

or,

Where, c = molar specific heat capacity

Sign of dQ(Heat)

if heat is given to the system

if heat is extracted from the system

5.First Law Of Thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics -

According to it heat given to a system (Q) is equal to the sum of increase in its internal energy (U) and the work done (W) by the system against the
surroundings.

or For cyclic process

Drawback of First law of thermodynamics -

First law of thermodynamics does not tell us reason about the direction of heat transfer.

Important points -

1. Q and W are the path functions but U is the point function.

2. First law of thermodynamics introduces the concept of internal energy.

6.Isobaric Process
Isobaric Process- A Thermodynamic process in which pressure remains constant is known as the isobaric process.

In this process, V and T change keeping P constant.I.e Charle’s law is obeyed in this process

Key points in the Isobaric Process-

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 Its Equation of state is given as

I.e

P-V Indicator diagram for an isobaric process

Its PV graph has slope=0 (i.e )

Specific heat of gas during the isobaric process is given by

The bulk modulus of elasticity during the isobaric process is given by

Work done in the isobaric process-

Or we can write

Internal energy in an isobaric process

Heat in an isobaric process

From FLTD

So

So

Examples of the isobaric process-

1. Conversion of water into vapour phase (boiling process)

From the first law of thermodynamics

since [as there is no change in temperature] and using,

Here, i- initial state and f-final state

2. Conversion of ice into water

From FLOT and using,

we get

since [as there is no change in temperature]

and [ As is negligible, I.e, when ice convert into water then change in volume, is negligible]

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 Hence

7. Isochoric Process
Isochoric Process- A Thermodynamic process in which volume remains constant is known as the Isochoric Process.

In this process P and T changes keeping P constant. So Gay-Lussac’s law is obeyed in this process.

Key points in the Isochoric Process

Its Equation of state is given as

or

P-V Indicator diagram for an isobaric process

Its PV graph has slope= infinity (i.e )

Specific heat of gas during the Isochoric process is given by

The bulk modulus of elasticity during the Isochoric process is given by

Work done in the Isochoric process-

Internal energy in the Isochoric process

Heat in the Isochoric process

From FLTD

But

So

Examples of Isochoric process-

1. Heating of water in a pressure cooker (Valve closed)

8.Isothermal Process
Isothermal process - When a thermodynamic system undergoes a thermodynamic process in such a way that its temperature remains constant, then that
process is called an Isothermal process.

So, T = constant and .

Trick to recognize isothermal process -

The walls of the container must be perfectly conducting (no resistance) which allows the exchange of heat between the gas and surroundings.

The process of compression or expansion should be infinitely slow so that the process gets proper time for the exchange of heat.

Equation of isothermal process -

As we know that the equation of state is given by -

If T = constant and for a particular amount of gas ‘n’ is also constant.

So we can write that -

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Points in graph of isothermal process -

i) Curves obtained on P-V graph are called isotherms and the graphs are hyperbolic in nature.

ii) Slope of isothermal curve :

By differentiating PV = C

iii) The area between the isothermal curve and volume axis represents the work done in the isothermal process.

The formula of Work done in the isothermal process -

9.Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic process -

When a thermodynamic system undergoes a process, such that there is no exchange of heat takes place between the system and surroundings, this process is
known as adiabatic process.

In this process P, V and T changes but .

From first law of thermodynamics -

Now in adiabatic -

So, for adiabatic process

Now, let us take two cases, first is for expansion in which the work done is positive and second one is compression in which the work done is negative -

Equations of Adiabatic process -

1. - - - - Relating Pressure and volume

2. - - - - -Relating Temperature and volume

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 3.

For the slope of adiabatic curve on PV curve, we have to differentiate the adiabatic relation -

As,

So,

So we can say that in the given graph, the slope =

Also, we have studied that the slope of the isothermal curve on PV diagram is =

So, we can say that the -

With the help of graph we can see that the adiabatic curve is more steeper than the isothermal curve-

or,

Specific heat in the adiabatic process - Specific heat of gas during adiabatic change is zero. Mathematically -

Note- Even though heat is not supplied or taken out during the process but still, the temperature change is taking place. So we can say that Specific heat for an
adiabatic process is zero.

Work done in the adiabatic process -

So, if is increasing then the work done will be decreasing. As we know that -

10.Polytropic Process
A process is called polytropic process. So, any process in this world related to thermodynamics can be explained by polytropic process.

For example - 1. If N = 1 , then the process become isothermal.

2. If N=0, then the process become isobaric.

3. If N = , then the process become adiabatic

Work done by polytropic process -

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So, equation (1) can be written as -

Specific heat for polytropic process -

We can write equation of heat as -

Here C = Molar specific heat -

11. Cyclic And Non Cyclic Process

Cyclic Process - A cyclic process consists of a series of changes that return the system back to its initial state.

Non-cyclic Process - In the non-cyclic process, the series of changes involved do not return the system back to its initial state.

Now, as we know internal energy is the point function. So when the process returns to its initial point after completing the process then the final and initial
internal energy will be the same. So, the change in internal energy is zero.

By applying the first law of thermodynamics for cyclic process -

So, we can say that the heat given is equal to the work obtained in the cyclic process.

For the cyclic process, the initial point and final point is the same. So, the P-V graph is a closed curve and the area enclosed by the closed path
gives the work done.

But, here is one assumption for the calculation of work done -

If the cycle is clockwise work done is positive and if the cycle is anticlockwise work done is negative.

From the given graph and its direction, you can see that the first graph is having positive work and the second graph had done negative work

191
Now, for the Non - cyclic process - The work done is equal to the area covered between the curve and the volume axis on the P-V diagram. It does not
depend on the points or state but it depends on the process of the path. We can see this in the given graph.

12.Reversible And Irreversible Process

Reversible Process-

A reversible process is one that can be reversed in such a way that all changes occurring in the direct process are exactly repeated in the opposite order
and inverse sense.

And in the Reversible Process, no change is left in any of the bodies taking part in the process, or in the surroundings.

Or " A process is reversible only if it is quasi-static and there is no dissipative effect."

Condition of a reversible process

1) The complete absence of dissipative force.

2) The process should be infinitely slowing.

3) The temperature of the system must not differ appreciably from the surrounding.

Examples of the reversible process -

A reversible process is only an ideal concept. In the actual process, there is always a loss of heat due to friction,
conduction, radiation, etc. I.e No process is reversible in true sense.

Some examples of reversible process are:

1. All isothermal and adiabatic changes are reversible if they are performed very slowly.
2. Very slow evaporation or condensation.
3. An extremely slow extension or contraction of spring without setting up oscillations.

Irreversible process-

Any process which is not reversible exactly is an irreversible process. All-natural processes such as conduction, radiation, radioactive decay, etc. are
irreversible.

Some examples of irreversible processes are :

1. Sudden expansion or contraction

2. Rapid evaporation or condensation
3. The sudden and fast stretching of a spring

192
13.Heat Engine
A heat engine is a device that converts heat into work continuously through a cyclic process.

The essential parts of a heat engine are

1. Source: It is a reservoir of heat at high temperatures and infinite thermal capacity. Any amount of heat can be extracted from it.

2. Working substance: Steam, petrol, etc.

3. Sink: It is a reservoir of heat at low temperatures and infinite thermal capacity. Any amount of heat can be given to the sink.

Working of heat engine

As shown in the above figure, The working substance absorbs heat Q1 from the source, does an amount of work W returns the remaining amount of heat (i.e
Q2) to the sink and comes back to its original state and there occurs no change in its internal energy.

To obtain work continuously, the same cycle is repeated over and over again.

The efficiency of the heat engine ( )- It is defined as the ratio of useful work obtained from the engine to the heat supplied to it. The performance of
the heat engine is expressed by means of “efficiency”.

For a cyclic process

so From the first law of thermodynamics,

Practically efficiency of an engine is always less than 1.

14. Second Law Of Thermodynamics

Clausius's statement-It is impossible for a self-acting machine to transfer heat from a colder body to a hotter one

without the aid of an external agency.

Kelvin’s statement-It is impossible for a body or system to perform continuous work by cooling it to a
a temperature lower than the temperature of the coldest one of its surroundings.
Kelvin-Planck’s statement-It is impossible to design an engine that extracts heat and fully utilizes it into work
without producing any other effect.

These above statements are completely equivalent to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

This explains that the efficiency of an engine is always less than unity because heat cannot be fully converted into work.

It also explains that heat cannot flow from a body at a low temperature to one at a higher temperature unless work is done by an external agency.

193
15.Entropy
Entropy- Entropy is a measure of the disorder of the molecular motion of a system. I.e Greater is the disorder, greater is the entropy.

The change in entropy is given as

The relation is called the mathematical form of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

1. Entropy for solid and liquid-

i. When heat is given to a substance to change its state at a constant temperature.

Then change in entropy is given as

where positive sign refers to heat absorption and negative sign to heat evolution.

And and T is in kelvin.

ii. When heat is given to a substance to raises its temperature from

Then change in entropy is given as

where c = specific heat capacity

2. Entropy for an ideal gas -

For n mole of an ideal gas, the equation is given as PV = nRT

I.Entropy change for ideal gas in terms of T & V

From the first law of thermodynamics, we know that

and

using PV = nRT

II.Entropy change for an ideal gas in terms of T & P

III.Entropy change for an ideal gas in terms of P & V

16. Carnot Engine

Carnot Engine-

As shown in the below figure, It consists of the following parts

194
1.A cylinder with perfectly non-conducting walls and a perfectly conducting base containing an ideal gas as working
substance and fitted with a non-conducting frictionless piston.

2. A source of infinite thermal capacity maintained at a constant higher temperature T1

3. A sink of infinite thermal capacity maintained at a constant lower temperature T2

4. A perfectly non-conducting stand for the cylinder.

Carnot cycle-

As shown in the below figure, It consists of the following 4 processes.

1. Isothermal expansion (curve AB)

The cylinder containing ideal gas as working substance allowed to expand slowly at this constant temperature T1

So Work done = Heat absorbed by the system

2. Adiabatic expansion (curve BC)

The cylinder is then placed on the non-conducting stand and the gas is allowed to expand adiabatically till the
temperature falls from T1 to T2

3. Isothermal compression (curve CD)

195
 The cylinder is placed on the sink and the gas is compressed at constant temperature T2.
Work done = Heat released by the system

4. Adiabatic compression (curve DA)

Finally, the cylinder is again placed on a non-conducting stand and the compression is continued so that gas returns to its initial stage.

The efficiency of the Carnot cycle ( )

The efficiency of the engine is defined as the ratio of work done to the heat supplied.

Net work done during the complete cycle

Putting the values we get

..... (1)

Since points, B and C lie on the same adiabatic curve

......(2)

Also, point D and A lie on the same adiabatic curve

....(3)

From the equation (2) and (3) we get

.....(4)

Put equation (4) in equation (1) we get

The efficiency of the Carnot engine as

So

where

Source temperature , Sink Temperature and

and are in kelvin

From the above formula, we can conclude that

1. The efficiency of a heat engine depends only on temperatures of source and sink and is independent of all other factors.

2. As a Carnot engine is the ideal engine, So no heat engine can be more efficient than Carnot engine.

3. All reversible heat engines working between same temperatures are equally efficient

4. Since So the efficiency of a Carnot engine is always lesser than unity.

196
 Carnot Theorem (The relation between Heat and Temperature in the Carnot cycle)

i.e

where

Heat absorbed

Heat released

Low temperature

Higher Temperature

17. Refrigerator Or Heat Pump

A refrigerator or heat pump is basically a heat engine run in the reverse direction.

It consists of three parts

1. Source: At higher temperature T1
2. Working substance: It is called refrigerant. I.e liquid ammonia and freon works as a working substance.
3. Sink: At lower temperature T2.

Working of refrigerator

As shown in the above figure, The working substance takes heat Q2 from a sink (contents of refrigerator) at lower temperature T2, has a net amount of
work done W on it by an external agent (usually compressor of refrigerator) and gives out a larger amount of heat Q1 to a hot body at temperature T1
(usually atmosphere).

Use of refrigerator-

The cold body is cooled more and more with the help of a refrigerator. Because the refrigerator transfers heat from a cold to a hot body at the expense
of mechanical energy supplied to it by an external agent.

Coefficient of performance ( )-

The coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted from the cold body to the work needed to transfer it to the hot body.

A perfect refrigerator is one which transfers heat from cold to a hot body without doing work.

Carnot refrigerator-

197
 So using

we get

where T1 = temperature of surrounding, T2 = temperature of cold body and

when T2 = 0 then

I.e if the cold body is at the temperature equal to absolute zero, then the coefficient of performance will be zero

The relation between and of the refrigerator

Oscillations
Important Formulae

1.Periodic And Oscillatory Motions

Periodic motion:- A motion, which repeats itself over and over again after a regular interval of time is called a periodic motion.

The fixed interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called time period of the motion.

If a particle moves along x -axis, its position depends upon time t. We express this fact mathematically by writing
x=f(t) or x(t)
There are certain motions that are repeated at equal intervals of time. By this we mean that particle is found at the same position moving in
the same direction with the same velocity and acceleration, after each period of time. Let T be the interval of time in which motion is
repeated. Then
x(t)=x(t+T)
where T is the minimum change in time. And the function that repeats itself is known as a periodic function.

Examples :

1. Revolution of earth around the sun (period one year)

2. Rotation of earth about its polar axis (period one day)

3. Motion of hour’s hand of a clock (period 12-hour)

Fig:- Examples of Periodic motion

Oscillatory Motion:- Oscillatory motion is that motion in which a body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about a fixed point in a definite interva
of time.

198
 The intermediate image is real, inverted and small.
The final image is virtual, inverted and highly magnified.

Magnification: .
Length:

Terrestrial Telescope

A refracting telescope has inverting lenses or an eyepiece that presents an erect image. A telescope for use on earth rather than for making
astronomical observations. Such telescopes contain an additional lens or prism system to produce an erect image.

The erection of an image can be made by introducing a third lens between the objective and the eye-piece of the telescope. This modified telescope
is known as the "Terrestrial Telescope" whose magnifying power is just equal to the magnification of an astronomical telescope but it just gives an
erect image.

The terrestrial telescope contains three lenses as compared to the astronomical telescope. It is also known as the spyglass. As an astronomical
telescope forms an inverted image of the object so, the main difference between the astronomical and terrestrial telescope is the erection of the final
image with respect to the object. The third lens of short focal length f is placed at 2f which forms an inverted image of the object. This image serves
as the object for the eye piece. The lens placed in the centre of the telescope which actually erects the image is called the Erecting lens. The
resolving power of the telescope can be given by the relations as follows:

Where,

= Focal length of the objective lens

= Focal length of the eye-piece lens

= Focal length of the lens placed between objective and eye-piece

Magnification at D,

Magnification at infinity, .

Wave Optics
Important Formulae

1. Huygens Principle
Light also shows the wave nature. According to Huygens, each point source of light is a centre of disturbance from which waves spread in all
directions.

Wavefront-

The locus of all particles in a medium, vibrating in the same phase is called WaveFront (WF).
The direction of propagation of light is perpendicular to the WF.
The time taken by the light to travel from one wavefront to another is the same along any ray.
The phase difference between various particles on the wavefront is zero.
Various types of wavefront-

1. Spherical WF- For a point source

2. Cylindrical WF- For line source
3. Plane WF- For parallel light rays

Back to Index 390

Huygens principle-

According to the Huygens principle , Every point on the given wavefront acts as a source of a new disturbance called secondary wavelets.
And a common tangent to these secondary wavelets in the forward direction at any instant gives the new wavefront at that instant as shown in the
below figure. This is called secondary wavefront.

2.Interference Of Light - Condition And Types

In order to observe interference in light waves, the following conditions must be met:

The sources must be coherent.

The source should be monochromatic (that is, of a single wavelength).

Coherent sources-

Two sources are said to be coherent if they produce waves of the same frequency with a constant phase difference.

The relation between Phase difference and Path difference

Phase difference :

The difference between the phases of two waves at a point is called phase difference.

Path difference :

The difference in path lengths of two waves meeting at a point is called path difference between the waves at that point.

And The relation between Phase difference and Path difference is given as

where

Principle of Super Position-

According to the principle of Super Position of waves, when two or more waves meet at a point, then the resultant wave has a displacement (y)
which is the algebraic sum of the displacements ( ) of each wave.

i.e

consider two waves with the equations as

where is the phase difference between waves .

Back to Index 391

And According to the principle of Super Position of waves

Now let

Putting this in equation (1) we get

thus we get the equation of the resultant wave as

where A=Resultant amplitude of two waves

and

and

where

the amplitude of wave 1

the amplitude of wave 2

Resultant Intensity of two waves (I)-

Using

we get

where

The intensity of wave 1

The intensity of wave 2

For identical sources-

The ratio of maximum and minimum intensities

or

Interference of Light-

It is of the following two types.

1. Constructive interference-

When the waves meet a point with the same phase, constructive interference is obtained at that point.

i.e we will see a bright fringe/spot.

Back to Index 392

 The phase difference between the waves at the point of observation is

Path difference between the waves at the point of observation is

The resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be the maximum

Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be the maximum

2. Destructive interference-

When the waves meet a point with the opposite phase, Destructive interference is obtained at that point.

i.e we will see dark fringe/spot.

The phase difference between the waves at the point of observation is

Path difference between the waves at the point of observation is

The resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be minimum

Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum

3. Young's Double Slit Experiment

Young's double-slit experiment -

This experiment is performed by British physicist Thomas Young. He used an arrangement as shown below. In this he used a monochromatic source
of light S . He made two pinholes S1 and S2 (very close to each other) on an opaque screen as shown in the figure Each source can be considered as
a source of coherent light source.

Back to Index 393

So, we can see that the monochromatic light source ‘s’ kept at a considerable distance from two slits s1 and s2. The arrangement is such that the S is
equidistant from S1 and S2. S1 and S2 behave as two coherent sources, as both are derived from S.

Let d be the distance between two coherent sources A and B having wavelength λ. A screen XY is placed parallel to an opaque screen at a distance
D. O is a point on the screen equidistant from A and B. P is a point at a distance x from O

From the above figure, we can see that the waves from A and B meet at P. It may be in phase or out of phase depending upon the path difference
between the two waves.

Back to Index 394

The assumption in this experiment -

1. D> d: Since D > > d, the two light rays are assumed to be parallel.

2. d/λ >> 1: Often, d is a fraction of a millimetre and λ is a fraction of a micrometre for visible light.

For Bright Fringes -

By the principle of interference, the condition for constructive interference is the path difference = nλ

For Dark fringes -

By the principle of interference, the condition for destructive interference is the path difference =

Here, n = 1,2,3 … indicates the order of the dark fringes.

So,

The above equation gives the distance of the nth dark fringe from point O.

So, we can say that the alternately dark and bright fringe will be obtained on either side of the central bright fringe.

Band Width (β) -

The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark bands is called bandwidth.

Take the consecutive dark or bright fringe -

Angular fringe width -

Back to Index 395

The intensity of Fringes In Young’s Double Slit Experiment-

For two coherent sources S1 and S2, the resultant intensity at point P on the screen is given by-

where

The intensity of the wave from S1

The intensity of wave S2

Putting (Because d<<<D)

So the intensity variation from maximum to minimum depends on the phase difference.

For maximum intensity

The phase difference between the waves at the point of observation is .

Path difference between the waves at the point of observation is

Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be the maximum

For Minimum Intensity -

The phase difference between the waves at the point of observation is

Path difference between the waves at the point of observation is

Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be minimum

Back to Index 396

Maximum Order of Interference Fringes -

As we know that the position of nth order maxima on the screen is -

Value of 'n' cannot be taken as infinitely large, because it violates the assumption of the Young's double slit experiment which means that the is
small or we can write x<<D. So,

So the above formula is only applicable for -

But when, , which means that the n is comparable with . Then the above formula is not applicable, then we have to go with the basic
and we will equate path difference as -

The above represents box function or greatest integer function.

Similarly, the highest order of interference minima

4. Optical Path
Optical path-

It is defined as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum, at the same time in which it travels a
given path length in a medium.

Let light cover distance t in the medium having a refractive index as in Time T.

So where v=speed of light in the medium

and where c=speed of light in the vacuum.

So

So in the same time T distance covered by light in a vacuum is

So the relation between geometrical path (t) and optical path (l) is given as

For two mediums in contact as shown in the below figure

Back to Index 397

The optical path is equal to

Change in the optical path in a transparent slab

Consider the following two cases

Case I- A light cover distance

So the optical path in this case is

Case II- Now a slab of thickness t is placed between A and B

So the distance travelled in slab=t

and distance travelled in air=

So the optical path in this case is

Now change in the optical path =

I.e due to the insertion of the slab the optical path is increased by

5. YDSE with a thin slab

YDSE with thin slab:

or

From the nth maxima,

The position of nth maxima and minima has shifted downward by the same

distance which is called

The distance between two successive maxima or minima remains unchanged. That is, the fringe width remains unchanged by introducing a
transparent film.
The distance of shift is in the direction where the film is introduced. That is, if a film is placed in front of the upper slit the fringe pattern
shifts upwards, if a film is placed in front of the lower slit the fringe pattern
shifts downward.

6. Lloyd's mirror experiment

In Lloyd's mirror experiment, light from a monochromatic slit source reflects from a glass surface at a small angle and appears to come from a
virtual source as a result. The reflected light interferes with the direct light from the source, forming interference fringes.

Experimental setup:

A plane glass plate (acting as a miror) is illuminated at almost grazing incidence by a light from a sliftual image of is
formed closed to by reflection and these two act as coherent sources. The expression giving the fringe width is the same as for
the double silt, but the fringe system differs in one important respect.

Back to Index 398

The path difference is a whole number of wavelengths, the fringe at P is dark not bright. This is due to phase change which
occurs when light is reflected from a denser medium. At grazing incidence a fringe is formed at O, where the geometrical path difference between
the direct and reflected waves is zero and it follows that it will be dark rather than bright.

Thus, whenever there exists a phase difference of a between the two interfering beams of light, conditions of maximas and minimas are
interchanged, i.e.,

(for minimum intensity) and

(for maximum intensity)

7. Fresnel's Biprism
It is an optical device for producing interference of light Fresnel's biprism is made by joining base to base two thin prism of very small angle.
When a monochromatic light source is kept in front of biprism two coherent virtual sources S1 and S2 are produced.
Interference fringes are found on the screen placed behind the biprism interference fringes are formed in the limited region which can be
observed with the help eyepiece.

Fringes are of equal width and its value is

Let the separation between S1 and S2 be d and the distance of slits and the screen from the biprism be a and b respectively i.e. .
If the angle of the prism is and the refractive index is then

8. Thin film interference

Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when their thickness is comparable to the wavelength of incident light ( if it is too thin as
compared to the wavelength of light it appears dark and if it is too thick, this will result in uniform illumination of the film). A thin layer of oil on
the water surface and soap bubbles show various colours in white light due to the interference of waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film.

In thin films, interference takes place between the waves reflected from its two surfaces and waves refracted through it

Back to Index 399

 Interference in reflected light :

Net path difference between two consecutive waves in the reflected system =

(As the ray suffers reflection at the surface of a denser medium an additional phase difference of or a path difference of is introduced.)

1. Condition of constructive interference (maximum intensity):

For normal incidence, i.e r=0, so

2. Condition of destructive interference (minimum intensity):

Interference in refracted light :

Net path difference between two consecutive waves in the refracted system =

1. Condition of constructive interference (maximum intensity):

2. Condition of destructive interference (minimum intensity):

9. Diffraction Of Light
Diffraction-

The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle of the size of the wavelength of light is called diffraction.

The phenomenon resulting from the superposition of secondary wavelets originating from different parts of the same wavefront is defined as
a diffraction of light.
Diffraction is the characteristic of all types of waves.
The wavelength of the wave is directly proportional to its degree of diffraction.

Back to Index 400

From the above figure, we can say that if the slit width is more then the wave will detract less.

Condition for Diffraction:

The essential condition for diffraction to occur is that the wavelength of light should be comparable to that of the size of the obstacle.

i.e. If the size of the obstacle is comparable to that of the wavelength of the wave only then we can observe the diffraction phenomena.

Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit-

let's assume a plane wave front is incident on a slit AB (of width b).

The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright fringe (central maxima) surrounded by dark and bright lines (called secondary minima and
maxima).
At point O on the screen, the central maxima is obtained. The wavelets originating from points A and B meet in the same phase at this point,
hence at O, intensity is maximum

Secondary minima : For obtaining nth secondary minima at P on the screen, path difference between the diffracted waves

1. Angular position of nth secondary minima:

2. Distance of nth secondary minima from central maxima:

where D = Distance between slit and screen.

= Focal length of converging lens.

Secondary maxima : For nth secondary maxima at P on the screen.

Path difference ; where n = 1, 2, 3 .....

(i) Angular position of nth secondary maxima

(ii) Distance of nth secondary maxima from central maxima:

Central maxima: The central maxima lie between the first minima on both sides.

(i) The Angular width d central maxima =

(ii) Linear width of central maxima

Intensity distribution: if the intensity of the central maxima is then the intensity of the first and secondary maxima are

found to be . Thus diffraction fringes are of unequal width and unequal intenstities.

Back to Index 401

(i) The mathematical expression for in intensity distribution on the screen is given by:

where is just a convenient connection between the angle that locates a point on the viewing screening and light intensity I.

Phase difference between the top and bottom ray from the slit width b.

Also .

(ii) As the slit width increases relative to wavelength the width of the control diffraction maxima decreases; that is, the light undergoes less flaring
by the slit. The secondary maxima also decreases in width and becomes weaker.

(iii) If b>>λ, the secondary maxima due to the slit disappear; we then no longer have single slit diffraction.

10. Resolving power of optical instruments

Resolving power of optical instruments:

Resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to resolve or seperate the images of two nearby point objects so that they can be distinctly
seen.

1.Resolving power of microscope:

In microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they are just distinct is called the Resolving limit (RL) and its reciprocal is called
Resolving power (RP)

λ =Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,

μ = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective,

θ = Half angle of the cone of light from the point object

Rayleigh's criterion for the diffraction limit to resolution states that two images are just resolvable when the centre of the diffraction pattern of one
is directly over the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other. We can use Rayleigh’s criterion to determine the resolving power. The
angular separation between two objects must be:

Resolving power

Thus higher the diameter d, the better the resolution. The best astronomical optical telescopes have mirror diameters as large as 10m to achieve the
best resolution. Also, larger wavelengths reduce the resolving power and consequently, radio and microwave telescopes need larger mirrors.

2. Resolving power of microscope:-

Back to Index 402

The resolving power of a microscope can be defined as the ability of the microscope to form separate images of two objects placed very close to
each other. In a microscope, the minimum distance between two lines at which they are just distinct is called Resolving limit (RL) and its reciprocal
is called Resolving power (RP).

λ =Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,

μ = Refractive index of the medium between object and objective,

θ = Half angle of the cone of light from the point object

Therefore, from the above expression, we can see that,

As the R.P is directly proportional to the refractive index (n), So R.P will increases when n increases.
As the R.P is inversely proportional to the wavelength (λ), So R.P will decreases when λ increases.
When the diameter of the objective is increased, θ increases. Hence, sinθ also increases.

As the R.P is directly proportional to the sinθ, So R.P will increases when the diameter of objective increases.

As the R.P is independent of the focal length of the lens, So R.P will remain unchanged when focal length increases.

3.Resolving power of telescope:

In telescopes, very close objects such as binary stars or individual stars of galaxies subtend very small angles on the telescope. To resolve them we
need very large apertures. Resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angle subtended at the objective lens of the
telescope by two point objects which can be just distinguished as separate. We can use Rayleigh’s to determine the resolving power. The angular
separation between two objects must be

where,

λ= Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,

d= is the critical width of the rectangular slit for just the resolution of two slits or objects.

θ= Half angle of the cone of light from the point object,

Thus higher the diameter d, the better the resolution. The best astronomical optical telescopes have mirror diameters as large as 10m to achieve the
best resolution. Also, larger wavelengths reduce the resolving power and consequently, radio and microwave telescopes need larger mirrors.

11.Polarization Of Light
Polarization of light-

While writing the equation for light wave,

we assumed that the direction of electric field is fixed and the magnitude varies sinusoidally with space and time. So the electric field in a light
wave propagating in free space is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. But there may be infinite number of directions perpendicular to the
direction of propagation and the eletric field may be along any of these directions. But If the electric field at a point always remains parallel to a
fixed direction and remain parallel as the time passes, the light is called linearly polarized along that direction. The same is also called plane
polarized light. The plane containing the electric field and the direction of propagation is called the plane of polarization. This can be better
understand by the following figure.

Back to Index 403

Unpolarised light-

In ordinary light (light from bulb, sun, etc.), the electric field vectors are distributed in all directions in a light is called unpolarized light. This
resolved into horizontal and vertical component i.e., the electric field.

Polarised light -

The phenomenon of limiting the vibration of electric field vector in one direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light
wave is called polarization of light.

The plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarised light is called plane of oscillation. The plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called
plane of polarization. Light can be polarized by transmitting through certain crystals such as tourmaline or polaroids.

Polaroid
It is a device used to produce the plane polarized light. It is based on the principle of selective absorption. Polaroids allow the light oscillations
parallel to the transmission axis pass through them. The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarized light is incident is
called polarizer. Crystal or polaroid on which polarized light is incident is called analyzer.

12.Malus's Law
Malus' Law-

This law states that the intensity of the polarized light transmitted through the analyzer varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between the
plane of transmission of the analyzer and the plane of the polarizer.

If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light. So

Back to Index 404

 i.e. if an unpolarized light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing it through a Polaroid or a Nicol-prism), its intensity becomes half
and

13. Polarization of light by reflection

Brewster’s law-

Brewster discovered that when a beam of unpolarized light is reflected from a transparent medium (refractive index = ), the reflected light is
completely plane polarised at a certain angle of incidence (called the angle of polarisation i.e ).

And also .

i.e

reflected rays will be completely polarised.

reflected rays will be partially polarised.

Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

Important Formulae

1.Electron Emission
Electron Emission-

As we have learned in Chemistry (Atomic structure) that the electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are at maximum distance from the nucleus
and hence most loosely bound to it. These type of electron is called free electrons. The free electrons in metals are free to move within the volume
of metal even though they do not get ejected out of the surface of metal on their own. The main reason behind this is - whenever an electron tries to
leave the surface, the surface acquires a positive charge which pulls back the electron. So for escaping from the surface, an electron has to do a
definite amount of work to overcome the force exerted by the opposite charges. To do this work, an external source imaparts minimum energy. This
minimum energy is called the work function of the metal and is denoted by .

Work function of any particular material is defined as the minimum energy which is required to liberate the most weakly bound surface electrons
from that material without giving them any velocity. Since it is energy, but it is generally denoted in electron volt (eV).

Since the energy of photon is given by - , So the minimum energy i.e., Work function is given by -

When a free electron gets extra energy i.e., imparted energy work function from an external agent, then it is able to overcome potential barrier
and the electron gets ejected out. There are a number of ways in which energy from outside can be supplied and based on these different way, there
are different ways in which electron emission can take place. These ways are listed below:

1. Photoelectric emission: When electromagnetic radiations of suitable frequency (or wavelength) are incident on a metallic
surface, then electrons will be emitted, this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.

2. Thermionic emission: In this case, additional energy is given to the electrons to overcome potential barrier in the form of heat by
passing current through a filament.

3. Field emission: In this case, metal is placed in a strong electric field due to which the electrons are accelerated to such a speed
that the corresponding kinetic energy is sufficient to overcome potential barrier.

4. Secondary emission: It is a process in which the work function is supplied to the free electrons of a metal surface by collisions with fast moving
secondary particles like neutrons, beta particles, etc

2.Photon Theory Of Light

Photon theory of light -

According to Eienstein's quantum theory light propagates in the bundles (packets or quanta) of energy, each bundle being called a photon and
possessing energy. The energy of one quantum is given by, hν , where h is the Planck's constant and ν is the frequency.

Back to Index 405

where c = Speed of light, h = Plank's constant =

= Frequency in Hz , = Wavelength of light.

(In the form of eV)

Properties of Photon

1. Photon is a packet of energy (or) particles of light and travels with speed of light in a straight line.
2. Energy of photon is given as and it depends on frequency and it does not change with change in medium.
3. Photons are electrically neutral and not effected by electric and maginetic field.
4. Photons does not exist at rest i.e., it is a moving particle

5. Momentum of photon is given as

6. All photons of light of a given frequency or wavelength have same energy or momentum irrespective of light intensity
7. Photons can interact with other particles like electrons, which can be seen in Compton effect
8. Photons can be created or destroyed when the radiation is emitted or absorbed i.e no of photons is not conserved during collision
9. The dynamic mass of the photon is m = E/c2, where E is the energy of the photon
10. During photon-electron collision, the momentum and total energy are conserved
11. Photons do not decay on their own
12. The energy possessed by the photon can be transferred to other particles when it interacts with other particles

After energy now let us discuss the mass of the photon.

Mass of photon :

You will study in the theory of relativity that the rest mass of any body is given by -

As the velocity of photon is same as speed of light, so from the above equation we can write that - . But it's effective mass is given as -

It is also called as kinetic mass of the photon.

Momentum of the photon -

As the momentum of any body is =

Here the velocity = c, i.e., speed of light. So, we can write that -

Note -

1. In a photon particle collision, total energy and total momentum will be conserved but the number of photons may be changed.

2. All photons of light of a particular freq. (or) wavelengths have the same energy and momentum whatever may be the intensity.

3.The Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric effect-

The phenomea of Photoelectric effect was first introduced by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs in 1887 and its experimental verification was
confirmed by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

They observed that when a metallic surface is irradiated by monochromatic light of proper frequency, electrons are emitted from it. This
phenomena of ejection of electron is called the Photoelectric effect.

The photoelectric effect is the process that involves the release or rejection of electrons from the surface of materials (this material is generally a
metal) when light falls on them. This concept that makes us comfortable to understand quantum nature of electron and light.

The electrons ejected during photoelectric effect were called as photoelectrons.There is one condition for photoelectric effect which is very much
important that for photoemission to take place, energy of incident light photons should be greater than or equal to the work function of the metal.

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Work function is defined as the minimum quantity of energy which is required to remove an electron to infinity from the surface of a given
solid, usually a metal.

Now on the basis of work function we can define two related quantity which are Threshold frequency and Threshold wavelength. Now as we
know that the energy is of photon is given by -

Now the frequency corresponding to the energy equals to work function is called Threshold frequency and similarly the wavelength corresponding
to the work function is Threshold wavelength.

Now, let us understand with an experiment which was performed by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

For this let us consider the given set-up-

In this experiment setup, an evacuated glass tube is there. Two zinc plates C and A are enclosed. Plates A acts as an anode and C acts as a
photosensitive plate. Two plates are connected to a battery and ammeter as shown. If the radiation is incident on the plate C through a quartz
window, electrons are ejected out of the plate and current flows in the circuit this is known as photocurrent. Plate A can be maintained at the
desired potential (+ve or – ve) with respect to plate C.

Applications of Photoelectric Effect -

This phenomenon is used to generate electricity in Solar Panels.

We come across many sensors in our day-to-day life. A few sensors are also working in the Photoelectric effect.
It is also used in digital cameras because they have photoelectric sensors.

Note -

In case of Threshold frequency - If incident frequency . No photoelectron emission. The minimum frequency of incident radiation to
eject electron is threshold frequency ( )

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 In case of Threshold Wavelength - If No photoelectron emission. The maximum wave length of incident raditaion required to eject
the electron is Threshold Wavelength
Work function

Energy used to overcome the surface barrier and come out of metal surface.

Kinetic Energy of Photo eletrons

Remaining part of the energy is used in gaining a velocity to the emitted photoelectron

Conservation of energy

Graphs related to Photoelectric effect -

1. Stopping potential-

The negative potential of the collector plate at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential or cut-off potential.
Stopping potential is the value of retarding potential difference between two plates which is just sufficient to stop the most energetic photoelectrons
emitted. It is denoted by " ".

We need to equate the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photo-electron (having charge e) to the stopping potential Vo

We know that,
Electric potential energy= Potential Difference×Charge
So,

Also

Now since K.E.max = eVo, So we can write that -

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The above graph shows the variation between the stopping potential and frequency.

2. Saturation current -

The photoelectric current attains a saturation value and does not increase further for any increase in the positive potential. It means that this
photoelectric current is the saturation current even we are increasing the value of the positive potential.

1. Variation of photocurrent with intensity -

2. Variation of photoelectric current with potential and intensity

3. Effects of frequency of incident light on the stopping potential -

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4. Variation of Kinetic energy with frequency

4. Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

Einstein's Photoelectric equation-

According to the experiment performed by Albert Einstein, there are some conclusions that those photo-electrons have kinetic energy only. Also, the
energy absorbed by the photons is partly used to overcome the force by the metallic surface. Since there is no electric field present outside the
metallic surface so there will be only energy present is pure kinetic energy.

So, we have K.E. of the photo-electrons = (Energy obtained from the Photon) – (The energy used to escape the metallic surface)

Here, The energy used to escape the metallic surface is the work function .

So Einstein’s Photoelectric equation can also be written as -

We can understand the work function more clearly like this -

As we know an electron needs some minimum energy to be extracted from a metallic surface. So from the above equation, if ν = threshold
frequency (ν0) then the electrons gets just enough quantum energy to come out of the metal. It means that the Kinetic Energy of such an electron
will be zero. So we can write that -

This is the relation between the threshold frequency and the work function. We can also change this equation in terms of the threshold wavelength.

5. Radiation Pressure
Photons emitted by a source per second-

Consider a point source of light-emitting photons. And we want to find the number of Photons (n) emitted by this point source per second.

let the wavelength of light emitted by this = and

the power of the source as P (in Watt or J/s)

As we know the energy of each photon is given by

where

where c = Speed of light, h = Plank's constant =

= Frequency in Hz , = Wavelength of light.

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or we can write the energy of each photon as

Then ( n=the number of photons emitted per second) is given as

The intensity of light (I) :

The intensity of any quantity is defined as that quantity per unit area.

So here, light energy (or radiation ) crossing per unit area normally per second is called intensity of light energy (or radiation ).

And the intensity I is given as

Its unit is or

The intensity of light due to a point isotropic source:

An isotropic source means it emits radiation uniformly in all directions.

So The intensity I due to a point isotropic source at a distance r from it is given as

Photon Flux-

The photon flux ( ) is defined as the number of photons incident on a normal surface per second per unit area.

As we know n ( the number of photons emitted per second) is given as

Similarly intensity I is given as

So The photon flux ( ) is given as ratio of Intensity (I) to Energy of each photon

or

The photon flux ( ) due to a point isotropic source:

The photon flux ( ) due to a point isotropic source at a distance r from it is given as

Force exerted on a surface due to radiation-

Radiation pressure/force- When photons fall on a surface they exert a pressure/force on the surface. The pressure/force experienced by the surface
exposed to the radiation is known as Radiation pressure/force.

n=Number of emitted photons per sec is given as

where E= The energy of each photon

and Momentum of each photon is given as

And we know the force is given as rate of change of momentum.

I.e For each photon

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and for n photons per sec

For a black body, we get 100 % absorption or a=1

i.e for this surface 100% of the photon will be absorbed

so

So Force is given as

where P=Power

As

So Force is given as

and radiation pressure is given as

For perfectly reflecting surface (i.e mirror)

i.e r=1

i.e for this surface 100% of the photon will be reflected

i.e

So

So Force is given as

and radiation pressure is given as

For neither perfectly reflecting nor perfectly absorbing body

i.e body having Absorption coefficient=a and reflection coefficient=r

and we have

So Force is given as

and radiation pressure is given as

6. Wave nature of matter

As we know light behaves both as a wave and particle. If you are observing phenomena like the interference, diffraction or reflection, you will find
that light is a wave. However, if you are looking at phenomena like the photoelectric effect, you will find that light has a particle character.

De Broglie’s hypothesis stated that there is symmetry in nature and that if the light behaves as both particles and waves, matter too will have both
the particle and wave nature.

i.e if a lightwave can behave as a particle then the particle can also behave as wave.

De Broglie’s Equation-

According to De Broglie, A moving material particle can be associated with the wave.

De Broglie proposed that the wavelength associated with the moving material particle of momentum p is given as

where and

further, we can write De - Broglie wavelength as

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where

So from De Broglie’s Equation, we can conclude that-

i.e Wavelength associated with a heavier particle is smaller than that with a lighter particle.

i.e when Particle moves faster, then wavelength will be smaller and vice versa

if the particle at rest then De - Broglie wavelength will be infinite ( )

De - Broglie wavelength (λ) is independent of charge.

De - Broglie wavelength of Electron-

As De Broglie’s Equation is given as

So for an electron having velocity v attained by it when it is accelerated through a potential difference of V.

then (Kinetic energy gain by the electron)=(work is done on an electron by the electric field)

i.e

So De - Broglie wavelength of Electron is given as

using and and

we get ( i.e answer will be in )

Similarly, we can find De - Broglie wavelength associated with charged particle

De - Broglie wavelength with charged particle-

Where

De - Broglie wavelength of the proton

using and

we get

De - Broglie wavelength of Deuteron

using and

we get

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 De - Broglie wavelength of an Alpha particle (He2+)

using and

we get

Electron microscope-

An electron microscope is an important application of de-Broglie waves designed to study very minute objects like viruses,
microbes and the crystal structure of the solids. In the electron microscope, by selecting a suitable value of potential difference V ,we can have an

electron beam of as small wavelength as desired. And this de-Broglie wavelength is calculated by using the formula .

7.Davisson-germer Experiment
Davisson and Germer's Experiment, for the first time, proved the wave nature of electrons through electron diffraction and also verified the de
Broglie equation.

In this experiment, we will study the scattering of electrons by a Ni crystal.

The experimental setup for the Davisson and Germer experiment is enclosed within a vacuum chamber.

The experimental arrangement of the Davisson Germer experiment consists of the following main parts

Electron gun: An electron gun comprising of a tungsten filament F was coated with barium oxide and heated through a low-voltage power
supply. It emits electrons when heated to a particular temperature. The electrons emitted by the electron gun are again accelerated to a
particular velocity.
Collimator: The accelerator is enclosed within a cylinder perforated with fine holes along its axis, these emitted electrons were made to pass
through it. Its function is to render a narrow and straight (collimated) beam of electrons ready for acceleration.
Target: The target is a Nickel crystal. The beam produced from the cylinder is again made to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The crystal
is placed such that it can be rotated about a fixed axis. Due to this, the electrons scatter in various directions.
Detector: A detector is used to capture the scattered electrons from the Ni crystal. The beam of electrons produced has a certain amount of
intensity which is measured by the electron detector and after it is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, it is then moved on a circular
scale to record the current.

Observations of Davisson Germer experiment-

The intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for different values of the angle of scattering ( ) by changing the (angle between
the incident and the scattered electron beams).

These electrons formed a diffraction pattern. Thus the dual nature of matter was verified.

The energy of the incident beam of electrons can be varied by changing the applied voltage to the electron gun.

Note-Intensity of a scattered beam of electrons is found to be maximum when the angle of scattering is and the accelerating potential is 54 V.

i.e we could see a strong peak in the intensity. This peak was the result of the constructive interference of the scattered electrons.

The intensity of the scattered electrons is not continuous. It shows a maximum and a minimum value corresponding to the maxima and the minima
of a diffraction pattern produced by X-rays.

Galvanometer in Davisson Germer Experiment-

The detector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer to measure the small values of current due to a scattered beam of electrons.

Bragg’s formula-

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The path difference between electrons scattered from adjacent crystal planes is given by

and For constructive interference between the two scattered beams

where

and is the angle between the incident rays and the surface of the crystal

For the above figure

As

So

The intensity of a scattered beam of electrons is found to be maximum when the angle of scattering is

So For we get

we get

Co-relating Davisson Germer experiment and de Broglie relation-

According to de Broglie,

and using V = 54 Volt we get

From Bragg’s formula, we have

The Lattice Spacing in Ni Crystal is given as d=0.092 nm.

And using

we get

Therefore the experimental results are in close agreement with the theoretical values got from the de Broglie equation.

Thus Davisson and Germer's Experiment verify the de Broglie equation.

Frank Hertz Experiment-

This experiment is the first experimental verification of the existence of discrete energy states in atoms.

Frank and Hertz proposed that the 4.9 V characteristic of their experiments was due to the ionization of mercury atoms by collisions with the flying
electrons emitted at the cathode.

Atoms
Important Formulae

1. Rutherford's Atomic Model And Limitations

J.J Thomson's model - J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron in 1897, proposed the plum pudding model of the atom in 1904 before the
discovery of the atomic nucleus in order to include the electron in the atomic model. In Thomson’s model, the atom is composed of electrons
surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electrons’ negative charges, like negatively charged “plums” surrounded by positively
charged “pudding”.

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The Rutherford Model (Gold Foil Experiment ) :

Rutherford and his colleagues Geiger and Marsden bombarded a thin gold foil of thickness approximately cm with a beam of alpha
particles in a vacuum. They used gold since it is highly malleable, producing sheets that can be only a few atoms thick, thereby ensuring smooth
passage of the alpha particles. A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide surrounded the foil. Since the positively charged alpha particles possess
mass and move very fast, it was hypothesized that they would penetrate the thin gold foil and land themselves on the screen, producing fluorescence
in the part they struck.

In line with the plum pudding model, since the positive charge of atoms was evenly distributed and too small as compared to that of the alpha
particles, the deflection of the particulate matter, if any, was predicted to be less than a small fraction of a degree.

Observations :

Most of the alpha particles behaved as expected, there was a noticeable fraction of particles that got scattered by angles greater than 90
degrees.
In fact, there were about 1 in every 2000 particles that got scattered by a full 180 degree, that is, they simply retraced their path after hitting
the gold foil.

Conclusion: A highly concentrated positive charge at the center of an atom that caused an electrostatic repulsion of the particles strong enough to
bounce them back to their source. The particles that got deflected by huge angles passed close to the said concentrated mass. Most of the particles
passed undeviated as there was no obstruction to their path, proving that the majority of an atom is empty. Rutherford drew the conclusion that
since the dense alpha particles could be deflected by the central core, it shows that almost the entire mass of the atom is concentrated there.
Rutherford named it the “nucleus” after performing the experiment in various gases.

Rutherford scattering formula

For a detector at a specific angle with respect to the incident beam, the number of particles per unit area striking the detector is given by the
Rutherford formula:

Distance of closest approach :

The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the - particle approach, is called the distance of closest approach . At this distance the
entire initial kinetic energy has been converted into potential energy so

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Impact parameter: It is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity of the alpha-particle from the centre of the nucleus when it is far
away from the atom. The shape of the trajectory of the scattered alpha particle depends on the impact parameter 'b' and the nature of the potential
field. Rutherford deduced the following relationship between the impact parameter 'b' and the scattering angle . It is given as

Conclusion and drawback of Rutherford model:

Conclusion:

1. A highly concentrated positive charge at the center of an atom that caused an electrostatic repulsion of the particles strong enough to bounce
them back to their source.
2. The particles that got deflected by huge angles passed close to the said concentrated mass ( nearly 99.95 % ). Most of the particles passed
undeviated as there was no obstruction to their path, proving that the majority of an atom is empty.
3. Rutherford drew the conclusion that since the dense alpha particles could be deflected by the central core, it shows that almost the entire
mass of the atom is concentrated there. Rutherford named it the “nucleus” after performing the experiment in various gases.

Limitations of Rutherford model:

1. It could not explain stability of an atom because this model does not obey Maxwell law of electrodynamics. According to Maxwell electron
should continuous emit radiation and thus and gradually lose energy , so its distance from nucleus should become shorter and finally it should
fall into the nucleus.
2. It could not explain line spectra of atom. According to this model the spectrum of atom must be continuous whereas practically it is a line
spectrum.
3. It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus.

2.Bohr Model Of The Hydrogen Atom

Bohr's Model of hydrogen atom:

Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atoms in which a single electron revolves around a stationary
nucleus of positive charge (called hydrogen-like atom)
Bohr's model is based on the following postulates-

(1). Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy, contrary to
the predictions of electromagnetic theory. According to this postulate, each atom has certain definite stable states in which it can exist, and
each possible state has definite total energy. These are called the stationary states of the atom

For electrons revolving in a stable orbit, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the coulomb's force

(2). Bohr’s second postulate defines these stable orbits. This postulate states that the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for

which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 × 10–34 J s). Thus the angular

momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised. That is

(3). Bohr’s third postulate incorporated into atomic theory the early quantum concepts that had been developed by Planck and Einstein. It states
that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon
is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. The frequency of the emitted photon is then
given by

Ei is the energy of the initial state and Ef is the energy of the final state. Also, Ei > Ef.

rn-radius of the nth orbit

vn- speed of an electron in the nth orbit

Radius of orbit and velocity of the electron-

Radius of the orbit: For an electron around a stationary nucleus the electrostatic force of attraction provides the necessary centripetal force.

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From equations (i) and (ii) radius of r orbit

Speed of electron:-

From the above relations, the speed of electrons in orbit can be calculated as

where

3. Energy Level - Bohr's Atomic Model

Energy of electron in nth orbit-

Potential energy: An electron possesses some potential energy because it is found in the field of the nucleus potential energy of an electron in
orbit of the radius is given by

Kinetic energy: Electrons possess kinetic energy because of their motion. Closer orbits have greater kinetic energy than

outer ones. As we know

Total energy: Total energy E is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy ie.

also

Hence

The energy level for Hydrogen-

The energy of nth level of hydrogen atom (z=1) is given as :

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Binding Energy(B.E.) of nth orbit -The energy required to move an electron from nth orbit to is called the Binding energy of nth orbit

OR

The binding energy of nth orbit is the negative of the total energy of that orbit

Ionization energy (IE): Total energy of a hydrogen atom corresponds to infinite separation between electron and nucleus. Total positive energy
implies that the atom is ionized and the electron is in an unbound (isolated) state moving with certain kinetic energy. The minimum energy required
to move an electron from the ground state(n=1) to is called the ionization energy of the atom or ion.

The formula for the ionization energy is -

On the basis of ionization energy, we can define the ionization potential also -

Ionization potential (IP): The potential difference through which a free electron must be accelerated from rest such that its kinetic energy becomes
equal to ionization energy of the atom is called the ionization potential of the atom.

Excitation Energy and Excitation Potential

The process of absorption of energy by an electron so as to raise it from a lower energy level to some higher energy level is called excitation.

Excited state: The states of an atom other than the ground state are called its excited states. Examples are mentioned below -

Excitation energy -

The energy required to move an electron from the ground state of the atom to any other excited state of the atom is called the Excitation energy of
that state.

Excitation potential can also be defined on the basis of excitation energy. So the excitation potential is the potential difference through which an
electron must be accelerated from rest so that its kinetic energy becomes equal to the excitation energy of any state is called the excitation potential
of that state.

4.Line Spectra Of Hydrogen Atom

Line spectra of a Hydrogen atom -

According to Bohr, when an atom makes a transition from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits a photon with energy equal to the
energy difference between the initial and final levels. If Ei, the initial energy of the atom before such a transition, Ef is its final energy after the
transition, then conservation of energy gives the energy of emitted photon-

For Hydrogen-like atoms, the wavelength of an emitted photon during the transition from nf orbit to ni orbit is

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Because of this photon, spectra of hydrogen atom will emit and which is studied by various scientists. One such scientist named Balmer found
a formula that gives the wavelengths of these lines for all the transitions taking place to the 2nd orbit.

The Balmer series is a series of spectral emission lines of the hydrogen atom that result from electron transitions from higher levels down to the
energy level with principal quantum number 2

Balmer observed the spectra and found the formula for the visible range spectra which is obtained by Balmer's formula is-

Here, n=3,4,5,. . . . etc. ,

and is the wavelength of the light photon emitted during the transition.

Since Balmer had found the formula for n = 2, but we can obtain different spectra for different values of n. For n = , we get the smallest
wavelength of this series, which is equal to = 3646 . We can also obtain the value of wavelength for Balmer's series by putting different values of
'n' in the equation (1). Similarly, we can obtain the wavelength of the different spectra like the Lyman, Paschen series. Since the Balmer series is in
the visible range but the Lyman series is in the Ultraviolet range and the Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund are in the Infrared range.

This is for the hydrogen spectrum

5.De-broglie's explanation of Bohr's second postulate

Since the Bohr gave many postulates in his theory, but the second postulate is not very clear and little puzzling. The Scientist De Broglie explained
this puzzle very clearly that why the angular momentum of the revolving electron is the integral multiple of the . De broglie in his experiment
proved that the electron revolving the circular orbit has wave nature also in the last chapter we have seen the experiment performed by the Davison

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and Germer which proved that the electron shows the wave nature. In analogy to waves travelling on a string, particle waves too can lead to
standing waves under resonant conditions. During the chapter Waves and Oscillation, we know that when a string is plucked, a vast number of
wavelengths are excited. However only those wavelengths survive which have nodes at the ends and form the standing wave in the string. It means
that in a string, standing waves are formed when the total distance travelled by a wave down the string and back is any integral number of
wavelengths. Waves with other wavelengths interfere with themselves upon reflection and their amplitudes quickly drop to zero.

For an electron moving in circular orbit of radius , the total distance is the circumference of the orbit, .

Figure given above illustrates a standing particle wave on a circular orbit for n = 4, i.e., 2πrn = 4λ, where λ is the de Broglie wavelength of the
electron moving in nth orbit. From the last chapter we have studied that λ = h/p, where p is the magnitude of the electron’s momentum. If the speed
of the electron is much less than the speed of light, the momentum is mvn.

Thus,

From the above equation, we have,

This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum of the electron. Thus de Broglie hypothesis provided an explanation for
Bohr’s second postulate for the quantisation of angular momentum of the orbiting electron.

The quantised electron orbits and energy states are due to the wave nature of the electron and only resonant standing waves can persist. Bohr’s
model, involving a classical trajectory picture (planet-like electron orbiting the nucleus), correctly predicts the gross features of the hydrogenic
atoms(Hydrogenic atoms are the atoms consisting of a nucleus with positive charge +Ze and a single electron, where Z is the proton number.
Examples are a hydrogen atom, singly ionised helium, doubly ionised lithium, and so forth.), in particular, the frequencies of the radiation emitted
or selectively absorbed.

6. Effect of Nucleus motion on Energy-

Till now in Bohr's model, we have assumed that all the mass of the atom is situated at the center of the atom. As the mass of the electron is very
much small and negligible as compared to the mass of the nucleus so all the mass is assumed to be concentrated at the center of the nucleus. But
actually, centre of mass of the nucleus-electron system is close to nucleus as it is heavy, and to keep the centre of mass at rest, both electron and
nucleus revolve around their centre of mass like a double star system as shown in figure. If r is the distance of electron from nucleus, the distances
of nucleus and electron from the centre of mass, and , can be given as -

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We can see that the atom, nucleus, and electron revolve around their centre of mass in concentric circles of radii and to keep the centre of mass
at rest. In the above system, we can analyze the motion of electrons with respect to the nucleus by assuming the nucleus to be at rest and the mass of
electron replaced by its reduced mass , given as -

Now we can change our assumption and the system will look like as shown in the figure with reduced mass -

Now we can derive the equation obtained by Bohr with the reduced mass also -

Now after replacing the electron mass with its reduced mass, the equation becomes -

But there will be no effect on the velocity because the term of mass is not present there -

Similarly for the energy, we can write that -

After putting the reduced mass in the equation -

Thus, we can say that the energy of electrons will be slightly less compared to what we have derived earlier. But for numerical
calculations this small change can be neglected unless in a given problem it is asked to consider the effect of motion of nucleus.

7.Atomic Collision-
There are two ways to excite an electron in an atom-

1. By supplying energy to an electron through electromagnetic photons for eg., the Photoelectric effect

2. By the atomic collision, the kinetic energy loss is utilized in the ionization or excitation of the atom.

Now let us understand the atomic collision -

Collision of a Neutron with an atom -

Let us consider an example of a head-on collision of a moving neutron with a stationary hydrogen atom as shown in the figure. Here. for
mathematical analysis, let us assume the masses of the neutron and H atom to be the same -

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Now there are two cases, the first is a perfect elastic collision and another is a perfectly inelastic collision.

1. Perfect elastic collision -

In this case, since the mass of the neutron and mass of the hydrogen atom, then the hydrogen atom will move with the same speed and kinetic
energy which neutron is moving initially.

2. Perfect inelastic collision -

If both have perfect inelastic collision, then both move together. Now by applying conservation of momentum -

is the initial velocity of the neutron

is the final combined velocity of the atom and neutron.

Now the difference between initial and final kinetic energy is given as -

Thus, half of the initial kinetic energy will be lost in the collision. The energy lost can only be absorbed by the atom involved in the collision and
may get excited or ionized by this energy loss which takes place in case of inelastic collision. Here we are not considering the heat energy loss
during the collision.

This loss in energy can be absorbed by the H atom only. From the previous concepts, we know that the minimum energy needed by the hydrogen
atom to get excited is 10.2 eV for n =1 to n=2. So the minimum energy loss must be equal to 10.2 eV to excite hydrogen atoms. If the loss in energy
is more than 10.2 eV then only 10.2 eV is absorbed by the hydrogen atom and the rest of the energy remains in the colliding particles (Neutron and
H atom) as the collision is not perfectly inelastic.

8.X-rays
X-rays-

X-rays are highly energetic radiations with very short wavelengths. Their wavelength is even shorter than the ultraviolet radiations and varies
between 0.03 and 3 nanometers and some x-rays are as small as a single atom of many elements. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen, who found
that a discharge tube(Coolidge's tube), operating at low pressure and high voltage, emitted radiation that caused a fluorescent in the neighbourhood
to glow brightly. This indicates that some unknown radiation was responsible for fluorescence. Since the name of these rays was unknown so it is
named X-rays.

Properties of X-rays -

They pass through materials more or less unchanged

They cannot be refracted

Electric and magnetic fields do not have any effect on these rays

These radiations ionize the surrounding air by discharging electrified bodies

They have a short wavelength varying between 0.1 A° to 1 A°.

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 They are produced when a metal anode is bombarded by very high-energy electrons.

They do not require any medium for propagation

X-rays cannot be focused on a single point

These radiations cannot be heard or smelt

They travel in a straight line in free space

They cause photoelectric emissions.

The intensity of X – rays depends on the number of electrons hitting the target.

Application of X-rays -

Medical Science - They are used for medical purposes to detect the breakage in human bones.
Security - They are used as a scanner to scan the luggage of passengers in airports, rail terminals, and other places.
Astronomy - It is emitted by celestial objects and is studied to understand the environment.
Industry - It is widely used to detect defects in welds.
Restoration - They are used to restore old paintings.

9.Continuous X-ray-
As we know about the phenomenon of visible light, similarly continuous X-ray spectra also contain photons ranging through a lot of wavelengths.
From the previous concept, we know that the production of X-rays happens when the target which is made up of an element with a high atomic
number is hit by electrons traveling at a high velocity. So out of the total energy, most of the energy applied is wasted by being converted into heat
energy in the target material’s system. X-rays that have continuously unstable wavelengths are produced due to the loss of energy that the few
electrons that were moving fast enough (and penetrated to the interior sections of the atoms of the material being targeted) suffer. Since the
attractive pulling forces applied by the nucleus of the target element cause a deceleration of these fast-moving electrons, this decreases the energy of
the electron continuously. Due to this, varying frequency of X-rays is emitted continuously due to the retardation of the speed of electrons. The X–
rays consist of a continuous range of frequencies up to a maximum frequency max or minimum wavelength min. This is called continuous X –
rays. The minimum wavelength depends on the anode voltage. If V is the potential difference between the anode and the cathode, then -

To produce the continuous X-ray in the Coolidge tube, an electron is projected toward the anode with an accelerating voltage V. So, the kinetic
energy of the projectile electron will be eV. As shown in the figure, it experiences strong electric force toward the nucleus of the atom and due to
this strong attraction the velocity of this electron, when it emerges from the atom, will be highly reduced and negligible compared with the initial
speed of the projectile electron.

According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of these electromagnetic radiations will be equal to the decrease in the kinetic energy of
the projectile electron.

But the velocity of the incoming electron will be less as compared to the projectile electron. This difference in kinetic energy will cause the
production of X-rays.

10.Characteristic X-Rays -
Few of the fast-moving electrons having high velocity penetrate the surface atoms of the target material and knock out the tightly bound electrons
even from the innermost shells of the atom. Now when the electron is knocked out, a vacancy is created at that place. To fill this vacancy electrons
from higher shells jump to fill the created vacancies, We know that when an electron jumps from a higher energy orbit E1 to a lower energy orbit
E2, it radiates energy (E1−E2). Thus this energy difference is radiated in the form of X-rays of very small but definite wavelength which depends
upon the target material. The X-ray spectrum consists of sharp lines and is called the characteristic X-ray spectrum. These X-rays are called
characteristic X-rays because they are characteristic of the element used as the target anode. Characteristic X-rays have a line spectral distribution,

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unlike continuous X-rays. The wavelength spectrum of the X-frequencies corresponding to these lines is the characteristic of the material or the
target, i.e., anode material.

When the atoms of the target material are bombarded with high-energy electrons (or hard X-rays), which possess enough energy to penetrate into
the atom, they knock out the electron of the inner shell (say K shell, n=1 ). When an electron is missing in the K shell, an electron from the
next upper shell makes a quantum jump to fill the vacancy in the K shell. In the transition process, the electron radiates
energy whose frequency lies in the X-ray region. The frequency of emitted radiation (i.e., of the photon) is given by -

Another vacancy is now created in the L shell which is again filled up by another electron jump from one of the upper shell M which results in the
emission of another photon, but of different X-ray frequency. This transition continues till outer shells are reached, thus, resulting in the continues
till outer shells are reached, thus, resulting in the emission of a series of spectral lines. The transitions of electrons from various outer shells to the
innermost K shell produce a group of X-ray lines called as K -series. These radiations are most energetic and most penetrating. K-series is further
divided into depending upon the outer shell from which the transition is made (see figure).

Incident electron is also known as a projectile electron

Emitted electron is known as photo-electron / orbital electron

Similarly, the rest of the series can be shown as below -

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Now notice the graph shown below and the sharp peaks obtained in the graph are known as characteristic X-rays because they are characteristic of
the target material. The characteristic wavelengths of the material having atomic number Z are called characteristic X-rays and the spectrum
obtained is called a characteristic spectrum. If a target material of atomic number is used, then peaks are shifted.

The characteristic wavelengths of the material having atomic number Z are called characteristic X-rays and the spectrum
obtained is called a characteristic spectrum. If a target material of atomic number is used, then peaks are shifted as shown below -

X-ray absorption-

The intensity of X-rays at any point may be defined as the energy falling per second per unit area held perpendicular to the direction of energy
flow. Let be the intensity of incident beam and I be the intensity of beam after penetrating a thickness x of a material, then , where
is the coefficient of absorption or absorption coefficient of the material. The absorption coefficient depends upon the wavelength of X-rays, the
density of the material, and the atomic number of material. The elements of high atomic mass and high density absorb X-rays to a higher degree.

11.Moseley's Law-
During the time when the periodic table is arranged with atomic weight, Moseley measured the frequency of characteristic X-rays from a large
number of elements and plotted the square root of the frequency against its position number in the periodic table. He discovered that the plot is very
close to a straight line. A portion of Moseley's plot is shown in figure where of X-rays is plotted against the position number. From this
linear relation, Moseley concluded that there must be a fundamental property of the atom which increases by regular steps as one moves from one
element to the other. This quantity was later identified to be the number of protons in the nucleus and was referred to as the atomic number.

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The frequency of a characteristic X-ray of an element is related to its atomic number Z by

where a and b are constants called proportionality and screening (or shielding) constants. For K series, and that of b is 1. Here R is
Rydberg's constant and c is speed of light (as in Bohr's model).

12. Bragg's law -

X-ray is used in measuring the interplanar spacing 'd' and several information about the structure of the solid can be obtained. This phenomenon can
be understood by Bragg's law.

X-rays are diffracted by different atoms and the diffracted rays interfere. In certain directions, the interference is constructive and we obtain strong
reflected X-rays. The analysis shows that there will be a strong reflected X-ray beam only if -

where n is an integer. For monochromatic X-rays, is fixed and there are some specific angles etc. corresponding to
etc. in equation given above. Thus, if the X-rays are incident at one of these angles, they are reflected; otherwise, they are absorbed.

Nuclei
Important Formulae

1. Nucleus Structure
An atom is the basic unit of matter.

The atom consists of a central core called ‘nucleus’ and the electrons revolve around it in nearly circular orbits as shown in the below figure.

The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, collectively referred to as nucleons. The neutron carries no electrical charge and has a
mass slightly larger than that of a proton.

Constituents of the nucleus (Nucleons)-

The proton is the main part of an atom and carries a positive charge. The number of protons and neutrons is usually the same except in the case of
the hydrogen atom which contains a single proton that exists on its own.

The number of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the symbol Z.

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The number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N.

The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called its mass number and it is represented by N.

And we have A= Z+ N.
Different types of nuclei-

Isotopes- The atoms of an element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers are

called isotopes. All isotopes have the same chemical properties.

The isotopes of some elements are the following

Isobars: The nuclei which have the same mass number (A) but a different atomic number (Z) are called isobars. Isobars occupy different
positions in the periodic table so all isobars have different chemical properties.

Some of the examples of isobars are

Isotones: The nuclei having an equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For them both the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) are
different, but the value of (N=A–Z) is the same.

Some examples are

Size of the nucleus-

Nuclear radius - The radius r of the nucleus depends upon the atomic mass A of the element as

where R0=Constant =1.2 fm and A=Mass number of the nucleus

Nuclear volume: The volume of the nucleus is given by i.e

Nuclear density: Mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density. And it is given as

Density is constant for all the nuclei. It is independent of size and mass numbers.

2. Binding Energy Per Nucleon

Energy mass equivalence-

Einstein showed from his theory of special relativity that it is necessary to treat mass as another form of energy.

Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass into other forms of energy, say kinetic energy and vice-versa.

For this Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and

or we can say

where = mass defect and = energy released

Note:

For mass defect equal to 1 amu, the energy released is

A small amount of mass corresponds to a large amount of energy. Energy associated with the rest mass of an object is said to be its rest mass
energy.

9.1 x 10-31 kg
Rest mass of an electron (me)
5.485 x 10-4 amu
1.6726 x 10-27 kg
Rest mass of a proton (mp) 1.00727 amu
1836.15 me

Rest mass of a neutron (mn) 1.6749 x 10-27 kg

1.0086 amu
Energy equivalence of rest mass of an electron 0.51 MeV

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Energy equivalence of rest mass of a proton 938.27 MeV
Energy equivalence of rest mass of a neutron 939.56 MeV

It is very useful for calculating energy emitted in the nuclear process.

Mass defect-

It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of its constituent nucleons in a free state.

This difference in masses is called the mass defect.

Hence mass defect is given as

= Sum of masses of nucleons– Mass of the nucleus

where

Note- The mass of a typical nucleus is about 1% less than the sum of masses of nucleons.

Packing fraction -

Mass defect per atomic mass number is called packing fraction.

The packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus. The smaller the value of the packing fraction, the larger is the stability of the nucleus.

Packing Fraction can have positive, negative, or zero values.

The zero value of the packing fraction is found in monoisotopic elements where the isotopic mass is equal to the mass number. For ,

The negative value of the packing fraction indicates that there is a mass defect, hence binding energy. Such nuclei are stable.

Positive values of the Packing fraction are unstable when undergoing fission and fusion processes.

Nuclear binding energy (B.E)-

The neutrons and protons in a stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and energy is needed to pull them infinitely apart. This energy is
called the binding energy of the nucleus.

OR

The amount of energy released when nucleons come together to form a nucleus is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

OR

The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus.

If is a mass defect then according to Einstein's mass-energy relation

then

Binding Energy Per Nucleon-

A more useful measure of the binding between protons and neutrons is the binding energy per nucleon or Ebn. It is the ratio of the binding energy of
a nucleus to the number of nucleons in the nucleus:

where, A = Number of Nucleons.

We can define binding energy per nucleon theoretically as the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons.

Let’s look at a plot of the binding energy per nucleon versus the mass number for a large number of nuclei:

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The following main features of the plot are:

1. The maximum binding energy per nucleon is around 8.75 MeV for mass number (A) = 56.
2. The minimum binding energy per nucleon is around 7.6 MeV for mass number (A) = 238.
3. The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn, is practically constant, i.e. practically independent of the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass
number ( 30 < A < 170).
4. Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170).

We can draw some conclusions from these four observations:

Conclusion 1

The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.

Conclusion 2

Ebn is nearly constant in the range 30 < A < 170 because the nuclear force is short-ranged. Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently
large nucleus. It will be under the influence of only some of its neighbours, which come within the range of the nuclear force.
This means that all nucleons beyond the range of the nuclear force form NA will have no influence on the binding energy of NA. So, we can
conclude that if a nucleon has ‘p’ neighbours within the range of the nuclear force, then its binding energy is proportional to ‘p’.
If we increase A by adding nucleons they will not change the binding energy of a nucleon inside. Since most of the nucleons in a large
nucleus reside inside it and not on the surface, the change in binding energy per nucleon would be small.
The binding energy per nucleon is a constant and is equal to pk, where k is a constant having the dimensions of energy. Also, the property that
a given nucleon influences only nucleons close to it is also referred to as the saturation property of the nuclear force.

Conclusion 3

A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240
breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly bound. Also, in the process energy is released. This concept is used in Nuclear Fission.

Conclusion 4

Now consider two very light nuclei with A < 10. If these two nuclei were to join to form a heavier nucleus, then the binding energy per nucleon of
the fused and heavier nucleus is more than the Ebn of the lighter nuclei. So, the nucleons are more tightly bound post-fusion. Again energy would be
released in such a process of fusion. This is the energy source of sun,

Nuclear Force-

Coulomb force is a force that determines the motion of atomic electrons. In the average mass nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon is
approximately 8 MeV, This is much larger than the binding energy in atoms. Hence, the nuclear force required to bind a nucleus together must be
very strong and of a different type. It must be strong enough to overcome the repulsion between the (positively charged) protons and to bind both
protons and neutrons into the tiny nuclear volume.

Le's look at the features of this force also called the nuclear binding force which is obtained from many experiments which were performed between
1930 and 1950.

1. The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force acting between charges or the gravitational forces between masses. This is
because the nuclear force needs to overpower the Coulomb repulsive force between the like-charged protons inside the nucleus. Hence, the
nuclear force > the Coulomb force. Also, the gravitational force is much weaker than the Coulomb force.
2. The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more than a few femtometres. This leads to a saturation of
forces in a medium or large-sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of the binding energy per nucleon. Also, if the distance falls
below 0.7fm, then this force becomes repulsive. A rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is shown
below.

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 The potential energy of two nucleons is a function of the distance between them.

3. The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend
on the electric charge.

Nuclear Stability -

Nuclear Stability is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope. The two main factors that determine nuclear stability are the
neutron/proton ratio (neutron to proton ratio.) and the total number of nucleons in the nucleus.

I. Neutron/proton ratio-

Stable nuclei with atomic numbers up to about 20 have an n/p ratio of about 1/1.

Above Z = 20, the number of neutrons always exceeds the number of protons in stable isotopes. The stable nuclei are located in the pink band
known as the belt of stability. The belt of stability ends at lead-208.

II. NUMBER OF NUCLEONS-

No nucleus higher than lead-208 is stable. That's because, although the nuclear strong force is about 100 times as strong as the electrostatic
repulsions, it operates over only very short distances. When a nucleus reaches a certain size, the strong force is no longer able to hold the nucleus
together.

3. Radioactive Decay-
Radioactivity(I)

A. H. Becquerel, discovered radioactivity purely by accident.The radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nucleus undergoes a
decay.

Three types of radioactive decay occur in nature :

(i) α-decay in which a helium nucleus is emitted;

(ii) β-decay in which electrons or positrons (positrons is the particles with the same mass as electrons but with a charge exactly opposite to that of
the electron) are emitted;

(iii) -decay in which high frequency and energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted. Each of these decay will be considered in
subsequent sub-sections.

1.Alpha Radioactive Decay-

An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, which means that it can be represented as 42He. So, whenever a nucleus goes through alpha decay, it gets
transformed into a different nucleus by emitting an alpha particle.

Let us take an example when 23892U undergoes alpha-decay, it gets transformed into 23490Th, which is shown as -

Now we have seen that 42He contains two protons and two neutrons. Hence when the alpha particle gets emitted, the mass number of the emitting
nucleus reduces by four and similarly the atomic number reduces by two. Therefore, in general, we can write that nucleus to nucleus is
expressed as follows,

where is the parent nucleus and is the daughter nucleus. One very important point to be noted is that the alpha decay of 23892U can
occur without an external source of energy. The reason behind this is that the total mass of the decay products i.e., (23490Th and 42He) < the mass of
the original 23892U.

Or, we can say that the total mass-energy of the decay products is less than that of the original nuclide.

This gives rise to a new term called ‘Q value of the process’ or ‘Disintegration energy’ which is the difference between the initial and final mass
energy of the decay products. So, for alpha decay, the Q value is expressed as -

This disintegration energy is shared between the daughter nucleus, and the alpha particle both and for 42He it is in the form of kinetic energy.

Note-

Alpha decay obeys the radioactive laws.

Nuclear Reactions-

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The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is called a nuclear reaction.

The general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows.

where X and Y are known as reactants and Z is known as products.

and Q is the energy of the nuclear reaction (i.e. Q value)

Q value-

The energy absorbed or released during the nuclear reaction is known as the Q-value of the nuclear reaction.

for the below reaction

where

and are mass of reactant

is mass of product

If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (The energy is absorbed in the reaction)

If Q> 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (The energy is released in the reaction)

Law of conservation in nuclear reactions-

The following quantities are conserved in nuclear reactions

The mass number (A)

The charge number (Z)
Linear momentum/angular momentum
Total energy

2.Beta radioactive decay:-

Beta decay happens when a nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting an electron or a positron. Like alpha decay, it is also a spontaneous process,
and it is also having definite disintegration energy and half-life as well. It is also following the radioactive laws. A Beta decay can either be a beta
minus or a beta plus decay.

In a Beta minus decay , as the name indicates an electron is emitted by the nucleus.

Let us take an example,

where, is an antineutrino,

Note- Property of neutrino

1. Zero electric charge

2. It's mass much less than the mass of the electron
3. Very weak matter making it quite difficult to detect

i.e For

β Minus - decay

In a Beta plus decay, as the name indicates that it is a positron is emitted by the nucleus. Let us take an example,

where v is a neutrino, which is a neutral particle with negligible or no mass. The neutrinos and antineutrinos are emitted from the nucleus along
with the positron or electron during the beta decay process. Neutrinos interact very weakly with matter.

i.e For

β plus decay

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Further, in a Beta minus decay, a neutron transforms into a proton (inside the nucleus):

Also, in a Beta plus decay, a proton transforms into a neutron within the nucleus:

Here, the point to be noted is that the mass number (A) of the emitting nuclide does not change. From the above equation, either a
neutron transforms into a proton or vice versa.

3. Gamma Radioactive Decay-

We know that atoms have energy levels. Like the atom, a nucleus has energy levels too. When a nucleus is in an excited state then to make itself
stable, transition occurs to a lower energy state by emitting an electromagnetic radiation. The energy difference between the states in a nucleus is in
MeV. Hence, the photons emitted by the nuclei have MeV energies and called Gamma rays.

As we have seen after an alpha or beta emission, most radionuclides leave the daughter nucleus in an excited state. To reach the ground state,
this daughter nucleus emits one or multiple gamma rays.

Let us take an example,

60 Co undergoes a beta decay and then transforms into 6028Ni. Then this 6028Ni becomes the daughter nucleus. 6028Ni is in its excited state and
27
this excited nucleus reaches the ground state by the emission of two gamma rays having energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV.

4. Law Of Radioactivity Decay

Radioactivity-

The phenomenon by virtue of which a substance, spontaneously, disintegrates by emitting certain radiations is called radioactivity.

Activity (A)-

Activity is measured in terms of disintegration per second.

Units of radioactivity:-

Its SI unit is 'Bq (Becquerel)'.

Curie (Ci):- Radioactivity of a substance is said to be one curie if its atoms disintegrate at the rate of 3.7×1010 disintegrations per second. I.e

Rutherford (Rd):- Radioactivity of a substance is said to be 1 Rutherford if its atoms disintegrate at the rate of 106 disintegrations per second.

The relation between Curie and Rutherford- 1 C = 3.7×104 Rd

Laws of radioactivity-

Radioactivity is due to the disintegration of a nucleus. The disintegration is accompanied by the emission of energy in terms of α, β and γ-rays either
single or all at a time. The rate of disintegration is not affected by external conditions like temperature and pressure etc.

According to Laws of radioactivity the rate of the disintegration of the radioactive substance, at any instant, is directly proportional to the number
of atoms present at that instant.

i.e

where = disintegration constant or radioactive decay constant

Number of nuclei after the disintegration (N)

where N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei in the sample at t=0.

Similarly, Activity of a radioactive sample at time t

where A0 is the Activity of a radioactive sample at time t =0

Half-life (T1/2)-

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The half-life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time during which the number of atoms of the substance is reduced to half their original
value.

Thus, the half-life of a radioactive substance is inversely proportional to its radioactive decay constant.

Number of nuclei in terms of half-life-

Note- It is a very useful formula to determine the number of nuclei after the disintegration in terms of half-life

Mean or Average life ( )

Definition: The arithmetic mean of the lives of all the atoms is known as the mean life or average life of the radioactive substance.

Tmean = sum of lives of all atoms / total number of atoms

Let |dN| be the number of nuclei decaying between t, t + dt; the modulus sign is required to ensure that it is positive.

dN = –λN0e–λt dt

and |dN| = λN0e–λtdt

The average life of a radioactive substance is equal to the reciprocal of its radioactive decay constant.

The average life of a radioactive substance is also defined as the time in which the number of nuclei reduces to part of the initial number of
nuclei.

The relation between T1/2 and Tmean:-

⇒T1/2 = (0.693) Tmean

OR

Half-life = (0.693)Mean life

5. Simultaneous And Series Disintegration

Simultaneous decay-

Due to radioactive disintegration, a radio nuclide transforms into its daughter nucleus. Depending on the nuclear structure and its unstability, a
parent nucleus may undergo either or emission.

Sometimes a parent nucleus may undergo both types of emission simultaneously.

If an element decays to different daughter nuclei with different decay constants etc. for each decay mode, then the effective
decay constant of the parent nuclei can be given as

Similarly, For a radioactive element with decay constant which decays by both and decays given that the probability
for an emission is and that for emission is the decay constant of the element can be split for individual decay modes. Like in this case
the decay constants for and decay separately can be given as

Series decay-

Accumulation of Radioactive element in Radioactive series-

A radioactive element decays into its daughter nuclei until a stable element appears. Consider a radioactive series-

A radioactive element disintegrates to form another radioactive element which in turn disintegrates to another element and so on. Such
decays are called Series or Successive Disintegration.

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Here, the rate of disintegration of = Rate of formation of

Therefore, net formation of = Rate of disintegration of - Rate of disintegration of

If the rate of disintegration of becomes equal to the Rate of disintegration of , then it is called Radioactive equilibrium. So the equation
becomes -

6. Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fission-

The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after bombardment with energetic particles) with
liberation of energy.

For example, on bombarding a uranium target, the nucleus broke into two nearly equal fragments and released a great amount of energy -

Fission does not always produce Barium and Krypton. Here is another example:

All the fragmented nuclei produced in fission are neutron-rich and unstable. Also, they are radioactive and emit beta particles until they reach a
stable end-product. So under favourable conditions, the neutron produced can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing a large number of
neutrons, Thus a chain of nuclear fissions is established which continues until the whole Uranium is consumed.

Nuclear fusion-

In nuclear fusion, two (or) more than two lighter nuclei combine/fuse to form a larger nucleus. In this process, energy is released.

Some examples of nuclear fusion:

Here two protons combine to form a deuteron and a positron releasing 0.42 MeV of energy.

Here two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of Helium releasing 3.27 MeV of energy.

In this case, two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton releasing 4.03 MeV of energy.

Here mass of a single nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the mass of the parent nuclei. And this mass difference appears in the form of the
release of energy.

The conditions required for Nuclear fusion -

For the fusion to occur, two nuclei must come close enough so that attractive short-range nuclear force is able to affect them. But since both are
positively charged particles, they experience coulomb's repulsion force. Therefore they must have enough energy to overcome this repulsion. For
this, a high pressure of 106 atm and a temperature of 109 K is required.

When the fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system, so that particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome the coulomb's
repulsion force, it is called thermonuclear fusion.

Electronic devices
Important Formulae

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1.Band Theory Of Solids
Band Theory of solids-

On the basis of conductivity-

On the basis of the relative values of electrical conductivity or resistivity, the solids are broadly classified as:

Conductor-

The materials which easily allow the flow of electric current through them are called conductors. Metals such as copper, silver, iron, aluminum, etc.
are good conductors of electricity.

They possess very low resistivity (or high conductivity).

Insulator-

The materials which do not allow the flow of electric current through them are called insulators. Insulators are also called as poor conductors of
electricity. Rubber, wood, diamond, plastic are some examples of insulators.

They have high resistivity (or low conductivity).

Semiconductors-

They have resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.

Note- At 0 K, it behaves like an insulator (Si, Ge)

Semiconductors are further divided as follows

(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge

(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are:

• Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc.

• Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.

• Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene, etc

Materials are also classified on the basis of energy bands.

Energy Band Theory-

There is a number of energy bands in solids but three of them are very important which are shown in the below figure.

Valence band-

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the valence electrons or outermost orbit electrons is called a valence
band. The valence band is present below the conduction band as shown in the above figure.

So Electrons in the valence band have lower energy than the electrons in the conduction band.

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The electrons present in the valence band are loosely bound to the nucleus of an atom.

Conduction band-

The energy band which is formed by grouping the range of energy levels of the free electrons is called a conduction band.

Generally, the conduction band is empty but when external energy has applied the electrons in the valence band then electrons jump into the
conduction band and become free electrons.

Electrons in the conduction band have higher energy than the electrons in the valence band.

The conduction band electrons are not bound to the nucleus of the atom.

Forbidden band or forbidden gap-

The energy band which is present between the valence band and conduction band by separating these two energy bands is called a forbidden band.

In solids, electrons cannot stay in a forbidden band because there is no allowed energy state in this region.

The energy associated with the forbidden band is called the energy gap and it is measured in unit electron volt (eV).

The applied external energy in the form of heat or light must be equal to the forbidden gap in order to push an electron from valence band to the
conduction band.

Classification of materials based on a forbidden gap-

Conductors-

In a conductor, the valence band and conduction band overlap each other as shown in the below figure. Therefore, there is no forbidden gap in a
conductor.

A small amount of applied external energy provides enough energy for the valence band electrons to move into the conduction band.

When valence band electrons move to conduction band they become free electrons.

In conductors, a large number of electrons are present in the conduction band at room temperature and these electrons move freely by carrying the
electric current from one point to another.

Insulators

The forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large in insulators as shown in the below figure.

Note- When the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is more than 3 eV. then the material is insulators.

Normally, in insulators, the valence band is fully occupied with electrons due to the sharing of outer most orbit electrons with the neighboring
atoms. While no electrons are present in the conduction band. Free electrons density is negligible in the case of the insulator. The electrons in the

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valence band cannot move by themself because they are locked up between the atoms.

Semiconductors

In semiconductors, the forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band is very small as shown in the below figure.

Note- When the Energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is less than 3 e.v. Then the material is a semiconductor.

At low temperature, the valence band is completely occupied with electrons and the conduction band is empty because the electrons in the valence
band do not have enough energy to move into the conduction band. Therefore, semiconductor behaves as an insulator at low temperature.

However, at room temperature, some of the electrons in valence band gains enough energy in the form of heat and moves into the conduction
band. When the temperature increases, then the number of valence band electrons moving into the conduction band also increases. So free electron
density in the conduction band increases. This shows that the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor increases with an increase in
temperature.

2.Types Of Semiconductor: Intrinsic And Extrinsic Semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor-

It is a pure semiconductor. Silicon and germanium are the most common examples of intrinsic semiconductors. Both these semiconductors are most
frequently used in the manufacturing of transistors, diodes and other electronic components.

Both Si and Ge have four valence electrons. In its crystalline structure, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence electrons with
each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take a share of one electron from each such neighbour as shown in the below figure. This
shared pair of the electron is called a Covalent bond or a Valence bond.

The above figure shows the structure with all bonds intact (i.e no bonds are broken). This is possible only at low temperatures.

As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these electrons and some of these electrons may break–away from the
conduction band becoming the free electron and creating a vacancy in the bond. This vacancy with an effective positive electronic charge is called a
hole.

In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons ( ne ) is equal to the number of holes ( nh )

i.e where is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

Semiconductors possess the unique property in which, apart from electrons, the holes also move.

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The free-electron moves completely independently as a conduction electron and gives rise to an electron current, Ie under an applied electric field.
while Under an electric field, these holes move towards the negative potential generating hole current (Ih).

Hence, the total current (I) is given as I = Ie + Ih

And apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process of recombination occurs in which the electrons
recombine with the holes. At equilibrium, the rate of generation is equal to the rate of recombination of charge carriers.

An intrinsic semiconductor will behave like an insulator at T = 0 K. As shown in the below figure., at T = 0 K, the electrons stay in the valence band
and there is no movement to the conduction band.

When the temperature increases, at T > 0K, some electrons get excited. These electrons jump from the valence to the conduction band as shown in
the below figure.

The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature is very low. As such, no important electronic devices can be developed using
these semiconductors. Hence there is a necessity of improving their conductivity. This can be done by making use of impurities. because when a
small amount of a suitable impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold

Extrinsic semiconductors-

An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor doped by a specific impurity which is able to deeply modify its electrical properties, making it
suitable for electronic applications. The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called
dopants. Another term for Extrinsic semiconductors is ‘Doped Semiconductor’.

The size of the dopant and Semiconductor atoms should be the same, for making sure that the amount of impurity added should not change the
lattice structure of the Semiconductor.

Following types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent (valency 4) Si or Ge:

(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc.

This will give n-type semiconductor

(ii) Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.

This will give p-type semiconductor

N-type semiconductor-

When a pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to be an n-type semiconductor.
Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, etc are called donor impurity.

The four valence electrons of each phosphorus atom form 4 covalent bonds with the 4 neighboring silicon atoms.

The free-electron (fifth valence electron) of the phosphorus atom does not involve in the formation of covalent bonds.

This shows that each phosphorus atom donates one free electron. Therefore, all the pentavalent impurities are called donors.

So, there is a donor energy level between the valence band and conduction band. Just below the conduction band.

The number of free electrons depends on the amount of impurity (phosphorus) added to the silicon.

Charge on n-type semiconductor-

Even though n-type semiconductor has a large number of free electrons, but the total electric charge of n-type semiconductor is neutral.

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Conduction in n-type semiconductor-

When voltage is applied to n-type semiconductors as shown in the below figure; then the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
applied voltage. Similarly, holes move towards the negative terminal of the applied voltage.

In an n-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly because of the motion of free electrons.

because In an n-type semiconductor, the population of free electrons is more whereas the population of holes is less (i.e ne >>nh)

In an n-type semiconductor, free electrons are called majority carriers and holes are called minority carriers.

P-type semiconductor-

When the trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor (Si and Ge), then it is said to be a p-type semiconductor. Trivalent impurities
such as Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al), etc are called acceptor impurity.

The three valence electrons of each boron atom form 3 covalent bonds with the 3 neighboring silicon atoms.

For the fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron. Thus, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete with the shortage of
one electron. and This missing electron is called a hole.

This shows each boron atom accepts one electron to fill the hole. Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors.

So there is an acceptor energy level just above the valence band.

A small addition of impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.

Charge on the p-type semiconductor-

Even though p-type semiconductor has a large number of holes, but the total electric charge of p-type semiconductors is neutral.

Conduction in p-type semiconductor-

When voltage is applied to p-type semiconductor as shown in the below figure; then the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
applied voltage. Similarly, holes move towards the negative terminal of the applied voltage.

In a p-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly because of the motion of holes in the valence band.

because In a p-type semiconductor, the population of free electrons is less whereas the population of holes is more (i.e nh >>ne)

In a p-type semiconductor, holes are called majority carriers and free electrons are called minority carriers.

Number of electrons or holes-

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The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium are related as:

ne × nh = ni2

On the increasing temperature, the number of currents carriers increases.

And the relation is given as

where

Eg = Energy gap

K = Boltzmann Constant

T = Temperature in kelvin

3.Electric Conductivity
Electrical Conductivity ( )-
The semiconductor conducts electricity with the help of these two types of electricity or charge carriers (i.e electrons and holes).

These holes and electrons move in the opposite direction. The electrons always tend to move in opposite direction to the applied electric field.

Let the mobility of the hole in the crystal is μh and the mobility of electron in the same crystal is μe

The current density due to drift of holes is given by,

And The current density due to the drift of electrons is given by,

hence resultant current density would be

So, the general equation for conductivity is given as

where

For intrinsic semiconductors (no impurities)-

As the number of electrons will be equal to the number of holes.

i.e

4.P-N Junction
P-N Junction-

A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors,etc.

When a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an N-type semiconductor, then the resulting arrangement is called P-N junction or P-N junction
diode.

Formation of a p-n Junction

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Let’s imagine thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. Now, we have to add a pentavalent impurity to it. This result in a small part of the p-
Si wafer converting into an n-Si. Due to this two-region will get created one is the wafer containing a p-region and another is an n-region with a
metallurgical junction between the two. There are two important processes that take place during the formation of a p-n Junction:

1. Diffusion
2. Drift

As we have learned that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is more than that of holes similarly in a p-type semiconductor,
the concentration of holes is more than that of electrons.

When a p-n junction is being formed, diffusion of holes starts from the p-side to the n-side (p→n) while diffusion of electrons occurs from the n-
side to the p-side (n→p). The reason behind this diffusion is the concentration gradient across p and n sides. Due to this, a diffusion current
generates across the junction. Let’s discuss both the scenarios one by one -

Electron diffusion from n→p -

Electron diffusion leaves a positive charge ( ionized donor ) on the n-side. This positive charge is bonded to the surrounding atoms and is not
moveable. As diffusion is going on, more electrons start diffusing to the p-side, and a layer of positive charge on the n-side of the junction is
formed.

Hole Diffuses from p→n

Hole diffusion leaves a negative charge on the p-side. As the diffusion proceeds, holes start diffusing to the n-side, a layer of negative charge on the
p-side of the junction is formed. Both the phenomena i.e., diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction depletes the region of its free charges,
these space charge regions together are called the depletion region.

This process is shown in the above figure. The thickness of the depletion region is very small and its thickness is around one-tenth of a micrometre.
Since there is an electric field which is directed from the p-side to the n-side of the junction. Due to this electric field electrons moves from the p-
side to the n-side and holes from the n-side to the p-side. This motion of charged carriers due to the electric field is called drift. From this we can
conclude that the drift current direction is opposite to the direction to the diffusion current. This is also seen in the figure given above.

The Last Stages of Formation of a p-n Junction

When the diffusion starts, the diffusion current is large as compare to the drift current. As diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions on
either side of the junction start extending. Due to this the electric field gets strengthen and same with the drift current. This process will continues
till diffusion current = drift current. This is how a p-n junction is formed.

Barrier Potential

In the state of equilibrium, there will be no current in a p-n junction. Due to increase in potential difference across the junction of the two regions
due to the loss of electrons by the n-region and the subsequent gain by the p-region. This potential opposes the further flow of carriers to maintain
the state of equilibrium. This potential is called Barrier potential.

5.Semiconductor Diode - Forward Bias And Reverse Bias

Semiconductor diode-

If a p-n junction has metallic contacts at both the ends for application of external voltage. This is called a semiconductor diode.

The symbolical representation of a semiconductor diode is shown below -

In the figure given above, the arrow indicates the direction of current when the diode is under forward bias. One should note here that the
equilibrium barrier potential can be altered. This can be done by applying an external voltage across the diode. Depending on how this voltage is
applied, the diode is a forward-bias or a reverse-bias diode.

1.P-N junction diode under forward bias-

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In the figure given above, we can see that an external voltage is applied across the semiconductor diode where the p-side of the diode is connected
to the positive terminal and the n-side is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. This type of arrangement for the diode is forward biased.

Formation of a Forward Bias Diode-

As the depletion region have no charge so the resistance is very high there so the applied voltage drops primarily across this region. The drop in
voltage across the p and n side of the junction is relatively negligible. And the direction of the applied voltage (V) being opposite to that of the built-
in potential (Vo) due to which the depletion layer’s width decreases and the barrier height reduce.

If the applied voltage is small, then the barrier potential is reduced marginally only below the equilibrium value. Then only small number of carriers
crossing the junction, so the current is small. Similarly for a significantly high value of voltage, more carriers have the energy to cross the junction
so, the current will be high.

One should also note that when the voltage is applied, some electrons cross to the p-side and some holes cross to the n-side. Under forward bias,
this process is the minority charge injection process. Hence, the minority charge concentration which is electrons on the p-side are a minority and
holes on the n-side are a minority, is significantly higher at the junction boundary.

Due to this concentration gradient, the injected electron diffuse from the junction-end to the far-end of the p-side. Similarly, injected holes diffuse to
the far end of the n-side. This gives rise to current too.

The total diode forward current = Hole diffusion current + Electron diffusion current (mA)

2. P-N junction diode under reverse bias-

In the figure given above, we can see that an external voltage is applied across the diode. We can see that the n-side of the diode connects to the
positive terminal and the p-side connects to the negative terminal of the battery. This type of arrangement in diode is a reverse-bias diode.

Formation of a Reverse Bias Diode

As the depletion region have no charges, so the resistance will be very high, as a result the applied voltage drops primarily across this region. Also
the drop in voltage across the p and n side of the junction is relatively negligible. Now here the direction of the applied voltage (V) being the same
as that of the built-in potential (V0) (Opposite to the forward bias), because of this the depletion layer’s width widens and the barrier height also
increases. This decreases the flow of electron to the p-side and holes to the n-side. So, the diffusion current decreases to a great extent.

Because of the direction of the electric field, the electrons in the p-side and holes in the n-side are drive to their majority zones, if they come close to
the junction. This will produces the drift current. The drift current is usually of a few microAmprere. This current is very low even in the forward-
biased diode as compared to the current due to the injected carriers.

Critical Value of Reverse Bias Voltage -

A small amount of voltage applied to the diode is sufficient to sweep the minority charge carrier to the far side of the junction. This diode reverses
current which is not dependent on the voltage but on the concentration of the minority charge carriers on both sides of the junction. However, the
current is independent up to a critical value of reverse bias voltage which is the Breakdown Voltage (Vbr). When the voltage applied crosses
breakdown voltage i.e., Vbr, even a small change in the bias voltage causes a huge change in current. There is an upper limit of current for every
diode, beyond which the diode gets destroyed due to overheating. This is the rated value of current.

Experimental Study of the V-I characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode

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V-I Characteristics of Diode
The figure shows a diode connected in reverse bias. The battery connects to the diode through a potentiometer by which we can change the voltage
for the sake of the experiment. A microammeter is also used (since the expected current is in milliAmpere) measures the current.

Here is the result of the experiment

As we can see in the graph above, in the forward biased diode, initially when the current increases almost negligibly till a certain value is reached.
After that, the current increases exponentially even for a small increase in diode bias voltage. This voltage is called as threshold voltage. (Its value
is approximately ~0.7 V for silicon diode and ~ 0.2 V for germanium diode)

In the reverse biased diode, the current is very small and almost remains constant with a change in bias voltage. It is called as Reverse saturation
current. It is observed that in some cases, beyond the breakdown voltage, the current increases suddenly.

Hence, from this experiment and the given graph, we can conclude that the p-n junction diode allows the flow of current only in one direction, i.e.
forward-bias, which means that the forward bias resistance is lower than the reverse bias resistance.

Extra edge -

1. P -N junction as diode

R = 0, Forward

R Reverse

It is a one way device. It offers a low resistance when forward biased and high resistance when reverse biased.

2. Dynamic Resistance

Since slope of potential vs current graph is non uniform hence resistance keep changing .

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3. Knee voltage of P-N junction

Knee voltage for Ge is 0.3 V

Knee voltage for Si is 0.7 V

It is defined as that forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts rising rapidly with increase in voltage .

4. Relation between current I and Voltage V

K = Boltzmann constant

I0 = reverse saturation current

In forward bias

Then forward biasing current is

6.P-N Junction As A Rectifier

Application of junction diode as a rectifier-

A rectifier converts Alternating Current into Direct Current. Sometimes we have an AC power point but need to connect a device that requires a DC.

The Volt-Ampere characteristics of a junction diode give a reason for how current is passed through the diode only when it is forward biased. So,
when an alternating voltage is applied across a junction diode, then the current will flow only in the part where it is forward biased. Due to this
property junction diode is used to rectify alternating voltage/ current. The circuit used for this purpose is a Rectifier.

Based on the usage a junction diode can be used as a rectifier in two ways:

1.Half-wave Rectifier-

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Look at the diagram given above. An alternating voltage is applied across a junction diode which is connected to a load in a series connection. In
this case, only during those half cycles of the AC input when the diode is forward biased, a voltage will appear across the load. This type of circuit,
which rectifies only one half of the input current is a Half-wave Rectifier.

The alternating current is supplied at points A and B. During the alternating cycle, when the voltage at point A is positive, the diode is forward
biased. This will happen when the diode conducts. On the other hand, the diode is reverse biased when the voltage at point A is negative, and it
doesn’t conduct. Generally, for all practical purposes, the reverse saturation current can be considered zero since it is negligible.

Hence, we will get output voltage only through one half of the input cycle. Also, there will be no current available in the other half. Hence, the
output still varies between positive to zero but the negative cycle is cut off and the output voltage is said to be rectified.

2.Full-wave Rectifier-

Look at the figure given above. In the circuit given above, two junction diodes are connected to a load. In this circuit both positive and negative
halves of the AC cycle will come out. Hence, it is a Full-wave Rectifier. In this circuit, the p-sides of both the diodes are connected to the input
while the n-sides are connected together and connected to the load. To complete the circuit load is connected to the mid-point of the transformer.
Since, this mid-point of connection is also called Center tap and because of this the transformer is called Center tap transformer.

Here two diodes are connected, one diode rectifies the voltage for one half of the cycle while the other diode rectifies it for the other half. Therefore,
the output between centre-tap of the transformer and their common terminals becomes a full-wave rectifier output. Let’s see how this works-

If the voltage at point A is positive, then that at point B is negative. In this case, the diode D1 is forward biased while D2 is negatively biased. So, D1
conducts while D2 blocks the current. So, during the positive half of the input AC cycle, we will get output current. Afterwards, the voltage at point
A becomes negative and that at point B becomes positive. In this case, D2 conducts while D1 blocks the current. So, we will get an output current in
the negative half of the input AC cycle too. So this circuit rectifies both the halves of the input voltage, that's why it is called Full-wave Rectifier.
But, one thing should be noted that the output is pulsating and not steady. So to derive a steady DC output there is need of capacitor across the
output terminals (parallel to the load).

Role of a Capacitor

The role of the capacitor is to filters out the AC ripple and provides pure DC output. Let us discuss how it works:

We can see in the circuit given above, a capacitor is connected parallel to the load. The capacitor gets charged when the voltage across the capacitor
rises and It discharges only when a load is connected to it and the voltage across it falls. As the AC cycle changes and the second diode kicks in, the
capacitor charges again to its peak value and then again discharged due to the presence of the load.

One should note that the rate of discharge depends on the inverse product of Capacitor and Resistance (or load). To increase the discharge time and
get a steady DC output, we should connect large capacitors. The idea is to obtain an output voltage close to the peak voltage of the rectified current.

7.Zener Diode

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Zener diode-

It is invented by C. Zener.

A Zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region.

It is a highly doped p-n junction which is not damaged by high reverse current. It can operate continuously, without being
damaged in the region of reverse background voltage. It forms a very thin depletion region and an extremely high electric field across the junction
even for a small reverse bias voltage (~5 V).

In the forward bias, the Zener diode acts as an ordinary diode.

Symbol of Zener diode-

The symbol of the Zener diode is shown in the below figure.

VI characteristics of Zener diode-

Zener Breakdown-

When a reverse bias is increased the electric field at the junction also increases. At some stage, the electric field becomes so high
that it breaks the covalent bonds creating electron, hole pairs. Thus a large number of carriers are generated.
This causes a large current to flow. This mechanism is known as Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown-
At high reverse voltage, due to the high electric field, the minority charge carriers, while crossing the junction acquire very high velocities.

These by collision breaks down the covalent bonds, generating more carriers. A chain reaction is established, giving rise to high current.

This mechanism is known as Avalanche breakdown.

The VI characteristics of a Zener diode are shown in the below figure.

When forward-biased voltage is applied to the Zener diode, it works like a normal diode.

When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage current until the voltage is less than Zener voltage
(Vz). As the reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode (Vz), there is a large change in current. Also, note that for a
negligible change in the reverse bias voltage, a large change in current is produced.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator-

A Zener diode is used to get constant DC voltage from a DC unregulated output of a rectifier.

The circuit diagram of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown in the below figure.

Here the unregulated DC output of a rectifier is connected to Zener diode through a series of resistance (Rs) such that the Zener diode is reverse
biased. Let's see how it works

If the input voltage increases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also increases. This increases the voltage drop across Rs.

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But the voltage across the Zener diode does not change, because, in the breakdown region, Zener voltage remains constant despite the change in
current.

Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs and Zener diode also decreases. This decreases the voltage drop across Rs . But the
voltage across the Zener diode does not change.

Hence, a change of voltage drop across the Rs does not change the voltage across the Zener diode.

Hence, Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

8.Special Purpose P-N Junction Diodes

Devices in which carriers are generated by photons are called optoelectronic devices.

The following are important examples of optoelectronic devices.

1. Photodiodes to detect optical signals

2. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
3. Solar cells

Photodiode-

A photodiode is a p-n junction that consumes light energy to generate electric current. It is operated under reverse bias.

Reverse bias means that the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.

It is also sometimes referred to as a photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector.

Suppose an optical photon of frequency is incident on a semiconductor, such that its energy is greater than the bandgap of the semiconductor
(i.e. ). This photon will excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction band leaving a vacancy or hole in the valence band.
This increases the conductivity of the semiconductor.

And by measuring the change in the conductance (or resistance) of the semiconductor, one can measure the intensity of the optical signal. Thus
photodiode can be used as a photodetector to detect optical signals.

Light-emitting diode (LED)-

A LED is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous radiation.

(Note-When the diode is forward biased electrons move from n to p-side and holes move from p to n-side.)

LED is covered in a capsule with a transparent cover allowing the emitted light to come out.

LED’S are made of GaAsp, Gap, etc.

The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different for each
color. The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, typically around 5V.

The intensity of the emitted light increases as this input current increases and reached a maximum value. After this, an increase in forward bias input
current leads to a decrease in light intensity.

LEDs that can emit red, yellow, orange, green and blue light are commercially available.

LEDs are used extensively in remote controls, optical communication, etc.

LEDs have the following important advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps:

(i) Low operational voltage and less power.

(ii) Fast on-off switching capability.

(iii) Long life.

Solar cell-

A solar cell is a p-n junction that generates emf when solar radiation falls on the p-n junction. i.e It converts solar energy into electrical energy.

The working principle is similar to the photodiode except that no external bias is applied and the junction area is much larger to enable solar
radiation incidence. One of the semiconductor regions is made so thin that the light incident on it reaches
the P-N-junction and gets absorbed.

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The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are

(i) bandgap (~1.0 to 1.8 eV)- Semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal materials for solar cell fabrication.

(ii) high optical absorption ( ),

(iii) electrical conductivity,

(iv) availability of the raw material, and

(v) cost

So Solar cells are made with semiconductors like Si , GaAs , CdTe , etc.

9.Bipolar Junction Transistor (N-P-N And P-N-P Transistor)

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)-

it is a three-terminal electronic device that amplifies the flow of current. It has three doped regions ( emitter, base, and collector) forming two p-n
junctions between them.

Based on their construction, Bipolar junction transistors are classified into two types as

1) N-P-N transistor

2) P-N-P transistor-

All three segments (emitter, base, and collector) of a transistor have different thickness and their doping levels are also different.

The schematic symbols of both these transistors are given in the below figure.

In the schematic symbols, as shown in the above figure, the arrowhead shows the direction of conventional current in the transistor.

The three segments of a transistor-

Emitter- This segment is on one side of the transistor. It is of moderate size and heavily doped causing it to supply a large number of carriers
for the flow of current.
Base: This is the central segment. It is very thin and lightly doped.
Collector: This segment collects a major portion of the majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The collector side is moderately doped and
larger in size as compared to the emitter.

Working of a junction transistor-

In the case of a junction transistor, the depletion regions are formed at the emitter-base junction and the base-collector junction.

A junction transistor works as an amplifier when

1) The emitter-base junction is forward biased and

2) The base-collector junction is reverse biased.

Some Terminologies-

VEB=The voltage between emitter and base

VCB=The voltage between collector and base
VEE = Power supply connected between the emitter and base.
VCC = Power supply connected between the collector and base

1. N-P-N transistor-

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 In this, a p-type semiconductor (base) separates two segments of the n-type semiconductor (emitter and collector) as shown in the below figure. In
an NPN transistor electrons are the majority charge carriers and flow from emitter to base.

Working of an N-P-N Transistor -

Circuit diagram of NPN transistor

OR

In an NPN transistor, 5% emitter electrons combine with the holes in the base region resulting in a small base current.
The remaining 95 % of electrons enter the collector region. i.e

And according to Kirchhoff’s law

2.P-N-P Transistor-

In this, an n-type semiconductor (base) separates two segments of the p-type semiconductor (emitter and collector).as shown in the below figure. In
PNP transistor holes are majority charge carriers and flow from emitter to base.

Working of a P-N-P Transistor -

Circuit diagram of PNP transistor

OR

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In PNP transistor 5% emitter holes combine with the electrons in the base region resulting in a small base current.
Remaining 95% holes enter the collector region. i.e

And according to Kirchhoff’s law

Basic transistor circuit configurations-

A transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three different configurations.

Common base (CB), Common emitter (CE) and Common collector (CC) configuration.

(1) CB configurations-

In these configurations, Base is common to both emitter and collector as shown in the below figure.

For the above figure Input current = Ie and Input voltage = VEB

whereas Output voltage = VCB and Output current = Ic

With a small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB, the emitter current Ie increases rapidly due to small input resistance.

Input characteristics-

If VCB= constant, the curve between Ie and VEB (as shown in the below figure) is known as input characteristics. It is also known as emitter
characteristics.

And the Dynamic input resistance of a transistor is given by

and

Ri is of the order of 100 .

Output characteristics-

Taking the emitter current ie constant, the curve is drawn between IC and VCB (as shown in the below figure) are known as output characteristics of
CB configuration.

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And the Dynamic output resistance of a transistor is given by

(2) CE configurations-

In these configurations, Emitter is common to both base and collector as shown in the below figure.

The graphs between voltages and currents when emitter of a transistor is common to input and output circuits are known as CE characteristics of a
transistor.

Input characteristics: The input characteristic curve is drawn between base current Ib and emitter-base voltage VEB , at constant collector-emitter
voltage VCE(as shown in the below figure).

And the Dynamic input resistance of a transistor is given by

Output characteristics-

Variation of collector current IC with VCE can be noticed for VCE between 0 to 1 V only (as shown in the below figure).

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The value of VCE up to which the IC changes with VCE is called knee voltage.And The transistor is operated in the

the region above knee voltage.

And the Dynamic output resistance of a transistor is given by

10.Transistor As A Device - Switch And Amplifier

BJT operation modes-

1.Cutoff mode- In the cutoff mode, both the junctions of the transistor are reverse biased.

As in reverse bias condition, no current flows through the device. Hence, no current flows through the transistor. Therefore, the transistor is in off
state and acts as an open switch. The cutoff mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch OFF application.

2. Saturation mode-In the saturation mode, both the junctions of the transistor are forward biased.

As in forward bias condition, current flows through the device. Hence, electric current flows through the transistor.

And in this mode Maximum collector current flows and the transistor acts as a closed switch.

The saturation mode of the transistor is used in switching operation for switch ON application.

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So we can say that by operating the transistor in saturation and cutoff region, we can use the transistor as an ON/OFF switch.

3.Active mode- In the active mode, one junction (emitter to base) is forward biased and another junction (collector to base) is reverse biased. The
active mode of operation is used for the amplification of current.

The transistor can be used as a device application like a switch, amplifier, etc depending on parameters like the configuration used (namely CB, CC,
and CE), the biasing of the E-B and B-C junction and the operation region namely cutoff, active region, and saturation.

Transistor as a switch-

When a junction transistor is used in the cutoff or saturation state, it acts as a switch.

For the base-biased transistor in CE configuration shown in the below figure lets try to understand the operation of a transistor as a switch.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to the input and output sides of this circuit, we get

where are dc input and output voltage respectively.

The plot of Vo vs. Vi (as shown in the below figure) is called the transfer characteristics of a base-biased transistor.

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From the above graph, we can conclude that

1. If Vi is low and unable to forward-bias the transistor, then Vo is high (=VCC).

2. If Vi is high enough to move the transistor into saturation, then Vo is very low (~0).

And when a transistor is not conducting, it is switched off. On the other hand, when it is in the saturation state, it is switched on.

If some low and high states are defined below and above certain voltage levels (i.e cutoff and saturation levels of the transistor).

then we can say for a low input switches the transistor off and a high input switches it on.

And thus transistors can operate as a switch.

Junction Transistor as an Amplifier-

A device that increases the amplitude of the input signal is called an amplifier.

The transistor can be used as an amplifier in the following three configurations

(i) CB amplifier (ii) CE amplifier (iii) CC amplifier

1. NPN transistor as CB amplifier

(i)
(ii)
(iii) Net collector voltage

(iv) Input and output signals are in the same phase

2. NPN transistor as CE amplifier

(i)
(ii)

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(iii) Net collector voltage
(iv) Input and output signals are out of phase.

Different Gains in CE/CB Amplifiers

(1) Transistor as CB amplifier-

(2) Transistor as CE amplifier

Relation between

11.Logic Gates
Logic Gates-

In our day to day life,we come across many digital electronic devices. But do you know, for digital devices to function the way they do, a logic
needs to be established between the input and output voltages. This is done by using a gate or a digital circuit that follows the logical relationship.
They are called logic gates because they control the flow of information based on a certain logic.

Symbols are given to each logic gate and each logic gate has a truth table which displays all possible input-output combinations. So the truth tables
help understand the behaviour of the logic gates. All these gates are made using semiconductor devices. The five most commonly used logic gates
are:

NOT
AND
OR
NAND
NOR

NOT Gate -

A NOT gate is also known as an inverter because it simply inverts the input signal. It is a simple gate with one input and one output. So, the output
is ‘0’ when the input is ‘1’ and vice-versa.

A is input

Y is output

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The truth table for a NOT gate is as follows:

AND Gate-

An AND gate has two or more inputs and a single output. In this gate, the output is 1(High) only when all the inputs are 1(High). The most
commonly used symbol for an AND gate is as follows:

A and B are input

Y is output

And the truth table for the AND gate is as follows

OR Gate-
Like AND Gate, OR gate has also two or more inputs and one output. For this Gate, the logic is that the output would be 1 when at least one of the
inputs is 1. It means when the output is high when any of the input is high. The commonly used symbol for an OR gate is as follows:

A and B are input

Y is output

Relation between input and output

And, the truth table for an OR gate is as follows:

NAND Gate-

A NAND gate is an arrangement of AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The output is 1 only when all inputs are NOT 1 Or the output is high
when at least one of them is low. These are also called Universal gates. The commonly used symbol for a NAND gate is as follows:

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 A and B are input

Y is output

NOT + AND gate

And, the truth table for a NAND gate is as follows:

NOR Gate-

Like NAND Gate, NOR gate is also an arrangement of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. In this the output is 1(High) only when all inputs are
0(Low). These are also called Universal gates. The commonly used symbol for a NOR gate is as follows:

A and B are input

Y is output

NOT + OR Gate

And the truth table for a NOR gate is as follows:

D'morgan's Theorem -

A and B are input.

1)

2)

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