Chapter 4

Protocols

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 outline
 Rules & Network Protocols
 Network Protocols and Standards
 Protocol suites & Industry Standards
 Protocols in a layered architecture
 The OSI Model
 The TCP/IP Model
 Comparing OSI Model with TCP/IP Model

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 4.1. What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
req.
Hi
TCP connection
Got the reply.
time? Get http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/index.htm
2:00
<file>
time

Q: Other human protocol?

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 4.2. Network Protocols and Standards

➢ A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications

➢ A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated
➢ for instance, for one computer to send a message to another computer, the first
computer must perform the following general steps
✓ break the data into small sections called packets
✓ add addressing information to the packets identifying the source and destination
computers
✓ deliver the data to the network interface card for transmission over the network

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❑ the receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in reverse order
✓ accept the data from the NIC
✓ remove transmitting information that was added by the transmitting
computer
✓ reassemble the packets of data in to the original message
❑ the key elements of a protocol
✓ syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data
✓ semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
✓ timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent
❑ functions of protocols
✓ each device must perform the same steps the same way so that the data will
arrive and reassemble properly;
✓ if one device uses a protocol with different steps, the two devices will not
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 4.3. Protocol suites & Industry Standards

❑ the following are categories of functions that form the basis of protocols
✓ encapsulation
✓ segmentation and reassembly
✓ connection control
✓ addressing
✓ multiplexing
✓ transmission services
a) Encapsulation
• the inclusion of control information to data is called encapsulation. Each frame
contains not only data but also control information
• such control information falls into three categories: address (sender/receiver),
error-detecting code and protocol control (information about protocol functions)
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b) Segmentation (by the sender also called fragmentation) and reassembly (by the
receiver)
✓ a block of data for transmission is of some bounded size
✓ lower level protocols may need to break the data up into blocks of some
bounded size
✓ this process is called segmentation
✓ reasons for segmentation:
• the communication network may only accept blocks of data up to a certain
size
• error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame size; fewer bits
need to be retransmitted when a frame gets corrupted
• facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission facilities (for
example, without maximum block size, one station could monopolize a
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multipoint medium)
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c. Connection control
✓ two types of protocols (services)
connectionless service
• the packets are sent from one party to another with no need for
connection establishment or connection release
• the packets are not numbered, they may be delayed, lost, or arrive
out of sequence; there is no acknowledgement either
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol), one of the transport layer
protocols, is connectionless
• Application:
• Time sensitive traffic
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❑connection-oriented service
✓ in connection-oriented data transfer, a logical association or connection is
established between the communicating computers (devices)
✓ long sustained session
✓ orderly and timely delivery of packets, e.g., FTP
✓ TCP (Transport Control Protocol) is connection-oriented
✓ three phases are involved
• connection establishment (agreement to exchange data)
• data transfer (data and control information exchanged)
• connection termination (termination request) - by any of the two parties
✓ the key characteristics of connection-oriented data transfer is that sequencing is
used
✓ each side sequentially numbers the frames that it sends to the other side
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❑ because each side remembers that it is engaged in a logical connection, it can keep track of
both outgoing numbers, which it generates, and incoming numbers which are generated by
the other side
❑ sequencing supports three main functions
✓ ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in which they were sent, because
they may traverse different paths
✓ flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or rate of data that is sent by a
transmitting station
✓ error control: error control is implemented as two separate functions; error detection
and retransmission
• if an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame
• upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame in a specified reasonable
time, the sender retransmits the frame
• some protocols also employ error correction which enables the receiver not only to
detect errors but, in some cases, to correct them

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d) addressing
• a unique address is associated with each end-system in a configuration
(e.g. workstation, server) and each intermediate system (e.g. router)
• an example is an IP address, MAC addressing
e) multiplexing
• occurs when multiple connections share a single connection (multiple
access)
f)transmission services
• a variety of additional services can be provided
• priority: messages such as control messages may need to get through to
the destination station with minimum delay
• security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be invoked
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 4.4. Protocols in a layered architecture
• protocols that work together to provide a layer or layers of the model are known as a
protocol stack or suite, e.g. TCP/IP
• each layer handles a different part of the communications process and has its own
protocol
• Data Communication Standards
• standards are essential for interoperability
• data communication standards fall into two categories
• De facto standards: that have not been approved by an organized body; mostly set
by manufacturers
• De jure standards: those legislated by an officially recognized body such as:
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
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12 • Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 Network (Reference) Models
▪Consider an example of sending a letter
▪Hierarchy
▪there are three different activities at the sender
side and another three at the receiver’s side
▪the tasks must be done in the order given in the
hierarchy
▪Layers and Services
▪within a single machine, each layer uses the
services immediately below it and provides
services for the layer immediately above it
▪between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with layer x on another machine

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▪Why layering?
• reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
• standardizes interfaces (between layers)
• facilitates modular engineering (different teams work on
different modules)
• assures interoperable technology
• accelerates evolution of networking technology
• simplifies teaching and learning

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▪Two important network models or architectures
▪The ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
▪The TCP/IP Reference Model
The OSI Reference Model
• consists of 7 layers
• first step toward international standardization of the protocols
• was never fully implemented as a protocol stack, but a good
theoretical model
• Open – to connect open systems or systems that are open for
communication with other systems

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▪Principles to arrive at the 7 layers
➢ a layer should be created at different level of abstraction
➢ a layer should perform a well-defined function
➢ the function of each layer should be chosen towards defining internationally
standardized protocols
➢ the number of layers should be optimal
• large enough so that distinct functions should not be put together, and
• small enough so that the architecture does not become unwieldy

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 ▪OSI and TCP/IP Layers Correspondence

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 Data Encapsulation and Decapsulation in OSI model
 Each layer of OSI/TCP/IP add some control or management information on the data to be
sended. This is said to be Encapsulation.
 At the receiver side reverse process is done i.e. removing the header and getting the original
message at the application layer-Decapsulation
 Data created at 7th layer and goes to the next layer below. When layer accept data from it’s above
layer and passes it to next layer this is said to be “adjacent layer interaction”
 The data at each OSI layer is said to be PDU (protocol data unit)-both the data and additional
information(header and trailer ) and we call the data at 7th layer as L7 PDU, at 6th layer as L6
PDU, etc.…
 The data link layer is the only layer which add header and trailer
 The physical layer don’t have both header and trailer

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 Encapsulation and decapsulation using the OSI model

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 The OSI Model (Encapsulation)
Application
Application Data Data Application
Header of
Application
Application Application
Layer
Layer AH Data Layer

Presentation Presentation
Layer
PH AH Data Layer

Session Session
Layer SH PH AH Data Layer

Transport Transport
Layer TH SH PH AH Data Layer

Netw ork NH TH SH PH AH Data Netw ork

Layer Layer

Data Link Data Link

Layer DH NH TH SH PH AH Data Layer

Physical Physical
Layer Bits Layer

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 OSI Prep. by
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 The TCP/IP Reference Model
 TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
 used by ARPANET and its successor the Internet
 design goals
 the ability to connect multiple networks (internetworking) in a seamless way
 the network should be able to survive loss of subnet hardware, i.e., the connection
must remain intact as long as the source and destination machines are properly
functioning
 flexible architecture to accommodate requirements of different applications - ranging
from transferring files to real-time speech transmission
 has 4 (or 5 depending on how you see it) layers: Application, Transport, Internet
(Internetwork), Host-to-network (some split it into Physical and Data Link)
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 Encapsulation/Decapsulation in TCP/IP

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 TCP/IP Encapsulation
User data

Application
Application
Header User data

TCP
TCP Header Application data

IP TCP segment

IP Header TCP Header Application data

Ethernet
IP datagram
Driver
Ethernet Ethernet
Header
IP Header TCP Header Application data Trailer

Ethernet frame

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