Assignment of history

Par-I write the following question

1. What t was main cause for the conflict between Christian kingdom and adat sultanate?

The weakening of the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal was also partially attributed
to the outcome of the Oromo population movement and expansion. - As far as the Oromo
people were concerned, following their expansion, the Oromo started to run sedentary way of life
and became agriculturalists.

 After Zara Ya’eaob’s victory over the army of sultan Ahmed Badley of Adal in 1445, the
sultanate of Adal was reduced to a tributary status. However, Zar’a Y’eqob’s successors
were not strong enough to maintain their hegemony over Adal
 In Adal there was strong opposition against the status of dependency. From the very
beginning various emirs, imams, shayks and powerful merchants put strong pressure on
sultan Muhammad, the son and successor of Ahmed Badley, to lead a revolt against the
Christian kingdom. However, the sultan continued to pay annual tribute to the Christian
state. After the death of the sultan in 1470, a civil war broke out in the sultanate. During
the years of the civil war the sultans lost their power. Actual power was held by emirs or
Imams who completely dominated the sultans. Mahfuz was one of the powerful emirs who
strengthened the sultanate and launched a series of attacks on the Christian kingdom from
the last decade of the 15th century onwards. Mahfuz’s attacks continued throughout the
reigns of Eskindir (r.1478-1494) and Na’od (r.1494-1508). Finally, he was killed in a
battle by the army of Lebne Dengel (r.1508-1540) in 1517.
 After the death of Mahfuz, various emirs fought against one another for power. But finally
the leadership of the Muslim sultanate of Adal Passed to a powerful Imam called Ahmad
Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, who was commonly known in Ethiopia Highland Christian tradition
as Ahmad Gragn (the left handed). The family background and early life of the Imam are
not sufficiently known. According to his chronicler, he was born to a clan called Balaw in
Hubat, a place located between Harar and JiJJiga, near the presentday Babile. He served as
a cavalry officer of Mahfuz and also married to his daughter, Bati Dil Wambara. He was
an energetic and a very tactful man. As such, he systematically got rid of his rivals’ one
after the other and became the Imam of Adal.
 Assignment of history
 As soon as he took power in Adal and before launching his campaigns against the
highland Christian kingdom, Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim tried to consolidate his rule in the
lowlands. The Afars had already started to make incursions into the agricultural highlands.
Apart from them, the Somali and other pastoral peoples of the region also began to move,
along with their cattle, to the relatively fertile highland regions of Harar. These population
movements created violent conflicts among the Muslim communities of the southeast.
Thus, after much internal fightings, between the Afar, Somali and Harari, Ahmad was able
to restore peace in the area. He persuaded the fighting groups to end up their differences
and launch a war against the highland Christian kingdom. By playing the role of an
arbitrator, he restored peace in the lowland regions and recruited soldiers from the people
of the area. Moreover, he also strengthened his army by instilling the spirit of Jihad into
the conflict.
 It should be noted that the conflict between the highland Christian kingdom and the
Muslim sultanate of Adal was not over religious issues. This inter-state rivalry was the
extension of the earlier conflict. The conflict was between the Solomonic and Walasma
rulers over the basic economic interest. It was to control the lucrative Zeila trade routes
and the lands through which these routes passed that motivated the two powers to come
into conflict. Besides, the Muslims were fighting to regain the independence which they
lost to the Christian kingdom earlier and create a Muslim empire of their own.
 Ahmad opened his campaigns on the Christian kingdom in 1527. These campaigns were
mainly launched along traditional lines of raiding the frontier districts under the Christian
control and return to the lowlands with large booties. In this year, Ahmad’s forces
successfully raided Dawaro, Fatagar and Bali, the tributaries of the Christian kingdom.
Emperor Lebne Dengel, who defeated and killed Mahfuz in 1517 and who never expected
a serious Muslim threat after Mahfuz’s death, responded by ordering Degelham, the
governor of Bali, to march to Adal. But Degelham was defeated by the Muslim forces of
the Imam in Adal. Since then the Christian forces took defensive position. Ahmad then
undertook a series of expeditions which took him further westwards into the highlands. In
all these campaigns he faced no strong resistance from the Christian kingdom. This
strengthened his confidence and motivated him to launch a conventional war against the
Christian kingdom. Finally, Ahmad fought a major battle with the Christian army led by
 Assignment of history
Lebne Dengel in March 1529 at a place called Shimbra Qure, near what is today Mojjo. At
this battle, Lebne Dengle and his army suffered a crushing defeat from which they could
not recover. Following his defeat, Lebne Dengel retreated to the center of the kingdom. In
fact, many of the Iman’s soldiers were also killed or wounded in the battle and
consequently, the victorious Imam returned to Harar to celebrate his victory and reinforce
his army for the next campaign.
2. What was the main goal of imam ahmed gragn in the war against the christaian kingdom
in the 5th centures?

With the success of Ahmed Gragn, Ethiopia almost became a Islamic state in the 16th century.
Islam entered Ethiopia in the 7th century and ever since then its influence grew. Islam initially
took hold among nomad tribes on the coast of the Red Sea. It penetrated further inland and took
hold in eastern Shoa and Sidama . By the 13th century, strong Muslim kingdoms were found
with strong armies that controlled the trade route to the Red Sea . In the 14th and 15th century,
when ever clashes broke out between these kingdoms and Christian Ethiopia. the Christians
summarily defeated the Muslims. However, the Muslim kingdoms always recovered.

In the 16th century, competition between the Portuguese and the Ottoman empire to control the
Red Sea trade helped Ethiopian muslims overcome their Christian counterparts. The arrival of
the Portuguese, a Christian nation, in the region and the possibility of them forming an alliance
with Ethiopia alarmed the Muslim nations of the Red Sea [4]. As a result, the Muslims of the
Middle East accelerated the aide they provided to Ethiopian Muslims. Firearms were sent
through from the Somali coast to Adal, seat of the strongest Muslim kingdom in Ethiopia. With
the firearms also came Arabian mercenaries [8]. As fortune would have it, Ethiopia in the 16th
century was ripe for the taking. Political infighting, lack of a strong king, and an ambivalent
church weakened Ethiopia's economy and its ability to withstand an attack from an invader .

After he ordered Adal not to pay its tribute to the Christian emperor, Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi defeated the emperor’s army at the battle of ad-Dir in 1527. In 1529, Ahmad won a key
battle against Emperor Lebna Dengel at Shembera Kure and by 1535 he had invaded Dewaro,
Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and Tigray. Emperor Lebna Dengel became nothing but a fugitive
 Assignment of history
running from one hiding place to another. His son, Galawdewos, took over after his father’s
death in 1540, but he inherited a small disconcerted army

Before Lebna Dengel’s death, he had requested military assistance from the king of Portugal. In
February 1541, 400 well-equipped musketeers led by Dom Christovao de Gama arrived in
Massawa. He joined his forces with Empress Sebla Wangel and the Tigrean army in April of
1542, where they were able to force Ahmad to surrender the lake Tana area. But with the aid of
700 Turkish troops, Ahmad returned in August and defeated the Ethiopian force. Dom
Christovao was captured and beheaded in that battle.

3. Discuss on the result the plotical domination of adal sultanate between 1529-1543

The Ethiopian–Adal War (Arabic: ‫وح الحبش‬OOO‫ فت‬Futuḥ al-ḥabash), also known historically as
the Conquest of Abyssinia, was a military conflict between the Christian Ethiopian Empire and
the Muslim Adal Sultanate from 1529 to 1543. Abyssinian troops consisted
of Amharas, Maya, Tigrayans, and Agaw people. Adal forces were mainly made up of
ethnic Somali,[6] Harari,[7] Afar, Argobba, Hadiya, and the now extinct Harla ethnic groups,
supplemented by Ottoman Turkish and Khaleeji musketeers.

In 1529, Imam Ahmad's Adal troops defeated a larger Ethiopian contingent at the Battle of
Shimbra Kure. The victory came at a heavy cost but it solidified the Adal forces' morale,
providing proof that they could stand up to the sizable Ethiopian army.

The victories that gave the followers of Imam Ahmad the upper hand came in 1531. The first
was at Antukyah, where cannon fire at the start of the battle panicked the Ethiopian soldiers. The
second was on 28 October at Amba Sel, when troops under the Imam not only defeated but
dispersed the Ethiopian army and captured items of the Imperial regalia. These victories allowed
the Adalites to enter the Ethiopian highlands, where they began to sack and burn numerous
churches, including Atronsa Maryam, where the remains of several Emperors had been interred.

Dawit II died in 1540 and his son Menas and future emperor was captured by the forces of Imam
Ahmad; the Empress was unable to react as she was besieged in the capital. In 1543, a smaller
number of Abyssinians soundly defeated the larger Adal-Ottoman army [15] with the help of the
Portuguese navy, which brought 400 musketeers led by Cristóvão da Gama via Massawa, a port
 Assignment of history
in the Eritrean Kingdom of Medri Bahri, an important port today in present-day Eritrea.
However, Da Gama was captured in the battle of Battle of Wofla and later killed.

The 500 musketeers were led by Bahri Negassi Yeshaq, king of Medri Bahri. Yeshaq not only
provided the Portuguese with provisions and places to camp in his realm but also information
about the land. The Bahr negus also joined Emperor Gelawdewos and the Portuguese in the
decisive Battle of Wayna Daga, where tradition states that Ahmad was fatally wounded by a
Portuguese musketeer, he was then chased and beheaded by a young Abyssinian nobleman
named Azmach Calite.[16] Once the Imam's soldiers learned of his death, they fled the battlefield.
[17]
The death of Imam Ahmed and the victory in the Battle of Wayna Daga caused a collapse of
Ahmed forces and forced a Adalite retreat from Ethiopia.

Emir Nur ibn Mujahid succeeded his uncle Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi as leader of the Adal
forces and consolidated his power by marrying Bati del Wambara. In 1559, Emir Nur's cavalry
defeated and killed Emperor Gelawdewos in battle, and sacked the Abyssinian town of Waj. [19]
[20]
Simultaneously, Abyssinian General Ras Hamalmal sacked Harar and captured sultan Barakat
ibn Umar Din, and killed him.

Emir Nur ibn Mujahid, returning from his campaign, would display the head of Emperor
Gelawdewos in Harar as a show of triumph.[23] In 1577, Emperor Sarsa Dengel defeated and
executed Sultan Muhammad V in Bali along with most of the Harari nobility, delivering the
demise of the Sultanate of Adal. He was succeeded by Imam Muhammad Jasa, a relative
of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, who relocated Adal's capital to Aussa

4. Discuss land and land tenure issues in Ethiopia and the horn to 1800 and define the
following terms

 Gult system
 Bale gult/gult owner
 Rest right

Rist is the term given to the form of land tenure that developed in the highlands of northern
Ethiopia.In the rist land tenure system, there is no landlord or tenancy. The state does not hold
land. But theoretically, all land belonged to the state.
 Assignment of history
The Ethiopian Constitution asserts state ownership of land; there are no private property rights
in land. While the Government of Ethiopia has decentralized administration of land to the
regional governments, the formulation of broad land policy still rests with the federal
government.

Prior to the 1974 revolution, Ethiopia's land tenure systems were grounded in historically shaped,
local institutions. Land tenure systems varied greatly across regions, with a broad contrast
between the old northern highlands, the more recently incorporated areas in the south and west,
and the areas in the eastern and western periphery of the country. In the north, most peasants
enjoyed land use rights by virtue of inheritance or residence in a local community. In the
southern core areas, by contrast, a majority of farming households worked as sharecropping
tenants of a landlord class composed of northerners and local notables. In the more peripheral
areas of the empire, tribal groups continued to use land and pasture under indigenous
arrangements. The 1975 land reform nationalized all land. In an initial phase lasting until 1978, it
had a land-to-the-tiller character, but between 1978 and 1990, it increasingly stressed
villagization and collectivization of production. The land reform abolished large-scale and
absentee landlordism and the exploitation of the peasantry by the landed classes. But repeated
redistributions of land created insecurity, and the reform was accompanied by the imposition of
state marketing quotas, villagization, cooperativization, and a heavy tax burden. The key
institutions in the new system were the peasant associations (PAs), which were the basic unit of
local land administration, producer cooperatives (Pcs), and service cooperatives (scs).

What is GULT system?

The gult system was an important economic institution and connection between the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church and the state. The system was essentially a political and economic relation
between the state, the church and the cultivators
What is bale/gult owner
The gult owner had to pay tribute to the state. ... Some well-placed officials of the state began to
be succeeded by their offspring in their official positions. As a result, gult became hereditary.
These gult rights, which became hereditary, were called riste-gult.
What is Rist right?
 Assignment of history
The rist system was a kind of corporate ownership system based on descent that granted usufruct
rights the right to appropriate the return from the land (Hoben 1973). In the rist system, all male
and female descendants of an individual founder or occupier were entitled to a share of land
(Hoben 1973).
5. Why Jesuit missionaries intervention on Ethiopian matters?
As in other locations to which they were sent, the members of the Society of Jesus undertook
their mission by seeking to convert to Roman Catholicism those in authority—political,
religious, and intellectual—as a means of evangelizing from top to bottom.

The Jesuit experience provides many lessons for contemporary missiology: the need to respect
cultures; the shape of communication; and the importance of learning as well as teaching. From
the foregoing study, it seems clear that the Jesuits preferred to disseminate Catholicism from top
to bottom. The Jesuits worked intensively amongst the Ethiopian nobility, attempting to form
alliances with emperors and governors. They provided them with religious services and served as
mediators and messengers in negotiations with hostile populations. Moreover, the Jesuit
missionaries aspired to overtake the Ethiopian ecclesiastical hierarchy. They did this by trying to
sever the traditional connection to the Alexandrian Coptic Church and replace it with ties to the
Roman Catholic Church. Their approach included seeking to always replace the leadership of the
powerful monasteries, influential in internal ecclesiastical politics, with leaders who acted in
favour of Catholicism. This was not always a success story. Furthermore, as of 1624, upon the
arrival of Catholic patriarch Afonso Mendez to Ethiopia, local Catholic clergy began to be
appointed in order to propagate the new religion more effectively. The Jesuits believed that
gaining control over key positions of power was the right formula for success.

The main cause of failure in establishing Catholicism in Ethiopia was the Jesuit missionaries'
attempts to create a religious system which would be homogeneous in terms of creed and
theology, as well as in terms of rituals. As in the case of the Catholic Reformation in Europe, the
Jesuits wished to sacrifice the local religious expressions for the benefit of a uniform,
standardised religion; with versions clear and acceptable to the entire Catholic public. It is true
that the Jesuits assimilated many local traditions and managed, with some success, to integrate
European-Catholic and Ethiopian elements; that was done for example in Masses, processions
and displays. However, the aspiration for coherent Catholicism, with ritual and theological
 Assignment of history
uniformity, met a society consisting of those who simply refused to absorb the centralism which
the Jesuits represented in political terms as well as in respect of religion, rituals and creeds.
Despite the largely unsuccessful missionary activities of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, it must be
acknowledged that the Jesuits had indeed contributed significantly in developing the Ethiopian
historiography.

6. Explain the emergence and consolidation of states in south,south western,estern and

Ethiopia defeated an Egyptian invasion in 1876 and an Italian invasion in 1896 which killed
17,000 Ethiopians, and came to be recognized as a legitimate state by European powers. A
more rapid modernization took place under Menelik II and Haile Selassie. Italy launched a
second invasion in 1935.

a. The south and south western state

 The kingdom of enarya

Ennarea, also known as E(n)narya or In(n)arya (Gonga: Hinnario), was a kingdom in the Gibe
region in what is now western Ethiopia. It became independent from the kingdom of Damot in
the 14th century and would be the most powerful kingdom in the region until its decline in the
17th century.

The Kingdom of Ennarea was one of the kingdoms in the Gibe region of Ethiopia that emerged
in the 19th century. It shared its eastern border with the Kingdom of Jimma, its southern border
with the Kingdom of Gomma and its western border with the Kingdom of Gumma. Beyond its
northern border lay tribes of the Macha Oromo. Jimma was considered the most civilized of the
Gibe kingdoms, which had a population in the 1880s between 10,000 and 12,000.[1] It was
converted to Islam by missionaries from Harar in the first half of the 19th century; C.T. Beke,
writing in 1841, reported that its "king and most of his subjects are Mohammedan."[2] Limmu-
Ennarea's capital was at Saqqa.

The location of this former kingdom has a north to south central elevation between 1,500 and
over 2,000 metres (5,000 to over 6,500 feet), and is covered with forests. The population of this
 Assignment of history
kingdom was estimated in 1880 to have been about 40,000, including slaves.[3] However, this
was after an epidemic of plague in the late 1840s, and Mordechai Abir estimates the population
before that calamity to have been around 100,000

 The kingdom of damot

The Kingdom of Damot (Amharic: ዳሞት) was a medieval kingdom in what is now Ethiopia, and
ruled by Welayta people or Sidama people. The territory was positioned below the Blue Nile. It
was a powerful state that forced the Sultanate of Showa (also called Shewa) to pay tributes. It
also annihilated the armies of the Zagwe dynasty that were sent to subdue its territory. Damot
conquered several Muslim and Christian territories. The Muslim state Showa and the new
Christian state under Yekuno Amlak formed an alliance to counter the influence of Damot in the
region. Damot's history as an independent entity ended after the conquest of the region by
Emperor Amda Seyon in the fourteenth century and remained under the Solomonic dynasty's
influence after that. Originally located south of the Abay and west of the Muger River, under the
pressure of Oromo attacks the rulers were forced to resettle north of the Abay in
southern Gojjam between 1574 and 1606. The kings, who bore the title Motalami, resided in a
town which, according to the hagiography of Tekle Haymanot, was called Maldarede. The
kingdom was reduced to smaller size and the name became the Kingdom of Wolayta. Their
territory extended east beyond the Muger as far as the Jamma.

 Kaffa

The Kingdom of Kaffa (c. 1390–1897) was an early modern state located in what is now
Ethiopia, with its first capital at Bonga. ... The kingdom was overrun and conquered in 1897,
and was eventually annexed by Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Kaffa (c. 1390–1897) was an early
modern state located in what is now Ethiopia, with its first capital at Bonga. The Gojeb
River formed its northern border, beyond which lay the Gibe kingdoms; to the east the territory
of the Konta and Kullo peoples lay between Kaffa and the Omo River; to the south numerous
subgroups of the Gimira people, and to the west lay the Majangir people.[1] The native language,
also known as Kaffa, is one of the Omotic group of languages.
 Assignment of history
Kaffa was divided into four sub-groups, who spoke a common language Kefficho, one of the
Gonga/Kefoid group of Omotic languages; a number of groups of foreigners,
Ethiopian Muslim traders and members of the Ethiopian Church, also lived in the kingdom.
There were a number of groups of people, "but with the status of submerged status", who also
lived in the kingdom; these included the Manjo, or hunters; the Manne, or leatherworkers; and
the Qemmo, or blacksmiths.[2] The Manjo even had their own king, appointed by the King of
Kaffa, and were given the duties of guarding the royal compounds and the gates of the kingdom.
[3]
The kingdom was overrun and conquered in 1897, and was eventually annexed by Ethiopia.
The land where this former kingdom lay is in the southern parts of the Ethiopian Highlands with
stretches of forest. The mountainous land is very fertile, capable of three harvests a year.

 The kingdom of yama

 Walayita

The Welayta, Wolayta or Wolaitta (Ge'ez: ወላይታ Wolaytta) are an ethnic group and its former
kingdom, located in southern Ethiopia. According to the most recent estimate (2017), the people
of Wolayta numbered 2.4 million in Welayta Zone only, or 2.31 percent of the country's
population, of whom 289,707 are city-dwellers. [1] The language of the Wolayta people, similarly
called Wolaytta, belongs to the Omotic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Despite their
small population, Wolayta people have widely influenced national music, dance and cuisine in
Ethiopia.

The people of Wolayta had their own kingdom for hundreds of years with kings (called "Kawo")
and a monarchical administration. The earlier name of the kingdom was allegedly "Damot" - this
was said to include the south, south-east, south-west and part of the central region of present
Ethiopia. The ruler was King (Kawo) Motolomi who is mentioned in the religious book Gedle
Teklehaimanot, as an invader of the north and the king to whom was surrendered the mother of
the Ethiopian saint, Tekle Haymanot. Some assume that the saint was the son of this king. After
the defeat which overcame the northern part of its territory the kingdom was reduced to its
present size and the name became the Kingdom of Wolayta. It remained thus an independent
kingdom for hundreds of years until the expansion of Emperor Menelik II into the regions south
 Assignment of history
of Shewa during the early 1890s. The war of conquest has been described by Bahru Zewde as
"one of the bloodiest campaigns of the whole period of expansion", and Wolayta oral tradition
holds that 118,000 Welayta and 90,000 Shewan troops died in the fighting. [2] Kawo (King) Tona,
the last king of Welayta, was defeated and Welayta conquered in 1896. Welayta was then
incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire. However, Welayta had a form of self-administrative
status and was ruled by Governors directly accountable to the king until the fall of Emperor
Haile Selassie in 1974. The Derg afterwards restructured the country and included Welayta as a
part of the province of Sidamo. The Welayta were previously known as "Wolamo", although this
term is now considered derogatory.

b. The kingdom of shawa

Sahle Selassie, (born 1795 or 1801—died 1847), ruler (1813–47) of the kingdom of Shewa
(Shoa), Ethiopia. He was the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II (reigned 1889–1913) and the
great-grandfather of Emperor Haile Selassie I. His name means “Clemency of the Trinity.”

Shewa, also spelled Showa, or Shoa, historic kingdom of central Ethiopia. It lies
mostly on high plateau country, rising to 13,123 feet (4,000 m) in Mount Ābuyē Mēda. Its
modern capital and main commercial centre is Addis Ababa. Shewa is bounded on the northwest
by the Blue Nile River and on the southwest by the Omo River; its eastern and southeastern
boundaries are in the Great Rift Valley along the Awash River.

Shewa was the residence of regional kings from the mid-10th century to the end of the 14th
century. In 1528 Shewa was overrun by Muslim invaders from the state of Adal to the east, and
its ancient cities were destroyed. For over a century afterward, Shewa was penetrated by
the Oromo people from the south, who moved into the political vacuum left in the region and
established themselves in farming communities as far north as the Blue Nile valley. In 1856
Shewa was incorporated into the Ethiopian empire by the emperor Tewodros (Theodore) II,
but Menilek II regained his kingdom of Shewa and in 1886 chose the site for Addis Ababa, his
future capital. Building began at once, and, when Menilek became emperor of the whole country
in 1889, Addis Ababa became the capital of Ethiopia.
 Assignment of history
c. Northern state

 The kingdom of gojjam

Gojjam's earliest western boundary extended up unto the triangle to ancient Meroë in Sudan. By
1700, Gojjam's western neighbors were Agawmeder in the southwest and Qwara in the
northwest. Agawmeder, never an organized political entity, was gradually absorbed by Gojjam
until it reached west to the Sultanate of Gubba; Juan Maria Schuver noted in his journeys in
Agawmeder (September 1882) that in three prior months, "the Abyssinians considerably
advanced their frontier towards the West, effacing what was left of the independent
regions."[1] Gubba acknowledged its dependence to Emperor Menelik II in 1898, but by 1942
was absorbed into Gojjam. Dek Island in Lake Tana was administratively part of Gojjam until
1987.

 The falasha region

Beta Israel, formerly called Falasha also spelled Felasha, now known to be
pejorative, Jews of Ethiopian origin. Their beginnings are obscure and possibly
polygenetic. The Beta Israel (meaning House of Israel) themselves claim descent
from Menilek I, traditionally the son of the Queen of Sheba (Makeda) and
King Solomon. At least some of their ancestors, however, were probably
local Agau (Agaw, Agew) peoples in Ethiopia who converted to Judaism in the
centuries before and after the start of the Christian Era. Although the early Beta Israel
remained largely decentralized and their religious practices varied by locality, they
remained faithful to Judaism after the conversion of the powerful Ethiopian kingdom
of Aksum to Christianity in the 4th century CE, and thereafter they were persecuted
and forced to retreat to the area around Lake Tana, in northern Ethiopia.

The Beta Israel have a Bible and a prayer book written in Geʿez, an ancient Ethiopian language.
They have no Talmudic laws, but their preservation of and adherence to Jewish traditions is
undeniable. They observe the Sabbath, practice circumcision, have synagogue services led by
priests (kohanim) of the village, follow certain dietary laws of Judaism, observe many laws
of ritual uncleanness, offer sacrifices on Nisan 14 in the Jewish religious year, and observe some
of the major Jewish festivals.
 Assignment of history
From 1980 to 1992 some 45,000 Beta Israel fled drought- and war-stricken Ethiopia and
emigrated to Israel (see Researcher’s Note: Beta Israel migration to Israel, 1980–92). The
number of the Beta Israel remaining in Ethiopia was uncertain, but estimates suggested a few
thousand at most. The ongoing absorption of the Beta Israel community into Israeli society was a
source of controversy and ethnic tension in subsequent years.

 The red sea coast

ETHIOPIA became landlocked in 1992, when its Red Sea coast was lost to the new state of
Eritrea. It lost access to its former ports soon afterwards. Since the outbreak of a vicious two-
year war between the two countries in 1998, the Red Sea ports of Massawa and Assab have
been off-limits to Ethiopian freight (see map).

Mohamed al-Shahawy, adviser to the army's Command and Staff College, told Al-Monitor,
“Ethiopia is a landlocked country, which means that it does not have direct access to the Red
Sea.

d. The eastern muslim sultanates

 The sultanate of shawa

The Sultanate of Showa (Sultanate of Shewa) also known as Makhzumi dynasty was a Muslim
kingdom in present-day Ethiopia. Its capital Walale was situated in northern Hararghe in Harla
country. Its territory extended possibly to some areas west of the Awash River. The port of Zeila
may have influenced the kingdom.

 The sultanates of ifat and adal

The Adal Sultanate, or the Kingdom of Adal or the ʿAdal or the Bar Saʿad dīn (alt.
spelling Adel Sultanate, Adal Sultanate) (Somali: Saldanadda Cadal) was a
medieval Sunni Muslim sultanate which was located in the Horn of Africa.[3] It was founded
by Sabr ad-Din II after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat. The kingdom flourished circa 1415 to
1577.The sultanate and state were established by the local inhabitants of Zeila.[ or
the Harar plateau. At its height, the polity under Sultan Badlay controlled the territory stretching
 Assignment of history
from Somaliland to the port city of Suakin in Sudan.The Adal Empire maintained a robust
commercial and political relationship with the Ottoman Empire.

The Sultanate of Ifat, or Awfat was a medieval Sunni Muslim state in the eastern regions of
the Horn of Africa between the late 13th century and early 15th century. It was formed in
present-day Ethiopia around eastern Shewa or Zeila. Led by the Walashma dynasty, the polity
stretched from Zequalla to the port city of Zeila. The kingdom ruled over parts of what are
now Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somaliland.

 The harar emirates

The Emirate of Harar was a Muslim Kingdom founded in 1647 when the Harari
people refused to accept Imām ʿUmardīn Ādan as their ruler and broke away from the Imamate
of Aussa to form their own state under `Ali ibn Da`ud. Prior to its invasion by Shewan forces
under Menelik II, the League of Nations noted that the Harar kingdom made up the area
between the rivers Awash and Shebelle while the Ogaden was a tributary state.[1] Originally
however the Harar Emirate composed of present-day Somaliland and to south of
eastern Ethiopia including the Arsi Province.[2] Harar also dominated trade in Shewa. Harar's
influence began shrinking in the nineteenth century possibly due to lack of resources and
famine.[3][4] Like all Muslim states in the area, the Emirate of Harar was technically under the
protection of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt annexed the Emirate of Harar in 1875. The British
Empire defeated the Khedivate and occupied its territories in 1882 including Harar, but the
British agreed to evacuate Harar and essentially cede the city to the Ethiopian Empire's sphere
of influence in exchange for assistance against Mahdist forces in Sudan. As per the terms of
their agreement (the Hewett Treaty), the British withdrew from Harar in 1884, leaving the city
to the son of the former Emir of Harar with a few hundred rifles, some cannon and a handful of
British trained officers. The Emirate would be finally destroyed and annexed by the armies of
Negus Sahle Maryam of Shewa (the future Emperor Menelik II) in 1887 following the Emirate's
defeat at the Battle of Chelenqo.

 Sultanates of hausa
 Assignment of history
The Afar are one of the most ancient and indigenous peoples in North East Africa belonging
to the Cushitic language family. The Afar first appeared in the literature in the 13th century
writings of the Arab Geographer Ibn Said (Lewis 1955: 155). Even though the extant
literature do not reveal the meaning of the term Danakil, it appears more probable that it is
the name of one of the clans, Dunkulu found in northern Afar. The Afar are called Adal by
the Amhara, Taltal by the Tigreans, Danakil (Singular: Dankali) by the Yamani Arabs and
Udali by the Somali. But they call themselves Afar, which does not exist in the literature.
The term Afar, according to some of the sources is inherited from a clan name called
Almafra, found in Yemen (Jamaladin and Hussien 2007: 34).

The Sultanate of Aussa among the Afar has been vigorously implementing its indigenous
governance. It was the incorporation of the Sultanate into the Ethiopian central government
in 1974 that ushered the demise of its independent existence. The question that naturally
follows is that how the centralization of power degenerated, in relative terms, the non-
hierarchic system of indigenous governance
 Assignment of history

The holy Romain empire in Ethiopia

Holy Roman Empire, German Heiliges Römisches Reich, Latin Sacrum Romanum
Imperium, the varying complex of lands in western and central Europe ruled over first
by Frankish and then by German kings for 10 centuries (800–1806). (For histories of the
territories governed at various times by the empire, see France; Germany; Italy.)

The exact term "Holy Roman Empire" was not used until the 13th century, before which
the empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as
opposed to the regional kingdoms), imperium christianum ("Christian empire"),
or Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"),[17] but the Emperor's legitimacy always rested
on the concept of translatio imperii,[f] that he held supreme power inherited from the
ancient emperors of Rome.[6] The dynastic office of Holy Roman Emperor was
traditionally elective through the mostly German prince-electors, the highest-ranking
noblemen of the empire; they would elect one of their peers as "King of the Romans" to
be crowned emperor by the Pope, although the tradition of papal coronations was
discontinued in the 16th century.

The word Holy was not used for another two centuries, but Otto the Great has been
recognised by historians as in effect the first of the Holy Roman Emperors and the most
powerful European ruler of his time. He died in 973 and was succeeded by his only son
as Otto II

The empire never achieved the extent of political unification as was formed to the west in
the relatively centralized kingdom of France, evolving instead into a decentralised,
limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of sub-
units: kingdoms, principalities, duchies, counties, prince-bishoprics, Free Imperial Cities,
and eventually even individuals enjoying imperial immediacy, such as the imperial
knights.[7][18] The power of the emperor was limited, and while the various princes, lords,
bishops, and cities of the empire were vassals who owed the emperor their allegiance,
 Assignment of history
they also possessed an extent of privileges that gave them de facto independence within
their territories. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806 following the
creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Emperor Napoleon I the month before.

Nature of the empire

The precise term Sacrum Romanum Imperium dates only from 1254, though the term
Holy Empire reaches back to 1157, and the term Roman Empire was used from 1034 to
denote the lands under Conrad II’s rule. The term “Roman emperor” is older, dating
from Otto II (died 983). This title, however, was not used by Otto II’s predecessors,
from Charlemagne (or Charles I) to Otto I, who simply employed the phrase imperator
augustus (“august emperor”) without any territorial adjunct. The first title that
Charlemagne is known to have used, immediately after his coronation in 800, is “Charles,
most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman
empire.” This clumsy formula, however, was soon discarded.

The Romans started to colonize the modern countries where Lake Victoria is. The
Romans had Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania,
Kenya, and the islands east of East Africa (including Madagascar). Their conquest bought
many farm communities to be set up in Africa.

Tewodros II, English Theodore II, original name Kassa, (born c. 1818—died April 13,
1868, Magdela, Ethiopia), emperor of Ethiopia (1855–68) who has been called Ethiopia’s
first modern ruler. Not only did he reunify the various Ethiopian kingdoms into one
empire, but he also attempted to focus loyalty around the government rather than the
Ethiopian church, which he sought to bring under royal control. He worked to abolish
the feudal system and create a new nobility of merit, dependent on the ruler alone.
Although he failed in these aims, his example was ultimately followed by his successors.

Not of noble birth, Tewodros came to the throne through warfare against the feudal
chiefs. One of his first acts as emperor was to break up the provinces into smaller districts
 Assignment of history
with personally appointed governors, a move that angered many provincial nobles who
saw their status diminished. He also wanted to reorganize and modernize the army. To
get the necessary weapons, he demanded first that European missionaries and adventurers
then living in Ethiopia build him a cannon (successful after much trial and error), and
then he brought in artisans, especially arms makers, from England. Contemporary
European accounts portray him as an Ethiopian Peter the Great, both for his hot temper
and cruelty and for his courage, ambition, military genius, and interest in technology.

His modernization program, however, failed. Several incidents in the 1860s, including a
letter to Queen Victoria that remained unanswered, led Tewodros to feel insulted
by England. When he imprisoned several British missionaries and envoys, accusing them
of plotting against him, Great Britain sent the Napier expedition (1867–68) to rescue the
prisoners. Aided by rebellious nobles along the way, the British force attacked
Tewodros’s forces at Magdela on April 10, 1868. The emperor, realizing the
hopelessness of his position, committed suicide three days later.

What are the three most important differences between

The Roman Empire lasted for some five hundred years—or one thousand if one includes
the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. This means that it changed radically over the
period during which it existed.

In terms of religion, Rome was originally pagan and gradually became Christianized.
Thus one had more religious... The main difference between the Roman Empire and
Charlemagne's Holy Roman Empire was that the Roman Empire was based in Rome,
then Constantinople and Charlemagne's empire was based in Central Europe,
including what we now call Germany. It was feudal. ... Instead, they were a feudal empire
with lords who had real power.
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The Empire was considered by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only legal
successor of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages and the early modern period.
Since Charlemagne, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire ruled over much of western and central Europe from the 9th
century to the 19th century. It envisioned itself as a dominion for Christendom
continuing in the tradition of the ancient Roman Empire and was characterized by strong
papal authority