CELLS

K Smallest structural and functional unit of an organism

o Bacteria – consist of one cell only
o Big organisms – trillions of cells
K Shaped in ways that help them do their jobs

MICROSCOPE
K 1665 – English scientist – Robert Hooke – invented basic light microscope  observe cells for the 1st time
o Used a cork to observe the cells
K 1950 – developed more powerful microscope – sends a beam of light thru a specimen
o More powerful – ELECTRON MICROSCOPE – passes a beam of electrons thru the specimen – allows us to see smallest
parts inside the cell

RUDOLF VIRCHOW
K developed the hypothesis that cells only come from other cells
K bacteria (single celled organism)  divide in half after they grow  make new bacteria
K body makes new cells by dividing the cells that you already have
K all cases: cells only come form cells that have existed before  led to the idea to the development of CELL THEORY
o no evidence was identified to contradict the cell theory

CELL THEORY
1. all organisms are composed of cells
2. cells are alive and the basic unit of organization in all organisms
3. all cells come from other cells

SPECIALIZED CELLS
K each cell is different – cell’s function is PARTLY BASED on the cell’s structure
o RBC – flat like discs – to move easily and quickly thru the blood vessels – deliver O 2 in the body
o NERVE CELLS – long and stringy – form a line of communication with other nerve cells (like a wire) – can quickly send
signals (touching a hot stove – sends signals to the brain quickly)
o SKIN CELLS – flat and fit tightly together – to protect the body
K Multicellular (many celled) organisms have many types of specialized cells in their bodies

LEVELS of ORGANIZATION
z Grouped cells – can perform a job together == called specialized cells – to perform a special job
z Atom – compound/molecule – organelle – cell – tissue – organ – organ system – organism
o Tissue – organized special cells (liver = liver tissue)
o Organ – organized liver tissues – formed from two or more specialized tissues working together to do a job – organs:
Heart to liver are made up of organized group of tissues
o Organ system – composed of organs that is part of a larger system
 Brain – works together with spinal cord + other nerves  nervous system
 Organ system organized with other organ systems  circulatory system + digestive system
o Organism – made up organ systems working together

Are bacteria cells like our cells? YES and NO

- YES – bacteria and our cells have DNA and a plasma membrane
- NO – bacteria are unique in other ways – they are called PROKARYOTIC CELLS because of the indifferences
PROKARYOTIC and EUKARYOTIC
Main difference: Presence of NUCLEUS --- (+) eukaryotic. (-) prokaryotic
o Nucleus – stores the DNA / genetic material
 Surrounded by a membrane
PROKARYTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
z (-) nucleus z (+) nucleus
z (-) membrane-bound organelles z Organism: Eukaryotes
z DNA floats around inside the cells  All eukaryotes = multicellular organisms
z Organism: Prokaryotes  Animals; plants; fungi; protists
 All prokaryotes = unicellular (single celled  CAN BE SINGLE CELLED
organisms) z Have multiple chromosomes – composed of DNA and
 Examples: Bacteria protein
Archaea z Chromosomes – protected within the nucleus
z With organelles – or membrane-bound structures
 Organelles – allow eukaryotic cells to be
z Smaller vs eukaryotic cells more specialized and more functions than
 z DNA or genetic material of prokaryotic cells form a prokaryotic cells
single large circle that coils up on itself
 DNA Location: main part of the cell

COMMON FEATURES
Y (+) Plasma membrane or cell membrane – phospholipid layer – surrounds and protects the cell from the outside environment
Y (+) ribosomes – non-membrane bound organelles – site of protein synthesis
Y (+) cytoplasm – all contents of the cell inside the cell membrane – NOT INCLUDING THE NUCLEUS
Y (+) DNA

Summary:
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
Nucleus Surrounded by phospholipid bilayer nuclear envelope with embedded nuclear
pores.
Inside the nucleus is the nucleolus
DNA Single circular piece of Multiple chromosomes
DNA Kept in the nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles
examples Bacteria ; archaea Plants, animal, fungi, protists
Outside of a cell – water based Inside of the cell – mostly water
So how does the cell stay intact in its environment? What would happen if a cell dissolves like sugar in water???? Cell dies ALL CELLS
HAVE A BARRIER around them that separates them from the environment = PLASMA MEMBRANE

PARTS OF A CELL:
PLASMA ø Helps to guard the cells from unwanted intruders
MEMBRANE ø Made of a double lipid layer = PHOSPHOLIPIDS

Phospholipid
ø Lipid molecule
ø Head: hydrophilic (water loving) + 2 Tails: Hydrophobic (water-hating)
ø Phospholipid molecules are arranged in a specific pattern as only certain parts of the molecule can be in
contact with water
CYTOSOL ø Jelly-like substance inside the cells = cytosol
ø Composed of: water + other molecules + enzymes
Y ENZYMES: are proteins that speeds up the cell’s chemical reactions
ø Everything in the cells sits in the cytosol – like fruit in a jelly mold
ø Refers to the cytosol + all organelles + specialized compartments of the cell
ø DOES NOT INCLUDE THE NUCLEUS
ø Prokaryotic cells – no nucleus – DNA is in the cytoplasm
NUCLEUS ø Only found in EUKARYOTIC CELLS
ø Contains most of the genetic material DNA
ø Surrounded by a nuclear envelope = double membrane (2 phospholipid bilayers) – controls what goes in
and out of the nucleus
ø Has NUCLEAR PORES - holes embedded in the nuclear envelope – allow things to flow in and out of the
nucleus

DNA
 æ Genetic material of the nucleus is like a set of instructions
æ Instructions tell the cell how to build molecules need for the cell to function properly
æ Tells the cell how to build molecules for life
æ Contains the code for the creation of a protein
CHROMOSOMES ø Location: inside of the nucleus
ø Strands of DNA wrapped around proteins
ø Contain genes or small units of genetic material (DNA)
ø Contains code for the creation of protein – have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) – there are hundreds to
thousands of genes on each chromosome
NUCLEOLUS ø Central region of the nucleus
ø Job: build ribosomes

RIBOSOMES
æ Are organelles that make proteins in the cytoplasm
ORGANELLES ø Refers to the different parts of the cell
ø Means small organs
ø Eukaryotic cells: (+) all organelles
ø Prokaryotic cells: “simpler” than eukaryotes – not as specialized as eukaryotes – no membrane-bound
organelles – Prokaryotic cells – not much organelles

ORGANELLES in a EUKARYOTIC CELL

NUCLEUS Like a safe = contains all the genetic material DNA and information needed to build thousands of proteins
Controls the cell thru the DNA genetic material

1) Nuclear envelope – allows the mRNA (messenger RNA) to go in and out of cell to get to the ribosomes
2) Chromatin – colored stuff with nitrogen in it – found inside the nucleus
 Colorless – add stain / dye – (+) color = colored stuff with N
 Is the DNA which is wrapped up loosely on proteins and throughout the cell
3) Nucleolus
 Where rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is made
 Darker region in the nucleus – collects more stain

MITOCHONDRIA Powerhouse of the cell

Cells that uses a lot of energy = may have thousands of mitochondria
Where cellular energy (ATP) is produced  provides energy to power chemical reactions
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Æ Chemical reactions that produces energy in ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate) form
VESSICLES Small membrane bound sacs
Transport of materials around the cell to the cell membrane
VACUOLES Storage centers
Plant cells: have larger vacuoles vs animal cells == WHY???? Plants store water and nutrients in their large
central vacuoles
LYSOSOME JOB: recycle wastes
Recycling trucks that carry waste from the factory
Have digestive enzymes that break down old. Molecules into parts that can be recycled
RIBOSOMES For both eukaryotes and prokaryotes
JOB: protein synthesis
Are membrane bound organelles where proteins are made
Like machines in the factory that produce the factory’s main product
Main product: Proteins
ENDOPLASMIC Folded membranes
RETICULUM (RER Other ER float in the cytoplasm
and SER)
If ER is covered with ribosomes  looks sandy/bumpy = ROUGH ER
Æ RER – where proteins are made  proteins enter in the ER  modified  packed into vesicles 
sent to Golgi apparatus

If no ribosomes  smooth = SMOOTH ER

Æ Site where LIPIDS are made
GOLGI APPARATUS Works like a mail room
Job: packages proteins
receives proteins from the RER and puts shipping address on those proteins
Golgi packages the proteins into vesicles  send those vesicles to the right place in the cell or cell membrane 
some proteins are secreted from the cell + others placed into the cell membrane
 CYTOSKELETON Gives shape to the cell
FLAGELLA Helps the cell to move
Prokaryotes can have flagella
PLANT CELL STRUCTURE:
Plant cell vs Human cell:
similarity: both eukaryotes ::: (+) DNA in nucleus ::: both make protein in ribosome
differences: plant cells have larger vacuoles, presence of cell wall and plastids :::::: animal cells no CW and Plastids

PLANT CELLS
Difference:
B (+) large central vacuole
B Surrounded by CELL WAL
B (+) Chloroplast = organelles of photosynthesis – conversion of sun’s solar energy into chemical energy
o Chemical energy: carbohydrate glucose – food for the plant

VACUOLE
z Plant cells have large central vacuole
z Holds a mixture of water + nutrients + wastes
z Plant cell vacuole = 90% of the cell volume – stores water
o Animal cells: smaller vacuoles

CELL WALL
z Surrounds the plasma membrane BUT does not keep
substances from entering or leaving the cell
z Gives the plant cell strength and protection
z Animal cells do not have cell walls

PLASTIDS
z Organelles of plant cells
z CHLOROPLASTS – needed for photosynthesis – defining feature of a plant – no animal can
photosynthesize
z LEUCOPLASTS – store starch and oil
z CHROMOPLASTS – gives yellow, orange or red color of flowers and fruits
z Only some protists can photosynthesize: plant-like protists – photosynthetic protists  UNICELLULAR
ALGAE

CELL TRANSPORT
CELL MEMBRANE
B A semipermeable (selectively permeable) membrane
o Only some molecules can pass thru the membrane
B way of cells to protect themselves = aka plasma membrane
 B If completely permeable  inside of cell is same as outside of the cell  impossible for cell to maintain HOMEOSTASIS

HOMEOSTASIS
µ Maintaining a stable internal environment
o Example: body cell temp is 98.6F – outside temp is freezing – cells will maintain the temp of the cell and does not
drop with the outside temp
µ Composition of the cell membrane helps to control what can pass thru it

CELL MEMBRANE COMPOSITION

Characteristic: Semipermeable + very fluid or constantly moves
o Fluid nature of the membrane – important to maintain homeostasis = allows the proteins in the membrane to float to
areas where they are needed
Composition: double layer (bilayer) of phospholipid + proteins
o Lipids – do not mix with water = quality that allows them to from the outside barrier of the cell
o Due to composition of cell membrane = O2 and CO2 can freely pass thru the membrane – other molecules (esp large
molecules) cannot pass easily – need assistance to get across the membrane  assistance from TRANPORT
PROTEINS
Single phospholipid molecule parts:
a) Hydrophilic – water loving – polar HEAD
K Water found on both the inside and outside of cell
K Want to be near water – heads face the inside and outside the cell where water is found
b) Hydrophobic – water fearing – Fatty acid TAIL
K Hydrophobic tail face each other in the middle of the cell membrane – water is not found in this
space

CELL TRANSPORT TYPES: for a cell to survive: nutrients and gasses must be able to pass into a cell + Waste products must be
able to pass out from a cell
Passive Transport
µ Materials that pass in or out of the cell do so by passive transport – NO ATP ENERGY is used
µ Concentration gradients allow movement of materials  HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT
TYPES of PASSIVE TRANSPORT
1) Osmosis
2) Dialysis
3) Facilitated diffusion
µ High to low concentration gradient + use of a carrier protein
µ Carrier protein – like a revolving door – allows easy access across the membrane then rotating back to
the other side

Active transport
µ Requires energy ATP and protein carriers found in plasma membrane
µ Movement of materials from LOW TO HIGH concentration gradient thru a membrane using a protein
carrier with ATP use
 Example: Uptake of IODINE by the thyroid gland
µ Iodine – essential for hormone production that influences body metabolism
µ Eat a meal with Iodine  pass thru intestine  go into the circulatory system  capillaries pass thru the
thyroid gland  iodine DIFFUSES OUT of the circulatory system  Iodine attaches to protein carriers in
the plasma membrane  Iodine has a specific shape that can fit
µ Glucose is also actively transported into the cell – uses a different carrier protein  push out

ENDOCYTOSIS
µ Passing thru of LARGE PARTICLES into the cell
µ Plasma membrane surrounds the particle  forms a vesicle that pinches off from the membrane
µ Ways of cell to do endocytosis:
TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
(1) Phagocytosis (2) PINOCYTOSIS (3) RECEPTOR MEDIATED
Y Cell eating Y For FLUIDS that the ENDOCYTOSIS
Y Large particles cell wants to take in Y Molecules (like LIPIDS –
are surrounded – Y Cell membrane cholesterol) – bind to
cell extends the sinks in  fluid receptors  vesicle
plasma membrane material sinks formation  sinks 
and engulfs the inward  lysosome + digestive
particle  result to membrane pinches enzyme joins the vesicle
a MEMBRANE- off (use of energy in  release of material from
BOUND this movement)
receptor  break into
PACKAGE
smaller pieces  pass thru
MATERIAL (uses
out of membrane  into
ATP energy)
the cytosol (receptor is free
again – for reuse or
recycle of the receptors)
BOTH PHAGOCYTOSIS AND PINOCYTOSIS
Y Cell ends up with a membrane bound vesicle
Material + vesicle still has to pass thru the membrane so that the cell can use it  lysosome + digestive
enzyme will join with vesicle  break down to smaller pieces to pass thru the membrane to go to the cytosol
EXOCYTOSIS
Large materials like PROTEINS – exocytosis enables the cell to pass this material out of the cell

DIFFUSION
z Movement of molecules to an area where there are lots of molecules to an area where there are fewer molecules
z Movement of molecules from an area with a HIGH CONCENTRATION to a LOWER CONCENTRATION of the substance
o CONCENTRATION
 The amount of substance in relation to the total volume (substance amount :: total volume)
z Process::::::::: molecules flow down their concentration gradient – high to low concentration  doesn’t require energy
z Can occur across a semipermeable membrane (cell membrane) as long as concentration gradient exists
z Will continue to happen until EQUILIBRIUM is reached
o EQUILIBRIUM
 No more area of high or low concentration – molecules flow equally in both directions across the
semipermeable membrane
 At equilibrium: molecule entering and leaving the cell have EQUAL AMOUNTS

OSMOSIS
z Diffusion of WATER across a membrane because of different concentration
z Types:
HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC ISOTONIC
ø Environment outside the cell ø Environment outside the cell ø Inside and outside environment
has a LOWER concentration of has HIGHER concentration of of the cell are equal
dissolved material inside the cell dissolved material vs the inside ø Water flows in both directions
ø Cell + hypotonic solution  of the cell (move in and out) BUT OF
 water moves INTO the cell  ø Cell + hypertonic solution  EQUAL AMOUNTS
SWELLING of cell  can BURST water moves OUT of the cell 
shrink or shrivel

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Recall: cell membrane – semipermeable = does not allow everything to pass thru
o Some molecules can easily pass thru
o Other molecules can not  need a TRANPORT PROTEIN to move across the cell membrane
 Some requires ATP – active transport - movement of molecules against their concentration gradient
(Low to high concentration)
 Some does not require ATP – passive transport
Examples of Passive transport:
(1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION
o Molecules move from high to low concetration (molecules just flow down their concentration) – no ATP is
required
o Molecules that are small and unchanged can freely diffuse across a cell membrane  molecules just flow thru the
cell membrane  do not need a transport protein (larger or charged molecules may need a transport protein
assistance
o EXAMPLE:
 OXYGEN – can flow freely thru the cell membrane
 O2 diffuses out of the air sacs in lungs  go to blood stream (why: because there is a higher
oxygen concentration in the lungs vs the blood stream) mas concentrated sa lungs kasi kaka-
inhale mo pa lang ng oxygen
 CARBON DIOXIDE
 CO2 exhalation – moves in the opposite direction – high concentration in blood stream to a low
concentration in the lungs
 (2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Æ Molecules that requires transport protein to help move across the membrane – help from either a channel protein
or carrier protein
o Channel proteins
 Special proteins that are attached to the cell membrane – goes thru the membrane from inside
of the cell to the outside of the cell
 Provide an open channel or passageway thru the cell membrane for molecules to move across
 Allow the diffusion of IONS – IONS are charged atoms
 Charge – makes it difficult for the molecule to cross/pass thru the cell membrane
without assistance/help
 Channel proteins are SPECIFIC – sodium ion needs sodium channel protein (cannot be other
channel protein)
o Carrier protein
 Binds and carry the molecules across the membrane
 Carrier protein bind on one side of the membrane  change shape as they carry the molecule
across a membrane  deposit the molecule on the other side of the membrane
Æ Even though there is a transport protein involve = NO ATP is required  PASSIVE TRANSPORT

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JShwXBWGMyY

CELL DIVISION (page 234 ck12)

Why do cells divide?
æ According to cell theory – all cells come from existing cells
o Sperm cell + egg cell  zygote  baby will develop = each cell in the baby will be genetically identical = each cell
will have the same DNA

How does a new life go from one cell to so many?

æ Thru cell division
o Cell divides in half  two cells  2 cells divide  4 cells  divide …. So on…
o cell division :::::: is a part of a cycle of cellular growth and division == CELLS MUST GROW BEFORE DIVIDING
o cells must divide repeatedly for an embryo to develop or for you to grow
o cells must divide to replace damaged or worn out cells
æ CELL CYCLE
o Describes the life of a eukaryotic cell – includes the division of the nucleus and the cytoplasm

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
¥ Form of cell division that produces ¥ Form of cell division that produces CELLS WITH HALF
GENETICALLY IDENTICAL CELLS AS MUCH DNA AS THE PARENT CELL – cells are used
¥ Ensures that the cells have the SAME for REPRODUCTION
DNA ¥ Produces gametes: Sperm cell and Egg cell
¥ Chromosomes equally separate 
make sure that each nucleus in
each resulting cell after cell
division is genetically identical
WHY IS CELL DIVISION NECESSARY FOR LIFE?
1. For the development of the baby/young
2. To grow and develop – for growth spurts – formation of new bone cells, skin cells, cells in blood vessels, etc.
3. For repairing damaged cells – cut  scab formation  disappear  new skin cells will grow and repair the wound (new
skin cells can divide and produce new cells)
4. For replacement of old and worn out cells. (because cells simply wear out)

CELL CYCLE
Y Describes the life cycle of an eukaryotic cell – cell division is the end of the cycle
Y IMPORTANT TO KNOW: nucleus divides during mitosis. Cytoplasm divides during cytokinesis

Phases of cell cycle

INTERPHASE MITOTIC PHASE
Y Stage when the cell most performs its “everyday” 1. Nucleus divides as the chromosomes are equally
function (growth, metabolism, repair) separated
 Result: 1 nucleus  2 nuclei (each with identical
Example: kidney cells doing what it is suppose to do – chromosomes)
cell getting ready to divide in this time (division is in
mitotic phase : mitosis + cytokinesis) 2. Cytokinesis
** Cytokinesis meaning: cell movement - Cytoplasm divides = 2 cells
- After cytokinesis – cell division is complete

One parent cell (the dividing cell)

two genetically identical daughter cells (cells that divide from

the parent cell)

Genetically identical = meaning: each cell has identical set of

DNA – this DNA is also identical to that of the parent cell

IF CELL CYCLE IS UNCONTROLLED  TUMOR  Cancer

 G1 phase S phase G2 phase G0 Phase
First gap phase Synthesis phase Second growth - Cells can go to Go or G1 phase
phase - Resting phase
=First growth DNA replication A. QUEISCENT STAGE – temporary in G0 phase
phase Make identical Synthesis of B. SENSESCENT STAGE – only metabolically active but
Cell doubles in size copy of all the proteins to help will not divide – cell will be permanent in G0 phase
cell’s DNA the cells divide
= Double in
number of Ensures that each At end of G2
organelles new cell has same phase: Cell is
set of genetic ready to go thru
DO NOT INVOLVE material identical MITOSIS
DNA with the parent
REPLICATION – cell = aka DNA
just organelles REPLICATION

Shown is the cell cycle.

Û Notice that most of the cell cycle is spent in Interphase (G1, S,
and G2).
Û Mitosis and cytokinesis occur during the Mitotic phase.

Some cells may enter a resting phase during which progression

through the cycle

** APOPTOSIS – ensures that irreparable cells do not divide (pop!) – amoeba sisters

DNA – organized into chromosomes

Genetic information – stored in the nucleus

MITOSIS and CHROMOSOMES

z During mitosis ::::: 2 nuclei must form – so that one nucleus can be in each of the new cells after the cell divides
o To create 2 identical nuclei – DNA in the nucleus must be copied or replicated (S phase of the cell cycle)
o During mitosis: copied DNA is divided into 2 complete sets  enter cytokinesis – each cell has the same
complete set of genetic instructions

MITOSIS – occurs in a very short amount of time with respect to the cell cycle (10% mitosis + 90% Interphase)

CHROMOSOMES
- Condensed units of DNA
- Made up of protein and DNA
z During mitosis: DNA wraps around protein to form chromosomes. (what is chromosome: protein wrapped with DNA =
condensed units of DNA)
z Humans = 23 pairs of chromosomes (total of 46 chromosomes) – found in the nuclei cells
o Replicated DNA  forms a chromosome made from 2 identical sister CHROMATIDS (X – shaped molecule)
o 2 chromatids – held together by CENTROMERE
 Centromere: where spindle fiber microtubules attach during mitosis
o Spindles separate sister chromatids from each other

Chromatin – stringy DNA –

UNCOILED (seen in interphase)

Chromatid – copied chromatin =

Sister chromatids
 FOUR PHASES OF MITOSIS (P. M. A. T. )
(1) Prophase (2) Metaphase (3) Anaphase (4) Telophase
Chromatin (unwound DNA) Chromosomes line up in the Spindles pull the chromatids Spindle dissolves
center or equator of the cell apart
Condenses Formation of nuclear
Chromosomes line up in a row Chromatids of each envelope around the
Form chromosomes (one on top of the next) chromosome separates chromosomes in both cells

DNA – tightly wound (can see CODE: M – metaphase – M Two sets of identical
under a microscope) for MIDDLE – chromosomes
CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN
Nuclear envelope disappears MIDDLE OF CELL CODE: A for Anaphase – A for
(nuclear envelope – AWAY
membrane around the
nucleus)
After telophase:
Formation of spindles Each new nucleus has same
number and type of
Spindles attach to chromosome as the original
chromosomes to help them cell
move
Ready for cytokinesis
(meaning: cell movement)
 Cytoplasm divides

Parent cell separates

2 genetically identical cells

(each with own nucleus)

New cell membrane forms (in

plant cell – new cell wall
forms)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NwwcWqL5hhI
 DISCUSSION: CELLS
1. What is the evidence that supports the claim that all biological system have the same characteristics when it comes to cells? Why is it
called the basic unit of life?
2. Compare cell structures seen in all types of cells ; parts of body
3. How do the cell structures in different organisms enable specialized function of cells
4. How do the cell structures support the organism’s ecological role
TOPIC OUTLINE
i. Cell theory
ii. Cell structure – parts of cell
iii. Base on structure of organism – differentiate the cell types
iv. Specialized cells in the body
Cells
 Cells  Organized to formed tissues  organs  organ systems  organism/living organism
o Organ systems – nervous system, digestive system, skeletal system, circulatory system, respiratory system
 What separates living and nonliving – made up of cells, code:::::::::CETRxGRS
 Atoms and molecules are not considered living because it does not have the CETRxGRS

Types of organisms
Unicellular Multicellular
- Some cells are the actual organism itself - Some cells are just parts of an organism
- One celled organism - Many cells in an organism
- Amoeba – pond waters - Part of an organ in an organisms
- Paramecium – pond waters - WBC , RBC , nerve cell , skin cell , muscle cells

Cell structures – Plant cell vs Animal cell

- In general :::::: all living things are composed of cells
- Differences :::: living organisms have different types of cells (shape of cell define the cell’s function)
Scientists:
Robert Hooke invented basic light microscope
observe cells for the 1st time (Used a cork to observe the cells)
thin slices of cork – saw “small rooms ” = rooms=cells: describing the pore as “cells” = row of empty boxes. (Cell = jail =
room)
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Father of microbiology – 1st to study ACTUAL MOVING LIVING CELLS
Discovered both protists and bacteria ; observed muscle fibers, RBC
“animalcules” – unicellular organisms = microorganisms
Mattias Schleiden Studied plant cells – plants composed of cells and cell products Identified key differences between the two cell types
Theodore Schwann Studied animal cells – all animals are made up of cells CONCLUSION: All living things are made up of
cells; basic unit of life
Rudolf Virchow developed the hypothesis that all cells came from cells
CELL THEORY:
1. all organisms are composed of cells
o cells – smallest living unit of structure + function of all organisms is the cell
2. cells are alive and the basic unit of organization in all organisms
3. all cells come from other cells
o cells arise from pre-existing cells
o cells carry genetic material  passed on to daughter cells during cellular
division
o cells are same in chemical composition (all cells have CHO, CHON, CHONP,
LIPIDS)
o energy flow – occurs within the cells (METABOLISM and BIOCHEMISTRY)
æ cell
o the smallest structural and functional unit = microscopic
o consists of cytoplasm and nucleus in a membrane
æ theory
o way to explain a natural event or phenomenon based on observation and evidences
æ SUMMARY:
o Cell theory explains the function and importance of cell to life
o Scientific idea that states that all living things are made up of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms
æ IMPORTANCE: why do we need to know the idea of existence of cells:
o Make medicine – medical advancements are from study of cells
o Be more aware
o Cells are everywhere
Cells
- Like a factory: makes sugars and proteins
- Basing on the illustration – what are the
Specific functions of a cell:
a. Cells make biomolecules to be use
by body to stay alive

PARTS OF CELLS //// ORGANELLES

Cell wall / plasma membrane Help protect the cells / covering of cell
Surrounds the entire part of the cell
CYTOPLASM Big space – where all other cell
parts will be found
Vesicles For transport of materials
Nucleolus Central region of cells
Job: build ribosomes
Nucleus Controls the cell thru genetic info
Contains the DNA and RNA
Golgi Apparatus Mail man
Packages the proteins
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Site where proteins are made
With ribosomes (kaya rough)
Ribosomes For eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
For protein synthesis
Chloroplasts / plastids Make sugar thru photosynthesis [[Convert light energy  Chemical energy]]
Mitochondria Powerhouse of the cell
ATP thru cellular respiration
Cells – Make biomolecules to keep your body alive
Organelles – organs of cell
CELL STRUCTURE ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
Energy transfer Protein production Storage and recycling of Support and movement
Major role of cell materials
Mitochondria Nucleus (blueprint/instructions) VACUOLE CELL MEMBRANE
Creates ATP Stores DNA which carries the Stores various substances Thin, flexible and selectively
Generates energy needed by genetic code for protein - Water, nutrients, permeable barrier – surrounds
cells synthesis waste products the cell
- Mostly seen in plants
Have lots of substances to have
ATP – energy currency in cell (lot more) selectively permeable membrane –
small can pass ::: big cannot pass

Chloroplasts ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM CELL WALL

Converts light energy into (RER and SER – both Rigid protective layers
chemical energy (glucose) in contribute to PROTEIN Surrounds the cell membrane
producers / plant cells MODIFICATION) of plants and other organisms

RER – with ribosomes

NUCLEUS has DNA Involved in protein synthesis CYTOSKELETON
** DNA will dictate what kind and initial folding LYSOSOME Structure that helps maintain
of protein to be created by Contains enzyme that breaks the shape and internal
body SER down different types of waste organization
** stored info  converted to No ribosomes attached materials
mRNA Involved in lipid synthesis - Old and damaged
** mRNA will go out of the cell parts; bacteria;
nucleus to be read by RIBOSOMES large molecules
ribosomes Helps in protein synthesis
** Amino acids will be
assembled in ribosomes 
protein creation GOLGI APPARATUS CILIA and FLAGELLA
Modify the protein  pack Hair-like structures that
protein into vesicles extends from the surface of a
Modifies, sorts, packages cell for MOVEMENT
proteins received from ER
into vesicles CILIA – shorter – more in # -
(looks like flat stacks of hairlike
structures) FLAGELLA – longer – fewer –
whiplike structure
TYPES OF CELLS ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE – based on the presence or absence of a nucleus
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
- Ex. Bacteria (E. coli) - have unique characteristics - EU (true) + ARYOTIC (nucleus)
- PRO – before + ARYOTIC – nucleus
- (+) nucleus
- Smaller than eukaryotes
- No nucleus - Larger than prokaryotes
- No membrane bound organelles (only ribosomes) - Can be unicellular or multicellular
- Unicellular
- DNA – single strand and
Circular (less complex) Good Bacteria
1. Probiotics – fermented foods (yogurt, kimchi) Antibacterial soap should
Bacteria – can make a person sick 2. Oral microbiomes not be used in the
1. Flesh eating 3. Urogenital genitourinary tract – it can
2. Staph infection 4. Bioaugmentation (oil spill – bacteria engulf/eat oil)
3. Meningitis 5. Biostimulation kill the good bacteria present
4. Pneumonia in your body that can help
Good Virus fight diseases.
1. Skin microbiome
2. Digestive track biome
 5. Tuberculosis
6. Cholera
7. Dysentery / diarrhea

PROKARYTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

z (-) nucleus z (+) nucleus
z (-) membrane-bound organelles (just RIBOSOMES) z Organism: Eukaryotes
z DNA floats around inside the cells  All eukaryotes = multicellular organisms
z Organism: Prokaryotes  Animals; plants; fungi; protists
 All prokaryotes = unicellular (single celled  CAN BE SINGLE CELLED or
organisms) UNICELLULAR or MULTICELLULAR
 Examples: Bacteria z Have multiple chromosomes – composed of DNA and
Archaea protein
z Chromosomes – protected within the nucleus
z With organelles – or membrane-bound structures
z Smaller vs eukaryotic cells  Organelles – allow eukaryotic cells to be
z DNA or genetic material of prokaryotic cells form a more specialized and more functions than
single large circle that coils up on itself prokaryotic cells
 DNA Location: main part of the cell

COMMON FEATURES
Y (+) Plasma membrane or cell membrane – phospholipid layer – surrounds and protects the cell from the outside environment
Y (+) ribosomes – non-membrane bound organelles – site of protein synthesis
Y (+) cytoplasm – all contents of the cell inside the cell membrane – NOT INCLUDING THE NUCLEUS
Y (+) DNA

PLANT CELL FUNGAL CELL

Plasmodesmata Channel between cells Spitzenkorper Growth center of fungal cells
Chloroplasts Converts light energy  chemical enerby Actin Support structure of fungal cells
vacuole Large vacuoles for plants Pore For the movement of ribosomes, mitochondria, or nuclei
Cell wall Protection of plant cell Cell wall Made up of CHITIN

ACTIVITY: BUILD A MEMBRANE CHALLENGE. (Discussion

incorporated)
https://biomanbio.com/HTML5GamesandLabs/Cellgames/
celldefensehtml5page.html
 Sugar, (-) and (+) ions – cannot pass thru
CELL MEMBRANE o Ions – charged particles – cannot pass thru
¥ Aka plasma membrane o Sugar – need by body – cannot pass thru – why: it is
o Cell membrane vs Plasma membrane:::: LARGE – needs a channel protein
 Cell membrane – outer covering of the entire
cell CHANNEL PROTEIN molecule (passive transport)
 Plasma membrane – outer covering of the µ Acts like a tunnel or channel so that ions can travel thru the other
cell and organelles (membrane-bound side
organelles === seen in eukaryotic cells) µ Allows transport of substance across a membrane BUT it can only
¥ Cell membrane can heal itself transport the substance until there are EQUAL AMOUNTS OF IT
¥ All living cells depend on plasma membrane to regulate what ON BOTH SIDES of the membrane
comes in and out of cells – no plasma – no homeostasis = death o Movement of substance: from higher to lower
¥ Semi-permeable membrane / selectively permeable concentration = substances, molecules and ions like to
o Importance: cell can regulate what enters and leaves to spread out into available space
that it can maintain homeostasis
o Nonpolar and small molecules pass thru most easily FACILITATED DIFFUSION
o CO2 / O2 - passes thru easily === why? It is µ Movement: from high to low concentration = DIFFUSION
NONPOLAR and SMALL µ Movement of substances from hi to low that happens thru a
 Nonpolar = molecule does not have charged channel protein = FACILIATATED DIFFUSION
ends µ Channel proteins facilitate or help diffusion across the membrane
o Sugar – large and polar = cannot pass thru the bilayer
 Polar – ends have partial charges = e- are not CELLS – SOMETIMES NEED: high concentration of some and low
shared equally between atoms in the concentration of others
molecule  making some atoms a bit more µ A cell cannot always get the right concentration of a substance by
negative and others a bit more positive doing diffusion
o (-) Ion and (+) ion = cannot pass thru the layer µ If a cell wants to move a substance from LOW TO HIGH = IT
NEEDS ENERGY TO PUMP THE SUBSTANCE AGAINSTS
Phospholipids ITS CONCENTRATION GRADIENT (going against the flow
µ Made up of: kasi – kaya it needs power!)
o 1 phosphate head + 2 fatty acid tails
µ Head: hydrophilic (water loving) - made up of phosphate ACTIVE TRANSPORT
µ Tail: hydrophobic (water fearing) – made up of fatty acid µ Movement of substances FROM LOW TO HIGH
µ Make a phospholipid BILAYER = heads face out toward water + CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
tails facing each other µ Use of: CARRIER PROTEINS + ATP (cell energy)
µ Oil mix with water – oil is hydrophobic – does not mix ==== µ When (+) ions is at the pump entry – ATP will move in also (for
HYDROPHOBIC – sides are opposite of each other energy)
o Oil Can orient automatically if placed in water o ATP – opens the channel protein to let substances in
 Hydrophilic – orient itself towards to water from an area of low to high concentration gradient
 Hydrophobic – orient itself away from water
and towards to oil
µ Phospholipid bilayer – can heal itself CARBOHYDRATE
From GLYCOPROTEINS – glyco from glucose meaning: sugar
and Protein macromolecule
CHOLESTEROL o Reason why people who undergo organ transplants –
µ Helps to stabilize the membrane suppress their immune system so that their cells will not
µ Makes the membrane not too fluid nor too solid attack the donated organ - may have a different
µ Old people cannot digest cholesterol  build up  heart problems glycoprotein marker – useless if the body attack the
µ Not all cholesterol are bad = they are also a component of the organ = so suppress immune system  patient is
cell/plasma membrane susceptible to sickness
µ Under the lipid category = FAT µ Acts like identification badges (can identify own cell vs attacking
pathogens or invader cells)
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY µ Cells have different membrane carbohydrate to do different jobs
Carbon and Oxygen – allowed to pass thru == this helps cells to get organized into the right places to get their
o Why: they are small ; gases and NONPOLAR jobs done.
MOLECULES µ Immune system: uses carbs to recognize that your cells belong to
 It does not have a charge you and that they are not viruses, bacteria, etc that is attacking your
 FA tail is not polar = gas can pass thru the body (immune system – kills foreign invaders like virus, bacteria)
semipermeable membrane

EQUILIBRIUM
- Material outside the cell and water is EQUAL to the inside of the cell  STABLE
- Stability of substance in and out of the cell – possible because of the cell membrane
- Cell membrane – membrane of the cell

EGG OSMOSIS
- Hard Egg shell removed – fascia is still there
- Hypotonic solution – lower concentration compared to the cell’s inside environment
o Example: water – low solute
- Hypertonic solution – higher concentration compared to the cell’s inside environment
o Example: water with salt – high in solute
 o Drinking salt water / sea water = dehydration
- Egg experiment:
o Placing of egg in vinegar to dissolve egg shell with calcium carbonate CaCO3 – dissolve hard shell – bubble
formation – Carbon dioxide bubble

OSMOSIS
- Experiment: Hypertonic and hypotonic
- Egg A – hypotonic (water) == increase 103% of weight – water can enter cell – water enters the cell
- Egg B – hypertonic (sugar corn syrup + water) == decrease 57% of weight – water leaves the cell

EGG EXPERIMENT :::

If no equilibrium: cells if placed in hypotonic solution – cells will burst because of too much absorption of water :::: cells in
hypertonic solution -
o Cells cannot function properly – equilibrium is important to maintain - so that there will be no NET MOVEMENT
in the cell
*** TONICITY – isotonic (same concentration extra/intracellular space) – hypertonic (more solute vs solvent) – hypotonic
solutions(few solute vs solvent)

OSMOSIS
z Diffusion of WATER across a membrane because of different concentration
z Types:
HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC ISOTONIC
ø Environment outside the cell ø Environment outside the cell ø Inside and outside environment
has a LOWER concentration of has HIGHER concentration of of the cell are equal
dissolved material inside the cell dissolved material vs the inside ø Water flows in both directions
ø Cell + hypotonic solution  of the cell (move in and out) BUT OF
water moves INTO the cell  ø Cell + hypertonic solution  EQUAL AMOUNTS
SWELLING of cell  can BURST water moves OUT of the cell 
shrink or shrivel
Real life example of osmosis:
1. contact lens solution – same tonicity with eyes
2. fresh water fish vs salt water fish – fish can regulate the entry and exit of solute from their cell
OSMOREGULATION – process of regulating or making the solutions in the body same with the tonicity in the
environment so that there will be NO NET MOVEMENT OF WATER
o Organisms in hypotonic environment – need way to prevent their cells from taking in too much water by osmosis
 Fresh water and salt water fish – have ability to adjust the osmotic pressure in the water around
them
 Fresh water regulated the amount of water going in and out of their water – drink less water and
produce diluted urine ==== if placed in salt water  take in too much water  lyse cells 
death
3. Raisins – or any dried foods – put a lot of solute so that all the water will come out of the food === can preserve the food
4. Put salt in fields to kill the snails and slugs – pests in fields
5. IV (Intravenous) fluid – isotonic IV fluid with solute to replenish nutrients for cells
TRUE OR FALSE:
1. Active transport goes against the concentration gradient. T
2. Diffusion is an example of passive transport – T
3. Water’s movement across a membrane is known as facilitated diffusion – F – osmosis
4. If the surrounding solution has a higher solute concentration that nth intracellular environment, the solution is hypotonic-
F- hypertonic
5. Plant cells plasmolyze when placed in a hypertonic solution – T

Plant cell – larger vacuole – can store more water jojojo

PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- Low to high – against its concentration gradient
 - Requires a cell to use its energy to move molecules
from L to H
- Bulk transports :::: examples are endocytosis and
exocytosis. ::::::::: small pump transports allow ion
transport
1. Facilitated diffusion 1. Endocytosis
- Decrease solute – decrease concentration gradient - Cyto – means cell + ENDO – go in the cell
- Uses the cell’s channel protein to transport of - Cell can absorb molecules outside of the cell by
molecules across the membrane engulfing or taking them in
- Real life example: glucose going inside the cell
A> PINOCYTOSIS
- Transport of LIQUID materials into the cell
- For FLUIDS that the cell wants to take in
- Cell membrane sinks in  fluid material sinks
inward  membrane pinches off (use of energy
in this movement)
2. Diffusion
- High to Low concentration B> PHAGOCYTOSIS
- Diffusion until equilibrium is reached _ Transport of SOLID materials into the cell
Air – perfume - smell difuses _ Cell eating
soda  flat  CO2 went out _ Large particles are surrounded – cell
Tea – tea substances diffuse in water extends the plasma membrane and engulfs
Dye the particle  result to a MEMBRANE-
breathing in O2 BOUND PACKAGE MATERIAL (uses ATP
breathe out CO2 energy)
kidneys – regulate the amount of solute and solvent in body Example: macrophages – engulfed and lock
metal – heat conduction Phagosome
Balloon deflate – He spreads out
c> RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Molecules (like LIPIDS – cholesterol) – bind to
receptors  vesicle formation  sinks  lysosome
+ digestive enzyme joins the vesicle  release of
material from receptor  break into smaller pieces
 pass thru out of membrane  into the cytosol
(receptor is free again – for reuse or recycle of the
receptors)

LYSOSOMES – WBC have a lot of lysosomes – to take in

bacteria via PHAGOCYTOSIS and digest it to be absorbed by
the body

Use of VESICLES TO GET MATERIAL IN

Cell needs to release waste materials = exocytosis

3. Osmosis 2. Exocytosis
- Diffusion of WATER across a membrane because of - Exo – go out of cell
different concentration - exocytosis enables the cell to pass materials out of the
cell (reverse of endocytosis)
3 Na-K Pump – aka PUMP TRANSPORT
Inside of cell more (-) :::: outside in more (+)
(-) have amino acids and K
(+) have Na

When Phosphate group binds  from open facing bottom of

cell – protein changes its shape  orientation changes (from
open to close)  more Na outside the cell

Electrochemical gradient of the cell

 - Not maintained = why? Example: Neuron or nerve cell
in the nervous system – for brain to produce ACTION
POTENTIALS or ELECTRIC CHARGE – there should be
a change in electro chemical gradient – for cell to do
that – Na pump in with help of protein channels
- This is not a normal condition of the cell – it needs to
pump out the Na that it let it before
- If this does not happen – disrupted nervous
functioning – like electric shock in your system –
twitching

Channel protein vs carrier protein: channel proteins are always open vs Carrier proteins need stimuli

CELL TRANSPORT: Activity

Membrane Proteins: Specificity

¥ Cell membranes and membrane proteins work together  selectively permeable membrane for the cell.
¥ Transport proteins are integral trans-membrane proteins ::::: shaped like tubes
o Allows specific molecules to be transported in and out of a cell
o Size, charge, shape: characteristics of a molecule that can be used to distinguish it from other molecules
¥ The plasma membrane is held together by polar and nonpolar interactions in a polar solvent or water – IT WOULD TURN
INSIE OUT  phospholipid heads on the inside and tails on the outside
¥ The Fluid Mosaic Model depicts the biological nature of the plasma membrane, with a fluid phospholipid bilayer and a
mosaic of proteins.

Membrane transport proteins are thought to be essential for cells to function properly. Despite this, cells lacked
membrane transport proteins at a time in the past. If a cell could easily move parts of its plasma membrane, how
could a cell get material into itself without using a transport protein?
Ion channels
4 Are specific – can only transport one type of ion
5 Why does a cell might want a specific protein channel allowed to transport one type of molecule – it allows the cell to
control what goes in and out
6 Ions or polar molecules travel thru the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane – reason: hydrophobic lipids repel them
7 A channel protein DOES NOT REQUIRE A STIMULUS to open a gate to allow certain molecules and ions to pass thru it
8 Facilitated diffusion is an example of passive transport if transport proteins are use because the solute moves down the
concentration gradient

What is one reason aquaporins (water channel proteins) need to allow water to diffuse across the cell membrane
at a very fast rate?

CAN ANY MOLECULE MOVE FREELY THRU THE CELL MEMBRANE?

9 The cell regulates most molecules that pass through the cell membrane.
10 If a molecule is charged or very big, it won't make it through the cell membrane on its own.
11 However, small, non-charged molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, can pass through the
cell membrane freely.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
12 Cell membrane – semipermeable – does not allow everything to pass thru
13 Movement of molecules from extracellular space to intracellular space without the use of energy
a. Examples: oxygen, steroids
b. Ions or polar molecules cannot travel thru the lipid bilayer of CM because? Hydrophobic lipids repel them
14 Special transport proteins – needed to move or transport proteins to move across the cell membrane
a. Others: need energy / ATP
15 Examples:
1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION – molecule movement from high to low
 i.Molecules flow down their concentration gradient – no input of energy
ii.SMALL AND NONPOLAR/UNCHARGED molecules can freely diffuse across a cell membrane
iii.Simply flow thru the cell membrane – no ATP
iv. Oxygen – can freely diffuse across a cell membrane = diffuses out of air sacs in the lungs going thru the
bloodstream because OXYGEN IS MORE CONCENTRATED IN THE LUNGS THAN IN THE BLOOD
1. Movement of oxygen: high (lungs) to low (blood)
v. Carbon dioxide – exhaled – moves opposite – from high (blood) to low (lungs)

2.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
vi. Passive transport with the use of membrane proteins
vii. SPECIAL PROTEINS
1. Aka Channel proteins or carrier proteins
2. Attached to the cell membrane
3. Go thru the cell membrane from inside of the cell to the outside
CHANNEL PROTEINS
16 Provide an open channel or passageway thru the cell membrane for molecules to move across
17 Allow the diffusion of IONS (small charged atoms) – makes it difficult to cross the cell membrane without assistance
18 Are specific for the molecule they transport
a. Example: Na ion – crosses the membrane thru a channel protein specific for sodium ions.

CARRIER PROTEINS
19 Bind and carry the molecules across the cell membrane
20 Proteins bind a molecule on one side of the membrane  change the shape as they carry the molecule across the
membrane  the molecule will be deposited on the other side of the membrane
21 No energy is required

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
22 Energy is needed to move molecules against their concentration gradient (low to high concentration)
23 Opposite of diffusion
24 As molecules move against their concentration gradient – ACTIVE TRANSPORT CANNOT OCCUR WITHOUT ASSISTANCE
a. Carrier protein
i. Aka PUMPS – they use energy to pump the molecules across the membrane
b. Example: Nerve cells (neurons) – cant send messages unless it is with carrier proteins or pumps to move the molecules
1. Na-K pump
i. Uses ATP = move 3 Na + 2 K – ATP to change the protein shape (ATP  ADP)
ii. Moves Na ions out of cell + K ions into the cell = areas where these ions are already highly concentrated
25 Ions or polar molecules – cannot pass thru bilayer because? Hydrophobic lipids repel ions

Many bacteria use passive transport to get food molecules from the things they grow in. How can a bacterium ensure that there is always a
concentration gradient that will drive passive transport of food molecules into its cell?

PASSIVE DIFFUSION:
26 Allows steroid hormone and oxygen
27 Selective permeability – allow molecules to pass thru without assistance
28 Molecules can pass thru a semi-permeable membrane – wil ldiffuse until they reach the same concentration on either side of the
membrane ==== EQUILIBRIUM STATE
PASSIVE TRANSPORT INTO THE CELLS – driven by a concentration gradient   A greater concentration of molecules on one side of the
membrane ===== if greater concentration of oxygen molecules on inside of the membrane = movement of oxygen across a cell membrane =
towards the outside of the cell

Each individual molecule diffuses at the same rate as others of its kind.
Why does diffusion lead to equal concentrations of a substance on either side of a semi-permeable membrane instead of keeping the concentrations the same?

DIFFUSION
29 Movement of molecules from HIGH TO LOW concentration gradient
a. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT: difference in the concentrations of ION CHANNELS
the molecules in the two areas - Na, K, Ca, Cl – important for many cell
30 Will continue until the gradient is eliminated functions
31 End result: equal concentration or equilibrium of molecules on both sides of o Are charged or polar – do not
membrane diffuse thru the membrane
o Use of ion channel protein = ions
are protected from the hydrophobic
FACILITITED DIFFUSION interior of the membrane
32 Diffusion of solutes thru TRANSPORT PROTEINS in the cell membrane - Allow the formation of concentration gradient
between extracellular fluid and cytosol
33 A type of PASSIVE TRANSPORT – even thou facilitated diffusion involves - Are very speciric – allow only certain ions to
transport proteins = it is still a passive transport = why? Movement of molecule fgo thru the cell membrane
is from HIGH TO LOW concentration gradient - Some ion channels are always open – some are
gated
DUE TO HYDROPHOBIC NATURE OF CELL MEMBRANE o Gated ion channels – can be open
34 Polar molecules / IONS == CANNOT GO IN THE CELL  use of transport or close in response to different
proteins types of stimuli (electrical or
35 TRANSPORT PROTEINS – allows ions to diffuse across the membrane chemical signals)
a. Types of transport proteins in Facilitated Diffusion

Gated channel proteins Channel proteins Carrier proteins

1. A transport protein the opens a gate – 5. acts like a PORE – let water molecules and 8. A transport protein that is specific for an
allow molecule to pass thru the cell small ions go in quickly ion or molecule or group of substances
membrane 6. AQUAPORINS – water channel proteins – 9. Carry the ion or molecule across the
2. Have a binding site that is specific for a allow water to diffuse across membrane at membrane by: CHANGING THE SHAPE
given molecule or ion FAST RATE AFTER THE BINDING OF THE ION OR
3. Stimulus – opens or shuts the gate 7.ION CHANNEL PROTEIN – allows ions to MOLECULE
(chemical or electrical signals, diffuse across the membrane 10. Involved in passive and active transport
temperature, mechanical force) 11. Glucose molecules = too big to diffuse
4. Example: Na gated channel of nerve easily – moved by using carrier proteins to
cell – stimulated by chemical signal  move glucose across a cell membrane –
open gates  allow Na ions into the IMPORTANT because cells depends on
cell glucose for energy

OSMOSIS
36 Water vs sugar water: Sugar water – hypertonic. Sugar water: sugar – solute + water – solvent = solution
37 HOW IS OSMOSIS HARMFUL TO ORGANISMS:
a. Fresh water fish in salt water – take in excess water  lyse  die
b. Use of table salt to kill slugs and snails

38 Diffusion of water molecules across the selectively permeable cell membrane from an area of HIGH TO LOW concentration
39 Water movement in and out of a cell – by osmosis
40 Hypertonic solution = higher concentration of solution vs cytosol of cell  water moves out of cell

RBC and solutions:

RBC – does not have a rigid wall
41 Hypotonic solution: can swell and LYSE (burst) -- cell with cell wall = will swell until cell id frim  tough cell wall prevents
more water from entering the cell
42 Hypertonic solution : can shrink / shrivel – lose of water -- cell with cell wall = will lose water too
a. Plasma membrane will be pulled away from the cell wall  Shrivel  die ===== PLAMSOLYSIS
43 Isotonic solution: plant cells tend to do best in an isotonic environment

OSMOTIC PRESSUE
44 Main cause of support in many plants
 45 Water moves into a cell by osmosis  pressure build up in the cell == with a cell wall – wall will help maintain the cell’s
water balance
a. Plant cells + hypotonic solution: water going in the cell will increase pressure until the pressure will prevent more
water from coming in the cell  plant cell is TURGID

CONTROLLING OSMOSIS
46 Organisms in hypotonic environment – need way to prevent their cells from taking in too much water by osmosis
a. Fresh water and salt water fish – have ability to adjust the osmotic pressure in the water around them
i. Fresh water regulated the amount of water going in and out of their water – drink less water and produce
diluted urine ==== if placed in salt water  take in too much water  lyse cells  death
47 Having a CONTRACTILE VACUOLE – it removes excess water from a cell
a. Fresh water protists PARAMECIUM – have contractile vacuoles – vacuole is surrounded by several canals to
absorb water from cytoplasm thru osmosis  canals filled with water  water is pumped into the vacuole – full
vacuole  push water out of the cell thru a pore (contractile vacuole – star like structure in a paramecium)
i. Good to know: athletes – do. Not drink plain water – they drink water with added slats – to replace loss
salt from sweating  drinking plain water = lead to salt imbalance in their bodies

TYPE OF TRANSPORT SHORT DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES TYPES OF MATERIALS

TRANSPORTED
PASSIVE TRANSPORT Transport of molecules from a OSMOSIS Water
high to low concentration - The diffusion of Hypotonic – movement of
gradient and does not require WATER across a cell water into the cell that can
energy or ATP. membrane of cause lyse or bursting of cell if
different too much water intake
concentration
Hypertonic – movement of
water out of the cell that can
cause the cell to shrink or
shrivel which can also cause
cell death

Isotonic – water flows in and

out or in both directions with
equal amounts/concentration
 SIMPLE DIFFUSION Small molecules
- Movement of molecules from high to low Uncharged/unipolar
concentration without the use of energy molecules
- Will continue to happen if equilibrium or equal - Ex: Oxygen
concentration is reached on both sides of the cell - Ex: Carbon dioxide
membrane

FACILITATED DIFFUSION Sodium ions thru a sodium

- Movement of molecules that requires TRANSPORT specific channel protein
PROTEINS to pass thru the cell membrane without
the use of energy Sodium gated channel of
- Some require ion channels so that polar molecules nerve cell for sodium
can pass thru the cell membrane (stimulated by chemical
- Classified as passive transport because: movement of signal to open gates so the Na
material is from high to low concentration ions can get into the cell
membrane)

Large molecules like

GLUCOSE – involves both
active and passive diffusion –
glucose is too big to diffuse
easily  use of carrier
proteins to move glucose
across a cell membrane
ACTIVE TRANSPORT Transport of molecules or Na-K pump Na-K pump – movement of 3
substances from a low to high Na ions out of the cell and 2 K
concentration gradient ions into the cell on high
- Because it is moving concentrated areas
against its
concentration Messages sent by neurons
gradient, it requires with the use of carrier
energy ang proteins or pumps to move
assistance from the molecules
carrier proteins to
move across the
membrane

EXPERIMENT: SOAP BUBBLES vs PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYERS

Cell membrane
µ Protects the cell from the environment
µ Allow the cell to obtain materials it needs and get rids of waste molecules
µ Main structure: bilayer of phospholipid molecules
Explain why a phospholipid bilayer self-assembles when phospholipids are surrounded by water
A phospholipid bilayer self-assembles when exposed to water because they have hydrophilic/water loving or polar and hydrophobic
parts or properties . The hydrophobic tails are not soluble in water so they arrange themselves in the inner membrane while the
hydrophilic heads are arranged that they can come in contact with water.
- The head has a phosphate group that is attracted to water
- The tails are made up of fatty acids that is not compatible with water
- The cell membrane is exposed to a water environment and the inside of the cell is cytosol which is also water = so the
phosphate heads or hydrophilic heads face the watery environment while the tiles hide away from water between the
layers of the head because they are hydrophobic or fear water.

BUBBLE SOAP PROPERTIES and PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER

Bubble soap
Bubble – made up of detergent bilayer – not surrounded by water on each side – there is air in between on either side
o Between the detergent (lipid) layers = thin layer of water
o Film of detergent of bubble – reverse of a phospholipid bilayer = behaves the same way as a phospholipid bilayer

draw a model of the detergent bilayer that forms the bubble film. Label the location of water and air.

The hydrophilic (water-

loving) heads of the soap
AIR molecules point inward
toward the water layer,
and
the hydrophobic (water-
hating) tails of the soap
molecule point to the
outside of the film, in
contact with the air
WATER

https://thetrendyscienceteacher.com/2022/09/21/cell-membrane-bubble-lab-2/

METHODOLOGY:
SET UP A:

Mist workstation with water or wipe it with damp cloth

Place end of straw or pipette into bubble solution

Blow a bubble on the workstation – keeping the straw close to the workstation as you blow so that the
bubble will stick to the table
 Submerge entire straw or pipette in the bubble solution

Gently roll the straw across the bubble surface

Gently bounce the straw on the surface of the bubble

Record how much you can move the straw in the

bubble on the workstation
Did the bubble pop as soon as the straw
touched it?

Expt 2

Mist workstation with water or wipe it with damp cloth

Place end of straw or pipette into bubble solution

Blow a bubble on the workstation – keeping the straw close to the workstation as you blow so that the
bubble will stick to the table
Expt 3

Cut a 30cm piece of thread or kite string

Submerge the thread or kite string in the bubble solution

Mist workstation with water or wipe it with damp cloth

Blow a bubble on the workstation – keeping the straw close to the workstation as you blow so that the
bubble will stick to the table
 Slide the wet string underneath the bubble until the string reaches the middle of the bubble

Expt 4

Mist workstation with water or wipe it with damp cloth

Blow two roughly 8 cm in diameter bubbles on the workstation side by side –

keeping the straw close to the workstation as you blow so that the bubble will stick
to the table

Dip the straw into the bubble solution

 Stick the straw into the wall between the TWO bubbles and try
to merge the bubbles together

Expt 5

Using 4 bendable straws, create a 10 x 10 cm square bubble frame by connecting

the four straws together

Make a loop by using a cotton thread – tie to secure the loop and cut the ends of the knot

Transfer some bubble solution into a shallow pan that can fit the square
bubble frame
 Take the square bubble frame and slowly dip it into the shallow pan of the bubble solution

Make a thin film of bubble solution in the bubble frame by dipping it slowly into the bubble
solution and tilting the frame towards you.

Gently lay the cotton thread loop into the bubble film surface being extra careful so that
you will not pop the bubble with the loose ends of the thread

Using a pencil – carefully break the Poke your finger or pencil

bubble film inside the loop of the thru the center of the loop
cotton thread

Slowly tilt the bubble frame

back and forth
Observe and record on how the loop
of the cotton thread responds

Observe and record if the

thread loop drifts across
the film

Properties of cell membrane What does this mean? What is your evidence in you bubble model?
Cell membranes are flexible The cell membrane has a fluid-mosaic model – the Photo ng set up 1 lalagay here:
(fluid) membrane is made of pattern of many small molecules Set-up number A shows that cell membranes are
that are moving around and shift position as it moves. flexible and fluid. The bubble did not pop when the
Set up a/1 wet straw was rolled and bounced on the bubble.
The lipid bilayer is a fluid arrangement within which the
molecules can move freely thru the plane of the bilayer. The bubble film, like the cell membrane, is flexible.
They can organize themselves into almost any shape It will move if a stimuli (straw movement)
without losing the contacts of the heads and tails.
Plasma membrane is very fluid and constantly
moves around like soap bubble.

Cell membranes have the ability Like the bubble layer, cell membranes can repair small Photo of set up 2
to self-seal – to fix small tears in tears in the lipid bilayer
their structure
The cell membrane is not a solid, it has a fluid, flexible
nature. The two layers of many molecules are attracted
to each other making the cell membrane have the ability
to self-seal or fix small tears in their structure
 hydrophobic tails allow CM to repair small breaks in the
bilayer because its hydrophobic nature causes the
phospholipid molecules to group again together to form
the bilayer in a way that the tails can avoid contact with
Set up b/2 the water of the environment
Cell membranes contain Small molecules like water can move into the cell thru Photo ng set up 5 Substance with the same
molecules other than small spaces in the phospholipid bilayer. Large molecules material that makes up the bubble can pass thru it.
phospholipids cannot pass thru because of nonpolar tails in the interior The string had a soapy solution on it so it can pass
of the membrane. The only way for the large molecules
thru the bubble membrane. If it is dry, it will pop
to pass thru is thru channels created by protein molecules
Set up E/5 in the membrane. The proteins form a polar tunnel thru the bubble membrane. The string also served as
which the molecules can pass thru. the channel protein that can help polar substances
to pass thru the cell membrane.
The membrane surrounding the organelles also have a
phospholipid bilayer like the one found in the outer
plasma membrane

Cell membranes are selectively Membrane proteins drift across the lipid bilayer and form Photo ng set up 4
permeable a passageway for large or charged molecules to pass thru.

the bubble membrane only separates the right and left

sides of the bubble, the cell’s plasma membrane separates
the interior and exterior of a cell. In both cases, the
Set 4/d membranes are semipermeable, meaning that they allow
certain substances to pass through while others can’t.

the straw represents the channels that allows certain

substances or molecules to get in and out of the cell
Cells can split into new cells; Cells can split because from the cell theory, cells can only photo ng bubble where you slid the string sa ilalim
vesicles can be broken off come from cells. In this set up, the string divided the ng bubble
membrane-bound organelles bubble into two.
and can fuse with other
Vesicles are also made up of phospholipids which means
membrane-bound structures that they can break off and fuse with other membranous
set 3/c material. They serve as small transport contains that can
move substances in the cell to the cell membrane.
Vesicles are made from parts of the cell membrane that is
why the vesicles can also fuse with the cell membrane and
release substances/materials in the cell

The Sodium-Potassium Pump

Active transport is the energy-requiring process of pumping molecules and ions across membranes
"uphill" - against a concentration gradient.

To move these molecules against their concentration gradient, a carrier protein is needed.
Carrier proteins can work with a concentration gradient (during passive transport), but some carrier
proteins can move solutes against the concentration gradient (from low concentration to high
concentration), with an input of energy.
In active transport, as carrier proteins are used to move materials against their concentration
gradient, these proteins are known as pumps. As in other types of cellular activities, ATP supplies the
energy for most active transport.

One way ATP powers active transport is by transferring a phosphate group directly to a carrier
protein. This may cause the carrier protein to change its shape, which moves the molecule or ion to
the other side of the membrane.

An example of this type of active transport system, as shown in Figure below, is the sodium-
potassium pump, which exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions across the plasma membrane of
animal cells

The sodium-potassium pump system moves sodium and potassium ions against large concentration
gradients. It moves two potassium ions into the cell where potassium levels are high, and pumps
three sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid.

As is shown in Figure above, three sodium ions bind with the protein pump inside the cell. The
carrier protein then gets energy from ATP and changes shape. In doing so, it pumps the three
sodium ions out of the cell. At that point, two potassium ions from outside the cell bind to the protein
pump. The potassium ions are then transported into the cell, and the process repeats. The sodium-
potassium pump is found in the plasma membrane of almost every human cell and is common to all
cellular life. It helps maintain cell potential and regulates cellular volume.

The Electrochemical Gradient

The active transport of ions across the membrane causes an electrical gradient to build up across the
plasma membrane. The number of positively charged ions outside the cell is greater than the number
of positively charged ions in the cytosol. This results in a relatively negative charge on the inside of
the membrane, and a positive charge on the outside. This difference in charges causes a voltage
across the membrane. Voltage is electrical potential energy that is caused by a separation of opposite
charges, in this case across the membrane. The voltage across a membrane is called membrane
potential. Membrane potential is very important for the conduction of electrical impulses along
nerve cells.

Because the inside of the cell is negative compared to outside the cell, the membrane potential
favors the movement of positively charged ions (cations) into the cell, and the movement of negative
ions (anions) out of the cell. So, there are two forces that drive the diffusion of ions across the
plasma membrane—a chemical force (the ions' concentration gradient), and an electrical force (the
effect of the membrane potential on the ions’ movement). These two forces working together are
called an electrochemical gradient, and will be discussed in detail in "Nerve Cells" and "Nerve
Impulses" concepts.

Summary
 Active transport is the energy-requiring process of pumping molecules and ions across membranes
against a concentration gradient.
 The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport pump that exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions.
 1. Are there more sodium ions on the outside of cells or the inside?
2. Are there more potassium ions on the outside of cells or the inside?
3. Describe the role of ATP in active transport.
4. What happens after the pump is phosphorylated?
5. What happens after dephosphorylation?

Organisms that live in a hypotonic environment such as freshwater, need a way to prevent their
cells from taking in too much water by osmosis.

Freshwater and saltwater fish have the ability to adjust to the osmotic pressure in the water around
them. The Figure below explains what happens to a freshwater fish that is put in saltwater versus
freshwater.
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/2.12/primary/lesson/osmosis-
bio/#modality-title

 [Figure 4]

[Figure 5]

Freshwater fish regulate the amount of water going in and out of their bodies through several mechanisms like
drinking less water and producing dilute urine. If freshwater fish are put in saltwater, they lose water from their
bodies due to the hypertonic environment. Their cells shrivel and die.

Osmoregulation in Different Organisms

Different organisms exhibit different types of osmoregulation. Following are some osmoregulation processes in
different organisms:

Osmoregulation in Fish
Freshwater fish and marine fish osmoregulate in different ways. The environments which they have varying
levels of salinity, hence the process of osmoregulation is different.
  Osmoregulation in Freshwater Fish

Freshwater fishes are hypertonic to their surrounding environment, which means that the concentration of salt is
higher in their blood than their surrounding water.

They absorb a controlled amount of water through the mouth and the gill membranes. Due to this intake of
water, they produce large quantities of urine through which a lot of salt is lost. The salt is replaced with the help
of mitochondria-rich cells in the gills. These cells absorb salt into the blood from the surrounding water.

 Osmoregulation in Marine Fish

Compared to freshwater fish, marine fish face the opposite problem. They have a higher concentration of water
in their blood than their surrounding environment. Consequently, it results in the tendency to lose water and
absorb the salt. To get around this problem, marine fish drink large quantities of water and restrict urination.
Another additional energy expenditure also arises as these organisms actively need to expel salt from the body
(through the gills).