Allele Frequency:

Allele frequency refers to the proportion of a specific variant (allele) of a gene within a
population. It's calculated by dividing the number of times that allele appears by the total
number of alleles for that gene in the population. It can be expressed as a decimal, percentage,
or fraction.

Example:

If an allele makes up one-quarter of the total alleles for a specific trait in a population, the allele
frequency would be:

● Decimal: 0.25
● Percentage: 25%
● Fraction: 1/4

Variation in Reproduction:

● Asexual Reproduction: While limited, asexual reproduction can introduce variation

through mutations in the single parent's genome, which can be passed on to offspring.

● Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction shuffles the genetic deck by combining

alleles from two parents during meiosis (cell division) and fertilization. This creates
offspring with unique combinations of traits.

Number of Phenotypes:

● Single-gene traits: Determined by a single gene with two alleles, these traits typically
have few phenotypes (e.g., eye color - brown or blue).

● Multiple-allele traits: Controlled by a single gene with more than two alleles, these traits
can have more phenotypes than single-gene traits (e.g., ABO blood type - A, B, AB, or
O).

● Polygenic traits: Influenced by multiple genes, these traits can have a wide range of
phenotypes due to the various combinations of alleles possible (e.g., human height).

More Variation:

Polygenic traits and multiple-allele traits enable more variation in a population compared to
single-gene traits.

Example Graphs:
 ● Single-gene trait (eye color): Imagine a bar graph with two bars, one for brown eyes and
another for blue eyes.

● Multiple-allele trait (blood type): A bar graph with four bars representing A, B, AB, and O
blood types.

● Polygenic trait (height): A bell curve graph showing the distribution of heights in a
population.

Natural Selection:

The main factor influencing evolution is natural selection. It acts on heritable traits that provide a
survival or reproductive advantage in a specific environment. Individuals with these
advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those traits on to future
generations.

Types of Natural Selection:

● Directional selection: Favors one extreme of a trait, causing the population average to
shift in that direction over time.

Directional Selection Graph

● Stabilizing selection: Eliminates extreme variants, favoring the average trait and
narrowing the distribution.
Stabilizing Selection Graph

● Disruptive selection: Favors both extremes of a trait, leading to two distinct populations
over time.

Disruptive Selection Graph

Genetic Drift:

Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies by chance events in a small population. It can
lead to the loss of alleles and reduced genetic variation. Bottlenecks (sudden population
decline) and founder effects (colonization by a small group) are common causes. Genetic drift is
more significant in smaller populations.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes a population where allele frequencies remain

constant across generations. This requires five conditions:

1. Large population size

2. No migration
3. Random mating
4. No selection pressure
5. No mutations
Evolution and Disruptions:

Evolution occurs when at least one of the Hardy-Weinberg conditions is not met. Any of these
disruptions can cause allele frequencies to change, leading to adaptation and speciation.

Species and Speciation:

A species is a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Speciation is
the process by which new species arise from an ancestral species. Geographic isolation,
behavioral isolation, or temporal isolation can prevent interbreeding and lead to speciation.

Examples of Isolation:

● Behavioral isolation: Species don't mate due to different behaviors (e.g., mating calls).
● Geographic isolation: Physical barriers prevent interbreeding (e.g., mountains
separating populations).
● Temporal isolation: Reproductive timing prevents overlap (e.g., plants flowering at
different times).

Galapagos Finches:

The beaks of Darwin's finches on different Galapagos Islands adapted to the available food
sources due to geographic isolation. This selection pressure led to different beak shapes suited
to specific food types, eventually resulting in separate species.

Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium:

● Gradualism: Proposes slow, continuous changes in populations over time.

● Punctuated equilibrium: Suggests long periods of stability punctuated by rapid bursts
of change.

Adaptive Radiation:

Adaptive radiation is the rapid diversification of a single species into multiple new species that
fill different ecological niches. This often occurs when an ancestral species colonizes a new
environment with diverse resources or escapes competition from predators.

Example: The Hawaiian honeycreepers evolved from a single finch ancestor into numerous
species with specialized beaks for nectar feeding, insectivory, and seed-cracking.

Convergent Evolution:

Convergent evolution describes the development of similar traits in unrelated species due to
adaptation to similar environments. These traits may not share a common ancestor but solve
similar ecological challenges.
Example: Dolphins (mammals) and sharks (cartilaginous fish) both have streamlined bodies for
efficient swimming, even though they belong to different evolutionary lineages.

Coevolution:

Coevolution is the reciprocal evolutionary change between two or more species due to their
close ecological interaction. This can be seen in predator-prey relationships, where each
species evolves adaptations to counter the other's defenses or attacks.

Example: The coevolution of flowering plants and their pollinators. Plants evolve attractive
flowers to attract pollinators, while pollinators develop specialized mouthparts to access nectar
and pollen, ensuring successful reproduction for both.

These concepts all play a role in the diversification of life and the intricate web of relationships
within ecosystems.