+

-
M O D E R A T O R

MR. S.C. BANSAL

(LECTURER)

P R E S E N T E D B Y
BIVEK RAJ
B. SC. MED. TECH. 3RD YEAR

1
 INTRODUCTION:

 An x-ray generator is a device that Supplies electrical

power to x-ray tube.

 It provides
 high voltage between anode & cathode
 filament voltage.

 Controls exposure timing

 Turns exposure on and off
 High voltage switched on and off
2
Electricity & Current:
 Electricity is the flow of current.
 Current is the flow of charge.
 It is measured in Amperes.
 It is defined as the flow of 1C charge per unit time.
i.e.,
I=Q/t
where,
I=current
Q=charge
t=time

 Types of Current:
1.Direct Current
2.Alternating Current 3
Alternating Current

 An electric current in
which amplitude and
polarity of the current
vary with time.

 Its a sinusoidal wave

which varies amplitude
and periodic reversal of
polarity.

4
Direct Current
Electric current which flows in one direction only through
a circuit or equipment. The associated direct voltages, in
contrast to alternating voltages, are of unchanging
polarity.

A A
5
What Is A.C Generator?
 An electrical machine
used to convert
mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

 Construction:

1. Armature
2. Strong field magnet
3.Slip Rings
4.Contact Brushes

 Based on the principle

of EM induction
6
 EM INDUCTION

 Changing magnetic field induces

voltage in wire

 Strength of magnetic field

determines strength of induced
voltage

 Direction of magnetic field

change determines the direction
of electron flow

 Process is reciprocal (B)

 Magnitude of induced magnetic

field α number of turns in coil 7
 Three Ways To Create Motion Between Lines
Of Force And A Conductor:
 Move the conductor through magnetic field
 Move magnetic lines of force
 Vary the magnetic flux

 Faraday law regulate the strength of the induced current

 Strength of the Magnet
 Speed of the motion
 Angle of the magnet
 Number of turns on the conduction coil

8
 Types Of Alternating Current
It is of two types
 Single phase AC
 Poly-phase AC

 IN single phase AC, only one coil

rotates in the magnetic field e.g.
240 volt.

 For 60Hz AC, pulse length = 1/120s

= 8 ms
 Tube current is nonlinear and drops
off below 40 kV
 Capacitors hold and release charge
in a time delayed manner
9
In polyphase AC or three
phase AC, 3 coils are made
to rotate simultaneously by
placing at equidistance from
each other in front of the
magnets which will produce
three separate supplies of
alternating current. The
voltage provided by these
separate sources of
electricity are out of phase
e.g. 415Volt

10
Distribution Of Electricity

The generated electricity is distributed as follows:

2 methods in which the windings of the circuit containing

a polyphase generator can be connected are as below:

 Star type 3 phase circuit or Wye type

 Delta type

11
 STAR TYPE OR WYE TYPE CIRCUIT
 Generally for each coil of three
phase AC circuit two wires are
required and in total 6 wires are
needed for 3 coils for use in circuit to
keep them apart.

 This type of method would result in a

poor economy and great wastage. So
alternative to this is by having 4 wires
in place of 6 wires as shown next.

 In this star connection coils L1, L2

and L3 are connected to a common
point N known as neutral cable

12
Delta Type Configuration:
 Another configuration of
the windings in the
primary or secondary side
of a three-phase
transformer. The windings
in this transformer can be
arranged as a ∆.

 Combinations of wye &

delta configurations in the
primary and secondary
windings of a transformer
will give rise to a phase
shift of 30.
13
Advantages & Disadvantages:

 High x-ray output per Mass.

Smaller range of x-ray energies.

Adv. Of Wye connection over Delta connection:

 Machinery is cheaper.
 Less stress and liability to break down in regard to insulation.
 Can supply two different voltage as per need of different types
of user, e.g. single phase for domestic user and three phase for
industrial user or large installations.

14
High Tension Circuits

 An x-ray equipment is just not directly connected to the

source where electricity is generated. There are many
other components required to complete the circuit.

 Components of H.T. Circuit:

1.Transformer
Step up transformer
Step down transformer
Autotransformer
2.Rectifier

15
 TRANSFORMER

 Definition: An
electrical device that
transforms the voltage
of alternating current
electricity from one
parameter to another .

 Principle : It is based
on the principle of
electromagnetic
induction.

16
Types Of Transformer On The Basis Of
Construction:

17
Construction

Working:
P. coil supplied with A.C.

As the current flows through it , a

changing magnetic field is set up around
it in the soft iron core

As the principle of e.m. induction and

current is also induced in the S. coil

Current flows when magnetic field is

increased or decreased and not when it is
stable
18
Law of transformers:
 The voltage in the primary or secondary coil is directly Proportional to the
number of turns in the coil.

Vp Np
VVs NNs
Where, p p

Vp & VsV iss voltage

N sin p. & s. coil & Np & Ns is no. of
turns in the coil.
Ns > Np, step up transformer
Ns < Np, step down transformer

 As the law of conservation of energy

power in 1* coil = power in 2* coil
P =CURRENT VOLTAGE
I1V1 =I2V2

19
Efficiency Of Transformer

 It is the ratio of output power in watts to the input

power in watt expressed as %age.

Po
_______
Efficiency = 100
Pi

 Ideally it should be one i. e.

Output = input
But actually it is less than one
i.e. output< input
20
Reason Behind This?

The basic reason behind this is there is certain & small

amount of definite energy losses which will be
explained as follows:

 Losses in windings include:

Copper loss due to the resistance.
 Loss in core includes:
Hysterics loss
Eddy current loss

21
Hysteresis losses: It is a heat loss caused by the magnetic
properties of the core. When an core is in a magnetic field, the
magnetic particles of the core tend to line up with the magnetic
field. When the armature core is rotating, its magnetic field
keeps changing direction. The continuous movement of the
magnetic particles, as they try to align themselves with the
magnetic field, produces molecular friction. This, in
turn, produces heat. This heat is transmitted to the armature
windings. The heat causes armature resistances to increase.

Eddy current loss: These currents are also set up due to

changing magnetic field and loss appears
as the heat in the core.

22
 Copper Loss Due To Resistance:
 When current flows through a wire , the material of the wire
offer resistance to its flow .some power is lost to over come
the resistance and is called copper loss, i.e. greater the
resistance and current greater the loss.

1
Copper loss ά length of wire and ά area of the cross section

Solution :
material as low resistance as possible is selected
e.g. pure Cu

23
Types Of Transformer Used In X-ray Circuit:

In x-ray circuit , three type of transformer are used:

Step up transformer

Step down transformer

Auto transformer

24
Autotransformer

 The autotransformer is designed to supply voltage of

varying magnitude to several different circuits of the x-ray
machine including both the filament circuit and high
voltage circuits. The autotransformer has only one
winding and one core. The single winding has a number of
connection or electric taps.

 It works on the principle of self induction .

25
 contd.

 Because there is only one winding, the primary and

secondary circuits are in metallic (conductive)
connections with each other. This fact makes an
autotransformer unsuitable for transforming high
voltages from one value to another.

 In comparison with two-winding

transformers, autotransformers are smaller in size, are
economical of copper wire and cost less.

26
Diagram Of Autotransformer:

A
d

300V 450V
300V
2:2 e 2:2 2:3
TURN TURN TURN
RATIO RATIO RATIO

g
B

27
Step Up Transformer Or High Tension
Transformer:
 Definition: Transformers that
convert a low voltage into a
higher voltage are called step-up
transformers.

 Step-up transformer
• primary from autotransformer
• secondary to rectifier circuit
• mA monitored at center
grounded point of secondary

 Supplies high voltage for x-ray

tube 28
 Grounded metal box
 filled with oil
 oil acts as electrical insulator
 Function:
 Increases alternating voltage
 Also contains rectifier circuit
 changes alternating current into direct current

Auto- Rectifier
mA
transformer Circuit

HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER
29
 Step Down Transformer
 Also called filament transformer.
 A step down transformer has less
turns of wire on the secondary coil,
which makes a smaller induced
voltage in the secondary coil.
 Placement : It is connected directly to
the filament of x-ray tube.
 Purpose: the filament of the x-ray
tube needs to be heated up in order to
emit the electrons (thermal electrons).
 The Tube Current is controlled
through a separate circuit called the
filament circuit which is connected to
filament transformer.

30
Diagram of x-ray circuit showing filament transformer:

High Rectifier
Voltage Circuit
Timer Transformer
Circuit
Line Auto-
voltage
trans-

+
compensator
former TO FILAMENT
TRANSFORME
R PRIMARY

mA
selector

31
 RECTIFICATION
 Process by which alternating current is changed to
pulsating direct current
 A device which converts AC into pulsating DC is called
rectifier.
 A rectifier can be valve type or vacuum type or it can be solid
state/semiconductor/metallic type rectifier.
 X-ray tube is a sort of valve type rectifier or diode rectifier as
it has two electrodes and allows the current to flow in one
direction only

32
UNRECTIFIED A.C WAVE

NO RECTIFICATION

HALF-WAVE

FULL-WAVE

33
Thermionic Diode Valves:

 An evacuated tube with two electrodes in it is

called a thermionic diode valve. Hence it is
like an X-ray tube having:

 A glass envelope enclosing a vacuum.

 Two electrodes within the glass

envelope, one of which is a heated filament.

 The filament of a valve is heated by a step

down transformer and emits electrons which
are drawn across to the anode when a
potential difference is applied across both the
electrodes and the valve passes current.

34
Functioning of a Diode Valve:

If the valve is connected in a complete circuit

such that cathode is –ve with respect to anode electrons are
drawn towards the anode and valve passes current. If the
cathode is positive with respect to anode, no electrons will
be drawn across the valve and it blocks the current thus the
supply of current to X-ray tube is unidirectional only. But
these diode valves which were used earlier are replaced
with solid state rectifiers.
Hence, its function is to pass current in one
direction only and to block any reverse flow.

35
Solid State Rectifier
As the name solid state
implies, conduction takes place by
electron travel through solid materials as
opposed to electron flow through a
vacuum in a valve

Solid materials used are semi-

conductors whose characteristics place
them midway between metals, which are
conductors of electricity and non-
metals, which mostly are non-conductor
of electricity and are insulators.
Semiconductors can be made either to
conduct or insulate. Selenium, Silicon or
Germanium are some commonly used
semiconductors to rectify the high tension
for an X-ray tube in place of vacuum tube.
36
Bands Theory of Semiconductor:

electron

37
Types Of Semiconductor

 Pure semiconductor have little conduction towards

electricity, so to enhance the conductivity an impurities is
added by a process called doping.

 A/c to adding of impurities it is of two types:

1. P-Type semiconductor
2. N-Type semiconductor

38
P-Type semiconductor:

P-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a certain type of

atoms to the semiconductor in order to increase the number of
free (in this case positive) charge carriers.

39
N-type Semiconductor

An N-type semiconductor
is obtained by by adding
an impurity of valence-five
elements to a valence-four
semiconductor in order to
increase the number of free
(in this case negative)
charge carriers.

40
Construction of Solid State Rectifier

 It is formed by joining p type and n- type

semiconductors together called PN Junction. Thus
electrons flow easily from the n type layer towards p
type layer i.e. from Donor towards Acceptor but not in
opposite direction from p towards n type. Hence uni-
directional flow of current is obtained and rectification
is done.

 The block to the current in reverse direction occurs at

the junctions between the two materials N type and P
type.

41
i.e. the region where the barrier exists is very
thin, hence it is also called junction diode or barrier
layer rectifier.

A P-N JUNCTION DIODE

42
Advantage of Solid State Rectifier over diode valve:

 Longer life.

 No filament heating.

 More robust.

 Smaller in size.

 More compact, i.e. occupy less space, better for mobile units.

43
Why Si Is Better Option To Use Than Se?
 Silicon rectifiers have lower forward voltage drop of the
order 200v compared to 18-20 KV.

 High resistance to reverse current.

 Ability to work at higher temperature, approx. 200oC

compared to 80oC.

 Due to higher resistance, lesser number of barrier layers are

required.

 Smaller in size and ability to withstand higher inverse

voltage.

44
Working of a Solid State Rectifier:

 Connection of diode to potential source is called biasing.

 When higher potential of sources is connected to p-side

of diode then it is forward biased.

 When higher potential of sources is connected to n-side

of diode then it is reverse biased.

45
Forward Vs Reverse:

46
 HIGH TENSION GENERATORS
The high tension transformer together with other
components such as rectifiers is called a High Tension
Generator.

Various types of HT generators varying from simple to

complex ones are as below:

 The self rectified HT Circuits (Single pulse generators)

 Half wave rectified circuits (Single Pulse).
 Single phase full wave rectified circuits (Two Pulse).
 Three phase full wave rectified circuits (Six Pulse).

47
 Contd.

 Three phase 12 pulse generators.

 High frequency generators.

 Battery powered generators.

 Capacitor discharged generators.

 Falling load generators.

 Anatomical programmed generator

48
 Self Rectified H T Generator
 It is a x-ray generator in which :
 X-Ray tube acts as rectifier
 Current only flows from cathode to anode
 Rarely seen
 cathode is source of free electrons

Secondary of
High Voltage
Transformer
Voltage applied to tube

mA waveform
49
Applications:
Portable / Low power mobile units and dental units.

Advantages:
Small in size.
Simple design.
Light in weight.
Less cost.
Simple to operate.

50
 Limitations:
+ve

 The peak value which the

X Ray Tube Current

tube current reaches during the Average
Tube Current C
cycle is 3 times of the average B
A
value. e.g. peak current = 3* Tim
e
Average current. 1/00
Sec
1/50
-ve
 The rating of a given X-ray sec

tube is more limited when the +ve

tube is placed in a self rectified

Primary of HT
Transformer
circuit than when it is used in
any other type of HT generator. B C
A Time
1/2
Cycle
 Greater strain on cable.
1
-ve Cycle 51
 Hot anode can emit
electrons Wasted Used

 Accelerate & can destroy

filament
Voltage applied to
x-ray tube
 Half of electrical cycle
wasted

mA waveform

X-Rays Produced

52
 HALF WAVE RECTIFIED GENERATORS

•X-ray tube connected to secondary

of high voltage transformer through
diode rectifiers +
•Alternating voltage applied to
secondary of high voltage
transformer

Voltage applied to tube

53
Half wave Rectifier Circuit:

+ R1

First Half Cycle:

Diodes closed
Voltage applied to tube
Tube current (mA) results
-
- R2

- R1

Second Half Cycle:

X Diodes open
No voltage applied to tube
No tube current (mA)
-
+ R2
54
 Limitations:
 60 pulses per second
 only positive half cycle of high
tension transformer used
 inefficient
 negative half cycle wasted
 Secondary of High Voltage
Transformer

Output of High Tension Transformer Applied to X-ray Tube

Applied to x-ray tube

Blocked (not used)

55
Single Phase Full Wave Rectified H T Generator:
In this circuit both half
cycles of AC are used
to produce X-Rays by
employing a bridge of
four rectifiers

Secondary of
High Voltage
Transformer

Voltage applied to tube

56
Actually what happens? Voltage applied to tube
(also mA waveform)
First Half Cycle Second Half Cycle

+ -
R1
X R4
R1
X R4

R2 X X
R3 R2 R3
-
+

57
Advantages:
 less difference in Average and peak current. Peak current
is 1 ½ times of the average current.

 both the halves of AC cycle and voltage during both

halves is alike.

 both + & - half cycle of high tension transformer used

 Short exposure time: for conventional exposure switching

minimum duration for single pulse is 1/100 sec, as we are
getting 100 half waves in 50 cycles in 1 sec.

58
Higher output than
self or half wave
rectified circuits.
Less strain on HT
cables and less
insulation cost.
Tube

Output of High Tension Transformer Applied to X-ray Tube

59
Limitations:

 Costly.
 More complex.
 Heavier, not easy to transport.
 Larger in size.
 Ripple factor is 100% as it is pulsating X-Ray beam
with voltage variation between zero to peak and again
to zero.

60
 THREE PHASE, SIX PULSE,
SIX RECTIFIER GENERATOR
 This design employs a delta
wound 1* transformer with a star
wound 2* transformer . The out
put of the 2* winding is rectified
with six solid state rectifier.
A
 Winding A and B works as a
system with R2, R4, R1, R5
B C
R1 R4

R5
R2

 Winding B and C works as a R3 R6

system with R1, R6, R3, R4

 Winding A and C work as a

system with R2, R6, R3, R5. 61
 When rectified there will be
six positive maximum
voltage per cycle thus the
term six pulse.
Input 3 Phase Voltage

Rectified

To X-Ray Tube

62
Three Phase , Six Pulse , Twelve Rectifier

The circuit is twelve

pulse but this circuit
has fixed potential to
ground. This allows a
150 KVp generator to
have a transformer that
provide a voltage of -
75KV to +75KV and
hence, further reduces
ripple.
63
Voltage In Respective Coils And X-ray Tubes.

At any instant of time, the voltage in all coils is not the

same i.e. they are out of step with each other, so two pairs
which supply the tube are those pairs which have highest
voltage in comparison to 3rd pair. Thus voltage across x-ray
tube never falls to zero and takes the form of ripples. This
is 20%.

64
Features Of A Three Phase High Tension
Generator.
Voltage wave forms: on the circuits the alternating voltage
from the three phases of mains supply are fed into a triple high
tension transformer. Here the voltage exists on the secondary
winding as three phases of alternating voltage stepped up to the
peak values required by the x-ray tube in operation. During the
period of time occupied by one full cycle of voltage
changes, the x-ray tube has six half waves of useful voltage
applied to it.

65
 So the voltage across the x-ray tube takes the rippling form
and varies from the maximum in the cycle to some value less
than the maximum but it does not fall all the way to zero. i.e.
does not fall below 80% of the peak value. Hence there is
20% ripple theoretically its value is 13.5%.

 This ripple can be reduced further by 6-pulse 12 rectifier

i.e., 3%.

66
Average And Peak Current

In 3 phase circuits, there is a difference b/w avg. mA during the

cycle and the peak value is reached but is narrow as compared
to single phase half wave rectified circuit where peak is about 3
times and in single phase full wave rectified circuit And this
difference between peak and average value of current is further
reduced in 12 rectifier circuit than the six rectifier circuit as
average tube current is close to the peak value of the current.

67
Application:
Useful in procedures requiring shortest or repetitive
exposures e.g. angiography or serial radiography.

Advantages:
As load is distributed equally overall three phases of the
supply when the x-ray exposure is made it can draw larger
amounts of power. Hence three phase HT generators can
supply higher mA e.g. 1000-1200mA for the x-ray tube
than single phase generators.

Disadvantages:
More expensive.
More complex in circuitry
Larger and occupy more space.

68
High Frequency Generator

The newest development in high-voltage generator design uses

high frequency circuits. Full wave rectified power at 60 Hz is
converted to a high frequency usually 500-50000 Hz. H.F.
voltage generation uses inverter circuit. The DC power supply
produces a constant voltage from either a single phase or three
phase input line source. An inverter circuit creates the high
frequency AC waveform. This AC current supplies the high
voltage transformer and creates a waveform of fixed high
voltage and corresponding low current.

69
 contd.

After rectification and smoothing two high voltage capacitor on

the secondary circuits accumulates electron charges. These
capacitors produce a voltage across the x-ray tube, that depends
upon the accumulated charges according to the relation:

V=Q/C

where,

V=voltage

Q=charge(coulomb)

C=capacitance (farad)

70
Block Diagram Of High Frequency Generator

71
 Advantages:

 It’s small size can be placed

within the tube
housing, produce a nearly
constant voltage
waveform, resulting into
improved quality at lower pt.
dose. Portable x-ray imaging
system were the first to use
this technology, but now a
days, all stationary imaging
systems use H.F. voltage
generation.

72
 contd.

 Real advantage is their much smaller, less costly and

more efficient than three phase circuit and less ripple
(<1%).
 Because of closed looped voltage
regulations, autotransformers for kVp selection and
input line voltage compensation are not necessary
unlike other generator design.
 More accuracy in voltage and current.

73
 Choice Of Three Phase Generator
 50KW to 70KW: There are six pulse generators with max mA
upto 700 and maximum KV upto 150Kv. The minimum exposure
time is usually 0.01 sec and fastest repetition rate upto 8 exp/sec.
useful for general radiography and for some angiography –
peripheral and abdominal.

 70KW to 100KW: There are 12 pulse generators with mA upto

1000-1250 and KV 150. Shortest exposure time is 0.003 sec. rate
of repetition not less than 8 exp/sec. useful in angiography
studies undertaken with serial film changers. Also useful in busy
trauma centers and ortho departments.

 150KW-200KW: these are 12 pulse with mA 1200 at KV 150 as

voltage. Shortest exposure are down to 0.001 sec even upto
0.0001 second and repetition rate not less than 80 films/sec.
useful in cine radiography.
74
75
Voltage Ripple
 It is the variation between the peak voltage and the
minimum voltage in the circuit.
 Variation of kilovoltage from maximum
 Usually expressed as percentage of maximum kv.

76
 Ripple Example:

80 kVp

72 kVp

(Vmax –Vmin)
% voltage ripple= ____________ X 100
Vmax

Ripple = 80 - 72 = 8 kVp
%= 8 / 80 = .1 = 10%

77
Ripple Typical Values

 single phase
 always 100 % (kV ranges from
zero to maximum) Single Phase Output

 three phase
 4-13%

Three Phase Output

 high frequency
 very low; approx 1%

Constant Potential or High

Frequency Output
78
Generator Kilowatt (kW) Rating

The essential function of HT generators in x-ray

equipment is to provide such power as is needed by the
x ray tube to which they are connected. So power
output of generator is very important specification and
it is expressed in Watts- unit of power or Kilowatts.
But rating of HT generator is evaluated when the unit is
under load and formula involve multiplying Kilovolts
and the milliamperes which constitutes the load as
below:

79
 1000 mA @ 70 kVp
three phase 800 mA @ 80 kVp
600 mA @ 100 kVp
 kV X mA / 1000
300 mA @ 120 kVp
 mAmax / 10 at 100 kVp
600 / 10 = 60 kW

600 mA @ 70 kVp
single phase 500 mA @ 80 kVp
kV X mA X 0.7 / 1000 400 mA @ 100 kVp
mAmax X 0.7 / 10 at 100 kVp 250 mA @ 120 kVp

400 X 0.7 / 10 = 28 kW

(0.7 is the modification factor for single phase generator due to

pulsating voltage wave form compared to ripple voltage in three
phase generators.)

80
Power Storage Generators

 Application
• Remote locations
• Inadequate power from power line
• Outlet inaccessible
 Types
• Battery-powered generators
• Capacitor discharge generators

81
Battery Powered Generators:

Some portable x-ray machines employ a series of

batteries to generate the high voltage and filament
currents and are useful to operate in areas where the
electric supply is inadequate for the conventional
generators. Each cell in the battery pack supplies
potential difference of 1.5 volts, so thousands of cells
are required to provide high voltages used in diagnostic
radiology.

82
 The KV selector in H V mA Selector
Circuit regulate the potential
difference across the tube by
adding or subtracting X ray Tube
batteries from the series.
The filament current is
adjusted by variable resistor S
in the filament circuit.
A

 The batteries must be

recharged periodically for KV Selector
numerous x-ray exposures.

83
 Capacitor Discharge Generators
 Capacitor stores charge
(or voltage)
 Capacitor stores high voltage
 Special tube used
 Contains grid
 Grid close to filament
 Low voltage on grid
controls flow of electrons
to anode
+
 Exposure start & stop controlled
by voltage on grid

HV from transformer charges capacitor slowly just before exposure

Negative voltage on grid blocks tube current from cathode to anode
Capacitor discharged through tube for exposure when grid turned off
84
In a 1μf design the kV drop is around 1 kV per mAS used and the
effective voltage is 1/3 of the voltage drop
lower than the starting voltage.
Hence the equivalent kV=Starting kV-1/3 x mAS used.
Example for an exposure of 87Kv and 20mAS
87-(1/3 x 20)= 87-6.6 = 80Kv Effective.

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The starting exposure must be such that the end exposure
contributes to the image, in practice any end exposure of less
than 50 kV will contribute little to image formation but will
cause excessive skin dose.

When the exposure has been made there is still a residual

charge in the capacitor.

To remove this a special discharge circuit is employed, the

capacitor is discharged through the tube but a special lead
shutter closes the exposure aperture to protect the operator and
patient. This operation has to be performed if the kV selected
needs to be lowered the charge cycle has to be reduced to zero
and then reset.

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Anatomically Programmed Generator

Radiographers have been traditionally selecting & settings of

kV, mA & sec. But this problem is overcome by using modern
circuitry in anatomically programmed generator.
In this generator there is a no. Of push – button setting. Each
pushbutton is designated to a particular anatomical part or region.
When the chosen push- button is pressed , the circuitry associated
with it automatically sets the appropriate factor s of kV , mA &
selects the appropriate focal spot on the x-ray tube which is to be
used.

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Advantages:
Technologists perform speedier exam.
Technologists operating unfamiliar equipment may work with
greater certainty no need of use of technique chart.
In fluoroscopic room , if anatomical programming is used for
spot filming, there is obvious benefit when exam are changed
e.g. a pt. being fluoroscoped to investigate a possible gastric
ulcers succeeded by one undergoing an oral cholecystogram.

Disadvantages:
Technologist may find the range of selection not wide enough
to embrace all the examinations.
Technologist must manipulate the exposure factor like in case
of pt. physical build and certain known pathologies
(osteoporosis, pleural effusion).
 Well trained and experienced radiographers must be needed for
evaluating the good quality of radiograph.
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Falling Load Generators:

These are usually specially designed three phased or high

frequency generators. They take full advantage of the current
loading capacity of the X-ray tube by beginning the exposure
with a high milliamperage and then allows it to fall during the
exposure. This can be achieved with a constant potential circuit.
It requires that both mA and KV be regulated independently.
These must be used with automatic exposure controls or rely on
mAs timer instead of independent mA and time controls.

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 Advantage :
 Shorter times in heavy load situations and simpler operations.

 Disadvantage :
 Can shorten x-ray tube life considerably as they use higher
mA settings, thus causing the filament to wear out more
quickly.

 Function with mA unknown to the operator so it is impossible

for the operator to set the correct time to achieve the desired
mAs, therefore, required to be used with automatic exposure
controls or rely on mAs timer instead of independent mA and
timer controls.
mA

TIME IN AN EXPOSURE
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Q.C. For Diagnostic X-ray Generators:

1.Accuracy of tube voltage

2. Linearity of mA

3.Exposure time accuracy

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Safety Rules for Radiological Technologist

The radiological technologists operate two main categories of

X-Ray equipment:
1.Permanent Installation
2.Movable Equipment

Electrical hazards are most communally to be greater

with movable equipment.

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There are certain rules to be observed by radiological technologist:

All movable x-ray equipment should be checked regularly and

often by electrician.
The R. Technologist using the equipment should at once any
damage or defect.
R. Technologist should not put plugs into or out of sockets which
are live.
Cables and plugs should be treated as kindly as if they are patient!
Do not stretch the cable.
Do not run the equipment on the cable.

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The essential function of high tension generators in x-ray
equipments is to provide such power as is needed by the x-ray
tube. No doubt, x-ray tube is the heart of the x-ray equipment, like
human body, heart has no importance without blood, similarly, x-
ray generators provide power which acts as blood in the x-ray
tube. The development in high tension generator has always
enhanced the quality of production in x-ray beam by reducing the
ripple factor.

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References:
Radiographic Equipments By Chesney.
Christensen’s Physics For Diagnostic Radiology.
www.xray2000.uk
www.radiologyinfo.com

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“Whenever the art of medicine is loved,
There is also love for humanity…”

HIPPOCRATES
FAT H E R O F M E D I C I N E

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