P P Q P PQ P PQ TQ T: MA1453 - Discrete Mathematics Department of CSE, IT and ADS 2023-2024

MA1453 - Discrete Mathematics Department of CSE, IT and ADS 2023-2024
UNIT I LOGIC AND PROOFS

PART A
1. What are the contrapositive, the converse and the inverse of the conditional
statement, “If there is a rain, then I buy an umbrella”
Answer : Contrapositive:  q →  p
That is “If I don’t buy an umbrella, then there is no rain”
Converse: q → p
That is “If I buy an umbrella, then there is rain”
Inverse:  p →  q
That is “ If there is no rain ,then I will not buy an umbrella”
2. Construct the truth table P → Q
Answer :
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
3. Show that ( p ) → ( p → q ) is a tautology. [APR 2023]
Answer : ( p ) → ( p → q )  p  ( p  q )  ( p  p )  q  T  q  T
4. Write the truth table for the formula ( p → q )  (p → q ).
Answer :
p q p  q p → q p → q ( p → q )  ( p → q ).
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T F
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T
5. What are the negation of the statements x( x 2  x ) and x( x 2 = 2)?
(
Answer : The negation of x( x 2  x ) is  x( x 2  x ) )
 x ( x 2  x )
 x( x 2  x )
(
The negation of x( x 2 = 2)is  x( x 2 = 2) )
 x ( x 2 = 2)
 x( x 2  2)
6. Write an equivalent formula for P  ( Q  R ) which contains neither the
biconditional nor the conditional operators.
(
Answer : P  ( Q  R )  P  ( Q → R )  ( R → Q ) )
St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 1
 P  ( (  Q  R )  ( R  Q ) )
7. Write in symbolic form “If you work hard, then you will be rewarded”
[APR 2023]
Answer : Let P: ‘you work hard’ and Q: ‘you will be rewarded’
Symbolic Form: P → Q .
8. When do you say that two compound propositions are equivalent?
Answer : Two statements A and B are equivalent if and only if A  B is a tautology.
It is denoted by the symbol A  B which is read as “A is equivalence to B”
9. Prove that ( p  q )  ( p  q )  ( p  q )
Answer : ( p  q )  ( p → q )  ( q → p )
 ( p  q )  ( q  p )
 ( p  q )  ( p  p )  ( q  q )  ( p  q )
 ( p  q )  ( p  q )
10. Given P = {2,3,4,5,6} state the truth value of the statement
( x  P) ( x +3=10)
Answer : P = {2,3,4,5,6}, None of the values taken from the set P satisfies the
Equation ( x +3=10). Therefore, Truth value of the quantified statement is false.
11. Define Contradiction.
Answer : A propositional formula which is always false irrespective of the truth
values of the individual variables is a contradiction.
12. Express the statement, “some people who trust others are rewarded” in
symbolic form.
Answer : Let P ( x ) : x is a person ; T ( x ) : x trusts others ; R ( x ) : x is rewarded
Symbolic form: ( x )  P ( x )  T ( x )  R ( x )
13. Give the converse and the contrapositive of the implication “If it is raining,
then I get wet”. [NOV 2023]
Answer : P : It is raining ; Q : I get wet.
Q → P : (converse) if I get wet, then it is raining.
Q → P : (contrapositive) If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.
14. Express in symbolic form, everyone who is healthy can do all kinds of work
[NOV 2023]
Answer : Let P(x): x is healthy and Q(x): x do all work
Symbolic form x(P( x) → Q( x)) .
15. Write the statement in symbolic form “Some real numbers are rational
Answer : Let 𝑅(𝑥): 𝑥 is a real number and 𝑄(𝑥): 𝑥 is rational
Symbolic form: x ( R ( x )  Q ( x ) ) .

16. Let E= {–1, 0, 1, 2} denote the universe of discourse. If P ( x , y ) : x + y = 1, find

the truth value of (x )( y ) P ( x , y ).
Answer : (x)(y ) p ( x, y ) denotes the proposition “For every real number x there
is a real number y such that P ( x, y ) .” The statement (x)(y ) P ( x, y ) is true for this
universe since –1+2=1, 0+1=1.
17. Define Universal quantification and Existential quantification.
Answer : The Universal quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the
proposition, denoted by x P( x ) that is true if P (a) is true for all subject ‘a’.
The Existential quantification of a predicate formula P(x) is the proposition,
denoted by x P( x ) that is true if P(a) is true for some subject a.
18. Rewrite the following using quantifiers “Every student in the class studied
calculus”
Answer : Let P(x): x is a student and Q(x): x studied calculus
Symbolic form: x(P( x) → Q( x))
19. Show that p → ( q → r )  ( p  q ) → r without using truth tables
Answer : p → ( q → r )  p  ( q  r )
 ( p   q )  r   ( p  q )  r  ( p  q ) → r
20. What is the duality law of logical expression? Give the dual of
( P  F )  (Q  T )
Answer : In an expression, if we replace ,, T, F respectively by  ,, F, T the
resulting new formula is the dual of the given expression.
 Dual of the given formula: ( P  T )  (Q  F )
PART B
1. Prove that ( P → Q )  ( Q → R )  ( P → R ) .
Answer : We have to prove that S : ( P → Q )  ( Q → R ) → ( P → R ) is a tautology
P Q R P→Q P→R Q→R ( P → Q )  (Q → R ) S

T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T T F T
T F F F F T F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
The truth value of the given statement is T for all combinations of truth values of P,
Q and R, it is a tautology.

2. Prove that ( Q → P )  ( R → Q )  ( P → R ) .
Answer : We have to prove that S : ( Q → P )  ( R → Q ) → ( P → R ) is a tautology.
(( Q → P )  ( R → Q )) → ( P → R )
 ( (Q  P )  ( R  Q ) )  ( P  R ) By P → Q  P  Q
 (Q  P )  ( R  Q )  ( P  R ) By Demorgan’s Law

 ( Q  P )  ( R  Q )  ( P  R ) By Demorgan’s Law
 ( Q  P )  ( R  Q )  ( R  P ) By Commutative Law
 ( Q  P )  ((( R  Q )  R )  P ) By Associative Law
 ( Q  P )  (((R  R )  (Q  R ))  P ) By Distributive Law
 ( Q  P )  ( (T  (Q  R ) )  P ) By P  P  T
 ( Q  P )  ( (Q  R )  P ) By P  T  P
 (Q  P )  ( (Q  P )  R ) By Associative Law & Demorgan’s Law
 ( (Q  P )  (Q  P ) )  R By Associative Law
 T  R By P  P  T
T By P  T  T . Hence the implication
3. Without constructing truth table verify whether Q  ( P  Q )  (P  Q )
is a contradiction or tautology. [APR 2023]
Answer
Q  ( P  Q )  (  P   Q )
 Q  (( P  P )  Q ) By Distributive Law
 (Q  ( P  P ))  (Q  Q ) By Distributive Law
 (Q  T )  T By P  P  T
 T  T = T By P  T  T
Hence, Q  ( P  Q )  (P  Q ) is tautology.
4. Show the following implications without constructing the truth table.
( P → Q) → Q  ( P  Q)
Answer : To Prove this, it is enough prove that [(P→Q) →Q ]→PQ is a tautology
(P → Q ) → Q  → (P  Q )
 [((P  Q ))  Q] → ( P  Q ) Rule P → Q  P  Q
 [( P  Q ))  Q] → ( P  Q ) Demorgan' s Law
 [( P  Q ))  Q]  ( P  Q ) Rule P → Q  P  Q
 [(P  Q ))  Q]  ( P  Q ) Demorgan' s Law
 [( P  Q )  (Q  Q )]  ( P  Q ) Distributive Law
 [( P  Q )  F ]  ( P  Q ) Complement Law P   P  F

 ( P  Q )  (P  Q ) Identity Law( PVF )  P

 ( P  Q ) ]  (P  Q ) Demorgan' s Law
T Complement Law P   P  T
5. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula ( P  Q )  (P  R ) [APR 2023]
Answer : Let S  ( P  Q )  ( P  R )
 (( P  Q )  T )  ((P  R )  T ) By P  T  P
 (( P  Q )  (R  R ))  ((P  R )  (Q  Q )) By P  P  T
 ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  (P  R  Q )  (P  R  Q )
 ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  (P  Q  R )  (P  Q  R ) ( PDNF )
S  The remaining min terms of P, Q and R.
 S  (P  Q  R)  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  (P  Q  R ).
(S )  Apply duality principle to S
S  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  R )  (P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R ).
Which is the required PCNF.
6. Without constructing truth table obtain the product of sums canonical form
of the formula (  P → R )  ( Q  P ) . Hence find the sum of products canonical.
[NOV 2023]
Answer : S  ( P → R )  (Q  P )
 ( P )  R   (Q → P )  ( P → Q ) By P → Q  P  Q; Q  P  (Q → P )  ( P → Q )
 ( P  R )  ( Q  P )  ( P  Q ) By Demorgan’s Law

 ( P  R )  ( Q  P )  ( P  Q )
 ( P  R )  F   ( Q  P )  F   ( P  Q )  F  [By P  F  P ]
Applying P  P  F ,
 ( P  R )  (Q  Q )  ( Q  P )  ( R  R )  ( P  Q )  ( R  R )
 ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R  Q )  ( Q  P  R )  ( Q  P  R )
 ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R ) By Associative Law
 ( P  R  Q )  ( P  R  Q )  ( Q  P  R )  ( Q  P  R )  ( P  Q  R )  (P  Q  R )
S  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )
is the principal conjunctive normal form (PCNF)
S  the remaining maxterms of P,Q and R.
S  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )
S  ( ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R ) )
S  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R )  ( P  Q  R ) is the principal disjunctive normal
form (PDNF)
7. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula ( P  Q )  (P  R )  (Q  R ) using

Truth table
Answer
P Q R PQ  PR Q R S Minterms Maxterms
T T T T F T T PQR
T T F T F F T P  Q  R
T F T F F F F - P  Q  R
T F F F F F F - P  Q  R
F T T F T T T P  Q  R
F T F F F F F - P  Q  R
F F T F T F T P   Q  R
F F F F F F F - PQR
PDNF : (P Q R)  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  R)
PCNF : (P  Q R)  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  R)  (P  Q  R)
8. Show that R → S can be derived from the premises P → (Q → S ), R  P & Q
Solution : Premises : P → (Q → S ), R  P & Q ; Conclusion : R → S
Additional Premise : R
Step Premises Rule
1 R  P Rule P
2 R→P Rule T(1) R  P  R → P
3 R Additional Premise
4 P Rule T(2,3) P, P→ R R
5 P → (Q → S ) Rule P
6 Q→S Rule T(4,5) P, P→ R R
7 Q Rule P
8 S Rule T(6,7) P, P→ R R
9 R→S Rule CP
9. Prove that the premises P → Q , Q → R , R → S , S → R & P  S are
inconsistent.
Solution : Premises : P →Q, Q →R, S → ¬R, P S ; Conclusion : False
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1 P →Q P Given Premise
2 Q →R P Given Premise
3 P→ R T From (1)&(2) P →Q, Q→R P→R
4 S → ¬R P Given Premise
5 R → ¬S T From (4) P→ R  ¬ R → ¬ P
6 P → ¬S T From (3)&(5) P →Q, Q→RP→R
7 ¬P ¬S T From (6) P → Q  ¬ P  Q

8 ¬(PS) T De Morgan’s Law

9 P S P Given Premise
10 (P S)¬(PS) T From (8)&(9) , P,Q (P Q)
11 False From (10), ¬ P  P =F
10. Using indirect method of proof, derive P → S from the premises
P → (Q  R ), Q → P , S → R and P .
Solution : Premises : P →(QR), Q →  P, S →  R, P
Additional Premise :  (P →  S)=  (P   S)= P S
Conclusion : F (False)
1 P S P Given Additional Premise
2 P T From (1) P S  P, S
3 P →(QR) P Given Premise
4 (QR) T From (2) &(3) P, P→ R R
5 S T From (1) P S  P, S
6 S →¬R P Given Premise
7 ¬R T From (5) &(6) P, P→ R R
8 Q →¬P P Given Premise
9 Q T From (4) & (7) ¬P, P  Q  Q
10 ¬P T From (8) & (9) P, P→ R  R
11 P ¬P T From (2) & (10) P, Q P Q
12 F T Complement Laws
11. Show that the following premises are inconsistent.
a) If Jack misses many classes through illness, then he fails high school.
b) If Jack fails high school, then he is uneducated.
c) If Jack reads a lot of books, then he is not uneducated.
d) Jack misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books.
Answer : E: jack misses many classes ; S: jack fails high school ;
A: jack reads a lot of books ; H: jack is uneducated
Premises: E → S , S → H , A → H and E  A Conclusion : False
Step Premises Rule Reason
1. E →S P Given Premise
2. S →H P Given Premise
3. E→H T From(1, 2) , P →Q, Q→R P→R
4. A → H P Given Premise
5. H → A T From(4) ( P → Q  Q → P )
6. E → A T From (3,5) P →Q, Q→R P→R

7. E   A T From(6) ( P → Q  P  Q )
8.  ( E  A) T From (7) by De Morgan’s law

9. EA P Given Premise
10. ( E  A)   ( E  A) = F T From (8, 9) P, Q  P  Q
The Premises are inconsistent.
12. Show that the hypotheses, “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday,” “We will go swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do not go
swimming then we will take a canoe trip,” and “If we take a canoe trip, then
we will be home by sunset” lead to the conclusion “we will be home by sunset”.
[NOV 2023]
Answer : P : It is sunny this afternoon. Q: It is colder than yesterday
R: we will go swimming ; S: we will take a canoe trip U: we will be home by sunset
Premises : P  Q, R → P, R → S & S → U ; Conclusion : U
1. P  Q P Given Premise
2. P T From (1), P S  P, S
3. R →P P Given Premise
4. R T From (2,3) P, P→ R  R
5. R → S P Given Premise
6.
S T From (4,5) P, P→ R  R
7. S →U P Given Premises
8. U T From (6,7) P, P→ R  R
13. Show the following argument is valid.
Father praises Yashwanth only if Yashwanth can be proud of himself. Either
Yashwanth do well in sports or Yashwanth cannot be proud of himself. If
study hard, then Yashwanth cannot do well in sports. Therefore, if father
praises Yashwanth, then Yashwanth do not study well.
Answer : P : Father praises Yashwanth. Q: Yashwanth proud of himself.
R: Yashwanth do well in sports S: Yashwanth study hard
Premises : P → Q, R  Q, S → R Conclusion : P → S
1. P P Assumed Premise
2. P →Q P Given Premise
3. Q T From (1,2) P, P→ R  R
4. R  Q P Given Premise
5. Q→R T From (4) ( P → Q  P  Q )
6. R T From (3,5) P, P→ R  R

7. S →R T Given Premise

8. R →S P From (7) ( P → Q  Q → P )
9. S T From (6,8) P, P→ R  R
10 P → S Rule CP
14. Construct an argument to show that the following premises imply the
conclusion "It rained". "If it does not rain or if there is no traffic dislocation,
then the sports day will be held and the cultural program will go on"; "If the
sports day is held, the trophy will be awarded" and "The trophy was not
awarded”.
Answer : P : It rains. Q: There is traffic Dislocation.
R: Sports day will be held S: Cultural program will go on.
U: Trophy will be awarded
Premises : ( P  Q ) → R  S , S → U , U ; Conclusion : P
Step Premises Rule
1. U Assumed Premise
2. S →U Assumed Premise
3. S Rule T(1,2) , P, P→ R  R
4. ( P  Q ) → R  S Assumed Premise
5. ( P  Q ) → R  S Rule T(4), Demorgan’s Law
6. ( R  S ) → ( P  Q ) Rule T(5) Contrapositive
7. ( R  S ) → ( P  Q ) Rule T(6), Demorgan’s law
8. P Q Rule P(3,7)
9. P Rule T(8) P  Q  P , Q
15. Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using contradiction.

[NOV 2023]
Answer : Let P: 2 is irrational.
Assume ~P is true, then 2 is rational, which leads to a contradiction.
a
By our assumption is 2 = , where a and b have no common factors ---------(1)
b
a2
 2= 2
 2𝑏 2 = 𝑎2  𝑎2 is even.  a = 2c
b
2b 2 = 4c 2  b 2 = 2c 2  𝑏2 is even  b is even as well.
 a and b have common factor 2 (since ‘a’ and ‘b’ are even)
But it contradicts (1). Hence, ~P is false. Thus P: 2 is irrational is true.
16. Prove that if n is an integer and n3 + 5 is odd, then n is even
Solution : Given 𝑛3 + 5 is odd ; Claim : n is even
Suppose not , (i.e.) n is not an even number (odd number)

Then n=2k+1, where k is any integer

Now 𝑛3 + 5 =(2𝑘 + 1)3 + 5= 8k3+1+12k2+6k+5
= 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
= 2 times of some integer
 𝑛 + 5 = even number
3
(i.e.) 𝑛3 + 5 is not an odd number

Therefore, If n is not an even number  𝑛3 + 5 not an odd number.
By contrapositive , if 𝑛3 + 5 is odd, then n is even.
17. Show that x( p( x )  q( x ))  xp( x )  xq( x ) using the indirect method
Answer :
Premise : x( p( x )  q( x )) ;
Assumed Premise :  ( xp( x )  xq( x )) = x ( p( x ))  x ( q( x ))
Conclusion : False
1 x ( p( x ))  x ( q( x )) P Assumed Premise
2 xp (x ) T P  Q  P ,Q
3 ( x ) q ( x ) T P  Q  P ,Q
4 p(a ) T E.S
5 q(a ) T US
6 p(a)   q(a) T P ,Q  P  Q
7 ( p(a)  q(a)) T De Morgan’s Law
8 x( p( x )  q( x )) P Given Premise

9 ( p(a)  q(a)) T US
10 ( p(a)  q(a))  ( p(a)  q(a)) T P ,Q  P  Q
11 F T P  P  F
18. Show the premises “One student in this class knows how to write programs in
JAVA” and “Everyone who knows how to write programs in JAVA can get a high
paying job” imply the conclusion “someone in this class can get a high paying
job”. [APR 2023]
Answer : C ( x ) : x is in this class ; J ( x ) : x knows JAVA programming
H ( x ) : x can get a high paying job
( ) (
Premises: x C ( x )  J ( x ) and x J ( x ) → H ( x ) . )
Conclusion : x ( C ( x )  H ( x ) )
Step Premises Rule
1 x ( C ( x )  J ( x ) ) P

2 C (a)  J (a) ES and (1)

3 C (a) From 2 ( P  Q  P , Q )
4 J (a) From 2 ( P  Q  P , Q )
5 x ( J ( x ) → H ( x ) ) P
6 J (a) → H (a) US and (5)
7 H (a) From (4) and (6)
8 C (a)  H (a) From (3) and (7) ( P , Q  P  Q )
9 x ( C ( x )  H ( x ) ) EG and (8)
19. Verify the validity of the following argument. Every living thing is a plant or
an animal. John’s gold fish is alive and it is not a plant. All animals have hearts.
Therefore John’s gold fish has a heart. [NOV 2023]
Solution :
L(x) : x is a living thing P(x) : x is a plant ; A(x) : x is a animal
H(x) : x is a heart , j : Jack Gold Fish
Premises : x [L(x) →(P(x)  A(x))] , L(j) ¬ P(j), x (A(x) → H(x))
Conclusion : H(j)
Steps Premises Rule
1 x [L(x) →( P(x)  A(x))] Rule P
2 L(j) →( P(j)  A(j)) Rule Universal Specification
3 L(j)  ¬ P(j) Rule P
4 L(j) Rule T , From (3) P Q  P,Q
5 ¬ P(j) Rule T , From (3) P Q  P,Q
6 P(j)  A(j) Rule T, From (2) & (4) P, P→ R  R
7 ¬ P(j) → A(j) Rule T, From (6) , P→Q¬PQ
8 A(j) Rule T, From (5) & (7) P, P→ R  R
9 x (A(x) → H(x)) Rule P
10 A(j) → H(j) Rule Universal Specification
11 H(j) Rule T, From (8) & (10) P, P→ R  R
20. Show that the following is valid. Babu is in this class watches whale watching.
Everyone who watches whale watching cares about ocean pollution.
Therefore, someone in the class cares about the ocean pollution.
Answer :
S ( x ) : x is in this class ; W ( x ) : x watches whale watching programme
O ( x ) : x cares about ocean pollution. ; b : Babu
Premises : S ( b )  W ( b ) and x (W ( x ) → O ( x ) ) ;

Conclusion : (x) ( B ( x )  O ( x ) )
Steps Premises Rule
1 S (b)  W (b ) Rule P
2 W (b) Rule T (1) P Q  P,Q
3 ( x) (W ( x ) → O ( x ) ) Rule P
4 W (b) → O (b ) Rule US
5 O (b) Rule T(3,5) ( P, P → Q  Q)
6 B (b)  O (b ) Rule T (3,6) ( P, Q  P  Q)
7 (x) ( B ( x )  O ( x ) ) Rule EG
UNIT – II COMBINATORICS
PART A
n( n + 1)
1. Use Mathematical induction to show that 1 + 2 + 3 +  + n = .
2
n(n + 1)
Answer : Let P ( n) : 1 + 2 + 3 + + n =
2
Basis: LHS = 1; RHS = 1(1 + 1) = 1,  LHS = RHS . Therefore , P(1) is true.
2
Induction: Assume that P ( k ) is true, i.e., 1 + 2 + 3 + + k = k(k + 1)
2
Claim: P ( k + 1) is true
k(k + 1) k 2 + 3k + 2
Now 1 + 2 + 3 + + k + ( k + 1) = + ( k + 1) =
2 2
= (k + 1)(k + 2) = (k + 1)((k + 1) + 1)
2 2
Therefore, P ( k + 1) is true.  By induction, 1 + 2 + 3 + + n = n(n + 1)
2
2. State pigeon hole principle.
Answer : If ( n + 1) pigeon occupies n holes then at least one hole has more
than 1 pigeon.
3. State the generalized pigeon hole principle.
Answer : If m pigeon occupies n holes ( m  n ) , then at least one hole has
 m − 1
more than  + 1 pigeon.
 n 
4. Show that, among 100 people, at least 9 of them were born in the same month.
[NOV 2023]
Answer : Here m = no. of people =100 ; n = no. of month =12. Then by
100 − 1
generalized pigeon hole principle,  + 1 = 9 Were born in the same month.
 12 
5. Find the number of non-negative integer solutions of the equation

x1 + x 2 + x 3 = 11.
Answer : The total no of possible solutions of the equation x1 + x2 + x3 + ........ + xn = r ,
xi ' s are non-negative integer is ( n + r − 1) Cr . Here n=3, r=11. Therefore, No of
ways = 13C11 = 78 .
6. How many permutations of the letters ABCDEFGH contain the string ABC .
Answer : Because the letters ABC must occur as block, we can find the answer by
finding no of permutation of six objects, namely the block ABC and individual
letters D, E, F, G and H. Hence, there are 6! =720 permutations of the letters in
ABCDEFGH which contains the string ABC.
7. How many different bit strings are there of length 7?
Answer : By product rule, 27 = 128 ways
8. How many ways are there to form a committee, if the committee consists of 3
educationalist and 4 socialist ,if there are 9 educationalist and 11 socialist?
Answer : The 3 educationalists can be chosen from 9 educationalists in 9C3 ways.
The 4 socialists can be chosen from 11 socialist in 11C4 ways. By product rule, the
no of ways to select, the committee is = 9C3 .11C4 = 27720 ways.
9. There are 5 questions in a question paper in how many ways can a boy solve
one or more questions?
Answer : The boy can dispose of each question in two ways. He may either solve
it or leave it. Thus, the number of ways of disposing all the questions= 25 . But this
includes the case in which he has left all the questions unsolved. The total no of
ways of solving the paper = 25 − 1 = 31.
10. What is well ordering principle?
Answer : Every non empty set of non-negative integers has the least element
11. Find the recurrence relation whose solution is S ( n) = a n , n  1 [NOV 2023]
n −1
Answer : Given S (n) = a  S (n − 1) = a
n
an
 S (n − 1) =
a
 S (n) − aS (n − 1) = 0 is the required recurrence relation.
12. Find the recurrence relation whose solution is S( k ) = 5.2 k
Answer : Given S (k ) = 5.2k

5
S (k − 1) = 5.2k −1 = .2k
2
2S(k − 1) = 5.2k = S(k )
2S (k − 1) − S (k ) = 0, with S (0) = 5 is the required recurrence relation.
13. Find the associated homogeneous solution for an = 3an−1 + 2n . [APR 2023]
Answer : Its associated homogeneous equation is an − 3an−1 = 0

Its characteristic equation is r–3 =0  r = 3.
Now, the solution of associated homogeneous equation is an = A.3n
14. Solve S(k) − 7 S(k − 1) + 10S(k − 2 ) = 0 .
Answer : The associated homogeneous relation is S(k) − 7S(k − 1) + 10S(k − 2) = 0
Its characteristic equation is r2 − 7r + 10 = 0
 (r − 2)(r − 5) = 0
 r = 2,5
The solution of associated homogeneous equation is Sk = A.2k + B.5k
15. Define Generating function.
Answer : The generating function for the sequence ‘ s ’ with terms a0 , a1 , a2 ,..., an ,...
of real numbers is the infinite sum .

(i.e.) G(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + ......... + an x + ... =
2 n
a x
n=0
n
n
16. Find the generating function for the sequence ‘s’ with terms 1,2,3,4……..

1
Answer : G(x) = G(s,x) = (n+ 1)x
n=0
n
= 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + ......... = (1 − x )−2 =
(1 − x)2
.
17. How many permutations of (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) end with a?

Answer : 6!  1!=720
18. How many different words are there in the word ENGINEERING
11!
Answer : Number of arrangements =
3! 3! 2! 2!
19. What is the value of ‘ r ’ if 5pr = 60 .
Answer : 5pr = 60 = 5  4  3  5pr = 5p3  r = 3
20. Find the value of n if np3 = 5np2
Answer : Given : np3 = 5np2
n (n − 1) (n − 2) = 5 n (n − 1)
 n − 2 = 5  n = 7.
PART B
n
3n+1 − 1
1. Using Mathematical induction, prove that  3 =
r
r =0 2
n
3n+1 − 1
Answer : P(n):  3 =
r
r =0 2
Basis : To Prove P(0) is true
Take n=0
30+1 − 1 2
LHS = 30 = 1; RHS = = = 1  LHS = RHS
2 2
 P(0) is true
Induction. Let us assume that P(k) istrue
3k+1 − 1
(i .e.) P(k)= = 1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + ... + 3k − − − −( A)
2
Claim: P(k+1) is true
3k+1 − 1 k+1 3.3k +1 − 1
P(k + 1) = 1 + 3 + 32 + 33 + ... + 3k + 3k +1 = +3 = by ( A)
2 2
3k+2 − 1 3( k +1)+1 − 1
= =
2 2
3(k+1)+1 − 1
Hence P(k+1)= , P(k+1) is true.
2
By Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integer n and
n
3n+1 − 1
hence 3
r =0
r
=
2
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. Using Mathematical Induction, prove that i
i =1
2
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Answer: Let P(n):12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =
6
Basis: To prove P(1) is true
For n = 1
1(1 + 1)(2 + 1)
LHS = 12 = = RHS .  1 = 1 . So P(1) is true.
6
Induction: Assume that P(k ) is true.
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
(i .e.) 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + k 2 = − − − −( A)
6
Claim: P(k + 1) is true
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
(i .e.) To prove P(k + 1):12 + 22 + 32 + ... + ( k + 1 ) =
2
6
 k(k + 1)(2k + 1) 
Consider ( )
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + k 2 + ( k + 1) = 
2
 6 

+ ( k + 1) (From A)
2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6 ( k + 1)
2
(k + 1)(2k 2 + k + 6k + 6)
= =
6 6
(k + 1)(2k 2 + 7k + 6) (k + 1)(k + 2)( 2k + 3)
= =
6 6
which is P(k + 1) . (i.e.) P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k ) is true.
By Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integer n .
1 1 1 n
3. Using Mathematical Induction Show that + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 n(n + 1) n + 1

1 1 1 n
Answer : Let P(n): + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 n(n + 1) n + 1
Basis: To prove P(1) is true
For n = 1
1 1 1 1
LHS = = ; RHS = = .  LHS = RHS . So P(1) is true.
1.2 2 1+1 2
Induction: Assume that P(k ) is true.
1 1 1 k
(i .e.,) + + ... + = − − − − − −( A)
1.2 2.3 k(k + 1) k + 1
Claim: P(k + 1) is true
1 1 1 k +1
(i .e.,) To prove P(k + 1): + + ... + =
1.2 2.3 (k + 1)(k + 2) k + 2
1 1 1   1   k   1 
Consider  + + ... + + = + (From A)
 1.2 2.3 k(k + 1)   (k + 1)(k + 2)   k + 1   (k + 1)( k + 2) 
  
k(k + 2) + 1 (k 2 + 2k + 1)
= =
(k + 1)(k + 2) (k + 1)(k + 2)
(k + 1)2 (k + 1)
= =
(k + 1) (k + 2) (k + 2)
which is P(k + 1) . (i.e.) P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k ) is true.
By Principle of Mathematical Induction, P(n) is true for all positive integer n .
4. Prove by mathematical induction that 6 + 7 is divisible by 43 for each
n+ 2 2n+ 1
positive integer n. [APR 2023] [NOV 2023]

Answer : To Prove S (n) = 6n+ 2 + 72n+1 is divisible by 43, 𝑛 ≥ 1
Basis: For 𝑛 = 1,
61+2 + 72+1 =559, which is divisible by 43. So, S(1) is true.
Induction: Assume S(k) is true
k +2 2 k +1
(i.e.) 6 + 7 = 43m for some integer m.
Claim : S(k+1) is true.
Now , 6k +3 + 72k +3 = 6k +3 + 72k +1.72 = 6.6k +2 + 72k +1.49
= 6(6k +2 + 72k +1 ) + 43.72k +1
= 6.43m + 43.72k +1 = 43(6m + 72k +1 )
Clearly, S(k+1) is divisible by 43. So, S(k+1) is true.
By Mathematical Induction, S(n) is true for all integer n.
5. There are six men and five women in a room. Find the number of ways four
persons can be drawn from the room. (a) They can be male or female, (b) Two
must be men and two women, (c) They must all be of same sex.
Answer :
(a) Four persons can be drawn from 11 (6+5) persons is C4 = 330 ways
11

6 5
(b) Two men can be selected in C 2 ways and two women can be selected in C2 .
6 5
Hence no. of ways of selecting 2 men and 2 women are C 2 X C 2 = 150 ways .
6 5
(c) Number of ways of selecting four people and all of same sex is C 4 + C 4 = 20
ways.
6. Find the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by any
of the integers 2, 3, 5 &7. [APR 2023]
Answer : Let A, B, C,D are the set of integers between 1 and 250 that are divisible
by 2, 3, 5, 7 respectively.
 250   250   250   250 
 | A |=   = 125, | B |=  3  = 83 | C |=  5  = 50, | D |=  7  = 35
 2       
 250   250   250   250   250   250 
| A  B |=   =  =  = 41; | A  C |=  = =  = 25
 LCM(2,3)   2  3   6   LCM(2,5)   2  5   10 
 250   250   250   250   250   250 
| A  D |=   =  =  = 17;| B  C |=  = =  = 16
 LCM(2,7)   2  7   14   LCM(3,5)   5  3   15 
 250   250   250   250   250   250 
| B  D |=   =  =  = 11 ; | C  D |=  = =  =7
 LCM(7,3)   7  3   21   LCM(5,7)   5 7   35 
 250   250   250   250 
| A  B  C |=   =  = 8 ;| A  B  D |=  =  =5
 LCM(2,3,5)   2  3  5   LCM(2,3,7)   2  3  7 
 250   250   250   250 
| A  C  D |=   =  = 3 ; | B  C  D |=  =  =2
 LCM(2,5,7)   2  5  7   LCM(3,5,7)   3  5  7 
 250   250 
| A  B  C  D |=  =  =1
 LCM(2,3,5,7)   2  3  5  7 
| A  B  C  D |=| A | + | B | + | C | + | D | − | A  B | − | A  C | − | A  D | − | B  C | − | B  D |
−|C  D| + | A  B  C | + | A  B  D| + | A C  D| + | B C  D|
−| A  B C  D|
= 125 + 83 + 50 + 35 – 41– 25–17 –16 –11–7 + 8 + 5 + 3 + 2 –1 = 193.
The number of integers between 1 and 250 that is divisible by any of the integers
2, 3, 5 and 7=193
Therefore, not divisible by any of the integers 2, 3, 5 and 7=250–193=57.
7. How many bit strings of length 10 contains (a) exactly four 1’s, (b) at most
four 1’s (c) at least four 1’s (d) an equal number of 0’s and 1’s
Answer : A bit string of length 10 can be considered to have 10 positions.
a) These 10 positions should be filled with four 1’s and six 0’s.
10!
Therefore, No. of required bit strings = = 210
4!6!
b) The 10 positions should be filled with (i) no 1’s and ten 0’s (ii) one 1’s and nine
0’s (iii) two 1’s and eight 0’s (iv) three 1’s and seven 0’s (v) four 1’s and six 0’s.
10! 10! 10! 10! 10!
Therefore Required no. of bit strings = + + + +
0!10! 1!9! 2!8! 3!7! 4!6!

= 386 ways
c) The ten position are to be filled up with (i) four 1’s and six 0’s (or) (ii) five 1’and
five 0’s (or) six 1’s and four 0’s etc……ten 1’s and zero 0’s.
10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 10! 10!
Therefore no. of bit strings = + + + + + +
4!6! 5!5! 6!4! 3!7! 8!2! 9!11! 10!0!
= 848ways
d) The ten positions are to be filled up with five 1’s and five 0’s .
10!
Therefore no. of bit strings = 252ways
5!5!
8. A total of 1232 students have taken a course in Spanish, 879 have taken a
course in French, and 114 have taken a course in Russian. Further, 103 have
taken courses in both Spanish and French, 23 have taken courses in both
Spanish and Russian and 14 have taken courses in both French and Russian.
If 2092 students have taken at least one of Spanish, French and Russian, how
many students have taken a course in all three languages? [NOV 2023]
Answer : Let S denotes Spanish; F denotes French and R denotes Russian.
From the given data, we found that |S|=1232 ; |F|=879 ; |R|=114 ; |S∩F|=103
|S∩R|=23; |F∩R|=14; |S∪F∪R|=2092
Now |S∪F∪R|=|S|+|F|+|R|–|S∩F|– |S∩R|–|F∩R|+|S∩F∩R|
|S∩F∩R| = |S∪F∪R|-(|S|+|F|+|R|)+(|S∩F|– |S∩R|–|F∩R|)
= 2092-(1232+879+114)+(103+23+14) = 2092-2225+140=7
Therefore, 7 students have taken a course in all three languages.
9. Prove that in any group of six people there must be at least three mutual
friends or three mutual enemies.
Answer : Let the six people be A, B, C, D, E and F. Fix A. The remaining five people
can accommodate into two groups namely (1) Friends of A and (2) Enemies of A
Now by generalized Pigeon hole principle, at least one of the group must contain
 5 −1
  + 1 = 3 people.
 2 
Let the friend of A contain 3 people.(Let it be B, C, D)
Case (1): If any two of these three people (B, C, D) are friends, then these two
together with A form three mutual friends.
Case (2) : If no two of these three people are friends, then these three people (B, C,
D) are mutual enemies. In either case, we get the required conclusion.
If the group of enemies of A contains three people, by the above similar argument,
we get the required conclusion.
10. Solve the recurrence relation an = 2(an−1 − an−2 ) where 𝒏 ≥ 𝟐 and a0 = 1, a1 = 2
Answer : an = 2(an−1 − an−2 )  an − 2an−1 + 2an−2 = 0
The characteristic equation is given by  2 − 2 + 2 = 0
2  4 − 4(2) 2  2i
 = = =1i
2 2

  = 1 + i ,1 − i
Therefore , an = A(1 + i )n + B(1 − i )n , where A and B are arbitrary constants
 y
Now, we have z = x + iy = r[cos + i sin ] , where  = tan 
−1
 ; r = x 2 + y2
x
 y 
  = tan−1   = tan−1 (1) = & r = x 2 + y2 = 1 + 1 = 2. since x = y = 1.
x 4
By Demovire’s theorem, we have
n n
     n  
(1 + i ) =  2  cos + i sin  
n
=  2   cos + i sin 
  4 4   4 4
n n n 
=  2   cos + i sin 
 4 4 
 n n 
and (1 − i )n = [ 2]n  cos − i sin
 4 4 
 n n n    n n n 
Now, an = A   2   cos + i sin   + B   2   cos − i sin 
   4 4     4 4 
 
n n n 
=  2   ( A + B )cos + i( A − B )sin
   4 4 
n n n 
an =  2   C1 cos + C2 sin − − − − − (1)
   4 4 
(1) is the required solution. Let C1 =𝐴 + 𝐵, C2 =𝑖(𝐴 − 𝐵)
Since 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 2
0
(1)  a0 =  2  (C1 cos 0 + C2 sin 0) = C1
 C1 = 1
1  
Now, a1 =  2   C1 cos + C2 sin 
 4 4
 1 1 
2 = 2  C1 + C2  = C1 + C 2
 2 2
 C2 = 1 since C1 = 1
n n n 
an =  2   cos + sin 
 4 4 
11. Solve the recurrence relation an − 5an−1 + 6an−2 = 7 .
n
[NOV 2023]
Answer : Associated homogeneous equation is an − 5an−1 + 6an−2 = 0
The characteristic equation is r 2 − 5r + 6 = 0  r = 2,3
The solution is an( h) = 1(2)n + 2(3)n
To find PI:
Since F (n) = 7n then solution is of the form C .7n , where C is constant.
Therefore, the equation an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 + 7n becomes
C7n = 5C .7n−1 − 6C .7n−2 + 7n − − − −(1) (Replace an = C7n , an−1 = C7n−1 , an−2 = C7n−2 )

C 7n 5C .7n−1 6C .7n−2 7n
(1)  = n −2 − n −2 + n −2
7n−2 7 7 7
 7 C = 5C .7 − 6C + 7  49C = 35C − 6C + 49
2 2
49
 20C = 49  C =
20
 49 
Hence, the PI is an( p ) =  7n
 20 
The general Solution is an = an( h) + an( p)
 49 
an = 1(2)n + 2(3)n +  7n
 20 
12. Solve the recurrence relation an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 + 6an−3 with a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 15 .
Answer: The recurrence relation can be written as an − 6an−1 + 11an−2 − 6an−3 = 0
The characteristic equation is r 3 − 6r 2 + 11r − 6 = 0  r = 1,2,3
The solution is an = 1 .(1)n + 2 .(2)n + 3 .(3)n − − − − − − − − − − − ( A)
Given a0 = 2, Put n = 0 in ( A),weget 1 +  2 + 3 = 2 − − − − − (1)
Given a1 = 5, Put n = 1 in ( A),weget 1 + 2 2 + 33 = 5 − − − − − (2)
Given a2 = 15, Put n = 2 in ( A),weget 1 + 4 2 + 93 = 15 − − − − − (3)
Solving (1),(2) and (3), we get , 1 = 1, 2 = −1, 3 = 2
( A)  an = 1.(1)n − 1.(2)n + 2.(3)n
The Solution is an = (1)n − (2)n + 2.(3)n
13. Solve the recurrence relation an+2 − an+1 − 6an = 0 with a0 = 2, a1 = 1 using
generating functions.
Answer : The given recurrence relation is an+2 − an+1 − 6an = 0
Multiply x n on both sides,
 an+2 x n − an+1 x n − 6an x n = 0
        
   an+2 x n  −   an+1 x n  − 6   an x n  = 0
 n =0   n =0   n =0 
1 
 1 
   
  2  an+2 x n+2  −   an+1 x n+1  − 6   an x n  = 0
 x n =0   x n =0   n =0 

1 1
2
 G( x ) − a0 − a1 x  − G( x ) − a0  − 6G( x ) = 0 Take G( x ) =  an x n
x x n =0
1 1
 2 G( x ) − 2 − x  − G( x ) − 2 − 6G( x ) = 0
x x
2
multiply by x on both side, we have
G( x ) − 2 − x  −  xG( x ) − 2x  − 6x 2G( x ) = 0
(1 − x − 6x )G( x ) = 2 − x
2
2− x 2− x
G( x ) = =
(1 − x − 6x ) (1 − 3x )(1 + 2x )
2

2− x A B
= +
(1 − 3x )(1 + 2x ) (1 − 3x ) (1 + 2x )
2 − x = A ( 1 + 2x ) + B ( 1 − 3x )
1 1
Put x = −  B = 1 Put x =  A = 1
2 3
1 1
 G( x ) = +
( 1 − 3x ) ( 1 + 2x )
 G( x ) = (1 − 3x ) + (1 + 2x )
−1 −1
( ) (
 G( x ) = 1 + 3x + (3x )2 + ... + (3x )n + .... + 1 − 2x + (2x )2 + ... + ( −1)n(2x )n + .... )
an = Coefficient of x n
an = 3n + ( −1)n 2n
14. Use generating function to solve the difference equation yn+ 2 − 5 yn+1 + 6 yn = 0
with y0 = y1 = 1. [APR 2023]
Answer: The given recurrence relation is an+2 − 5an+1 + 6an = 0
Multiply x n on both sides,
 an+2 x n − 5an+1 x n + 6an x n = 0
  
  an+2 x n − 5 an+1 x n + 6 an x n = 0
n =0 n =0 n =0
1 
 1   


  2  an+2 x n+2  − 5  an+1 x n+1  + 6   an x n  = 0
 x n =0   x n =0   n =0 

1  1 
  2 G( x ) − a0 − a1 x   − 5 G( x ) − a0   + 6G( x ) = 0 Take G( x ) = an x n
x  x  n=0
1 5
 2 G( x ) − 1 − x  − G( x ) − 1 + 6G( x ) = 0
x x
Both side multiply by x 2 , we have
G( x ) − 1 − x  − 5x G( x ) − 1 + 6x 2G( x ) = 0
 G( x ) − 1 − x  − 5 xG( x ) − x  + 6 x 2G( x ) = 0
( )
 1 − 5x + 6 x 2 G( x ) = 1 − 4 x
1 − 4x 1 − 4x
 G( x ) = =
( 1 − 5x + 6 x 2
) (1 − 2x )(1 − 3x )
1 − 4x A B
Consider = +
(1 − 2x )(1 − 3x ) (1 − 2x ) (1 − 3x )
1 − 4x = A (1 − 3x ) + B (1 − 2x )
1 1
Put x =  A = 2 Put x =  B = −1
2 3

2 1
 G( x ) = −
( 1 − 2x ) ( 1 − 3 x )
 G( x ) = 2(1 − 2x ) − (1 − 3x )
−1 −1
( ) (
 G( x ) = 2 1 + 2x + (2x )2 + ... + (2x )n + .... − 1 + 3x + (3x )2 + ... + (3x )n + .... )
an = 2.2n − 3n
15. Use generating function to solve the recurrence relation
S( n + 1) − 2S(n) = 4 n , with S( 0 ) = 1 and n  0 .
Answer : Given S (n + 1) − 2S (n) = 4n , with S(0) = 1 and n  0 ,
The recurrence relation can be written as an+1 − 2an = 4 , n  0 ------ (1)
n
Multiply (1) by x
n
 an+2 x n − 2an x n = 4n x n
  
  an+1 x n − 2 an x n =  4n x n
n=0 n=0 n=0
1 
  
 
   an+1 x n+1  − 2  an x n  =  4n x n = 1 + 4 x + 4 x 2 + .....
 x n =0   n =0  n =0
1  1
  G( x ) − a0   − 2G( x ) = 1 + 4 x + 4 x 2 + ..... = (1 − 4 x )−1
x  1 − 4x
1 1
 (G( x ) − 1) − 2G( x ) =
x 1 − 4x
Both side multiply by x , we have
x
 G( x )(1 − 2x ) − 1 =
1 − 4x
x 1 − 3x
 G( x )(1 − 2x ) = +1 =
1 − 4x x(1 − 4 x )
1 − 3x
 G( x ) =
(1 − 2x )((1 − 4 x )
1 − 3x A B
Now, = +
(1 − 2x )((1 − 4 x ) 1 − 2x 1 − 4 x
 1 − 3x = (1 − 4 x ) A + (1 − 2x ) B
1 1 1 1
Taking x = , we get B = & Taking x = , we get A = .
4 2 2 2
1 1
1 1
G( x ) = 2 + 2 = 1 − 2x  + 1 − 4 x 
−1 −1
1 − 2x 1 − 4 x 2 2
1 1
= 1 + 2x + (2x )2 + ... + 1 + 4 x + (4 x )2 + ... 
2 2
1  n n 1  n n
= 2 x + 2 
2 n =0 n =0
4 x

an = coefficient of x n in G( x )
2n 4n
an = + = 2n−1 + 2(4)n−1
2 2
3 + 7x
16. Find an if the generating function G( x ) = . [NOV 2023]
1 + 3x − 4 x 2
3 + 7x
Answer : Given that G( x ) =
( 1 + 3x − 4 x 2 )
3 + 7x
 G( x ) =
(1 − x )(1 + 4x )
3 + 7x A B
= +
(1 − x )(1 + 4x ) (1 − x ) (1 + 4x )
3 + 7 x = A ( 1 + 4 x ) + B (1 − x )
1
Put x = −  B = 1 Put x = 1  A = 2
4
2 1
 G( x ) = +
(1 − x ) (1 + 4 x )
 G( x ) = 2(1 − x ) + (1 + 4 x )
−1 −1
( ) (
 G( x ) = 2 1 + x + x 2 + ... + x n + .... + 1 − 4 x + (4 x )2 + ... + ( −1)n(4 x )n + .... )
an = 2 + ( −1)n 4n
32 − 22x
17. Find the sequence whose generating function is using partial
2
2 − 3x + x
fraction.
32 − 22x
Answer: Given that G( x ) =
( 2 − 3x + x 2 )
32 − 22x A B
 G( x ) = = +
(1 − x )(2 − x ) (1 − x ) (2 − x )
32 − 22x = A ( 2 − x ) + B (1 − x )
Taking x = 2  B = 12 and Taking x = 1  A = 10
10 12
 G( x ) = +
(1 − x ) ( 2 − x )
−1
 x
 G( x ) = 10 (1 − x )
−1
+ 6 1 − 
 2
 x x
2
x
n

( n
 )
 G( x ) = 10 1 + x + x + ... + x + ..... + 6  1 + +   + ... +   + ...... 
2
2 2 2 
 
n
1
an = 10 + 6  
2
UNIT – III SETS AND FUNCTIONS

PART A
1. Define Power set and how many elements are in Power set of A , if set A = {a,
b, c, d} ?
Answer: For the set A, the set of all subsets of A is called Power set of A and it is
denoted by  ( A) .
Consider the example A ={1,2,3}, then
( A) = { ,{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}}
We know that power set contains 2 n elements. Here n=4. Therefore ( A) = 24 = 16.
2. Find n(A ∩ B) if A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 25, n(B) = 20 and
n( A B ) = 30.
Answer: By the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

Hence, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∪ B) = 25 + 20 – 30 = 15
3. If n(A – B) = 30, n( A B ) = 65 and n(A ∩ B) = 22, then find n(B). [NOV 2023]
Answer: By the formula, we know that n(A ∪ B) = n(A – B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B – A)
 65 = 30 + 22 + n(B – A)  65 = 52 + n(B – A)
n(B – A) = 65 – 52=13
Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B – A)= 22 + 13 =35.
4. Define Cartesian Product of two set
Answer : The Cartesian product of the sets A and B, is written as A X B which is
the set of all ordered pairs in which the first element is in A and the second element
is in B (i.e.) A X B = ( x , y )| x  A and y B
E.g., Let A= {1,2} and B={a, b}, then A X B = {(1, a)(1, b)(2, a),(2, b)} .
5. Define Binary Relation
Answer : A binary relation from A to B is a set R of ordered pairs where the first
element from each ordered pair comes from A and the second one from B.
(i.e.) A binary relation from A to B is a subset of A x B.
6. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and R be a relation defined as x − y is divisible by 3.
Find the elements of the relation R. [APR 2023]
Answer:
R =  1,1 , 2,2 , 3,3 , 4,4 , 5,5 , 6,6 , 1,4 , 4,1 , 2,5 , 5,2 , 3,6 , 6,3 
7. Explain types of Relation
Answer: Let A be the set and R be the relation, then relations are classified into
five types.
(i) Reflexive : (a, a) ∈ R ∀ a ∈ A ,(i.e.) aRa exists.
(ii) Irreflexive : aRa does not exists (i.e.) a Ra
(iii) Symmetric : aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b ∈ A
(iv) Antisymmetric : aRb and bRa ⇒ a=b , ∀ a, b ∈ A.
(v) Transitive : aRb and bRc  aRc , ∀ a, b, c ∈ A.
8. Consider the following relations on set S= {1, 2, 3, 4} with R1 = { (1,1), (1,2),

(2,1) }, R2 = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,1), (4,4) } and R3 = { (2,1),
(3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3) }. Which of them are reflexive ?
Answer: A relation R is said to be reflexive if aRa for every a S. Here R2 is the
only relation contains (1,1), (2,2), (3,3) and (4,4). So R2 is reflexive. R1 and R3 do not
contain the elements (2,2),(3,3), (4,4) and (1,1) (2,2),(3,3), (4,4) respectively. So R1
and R3 is not reflexive.
9. Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers symmetric? Is it
antisymmetric?
Answer: No. It is not symmetric. Since 1|2 but 2 | 1. It is antisymmetric since a|b
and b|a implies a=b.
10. If R1 = {(1,1),(1,2), (2,1) }, R2 = { (1,1), (1,2), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,1), (4,4)}
and R3 = { (2,1), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3) },then which of the relations are
transitive ?
Answer : R1 is not transitive since (2,1)  R1 and (1,2)  R1 but (2,2)  R1. R2 is not
transitive since (2,1)  R2 and (1,4)  R2 but (2,4)  R2. R3 is transitive since (3,2)
 R3 and (2,1)  R3  (3,1)  R3. Similarly the transitive elements of ((4,2) (2,1)),
((4,3) (3,1)) are in R3.
11. Draw the digraph of the relation R={(1,1),(1,3),(2,1),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),
(4,1)} on the set {1,2,3,4}.
Answer : Vertex : {1, 2, 3, 4}; edges: (1,1), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1)
12. Define Composite Relation

Answer: Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B and S a relation from B to a set
C. The composite of R and S is denoted by R • S and is defined by the relation
consisting of ordered pairs (a, c), where aA, cC, and for which there exists an
element b B such that (a, b)R and (b, c)S.
13. Define Equivalence relation
Answer: A relation R on S is said to be equivalence relation if R satisfy Reflexive,
Symmetric and Transitive .
14. Define partial ordering on S.
Answer: A relation on a set S is called a partial ordering on S if it satisfies reflexive,
anti-symmetric, transitive properties. A set S together with a partial ordering is
called a partially ordered set (or) Poset.

15. Draw the Hasse diagram of ( D20 ,/ ) , where D20 denotes the set of positive
divisors of 20 and / is the relation “divides”.
Answer: Given D20 = 1, 2, 4,5,10, 20 . The Hasse diagram is
16. Define Characteristic function of a set

Answer: The characteristic function of a set A is denoted by X A (or ) f A is defined
 1 if x  A
for each x U by X A ( x ) =  .
 0 if x  A
17. Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f } and A = {a, d, e}, then find X A where X A denotes the
characteristic function of A.
Answer: a  A  X A (a) = 1; d  A  X A (d ) = 1; e  A  X A (e ) = 1; b, c, f are not the
members of A. (i.e.) X A (b) = X A(c ) = X A( f ) = 0.
18. Define Hashing Function [NOV 2023]
Answer: Any transformation which maps the internal bit representation of the
set of keys to a set of addresses is called a Hashing function.
(i.e.) h(k ) = k (mod n)
19. Assume that there are 10,000 customer account records to be stored and
processed. The company’s computer is capable of searching a list of 100 items
in an acceptable amount of time and 101 lists are available for storage. If
hashing function h is defined from the set of 7-digit account number to the set
{0, 1, 2, …, 100} as h(k ) = k (mod n) . Where the customer account number
3563821 will be assigned?
Answer: Customer account number 3563821 (mod 101) = 36. Therefore, Customer
Account number is stored in the list 36.
20. Define Primitive Recursion Function
Answer: A function f is called Primitive Recursive function if it can be obtained
from initial function by a finite number of operations of compositions and
recursion.
PART B
1. State and Prove De Morgan’s Law [NOV 2023]
Statement : De Morgan’s Law : (i) ( A B) = A B (ii) ( A B) = A B
(i) To Prove ( A B) = A B

Let x ( A B ) , then Conversely, Let x  A B , then
x ( A B ) = x  A B x  A B = x  A and x  B
= x  A or x  B = x  A or x  B
= x  A and x  B = xA B
= xA B = xA B
 A B A B − − − −(1)  A B A B − − − −(2)
From (1) and(2) we get ( A B) = A B .
(ii) To Prove ( A B) = A B
Let x ( A B ) , then Conversely, Let x  A B , then

x ( A B ) = x  A B x  A B = x  A or x  B
= x  A and x  B = x  A and x  B
= x  A or x  B = xA B
= xA B = xA B
 ( A B)  A B − − − −(3)  A B A B − − − −(4)
From (3) and(4) we get ( A B) = A B .
2. State and Prove Distributive Law [NOV 2023]

Statement : (i) A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C ) (ii ) A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C )
(i) To prove A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C )
x  A  (B  C) Conversely x  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
 x  A or x  ( B  C )  x  A  B and x  A  C
 x  A or ( x  B and x  C )  ( x  A or x  B ) and ( x  A or x  C )
 ( x  A or x  B ) and ( x  A or x  C )  x  A or ( x  B and x  C )
 x  A  B and x  A  C  x  A or x  ( B  C )
 x ( A B) ( AC )  x  A  (B  C)
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C ) − −(1) ( A  B )  ( A  C )  A  ( B  C ) − − − −(2)
From (1) and(2) we get A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C ) .
(ii) To prove A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C )
x  A  (B  C) Conversely, x  ( A  B )  ( A  C )
 x  A and x  ( B  C )  x  A  B or x  A  C
 x  A and ( x  B or x  C )  ( x  A and x  B ) or ( x  A and x  C )
 ( x  A and x  B ) or ( x  A and x  C )  x  A and ( x  B or x  C )
 x  A  B or x  A  C  x  A and x  ( B  C )
 x ( A  B) ( AC )  x  A  (B  C)
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C ) − − − −(3) ( A  B )  ( A  C )  A  (B  C) − − − −(4)
From (3) and(4) we get A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C ) .

3. Let A be a finite set containing “ n” elements. Prove that power set of A has 2n
exactly elements.
Answer: We prove this theorem by mathematical induction.
Basis: For n=1, then A={a}
So that  ( A) = { A, } = 2 = 21 elements . Hence P(1) is true.
Induction: Assume that the result is true for n=k
(i.e.) If |A|=k, then ( A) = 2k elements
Claim: Result is true for n= k+1
Now, Let |A|=k+1, For an element a  A , consider the subset B = A − a . Since
B = k , by induction hypothesis ( B ) = 2k . (i. e) There are exactly 2k subsets of
B. Since every subset of B is also a subset of A, it follows that A contains at least 2k

subsets. Hence the total number of subsets of A is 2k + 2k = 2.2k = 2k+1 subsets.
Hence by induction, it follows that if |A|=n , then | ( A)|= 2n.
4. Let A, B, C be any three sets, then prove that A X ( B  C ) = ( A X B )  ( A X C )
Answer: Suppose (x, y)  A X (B  C )

 x  A and y  (B  C )
 x  A and ( y  B and y C )
 (x  A and y  B) and (x  A and y C )
 (x , y )  ( AX B) and (x , y )  ( AX C )
 x  ( A X B)  ( A X C )
So A X ( B  C )  ( A X B)  ( A X C ) − − − − − −(1)
Conversely, suppose (x, y)  ( AX B)  ( AX C )
 ( x , y )  ( A X B) and ( x , y )  ( A X C )
 ( x  A and y  B) and ( x  A and y  C )
 x  A and ( y  B and y  C )
 x  A and ( y  B  C )
 (x , y )  ( A X B  C )
So , ( A X B)  ( A X C )  A X ( B  C ) − − − (2)
From (1) and (2), we get A X ( B  C ) = ( A X B ) ( A X C )
5. Let A, B, C and D are any four sets, then show that
( A  B ) X (C  D) = ( A X C )  ( B X D )
Answer: Suppose (x, y)  ( A  B) X (C  D)
 x  ( A  B) and y  (C  D)
 ( x  A and x  B) and ( y  C and y  D)
 ( x  A and y  C ) and ( x  B and y  D)
 ( x , y )  ( A X C ) and ( x , y )  ( BX D)

 x  ( A X C )  ( B X D)
So ( A  B) X(C  D)  ( A X C )  ( B X D) − − − − − −(1)
Conversely, suppose (x, y)  ( AX C )  (BX D)
 ( x , y )  ( A X C ) and ( x , y )  ( B X D)
 ( x  A and y  C ) and ( x  B and y  D)
 ( x  A and x  B) and ( y  C and y  D)
 x  ( A  B) and y  (C  D)
 ( x , y )  ( A  B) X (C  D)
So ( A X C )  ( B X D)  ( A  B) X (C  D) − − − − − −(2)
From (1) and (2), we get ( A  B ) X (C  D) = ( A X C ) ( B X D)
6. For any sets A, B, C, prove that
(a) A − ( B  C ) = ( A − B )  ( A − C ) (b) A − B = A − ( A  B ) = ( A  B ) − B
Answer :
(i) To prove A − ( B  C ) = ( A − B )  ( A − C )
x  A−(B C) Conversely, x  ( A − B )  ( A − C )
 x  A and x  ( B  C )  x  ( A − B ) or x  ( A − C )
( )
 x  A and x  B  C  ( x  A and x  B ) or ( x  A and x  C )
 x  A and x  ( B  C ) , By Demorgan ' s Law ( ) (

 x  A and x  B or x  A and x  C )
 x  Aand ( x  B or x  C ) (
 x  A and x  B or x  C )
 x  A and ( x  B  C )
 ( x  A and x  B ) or ( x  A and x  C )
 x  ( A − B ) or x  ( A − C )  x  A and x  ( B  C ) By Demorgan ' s Law
 x ( A − B)  ( A − C )  x  A − ( B  C ).
A − ( B  C )  ( A − B )  ( A − C ) − − − −(1) ( A − B)  ( A − C )  A − ( B  C ) − − − −(2)
From (1) and(2) we get ( A − B)  ( A − C ) = A− (B C) .

(ii) To prove A − B = A − ( A  B ) = ( A  B ) − B
a) Consider A − ( A  B ) b) Consider ( A  B ) − B
 A  ( A  B) ' ( By defn)  ( A  B)  B ' ( By defn)
 A  ( A ' B ') (Demorgan's law)  ( A  B ')  ( B  B ' ) ( Distributive Law)
 ( A  A ')  ( A  B ') ( Distributive Law)  ( A  B ')   A  A' = 
   ( A  B ') A  A' =   ( A  B ')
 ( A  B ') = A − B = A− B
 A − ( A  B) = A − B ( A  B ) − B = A − B
7. Suppose a list A contains the 30 students in a mathematics class, and a list B

contains the 35 students in an English class, and suppose there are 20 names
on both lists. Find the number of students: (a) only on list A, (b) only on list B,
(c) on list A or B (or both), (d) on exactly one list.
Answer:
(a) List A has 30 names and 20 are on list B; hence 30 − 20 = 10 names are only on
list A.
(b) Similarly, 35 − 20 = 15 are only on list B.

(c) We seek n(A ∪ B). By principles of inclusion–exclusion,
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) = 30 + 35 – 20 = 45.
(d) By (a) and (b), 10 + 15 = 25 names are only on one list; that is, n(A ⊕ B) = 25.
8. In a survey of 120 people, it was found that: 65 read Newsweek magazine, 20
read both Newsweek and Time, 45 read Time, 25 read both Newsweek and
Fortune, 42 read Fortune, 15 read both Time and Fortune, 8 read all three
magazines. Using Venn Diagram
(a) Find the number of people who read at least one of the three magazines.
(b) Fill in the correct number of people who read Newsweek, Time, and
Fortune, respectively.
(c) Find the number of people who read exactly one magazine.
Answer : Here N, T, F denotes number of people who
read Newsweek, Time and Fortune.
( a ) n(N T F ) = n(N ) + n(T ) + n(F ) − n(N T )
− n(T F ) − n( N F ) + n( N T F)
= 65 + 45 + 42 − 20 − 25 − 15 + 8
= 100
(b) From the Venn diagram, we get
No of people reading Newsweek = 28
No of people reading Times = 18
No of people reading Fortune = 10
(c) No of persons reading exactly one paper is
=28+18+10=56.
9. Among the integer 1 to 300, find how many are not divisible by 3 not by 5.
Find also how many are divisible by 3 but not by 7 ?
Solution: Let A denote set of integers 1-300 divisible by 3 ; B denote set of integers
1-300 divisible by 5 and C denote set of integers 1-300 divisible by 7. Now we find
| A B | &| A − C | .
By De Morgan’s Law, A B = ( A B )
| A B |= U − | A B | = U − (| A | + | B | − | A B |)
 300   300   300 

Now A =   = 100; B =   = 60; A B =   = 20
 3   5  3 X 5
|A B |= 100 + 60 − 20 = 140
| A B |=300 − 140 = 160.
Now, | A − C |=| A | − | A C |
 300 
A C =  = 14
3 X 7 
 | A − C |=| A | − | A C |= 100 − 14 = 86.

10. Let f ( x ) = x + 2; g( x ) = x − 2 and h( x ) = 3 x , for x  R , where R is the set of

real numbers. Find
(i ) f g (ii ) g f (iii ) g h (iv ) f g h (v ) f f (vi ) f h g
Solution: Given that f ( x ) = x + 2; g( x ) = x − 2 and h( x ) = 3x , for x  R
(i ) ( f g ) ( x ) = f ( g( x )) = f ( x − 2) = x − 2 + 2 = x .
(ii ) ( g f ) ( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = g( x + 2) = x + 2 − 2 = x
(iii ) ( g h )( x ) = g(h( x )) = g(3x ) = 3x − 2.
(iv ) ( f g h )( x ) = ( f g )( h( x )) = ( f g )(3x )
= f ( g(3x ) = f (3x − 2)
= 3x − 2 + 2 = 3 x .
(v ) ( f f )( x ) = f ( f ( x )) = f ( x + 2) = ( x + 2) + 2 = x + 4.
(vi ) ( f h g )( x ) = ( f h)( g( x )) = ( f h )( x − 2)
= f ( h( x − 2)) = f (3( x − 2))
= 3x − 6 + 2 = 3x − 4.
11. Let A = {1,2,3,4} and the relation R1 = {(1,1),(1,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4),(4,1),(4,2)},
R2 = {(3,1),(4,4),(2,3)(2,4),(1,1),(1,4)}. Verify (i ) MR1 R2 = MR1 . MR2
(ii ) M R C ( iii ) M R R = MR c . MR c [APR 2023] [NOV
1 ( 1 2 )c 2 1
2023]
Solution:
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 
1 0 0 1 1 
(i ) M R1 =  ; M R2 = 
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
   
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
R1 . R2 = {(1,1),(1,4),(1,3),(2,1),(2,4),(3,4),(4,4),(4,1),(4,3)},
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
 M R1R2 =
0 0 0 1
 
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
MR1 . MR2 = =
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
    
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
(ii) R1 = {(1,1),(2,1),(3,2),(4,2),(4,3),(1,4),(2, 4)}

C

1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 
MRC =
1 0 1 0 0
 
0 1 1 0
(iii) ( R1.R2 ) = {(1,1),(4,1),(3,1),(1, 2),(4, 2),(4,3),(4, 4),(1, 4),(3, 4)}
C
11 1 0
00  0 0
M R R C =
( 1 2) 11 0 0
 
11 1 1
1 0 1 0  1 0 0 1  1 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 0  1 0 0 1   0 0 0 0 
 M R C .M R C =   = =M
2 1  0 1 0 0   0 1 0 1  1 0 0 1  ( R1R2 )C
    
 1 1 0 1   0 1 1 0  1 1 1 1 
12. Let A = {1,2,3,4} and the relation R = {(1,1),(1,3),(2,3),(3,1),(4,2),(4,4)}
S = {(1,2),(2,3)(3,2),(3,1),(4,3)}. Compute ( i ) M R  S ( ii ) M R  S ( iii ) M R C
Answer: Given R = {(1,1),(1,3),(2,3),(3,1),(4,2),(4,4)} and S = {(1,2),(2,3),(3,2),

(3,1),(4,3)}.
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
(i) R  S = {(2,3),(3,1)} and MR S =
1 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
(ii) R  S = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(4,2),(4,3)(4,4)} and
1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
MR  S =
1 1 0 0
 
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
(iii) R = {(1,1),(1,3),(2,4)(3,1),(3,2),(4,4)} and MRc = 
C
1 1 0 0
 
0 0 0 1
13. Show that (a) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on the set A, then R1 R 2
is an equivalence relation. (b) If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on the

set A, then it is not necessary R1 R 2 is an equivalence relation.
Answer: For each a A , ( a , a ) R1 and ( a, a ) R2 . Hence ( a, a ) R1 R2 .

Therefore R1 R2 is reflexive.
Let ( a, b ) R1 R2  ( a, b ) R1 and ( a , b ) R2 .
Since R1 , R2 are both symmetric, then ( b, a ) R1 and ( b, a ) R2 . Hence ( b, a ) R1 R2 .
Therefore R1 R2 is symmetric.
Let ( a, b ) and ( b, c ) R1 R2 . Then ( a, b) , ( b, c ) R1 and ( a, b ) , ( b, c )R2 .
Since R1 , R2 are both transitive, then ( a, c ) R1 and ( a , c ) R2 . Hence ( a, c ) R1 R2 .
Therefore R1 R2 is transitive.
(ii) Consider the example, Let A = {a , b , c }
Take R1 = {(a, a),(b, b),(c , c ),(a, b),(b, a)} and R2 = {(a, a),(b, b),(c , c ),(a, c ),(c , a)} .
Clearly R1 , R2 are equivalent relations.
Now R1 R2 = {(a, a),(b, b),(c , c ),(a, b),(b, a),(a, c ),(c , a)} is not an equivalence relation
since it is not transitive. (i.e.) (b, a) and (a, c ) R1 R2 , but (b, c )  R1 R2 .
Hence R1 R2 need not be equivalence relation.
14. Show that the relation R = {( a , b )|a , b  Z & a − b is divisble by 3} is an

equivalence relation.
Solution: given that R = {(a , b)|a , b  Z & a − b is divisble by 3} . To prove R is
an equivalence relation.
(i) R is Reflexive
a  Z , a − a is divisble by 3.
(a, a) R
(ii) R is Symmetric
Let (a , b) R ,
 (a − b) is divisble by 3
 −(a − b) is divisble by 3
 (b − a) is divisble by 3
 (b, a) R
(iii) R is Transitive
Let (a , b) R and (b, c ) R
 (a − b) is divisble by 3 and (b − c ) is divisble by 3
 a − b = 3m − − − (1) and
b − c = 3l − − − (2) , where m and n are integers
Now , (a − c ) = a − b + b − c
= 3m + 3l = 3(m + l ), where (m + l ) is integer
= divisible by 3
 (a, c ) R
 R is an equivalence relation.
15. Let R be the transitive and reflexive relation on A. Let T be a relation on A such
that (a, b) is in T if and only if both (a, b)and (b, a) in R. Show that T is an
equivalence relation
Solution: given that R be the transitive and reflexive relation on A. To prove T is
an equivalence relation

(i) T is Reflexive
a  A, (a, a),(a, a) R Ris reflexive & Transitive
 (a, a)T (By defn of T )
(ii) T is Symmetric
Let (a, b)T ,
 (a, b),(b, a)  R (by defn of T & R )
 (b, a),(a, b)  R
 (b, a),(a, b)  T
(b, a)T
(iii) T is Transitive
Let (a , b),(b, c ) T ,
By defn of T , (a , b),(b, a)  R & (b, c ),(c , b)  R
Now (a , b) R and (b, c )  R
 (a , c )  R R is Transitive − − − (1)
Now (c , b) R and (b, a)  R
 (c , a )  R R is Transitive − − − (2)
From (1)& (2), we get
 (a, c ) R and (c , a)  R
 (a, c )T
T is an equivalence relation.
16. If R is a relation on the set of integers such that ( a , b )  R if and only if
3a + 4b = 7n for some integer n. Show that R is an equivalence relation.
Solution: given that (a , b) R if and only if 3a + 4b = 7n for some integer n. To
Prove R is an equivalence relation
(i) R is Reflexive
3a + 4a = 7a where a  Z
(a, a) R
(ii) R is Symmetric
Let (a, b) R  3a + 4b = 7n for some integer n
Now , 3b + 4a = (7b − 4b) + (7a − 3a)
= 7(b + a) − (3a + 4b)
= 7(b + a) − 7n
= 7(b + a − n) = 7m , for some integer m
Therefore , (b, a) R
(iii) R is Transitive
Let (a , b),(b, c ) R
since (a , b) R  3a + 4b = 7n for some integer n.
Also (b, c ) R  3b + 4c = 7m for some integer m
Now , 3a + 4b + 3b + 4c = 7n + 7m
3a + 7b + 4c = 7m + 7n

3a + 4c = 7m + 7n − 7b
= 7(m + n − b) = 7k , for some integer k
 (a , c ) R
 R is an equivalence relation.
17. Show that (N,≤) is a partially ordered set where N is set of all positive integers
and ≤ is defined by m≤ n if and only if n–m is a non-negative integer.
Solution: Given N is the set of all +ve integer.
The given relation is m≤ n if and only if n–m is a non-negative integer.
(i) Reflexive
x  N , then x − x is a non-negative integer.
 xRx , x  N  R is reflexive
(ii) Antisymmetric
Consider xRy and yRx
Since xRy  x–y is a non-negative integer. -----(1)
yRx  y–x is a non-negative integer.
 –(x–y) is a non-negative integer. -----(2)
 x =y From (1) and (2)
 R is antisymmetric
(iii) Transitive
Consider xRy and yRz
Since xRy  x–y is a non-negative integer. -----(1)
yRz  y–z is a non-negative integer. -----(2)
 ( x–y+(y–z)) is a non-negative integer.
 x-z is a non-negative integer From (1) and (2)
Therefore, xRy and yRz  xRz. (i.e.) R is Transitive.
Hence (N,≤) is a partially ordered set.
18. In the set of natural numbers N={1,2,3,….}, show that the relation R defined
as aRb  a = b k for a , b, k  N is a partial order relation.
Solution: Given N is the set of all +ve integer.
The given relation is aRb  a = b k for a, b, k  N
(i) Reflexive
For k=1, a = a1 , for all a  N .
So, R is reflexive
(ii) Antisymmetric
Suppose aRb and bRa both are true.
aRb  a = b k1 & bRa  b = a k2
 a = (a k2 ) k1 = a
k1 k2
 a1 = a 1 2
k k
Clearly k1k2 = 1 , as k1 and k2 are natural numbers.

 k1 = k2 = 1.
so, we have a = b1 = b
Hence aRb and bRa are both true when a = b.
So, R is Antisymmetric
(iii) Transitive
Suppose aRb and bRa both are true.
aRb  a = b k1 & bRc  b = c k2
Since k1 and k2 are natural numbers.
So a = (ck2 )k1 = ck1k2 , k1k2  N

Hence aRc , R is transitive.
Hence R is a partially ordered set.
19. Let X be the set of all 2 X 2 real matrices. Let x, y  X ,
x x2  y y2 
x= 1  , y= 1 and the relation xy has the meaning
 x3 x4   y3 y4 
x1 + x2 + x3 + x 4  y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 Check ( X ,  ) is partial ordered relation.

Solution: Given X is a set of 2 X 2 real matrices.
To prove ( X ,  ) is Poset
The given relation is x  y  x1 + x2 + x3 + x 4  y1 + y2 + y3 + y4
(i) Reflexive
Clearly x  x is true. Therefore, X is reflexive
(ii) Anti-symmetric
The given relation  is not anti–symmetric on the set X because if
x  y & y  x.
x  y  x1 + x2 + x3 + x4  y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 &
y  x  y1 + y2 + y3 + y4  x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 .
 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4
x= y ( Not possible always )
3 −3 4 −3
Consider x =   , y= 
4 −3 2 −2
clearly x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 = 1, but x  y.
Therefore, X is not a Poset.
20. If ( A, ) and ( B ,  ) are the Poset, then show that ( A X B ,  ) is also a Poset with
the partial ordered relation (a1 , b1 )  (a2 , b2 ) if a1  a2 and b1  b2 in R.
Solution: Given ( A,  ) and ( B ,  ) are the Poset. To prove ( A X B ,  ) is also a Poset
The given relation is (a1 , b1 )  (a2 , b2 ) if a1  a2 and b1  b2 in R.
(i) Reflexive
Let (a , b) A X B

We know that a  a and b  b

 (a , b)  (a , b) . Hence R is reflexive.
(ii) Antisymmetric
Let (a1 , b1 )  (a2 , b2 ) and (a2 , b2 )  (a1 , b1 )
 a1  a2 , b1  b2 & a2  a1 , b2  b1
 a1 = a2 , b1 = b2
Thus (a1 , b1 ) = (a2 , b2 )
(iii) Transitive
Let (a1 , b1 )  (a2 , b2 ) and (a2 , b2 )  (a3 , b3 )
 a1  a2 , b1  b2 & a2  a3 , b2  b3
 a1  a3 , b1  b3 (A,  ) & (B,  ) are Posets.
Thus (a1 , b1 )  (a3 , b3 ).
Hence R is transitive.
Hence R is a partially ordered set.
21. Let D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} and let the relation R be “divides” on D30.
Find (a) all the lower bound of 10 & 15 (b) the greatest lower bound of 10 &
15. (c) all upper bound of 10 &15 (d) the least upper bound of 10 & 15 and
Draw the Hasse diagram
Answer:
(a) The lower bounds of 10 and 15 are {1,5}.
(b) The greatest lower bound of 10 and 15 is 5.
(c) The upper bound of 10 and 15 is 30.
(d) The least upper bound of 10 and 15 is also 30.
(e) Hasse diagram
22. Draw the Hasse diagram for X= { 2, 3, 6, 12, 24, 36}, and let the relation R be
“divides” on X. Find the Least upper bound and Greatest lower bound of
(2, 3), (24, 36), (6, 12). [APR 2023]
Answer: Hasse Diagram

Least Upper Greatest

Upper Bound Lower Bound
bound Lower bound
(2, 3) 6,12,24,36 6 - -
(24, 36) - - {12,6,3,2} 12
(6, 12) {12,24,36} 12 {6,3,2} 6
23. Draw the Hasse diagram for (a) D24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}
(b) D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
Answer: Hasse Diagram D24 & D30
D24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}

24. Draw the Hasse Diagram for the relation “divides” on D36 . Also find
(a) all the lower bounds of 3 & 4 (b) greatest lower bound of 18 & 36.
(c) all the upper bounds of 6 & 18. (d) least upper bound of 3 and 12.
[NOV 2023]
Answer:
(a) all the lower bounds of 3 & 4 = {1} Hasse Diagram
(b) lower bound of 18 & 36 = {18,9,6,3,2,1}
 Greatest lower bound of 18 & 36 = {18}

(c) all the upper bounds of 6 & 18 = {18,36}
(d) Upper bound of 3 and 12 = {12,36}
Least upper bound of 3 and 12 = {12}
UNIT – IV GRAPHS
PART A
1. Define Graph .
Answer: A graph G = (V,E) consists of a finite non empty set V, the element of which
are the vertices of G, and a finite set E of ordered or unordered pairs of distinct
elements of V called the edges of G.
2. Define complete graph.
Answer: A graph of n vertices having each pair of distinct vertices joined by an
edge is called a Complete graph and is denoted by Kn. Complete graphs are often
called cliques.

3. Draw the complete graph K5.

Answer:
4. Define regular graph. [APR 2023]

Answer: A graph in which each vertex has the same degree is called a regular graph.
A regular graph is n – regular if each vertex has degree n.
5. Define Bipartite Graph.
Answer: Let G = (V, E) be a graph. G is bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be
partitioned into two nonempty disjoint subsets V1 and V2, called a bipartition, so
that each edge has one end in V1 and in V2.
6. Define a Complete bipartite graph.
Answer: A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph with bipartition V1 and V2
in which each vertex of V1 is joined by an edge to each vertices of V2 .
7. Define spanning subgraph.
Answer: A graph H = (V1, E1) is a subgraph of G = (V,E). H is a spanning subgraph
of G if H is a subgraph of G and V1= V.
8. Define Induced subgraph.
Answer: A graph H = (V1, E1) is a subgraph of G = (V,E). H is an induced subgraph
of G such that E1 consists of all the edges of G with both ends in V1.
9. Define strongly connected graph.
Answer: A digraph G is said to be strongly connected if for every pair of vertices
both vertices of the pair are reachable from one another.
10. State Handshaking theorem
Answer: If G = (V, E) is an undirected graph with e edges, then  deg(vi ) = 2e
i
11. Define adjacency matrix.

Answer: Let G = (V,E) be a graph with n vertices. An n X n matrix A is an
adjacency matrix for G if and only if for 𝑖  𝑛 , 𝑗  𝑛,
1
for(i , j ) in E
A(i , j ) = 
0
for(i , j ) is not in E .
12. Draw the graph represented by the given adjacency matrix.
0 1 0 
1 0 1
 
0 1 0
A B C
Answer: G:

13. Define Isomorphism.

Answer: Two graphs G1 = (V1 ,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) are the isomorphic, if there is a
bijection F from V1 to V2 such that F: V1 → V2 such that (u, v)  E1 if and only if
(F(u), F(v)) E2..
14. Define self-complementary graph .
Answer: The complement G of G is defined as a simple graph with the same vertex
set as G, and value two vertices u and v are adjacent in G only when they are not
adjacent in G. If G is isomorphic to its complement G , then G is said to be self-
complementary graph.
15. Define Connected graph.
Answer: A graph for which each pair of vertices is joined by a trail is connected.
16. State the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of an Eulerian
path in a connected graph.
Answer: A connected graph contains an Euler path if and only if it has exactly two
vertices of odd degree.
17. Define Eulerian Circuit.
Answer: A circuit in a graph that includes each edge exactly once, the circuit is
called an Eulerian circuit.
18. State the condition for Eulerian cycle. [APR 2023]
Answer: (i) Starting and ending points are same. (ii) Cycle should contain all
edges of graph but exactly once.
19. Give an example of a graph which is Eulerian and Hamiltonian.
Answer: G - Eulerian and Hamiltonian.
20. Give an example of non-Eulerian graph which is Hamiltonian.

Answer: G - Non-Eulerian graph but Hamiltonian
PART B
1. State and prove Handshaking theorem and Prove that maximum number of
edges in a connected graph with n vertices is n(n − 1) [NOV 2023]
2

Answer :
Handshaking theorem
Statement : If G = (V, E) is an undirected graph with e edges, then  deg(vi ) = 2e
i
Proof: Since every edge is incident with exactly two vertices, every edge
contributes 2 to the sum of the degree of the vertices.
Therefore, all the e edges contribute (2e) to the sum of the degrees of the vertices.
Hence  deg(vi ) = 2e .
i
(ii) By the Hand shaking theorem,
If G = (V, E) is an undirected graph with e edges, then  deg(vi ) = 2e
i
(i.e.) 2e = deg(v1 ) + deg(v2 ) + deg(v3 ) + .... + deg(vn )
Since the maximum degree of each vertex in the simple graph G can be n–1.
n( n − 1)
2e = n − 1 + n − 1 + n − 1 + .... + n − 1 = n(n − 1)  e = .
2
Alternative Method:
We prove this theorem by the principle of mathematical induction.
For n=1, a graph with one vertex and has no edge.
Therefore, the result is true for n = 1.
2(2 − 1)
For n=2, a graph with two vertices and one edge. Therefore E(G)= =1
2
Therefore, the result is true for n=2.
Assume that the result is true for n=k . (i.e.) a graph with ‘k’ vertices and at most
k ( k − 1)
edges.
2
When n=k+1, let G be a graph having ‘n’ vertices and G* be the graph obtained by
deleting one vertex (say) v V (G ) . Since G* has ‘ k ’ vertices , then by hypothesis ,
k ( k − 1) v v
G* has at most edges. Now add the vertex to G* such that may be
2
adjacent to all ‘k’ vertices of G*. Therefore, the number of edges in G, are
k (k − 1) k 2 − k + 2k k 2 + k
E (G ) = +k = =
2 2 2
k (k + 1) (k + 1)((k + 1) − 1)
= =
2 2
Therefore, the result is true for n = k+1.
n( n − 1)
Hence the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with ‘n’ vertices is
2
2. Prove that number of vertices of odd degree in a graph is always even.
[NOV 2023]
Answer : Let G = (V, E) be the undirected graph. Let 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 be the set of
vertices of G of even and odd degrees respectively.
Then by hand shaking theorem, 2e =  deg(vi ) +  deg(v j ) .
vi  V1 v j  V2
Since each deg(vi) is even,  deg(v ) is even.

vi  V1
i

Since LHS is even, we get  deg(v ) is even.

v j  V2
j
Since each deg(vj) is odd, the number of terms contained in  deg(v ) or V2 is even.
v j  V2
j
(i.e.) the number of vertices of odd degree is even.

3. Prove that a simple graph with n vertices and k components can have at most
(n − k )(n − k + 1)
edges. Also Show that a simple graph G with n vertices is
2
(n − 1)(n− 2)
connected if it has more than edges. [APR 2023] [NOV 2023]
2
Answer : Let the number of vertices of the ith component of G be 𝑛𝑖 , 𝑛𝑖 ≥ 1.
k
Then n = n
i =1
i
 n1 + n2 + n3 + .... + nk = n
n1 − 1 + n2 − 1 + n3 − 1 + .... + nk − 1 = n − k
k
  (n − 1) = n − k
i =1
i
2
 k




i =1
( ni − 1)  = n 2 − 2nk + k 2

2
 k

n − 2nk + k = 
2

2

i =1
(ni − 1) 

= (n1 − 1) + (n2 − 1) + (n3 − 1) + ..... + (nk − 1)
2
= (n1 − 1)2 + (n2 − 1)2 + (n3 − 1)2 + ..... + (nk − 1)2 + 2(n1 − 1)(n2 − 1) + 2(n1 − 1)(n3 − 1) + 2(n1 − 1)(n4 − 1) + ...
 (n1 − 1) 2 + (n2 − 1) 2 + (n3 − 1) 2 + ..... + (nk − 1) 2

=n12 + n2 2 + n32 + ..... + nk 2 − 2n1 − 2n2 − 2n3 − ..... − 2nk + 1 + 1 + ... + 1
k k k
= 
i =1
nI 2 + 2 
i =1
ni + k = n
i =1
I
2
+ 2n + k
k
 n 2 − 2nk + k 2  n i =1
i
2
+ 2n + k
n
i =1
i
2
+ 2n + k  n 2 − 2nk + k 2
k
that is n
i =1
i
2
 n 2 − 2nk + k 2 + 2n − k
Now the maximum number of edges in the ith component of G

ni (ni − 1) 1 k 2 n
= =  ni −
2 2 i =1 2
(n 2 − 2nk + k 2 + 2n − k ) n
 −
2 2
(n − 2nk + k + 2n − k − n)
2 2
=
2

(n 2 − nk − nk + k 2 + n − k )
=
2
(n − nk + n + k 2 − nk − k )
2
=
2
(n(n − k + 1) + k (k − n − 1)
=
2
(n(n − k + 1) − k (n − k + 1)
=
2
(n − k )(n − k + 1)

2
Next, we prove “ A simple graph G with n vertices is connected if it has more than
(n − 1)(n − 2)
edges.”
2
We prove the above statement by contrapositive method
Suppose G with ‘n’ vertices is disconnected graph, then it has at least 2 components.
(n − k )(n − k + 1)
By above statement | E (G ) |  . Here k =2.
2
( n − 1)( n − 2)
Therefore | E (G ) |  .
2
By above result, we understood that G be a disconnected graph then it has almost
( n − 1)(n − 2)
edges. By contra positive method, If G is connected graph , then it has
2
(n − 1)(n − 2)
if it has more than edges
2
4. Prove that a graph G is bipartite if and only if all of its cycles are even.
Proof: If G is bipartite, then its vertex set V can be partitioned into two sets V1 and
V2 so that every edge of G joins a vertex in V1 with a vertex in V2.
Thus, every cycle [of length k] v1, v2, …, vk, v1 in G necessarily has its oddly
subscripted vertices in V1, say, and the others in V2, and so its length is even.
Otherwise, we would have the edge (vk, v1) connecting two vertices in V1,
contradicting our hypothesis.
For the converse, we assume without loss of generality that G is connected (for
otherwise we can consider the components of G separately). Take any vertex v1 
V(G) and let [vertex set] V1 consist of v1 and all vertices at even distance from v1,
while [vertex set] V2 = V – V1.
Since all cycles of G are even, every edge of G joins a vertex of V1 with a vertex of
V2. For suppose there is an edge (u, v) joining two vertices of V1. Then the union of
geodesics [shortest paths] from v1 to v and from v1 to u together with the edge (u,
v) contains an odd cycle, a contradiction.
5. Show that G is connected if and only if any partition of V into two subsets V 1
and V2 , there is an edge joining a vertex V1 to a vertex V2

Proof; If G is a connected graph and V1 and V2 are non-empty subsets of its vertex
set V such that V1  V2 = V & V1  V2 =  then the claim is that there must be at least
one edge in G that connects a vertex in V1 to a vertex in V2.
Assume, by way of contradiction, that there is no edge connecting any vertex in
V1 to any vertex in V2.
Since G is connected, there must be a path between any two vertices in G. This
implies that there exists a path between any vertex in V1 and any vertex in V2
Consider the shortest path between any vertex u in V1 and any vertex v in V2. Let x
be the first vertex on this path that belongs to V2 ., since there is no edge directly
connecting V1 and V2 , the vertex x cannot be the only vertex in V2 on the path. There
must be another vertex y in V2 on the path.
This implies that there is a shorter path from u to y that does not include x, which
contradicts the assumption that the original path was the shortest. Therefore, our
assumption that there is no edge connecting any vertex in V1 to any vertex in
V2must be false. Hence, there must be at least one edge in G that connects vertex in
V1 to a vertex in V2
This completes the proof by contradiction ,establishing that in a connected
graph with non-empty disjoint subsets V1 and V2 , there is always at least one edge
connecting a vertex in V1 to a vertex in V2
6. If all the vertices of an undirected graph are each of degree “ k ”, show that
the number of edges of the graph is a multiple of “k”.
Proof : To prove that the number of edges of an undirected graph is a multiple of
the degree k when all vertices have a degree of k, let's use the Handshaking Lemma
and some basic counting principles.
The Handshaking Lemma states that the sum of the degrees of all vertices in a graph
is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph.
Mathematically, for a graph with n vertices and m edges: 2m=∑𝑛𝑖=1 degree(𝑣𝑖)
Given that all vertices in the graph have a degree of k, we can rewrite the sum:
2m=∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝑘)
Since all vertices have degree k, the sum on the right side is equal to kn.
Therefore: 2m=kn, let's rearrange the equation to solve for m, the number of edges:
kn
m= . Since k is a constant (the degree of each vertex) and n is the number of
2
vertices, we can see that m is a multiple of k. Specifically, m is equal to k multiplied
n n
by , where is an integer because the number of vertices is assumed to be even
2 2
(since each edge contributes to the degree of two vertices). Therefore, when all the
vertices of an undirected graph have a degree of k, the number of edges (m) is a
multiple of k.
7. If G is a self-complementary graph, then prove that G has n  0 (or) 1(mod 4)
vertices.

Proof: G is self- complementary  G is isomorphic to G

Suppose G is a graph on n-Vertices, then 𝐸(𝐺) ∪ 𝐸(𝐺) ̅̅̅ = The set of all edges in Kn
Let |𝐸(𝐺)| = |𝐸(𝐺̅ )| = m
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑚+𝑚 =
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
2𝑚 =
2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 4𝑚
i.e., 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) is a multiple of 4.
 either n or n-1 is divisible by 4.
i.e., G is a self-complementary simple graph with n vertices, then 𝑛 ≡
0 𝑜𝑟 1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑4).
8. Examine whether the following pairs of graphs G 1 and G2 given in figures are
isomorphic or not. [NOV 2023]
Solution:
Same number of vertices and edges. Also an equal number of vertices with given
degree.
Consider the mapping f (u1 ) = v1; f (u2 ) = v3 ; f (u3 ) = v2 ; f (u4 ) = v5 ; f (u5 ) = v4
The adjacency matrices of the two graphs are
u1 u2 u3 u4 u5 v1 v3 v2 v5 v4
u1  0 1 0 1 1 v1  0 1 0 1 1
u2  1 0 1 1 1
 v3  1 0 1 1 1

u3  0 1 0 1 0  and v2  0 1 0 1 0
   
u4  1 1 1 0 1 v5  1 1 1 0 1
u5  1 1 0 1 0  v4  1 1 0 1 0 
Since the two adjacency matrices are the same, the two graphs are isomorphic.
9. Examine whether the following pairs of graphs G and H given in figures are
isomorphic or not.

Answer : Both G and H have 8 vertices and 10 edges .

In G :
deg(a) = 2, deg(b) = 3, deg(c) = 2, deg(d) = 3, deg(e) = 2, deg(f) = 3, deg(g) = 2,
deg(h) = 3,
In H :
deg(s) = 3, deg(t) = 2, deg(u) = 2, deg(v) = 3, deg(w) = 3, deg(x) = 2, deg(y) = 2,
deg(z) = 3,
The degree sequence of G and H are the same. But the adjacency is not preserved .
Both G and H have the same degree sequence (2,2,2,2,3,3,3,3) but there is no one
to one correspondence between the vertices.
For example, if we map ‘b’ in G with ‘s’ in H , ‘b’ is adjacent with a,f,c each of degree
2,3,2 respectively. ‘s’ is adjacent with v,w,t each of degree 3,3,2 respectively.
Therefore, adjacency is not preserved between G and H. Hence G and H are not
isomorphic.
10 Examine whether the following pairs of graphs G1 and G2 given in figures
are isomorphic or not.
G1 G2
Answer : In G1 the number of vertices is 7 and the number edges is 6, but in G2 the
number of vertices is 6 and the number edges is 5. The very first condition for
isomorphism of two graphs is that the number of vertices and the number edges
of both graphs must be same. Since the condition is not satisfied the graphs are not
isomorphic.
11. Define isomorphism between two graphs. Are the simple graphs with the
following adjacency matrices isomorphic? [APR 2023]
0 1 0 0 0 1  0 1 0 0 0 1 
1 0 1 0 1 0  1 0 1 0 0 1 
   
0 1 0 1 0 1  0 1 0 1 1 0 
   
0 0 1 0 1 0  0 0 1 0 1 0 
0 1 0 1 0 1  0 0 1 1 0 1 
   
1 0 1 0 1 0  1 1 0 0 1 0 
Answer : Isomorphism : Two graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are the same
or isomorphic, if there is a bijection ( one to one correspondence). F : V1 → V2 such
that (u, v)  E1 if and only if (F(u), F(v))  E2..

The given two graphs have Same number of vertices = 6

and Same number of edges = 8
Moreover, in the given diagram u2 , u3 , u5 , u6 are of degree 3 each, u1 , u4 are degree 2.
Similarly, v2 , v3 , v5 , v6 are of degree 3 each, v1 , v4 are of degree 2.
Consider a cycle of length 4; u1 − u2 − u5 − u6 − u1 .
In this cycle, degrees of vertices are 2,3,3,3
In the other graph the only possible cycle of length 4 is v2 − v3 − v5 − v6 − v2 .
In this cycle, degrees of vertices are 3,3,3,3
Therefore, it is not possible to have the isomorphism between the graph.
Therefore, the given two graphs are not isomorphic.
12. Prove that a given connected graph G is Euler graph if and only if all vertices
of G are of even degree.
Proof : Suppose G is an Euler graph.
 G contains an Euler cycle
 G contains a closed path covering all edges.
To prove: All vertices of G is of even degree.
Since the Euler cycle covers all the edges , all the vertices of G will appear in this
Euler Cycle.
Case i : A vertex v of G may be an internal vertex of the Euler cycle.
Degree(v) = 2 X number of times that appear in the Euler cycle
= an even number
Case ii : A vertex u of G may be the starting and ending vertex of the Euler cycle.
Degree (u) = (1 + 1) + 2 X number of times that appear in the Euler cycle
= 2 + an even number
= an even number
In either case, degree of the vertex becomes an even number.
All the vertices of G has even degree.
Conversely, suppose that all vertices of G are of even degree.
To prove: G is an Euler graph.
(i.e.) to prove: G contains an Euler cycle.
Construct a closed path starting at an arbitrary vertex v and going through the edge
of G such that no edge is repeated.

Because, each vertex is of even degree, we can exit from each end, every vertex
where we enter, the tracing can stop only at the vertex v.
Name the closed path as C
Case (i) If C covers all edges of G, then h becomes an Euler cycle, and hence, G is an
Euler graph.
Case (ii) If C does not cover all edges of G then remove all edges of C from G and
obtain the remaining graph G *
Because both G and G * have all their vertex of even degree.
 Every vertex in G * is also of even degree.
Since G is connected, C will touch G *. at least one vertex v 1.
Starting from v 1 , we can again construct a new path C in G *.
This will terminate only at v 1 , because, every vertex in G *. is also of even degree.
Now, this walk C combined with C forms a closed walk starts and ends at v and has
more edges than C. This process is repeated until we obtain a closed path covering
all edges of G. Thus, G is an Euler graph.
13. Prove that if a graph G has not more than two vertices of odd degree, then
there can be Euler path in G.
Proof: To prove that if a graph G has no more than two vertices of odd degree, then
there can be an Euler path in G, we can use the following theorem: ‘A connected
graph has an Eulerian path if and only if it has either 0 or 2 vertices of odd degree.’
Case i:
If G has 0 vertices of odd degree: If all vertices in G have even degree, then G is
Eulerian. An Eulerian circuit (a closed walk that traverses each edge exactly once)
exists in G.
Case ii:
If G has 2 vertices of odd degree: If G has exactly two vertices with odd degree, we
can construct an Eulerian path. Start the path at one of the odd-degree vertices and
end at the other odd-degree vertex. All other vertices have even degrees, so the
graph can be decomposed into cycles. Adding the Eulerian path between the two
odd-degree vertices connects these cycles into a single Eulerian path.
Case iii:
If G has more than 2 vertices of odd degree:
If G has more than two vertices of odd degree, it cannot have an Eulerian path. The
reason is that for any connected graph, the sum of the degrees of all vertices is even
(handshaking lemma). If there are more than two vertices of odd degree, the sum
of the degrees would be odd, which is not possible. therefore, if a graph G has no
more than two vertices of odd degree, there can be an Eulerian path in G.
14. If G is a connected simple graph with n vertices with n  3 ,such that the
degree of every vertex in G is at least  n  , then prove that G has Hamilton
 2
cycle. [APR 2023]

Proof: We prove this theorem by contradiction.

Suppose that the theorem is false and let G be a non-Hamiltonian simple graph with
𝑛 ≥ 3, G cannot be complete.
Let u and v be non-adjacent vertices in G.
By choice of G, G+uv is Hamiltonian simple graph with 𝑛 ≥ 3 and degree of each
𝑛
vertex ≥ 2 .
Moreover, since G is non-Hamiltonian, each Hamiltonian cycle of G+uv must contain
the edges uv.
Thus, there is a Hamilton path v1 , v2 , vi vn in G with origin 𝑣 = 𝑣1 and v = vn .
Let, S = vi / uvi +1  E T = vi / vi v  E
Since vn  S  T , we have S  T  n and S  T = 0
Since if S  T contained some vertex vi , then G would have the Hamiltonian cycle
v1 , v2 , vi vn vn −1 , vi v1 which is a contradiction.
Also, d (u ) + d (v) = S + T = S  T + S  T  n
𝑛
But this contradicts the hypothesis that degree of each vertex ≥ 2. Hence the
theorem.
15. Define Eulerian and Hamiltonian graph. Also give an example for graphs
which are a) Eulerian but not Hamiltonian b) Hamiltonian but not Eulerian
c) Eulerian and Hamiltonian d) Neither Eulerian nor Hamiltonian.
Answer
Eulerian graph : A circuit (cycle) in a graph that includes each edge exactly once,
the circuit is called an Eulerian circuit. Any graph containing Eulerian cycle is called
Eulerian graph
Hamiltonian Graph : A circuit is called Hamiltonian circuit (cycle) if it includes
each vertex exactly once, except starting and ending vertices. Any graph containing
Hamiltonian cycle is called Eulerian graph
(a) Eulerian but not Hamiltonian (b) Hamiltonian but not Eulerian
A D
A B
C C
E D
B E

(c) Eulerian and Hamiltonian (d) Neither Eulerian nor Hamiltonian

A B A B
C D D C
16. Find Euler Path, Hamiltonian Path, Euler Circuit & Hamiltonian Circuit if it
exists in each of three graphs given below. If it does not exist, explain why ?
G2 G3
G1 A C E G A B
A B
C G
F C
C D E D
B D F
Answer: We know that

Result 1: A connected graph is Euler Graph contains Eulerian circuit if and
only if all the vertices are even degree
Result 2: A connected graph has an Euler path if and only if it contains exactly
two vertices of odd degree
(i) In the graph G1, all the vertices A,B,C and D have odd degree namely 3. From the
observation, it is clear that no vertices is of even degree and more than two vertices
is of odd degree. Therefore, from the result (1) and result (2), Graph G1 is non
Eulerian and it has no Eulerian path. Also G1 is Hamiltonian graph and Hamiltonian
circuit is A- B- D- C- A.
(ii) In the graph G2, exactly two vertices B and F have odd degree namely 3.
Therefore, from the result (1) and result (2), Graph G2 is non Eulerian and it has
Eulerian path. Eulerian Path is B-A-C-E-G-F-D-C-B-D-E-F. Also, G2 is Hamiltonian
graph and Hamiltonian circuit is A- C-E-G-F- D- B- A.
(iii) In the graph G3, vertices A,B,C, D,E and F have odd degree namely 3. Therefore,
from the result (1) and result (2), Graph G3 is non Eulerian and no Eulerian path.
Also, G3 is Hamiltonian graph and Hamiltonian circuit is G- A-B-C-D- E- F- G.
UNIT – V ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
PART A

1. Define Algebraic system.

Answer: A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operations on the set
will be called an algebraic system or simply algebra.
Example (Z, +) is an algebraic system.
2. Define Semi Group
Answer: Let S be non empty set, * be a binary operation on S. The algebraic system
(S, *) is called a semi group, if the operation is closed and associative.
In other words (S,*) is a semi group if for any x, y, z  S, x* (y * z) = (x* y )* z.
3. In a group (G,*) show that (a * b)−1 = b−1 * a −1 , a , b  G . [APR 2023]

−1 −1 −1
Answer: (a * b) = b * a ,  a, b  G
Let a, b  G and a −1 , b −1  G
a * a−1 = a−1 * a = e or b * b−1 = b−1 * b = e
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Now (a * b)*(b * a ) = a *(b * b )* a = a * e* a = a * a = e
Similarly, we can prove (b−1 * a−1 )*(a * b) = e
−1 −1 −1
Therefore (a * b) = b * a
4. Give an example of semi group but not a Monoid.
Answer: The set of all positive integers (excluding zero) with addition is a
semigroup but not a monoid. This is because there is no identity element.
5. Define Group. [NOV 2023]
Answer: An algebraic system (G, *) is called a group if it satisfies the following
properties:
(i) Closure : a * b = x  G ,  a , b  G.
(ii) Associative: a *(b * c ) = (a * b)* c ,  a , b, c  G.
(iii) Identity : a * e = e * a = a ,  a , e  G.
(iv) Inverse : a * a−1 = a−1 * a = e ,  a , a−1  G.
6. State any two properties of a group.
Answer: (i) The identity element of a group is unique. (ii) The inverse of each
element is unique.
7. Prove that identity element in a group is unique .
Answer: Let (G,*) be a group and let ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be the identity elements in G.
Suppose e1 is the identity, then e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e2
Suppose e2 is the identity, then e1* e2 = e2 * e1 = e1
Therefore e1= e2. Hence identity element is unique.
8. Show that every element of a group G is self-inverse then G is abelian

Answer: Let (G,*) be a group.

For a, b  G , we have a * b  G
Given a = a −1 and b = b −1
(a * b) = (a * b)−1 = b−1 * a−1
= b*a
a*b = b*a
Therefore, G is abelian
9. Prove that in any group, identity element is the only idempotent element.
Answer: Let a be an idempotent element of G, then a * a = a.........(1)
Now, a  G  a−1  G
Pre multiply a −1 on both sides of (1)
a −1 *(a * a) = a−1 * a − − − − − (2)
(a −1
)
* a * a = a−1 * a = e
e *a = e
a = e
10. Let Z be the group of integers with the binary operation * defined by
a * b = a + b − 2 for all a , b  Z . Find the identity element of the group Z ,* .
Answer: a = a*e = a+e–2
 a = a+e–2
 e–2 = 0. Therefore e=2
11. Define Normal Subgroup
Answer: Let H be a subgroup of G, then H is said to be a normal subgroup of G, if
for every x  G and for hH , xh = xh, that is, xhx-1 belongs to H.
12. State any two properties of Normal Subgroup .
Answer:
(i)The intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group is a normal subgroup.
(ii)The intersection of any collection of normal subgroups is a normal subgroup.
13. Define a group homomorphism with an example.
Answer: Let (G,*) and ( S , ) be two groups. A mapping f: G → S is said to be a

group homomorphism if for any a, b  G,
(i.e.) f(a*b) = f(a) f(b).
Example: Consider f : R + , ( ) → ( R , + ) where f(x) = log10(x)
for any a, b R+ , f (a b) = log10 ( ab ) = log10 ( a ) + log10 ( b ) = f ( a ) + f ( b ) .
Therefore f(x) is a group homomorphism
14. Prove that the semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency

Answer: Let (S, *) and (T, ∆ ) be any two semigroups. A mapping 𝑔: 𝑆→𝑇 such that
for any two elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑔(𝑎∗𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎) ∆ 𝑔(𝑏) is called a semigroup
homomorphism. Let a  S be an idempotent element. (i.e.) a * a = a . Now to prove
g (a ) is idempotent.
 g (a)2 = g (a) g (a)

= g (a * a) = g (a) a*a = a
 g (a)2 = g (a)
Therefore, g (a ) is an idempotent element in T. Thus, semigroup homomorphism
preserves idempotency.
15. Prove that group homomorphism preserves identity.
Answer: Let f : (G,*) → (G , )
Identity property is a*e = e * a = a,  aG
Consider a * e = a
f( a * e ) = f(a)
f(a)  f(e) = f(e)
f(e) is identity element of G . (i.e.) f(e) = e
16. Let f : (G , *) → (G ',  ) be a group homomorphism. Then prove that
 f (a)
−1
= f (a−1 ), a G.
Answer:
Let f : (G,*) → (G ', ) be a group homomorphism. Let a  G  a −1  G
We Know that a * a −1 = a −1 * a = e
a * a −1 = e  f (a * a −1 ) = f (e)
f (a)f (a −1 ) = e ' − − − (1)
−1
Similarly f (a )  f (a) = e ' − − − (2)
−1
From (1) and (2) f (a ) is the inverse of f (a).
Hence  f (a) = f (a −1 )
−1
17. Define Isomorphism of groups.

Answer: For two groups (G,+) and (G’,*) a mapping f : G → G’ is called
isomorphism if (i) f is one-one, (ii) f is onto and (iii) f is homomorphism
i.e. f(a + b) = f(a) * f(b) ∀ a, b ∈ G.
18. Let f :(G, ) → (G, + ) be an isomorphism. If G is an abelian group then prove
that G  is also an abelian group.
Answer: Let a, b G.
Then there exists a, b G ,such that f (a)= a & f (b)= b
a + b = f (a)+ f (b) = f (a  b)= f (b  a) = f (b)+ f (a) = b + a
Hence G  is an abelian group.

19. Let G = ( Z12 , + 12 ) , Find the left cosets of H = [0],[4],[8] and show that the
distinct left cosets of H forms a partition of G. [APR 2023] [NOV 2023]
Answer: Z12 = [0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11] ; H = [0],[4],[8]
[0] + H = [0],[4],[8] = H = [4] + H = [8] + H
[1] + H = [1],[5],[9] = [5] + H = [9] + H

[2] + H = [2],[6],[10] = [6] + H = [10] + H
[3] + H = [3],[7],[11] = [7] + H = [11] + H
 G = H  ([1] + H )  ([2] + H )  ([3] + H )
20. State Lagrange’s theorem.
Answer: The order of the subgroup of a finite group G divides the order of the
group.
PART B
  1 0  − 1 0 1 0  −1 0 
1. Prove that G =    ,  , ,  forms an abelian group
  0 1   0 1  0 − 1  0 − 1 
under matrix multiplication. [APR 2023]
1 0   −1 0  1 0   −1 0 
Answer: Let I =   , A=   , B=  and C =  
0 1   0 1 0 −1  0 −1
The matrix multiplication table is,
 I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
Claim 1: Closure property
Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of G.
Hence, G is closed under multiplication.
Claim 2: Associative property
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
Claim 3: Identity property
From the above table we observe that the matrix I G is the Identity
matrix.
Claim 4: Inverse property
From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each
other. Hence, Inverse element exists.
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have
A  B = C = B  A, A  C = B = C  A, B  C = A = C  B
Therefore, commutative property exists. Hence G forms an abelian group under
matrix multiplication.
+ ab
2. Show that (Q ,*) is an abelian group where * is defined by a * b = , for all
2
+
a, b Q . [NOV 2023]
Answer : Let Q = {Rational Numbers}, and a, b, c Q
Closure
Weknow that, Product of two positive rational numbers is again a rational number.
 ab 
 a*b=    Q
 2 
Associative
 bc   abc   ab   abc 
LHS : a*(b*c)=a*   =   and RHS: (a*b)*c=   *c=  
 2  4   2  4 
 (i.e)Associative is true
Identity
Let 'e' be the identity element.
 a*e= a
 ae 
   =a  e = 2 is the identity element
 2
Inverse
Let a −1 is the inverse element in Q
w .k .t a * a−1 = e = 2
 aa−1  4
  = 2  a−1 =  Q
 2  a
 
Commutative
Let a,b  Q
 ab   ba 
Then a*b=   =   =b*a , a, b Q
 2  2 
Therefore (Q,*) is abeliangroup
3. Show that ( R − {1},* ) is an abelian group , where * is defined by
a * b = a + b + ab, for all a , b R.
Answer: Given that a * b = a + b + ab, for all a , b R . We prove that ( R − {1},* ) is an
abelian group
(i) Closure
Let a,b R, Then a*b=a+b+ab  (R-{1}) (a  −1, b  −1)
(ii) Associative
Let a,b,c  R
LHS : (a*b)*c = (a+b+ab)*c = (a+b+ab)+c+(ac+bc+abc)

=a+b+c+ab+bc+ac+abc
RHS : a* (b*c) = a* (b+c+bc)=a+(b+c+bc)+(ab+ac+abc)
=a+b+c+ab+bc+ac+abc
LHS=RHS  Associative is true
(iii) Identity
Let e be the identity element.
Then a*e=a  a+e+ae=a  e(1+a)=0  e=0
'0' isthe identity eleement in R-{1}.
(iv ) Inverse
Let a−1 bethe inverse element
Then a * a−1 = e = 0  a + a−1 + aa−1 = 0
a
a−1(1 + a) = −a  a−1 = −
1+a
(v ) Commutative
a*b=a+b+ab=b+a+ba=b*a
 R-{1}is abelian group
4. Show that a non-empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a subgroup G if and only
if a * b −1  H for all a , b  H
Answer: Necessary Condition:
Let us assume that H is a subgroup of G. Since H itself a group, we have if a , b H
implies a * b H
−1 −1
Since b H then b  H which implies a *b  H
Sufficient Condition:
−1
Let a *b  H , for a * b H
−1
If a  H , which implies a * a = e  H
Hence the identity element e H .
−1 −1
Let a , e  H , then e * a = a  H
−1 a.
Hence a is the inverse of
( )
−1
−1 −1
Let a , b  H , then a * b = a * b H
Therefore H is closed.
Clearly * is associative.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.

5. Prove that intersection of two subgroups of a group G is again a subgroup of

G, but their union need not be a subgroup of G. [NOV 2023]
Answer:
Claim 1: Intersection of two subgroups is again a subgroup.
Let A and B be two subgroups of a group G. we need to prove that
A B is a subgroup.
(i.e.) It is enough to prove that A B   and a,b  A B  a* b−1  A B .
Since A and B are subgroups of G, the identity element e  A and B .
 A B 
Let a,b  A B  a,b  A and a,b  B
 a * b −1  A and a * b −1  B
 a* b−1  A B
Hence A B is a subgroup of G.
Claim 2: Union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup
Consider the following example, Consider the group ( Z ,+ ) , where Z is the set of
all integers and the operation + represents usual addition.
Let A = 2Z = 0, 2, 4, 6, ... and B = 3Z = 0, 3, 6, 9, ... .
Here ( 2Z ,+ ) and ( 3Z , + ) are both subgroups of ( Z ,+ )
Let H = 2Z 3Z = 0, 2, 3, 4, 6,...

Note that 2 , 3  H , but 2 + 3 = 5  H  5  2Z 3Z
(i.e.) 2Z 3Z is not closed under addition.
Therefore 2Z 3Z is not a group
Therefore (H, +) is not a subgroup of (Z, +).
6. Prove that the union of two subgroups of a group G is a subgroup if and only
if one is contained in the other.
Proof:
Assume H and K are two subgroups of G and H  K or K  H .
 H K = K or H K = H
Hence H K is a subgroup.
Conversely, suppose H K is a subgroup of G. We claim that H  K or K  H .
Suppose that H is not contained in K and K is not contained in H.
Then there exists elements a,b such that
a  H and a  K ------(1)
b  K and b  H ------(2)
Clearly a, b  H K . Since H K is a sugroup of G, ab  H K .
Hence ab  H or ab  K .
Case(1): Let ab  H . Since a  H , a −1  H .

Hence a −1 (ab) = b  H , which is a contradiction to (2)

Case(2): Let ab  K . Since b  K , b −1  K .
Hence b −1 (ab) = a  K , which is a contradiction to (1)
 Our assumption is wrong ,  H  K or K  H .
7. Show that the kernel of group homomorphism is a normal subgroup of the

Group. [APR 2023]
Answer : Let K be the Kernel of the homomorphism g. That is K ={x  G g ( x) = e}
where e the identity element of H.
Let x, y  K. Now
−1 −1
g ( x * y −1) = g ( x)  g ( y −1) = g ( x)   g ( y)  = e  ( e ) = e  e = e
x * y −1  K
Therefore, K is a subgroup of G. Let
x  K , f G
−1 −1
g ( f * x * f −1 ) = g ( f )* g ( x) * g ( f −1) = g ( f ) e  g ( f )  = g ( f )  g ( f )  = e
 f * x * f −1  K
Thus, K is a normal subgroup of G.
8. Prove that intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group (G, *) is a
normal subgroup of a group (G, *).
Answer: Let G be the group. H and K are the normal subgroups of G.
Since H and K are normal subgroups of G
 H and K are subgroups of G
 H K is a subgroup of G.
Now we have to prove H K is normal
Since e  H and e  K  e  H K.
Thus H  K is nonempty.
Let x  G and h  H K
x  G and h  H , h  K
x  G , h  H and x  G , h  K
So, x  h  x −1  H and x  h  x −1  K
 x  h  x −1  H K
Thus H K is a Normal subgroup of G.
9. State and Prove Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism (or) Every
homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient group of G.
[APR 2023]

Statement: Every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient

group of G . (OR) Let f : G → G  be a onto Homomorphism of groups with kernel
G
K then  G'
K
G
Proof: To prove  : → G  is isomorphism.
K
Let f : G → G  be a homomorphism.
Let G be the homomorphic image of group G . Let K be the Kernel of this
homomorphism.  K is normal subgroup of G .
G
Claim:  G
K
G
Define  : → G  by  ( K * a) = f (a) for all a  G ------(1)
K
Claim (A) :  is welldefined
wehave K * a = K * b
 a  b−1  K
 f (a  b−1 ) = e
 f (a)  f (b−1 ) = e
 f (a)  f (b)−1 = e
 f (a)  f (b)−1 * f (b) = e * f (b) multiply f(b) on both sides
 f (a ) = f ( b )
  is welldefined.
Claim (B) :  isone-one
To prove (K * a) = (K * b)
 K *a = K * b
we know that f (a) = f (b)
 f (a)* f (b−1 ) = f (b)* f (b−1 ) = f (b * b−1 ) = f (e )
 f (a)* f (b−1 ) = f (e ) = e Since f is homomorphism and f (e ) = e '
 f (a * b−1 ) = e
 a * b−1  K
 K *a = K *b
 isone − one
Claim (C) :  is on - to
Let y  G, since f is on − to, there exits a  G such that f (a) = y.
Hence(K * a) = f (a) = y. From (1)
  is on − to
Claim (D) :  is homomorphism
Now (K * a * K * b) = (K * a * b) = f (a * b) From (1) (K * a) = f (a)
= f (a)* f (b) f is homomorphism (i.e) f (a * b) = f (a)* f (b)
= (k * a)* (k * b)
  is homomorphism.

G
  is isomporphism (i .e.) one − one , onto and homomorphism  between & G .
K
G
  G .
K
10. State and Prove Lagrange’s theorem on finite groups (or) Prove that in a
finite group, order of any subgroup divides the order of the group.
[APR 2023] [NOV 2023]
Proof:
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then order of H is a divisor of order of
G.
Let O ( G ) = n, (Here n is finite)
Let G = a1 = e1 , a2 , a3 ,...., an  and let H be a subgroup of G.
Consider the left cosets as follows.
e * H = e * h \ h  H  ; a2 * H = a2 * h \ h  H 
an * H = an * h \ h  H 
We know that by lemma 1, “ any two left cosets are either identical or disjoint”
Also
O (e * H ) = O ( H )
O ( ai * H ) = O ( H ) , ai  G
Otherwise, if a * hi = a * h j for i  j, by cancellation laws, we would have hi = h j
which is a contradiction.
Let there be k-disjoint cosets of H in K.
We know that by lemma 2, “ Let (H,*) be an subgroup of (G,*). The set of left cosets
of H in G forms a partition of G. ”
Therefore, their union equals G (i.e.) G = ( a1 * H ) ( a2 * H ) .... ( ak * H )
 O ( G ) = O ( a1 * H ) + O ( a2 * H ) + ... + O ( ak * H )
= O ( H ) + O ( H ) + ..... + ..... + O ( H )
O ( G ) = k. O ( H ) ( k is the index of H in G )
This implies O ( H ) is a divisor of O ( G ) .
11. Let G be a group subgroups H and K. If |G|=660, |K|=66 and K  H  G, what

are the possible values of |H| ? [NOV 2023]
Solution:
O(K) < O(H) < O(G) and O(K) divides O(H) and O(H) divides O(G).
O(K ) = |K| = 66 = 2311.
O(G) = |G| = 660 = 223511.
|K| divides |H| and |K| < |H|
|H| = x |K| = x (2311), with x > 1
|H| divides |G| and |H| < |G|
|G| = y |H| = y x (2.3.11), with y > 1
660 = y x (2.3.11)
22.3.5.11 = y x (2.3.11)
2.5= y x ,with x > 1, y > 1
 x = 2 or x = 5
When x = 2 |H| = 2 (2.3.11) =132
When x = 5 |H| =5 (2.3.11) =330.
 0 1
12. Show that (M , .) is an abelian group where M={A, A2, A3, A4} with A =  
 −1 0 
and “.” is the ordinary matrix multiplication. Further prove that (M, .) is
isomorphic to the abelian group (G , .) where G={1, -1, i, -i} and “.” is the
ordinary multiplication.
Solution:
 0 1 2 −1 0  3 0 −1 4 1 0
A=   ; A =  0 −1 ; A = 1 0  ; A = 0 =I
−1 0      1
Cayley’s table
. I A A2 A3
I I A A2 A3
A A A2 A3 I
A2 A2 A3 I A
A3 A3 I A I
Since all the elements inside the table are the elements of M . Hence, M is closed
under multiplication.
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative
1 0
From the above table we observe that the matrix A4 =   = I is the Identity
0 1
matrix.
From the above table we observe that all the matrices are inverse to each other.
1 0 −1
( )
−1 1  −1 0 
Inverse elements are A−1 =   = A3
; A 2
=   = A2 ;
1 1 0  1  0 −1
( ) ( )
−1 1  01 −1 1 1 0
A3 =  = A and A4
=  = I = A4
1 −1 0 1 0 1
Claim 5: Commutative property
From the table we have Am . An = Am+n = An+m = An . Am , Therefore, commutative
property exists. Hence (M , .) is an abelian group .
( )
Define f : M → G by f Ak = i k , k = 1,2,3,4
This mapping is clearly bijective (one -one and on-to) and preserves the group
operation (matrix multiplication in M corresponds to ordinary multiplication in G).
Now to prove f is a homomorphism.
Let us consider two arbitrary matrices A = Ak and B = Am in M.
Now , f ( AB ) = f ( Ak . Am ) = f ( Ak +m ) = i k +m = i k . i m = f ( A). f (B ) .
Therefore, f is a homomorphism. Hence, M is isomorphic to G.
13. Let (G, *) and (H,*) be groups with respective identities eG , eH .If f :G→H is a
homomorphism, then show that
n
(c ) f (an ) = f (a) , a G and all n  Z
−1
(a) f (eG ) = eH (b) f (a−1 ) = f (a) a G
( d ) f (S) is a subgroup of H for each subgroup S of G.
Answer :
(a)eH  f(eG ) = f(eG ) = f(eG eG ) = f ( eG )  f ( eG )
eH = f ( eG ) ,by right cancellationlaw
−1
(b) Let a G , since G is a group, a G
Since G is a group, a * a−1 = eG
By homomorphism f (a * a −1 ) = f ( eG )
f (a) f (a −1 ) = eH
( )
Hence f a −1 is the inverse of f ( a )
−1
i.e., f (a −1) =  f (a) a  G
(c) a  G and all n  Z
Case(i): if n=0 then a n = a 0 = eG
f ( a 0 ) = f ( eG ) = eH =  f ( a )
0
 f ( a n ) =  f ( a) 
n
Case(ii): if n is a positive integer then

an = a a a a (n times)
f ( an ) = f ( a a a a ) (n times)
= f (a)  f (a)  f (a)   f (a)
=  f ( a ) 
n
Case (iii): if n is a negative integer , then n = -r, r >0.

f ( a n ) = f ( a − r ) = f ( a −1 )  =  f ( a −1 ) =  f ( a ) =  f ( a )
r r −r n
 
 f (an ) =  f (a) a  G and all n  Z
n
(d) If S is a subgroup of G, then S   , so f ( S)  . Let x, y  f(S).

Then x = f(a), y = f(b) for some a, bS.
Since S is a subgroup of G, it follows that

a b  S,
f (a)  f (b) = f ( a b )  f ( S )
 x  y  f ( S ) , so f ( S ) is closed
−1
Finally, x−1 =  f (a) = f [a −1]
a  S  a−1  S & f [a−1 ] f ( S )

x −1  f ( S )
 f (S) is a subgroup of H foreachsubgroup S of G.

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UNIT I LOGIC AND PROOFS

3. Show that ( p ) → ( p → q ) is a tautology. [APR 2023]

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 2

16. Let E= {–1, 0, 1, 2} denote the universe of discourse. If P ( x , y ) : x + y = 1, find

19. Show that p → ( q → r )  ( p  q ) → r without using truth tables

Answer : We have to prove that S : ( P → Q )  ( Q → R ) → ( P → R ) is a tautology

P Q R P→Q P→R Q→R ( P → Q )  (Q → R ) S

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 3

 (Q  P )  ( R  Q )  ( P  R ) By Demorgan’s Law

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 4

 ( P  Q )  (P  Q ) Identity Law( PVF )  P

5. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula ( P  Q )  (P  R ) [APR 2023]

 ( P  R )  ( Q  P )  ( P  Q ) By Demorgan’s Law

7. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of the formula ( P  Q )  (P  R )  (Q  R ) using

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 6

8 ¬(PS) T De Morgan’s Law

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 7

8.  ( E  A) T From (7) by De Morgan’s law

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 8

7. S →R T Given Premise

15. Prove that 2 is irrational by giving a proof using contradiction.

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 9

Then n=2k+1, where k is any integer

(i.e.) 𝑛3 + 5 is not an odd number

7 ( p(a)  q(a)) T De Morgan’s Law

8 x( p( x )  q( x )) P Given Premise

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 10

2 C (a)  J (a) ES and (1)

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 11

5. Find the number of non-negative integer solutions of the equation

Answer : By product rule, 27 = 128 ways

12. Find the recurrence relation whose solution is S( k ) = 5.2 k

Answer : Given S (k ) = 5.2k

Answer : Its associated homogeneous equation is an − 3an−1 = 0

17. How many permutations of (a, b, c, d, e, f, g) end with a?

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 15

positive integer n. [APR 2023] [NOV 2023]

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UNIT – III SETS AND FUNCTIONS

Answer: By the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

8. Consider the following relations on set S= {1, 2, 3, 4} with R1 = { (1,1), (1,2),

12. Define Composite Relation

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 25

16. Define Characteristic function of a set

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 26

Let x ( A B ) , then Conversely, Let x  A B , then

Let x ( A B ) , then Conversely, Let x  A B , then

From (3) and(4) we get ( A B) = A B .

2. State and Prove Distributive Law [NOV 2023]

From (3) and(4) we get A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B )  ( A  C ) .

St. Joseph’s College of Engineering Page No.: 27

3. In a group (G,) show that (a b)−1 = b−1 * a −1 , a , b  G . [APR 2023]