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CONTROL & I NSTRUMENTATION - an overview

SG (Steam Generating) Package,

TG (Turbine- Generator) Package,
SCI (Station C&I) Package,
MMI (PMS) & DAS Package.

All the hardware Procontrol P13/42 module, binary drives, input/ output, processor is same; only controller is
different.

Procontrol P 10- Language,

P-13- Local Bus,
P 42- IPB (Inter- plant Bus)
All the modules are under 70 series.
Basic hardware for AS45, AS46, and AS47 is 70AS04.

SG Package- FSSS (Furnace Safeguard & Supervisory System), SBC (Soot-Blower Control) SADC
(Secondary Air Damper Control), HPBP (HP bypass), PRDS (Pressure Reducing & Desuperheating).

TG Package- TSC (Turbine Stress Controller) & Curve Generator, LPBP (LP bypass) & GSPC (Gland
Steam Pressure Controller), LSR (Load Shedding Relay), AS (Auto Synchronisation) & Signal Conditioning,
ATRS (Automatic Turbine Rolling System), ATRS Condition Evolution, FUJI Interface, Marshalling,
GAMP (Generator Auxiliary Monitoring Panel).

SCI Package- Analogue Control, Binary Control, Signal Conditioning, Alarm

Annunciation, SOE/ Diagnostic, Coupling Relay, Marshalling Panel, Control Desk.

Common System- Binary Control, SOE/DAS for SWYD, Signal Conditioning,

Marshalling.

Brought –out Items- SWAS (Steam & Water Analysing System), GAS Analyser, UPS, Control Valves,
Flow Elements, Transmitter, Switches, TC/RTD, Gauges, Recorder, Indicator, Ammeter, I/P Converter,
Displacement Type Level Transmitter, Erection Materials, Cables, Commissioning Tools, CMMS/ MIMS
Package.

Objectives of Procontrol-P DDC System :

1. Establishment of Secure Electrical Energy Production.
2. Optimum utilization of the generating equipment.
3. Maximum Efficiency.
4. High Availability.
5. High reliability & freedom from accident.
6. Low total costs.
There are different modules in Procontrol:
1. Local bus module (it is the lower stand bus where the module sits)
2. Processor & drive control module
3. IPB (Inter-plant Bus) module.

Basic / Special features of Hardware:

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Fail safe, Hot swapping, Redundancy, Cyclic updating of address data, I/O isolations,
Interrogation/supervision of contacts, Robust & Modular, Front panel Indications, Deterministic
Communication, Short circuit/ current limiting protection, 20% wide (19.5V to 31V) power supply voltage
tolerance.

Local Bus: - A local bus station can stand alone by itself and it can operate & control a process. This consists
of back plane bus circuit.
There are 5 (five) signals in local bus:
1. Power supply (24V) US.
2. Address (AD).
3. Clock (CK).
4. Data Normal (DN).
5. Data Inverted (DI).
Ground (GND).
Bus Traffic Director (70BV05A):- A pair of BV05’s may be configured to operate redundantly. This module
generates the clock and address signals for Procontrol P13 Local bus. It contains the source resistance for the
bus lines. Bus traffic director calls the addresses sequentially. In procontrol processor addresses are from 00
to FF i.e. 256.

US & USR are the power supply and redundant power supply (+24V) respectively. The local bus is having
input, output and processor modules.
Input & output modules are of two types.

Analogue I/P module:- 70EA 01, EA 02, EA 03, EA 04.

EA 01 is used in voltage signals (0 to 10V).
EA 02 is used in 2 wire/ 4 wire transducer—4 channel modules—4 -20 mA I/P. It is of 28V short circuit
proving.
EA 03 is used in RTDs (i.e. for lower temperature)—4 channel modules—It supports PT 100, potentiometer.
EA 04 is used in thermocouples (i.e. for non-linear curves)—8 channel modules—this 8 channels can be
grouped into two (4+4)—resolution is of 1.04 deg C.

Analogue Output Module:-

Voltage output AA01-- -10V to + 10V, 4 channel, alarm indication, 2 modes of Operation (one 0 volt &
another last valid output in case of disturbance).

Current output AA02—0 to 20mA or 4 to 20mA, 4 channel, operating mode 0 or last valid output in case of
disturbance.

Binary I/P signals:- 70EB01, EB02, EB03, EB10.

EB01—0 to 24V signal.
EB02-- +/- 24V signal.
EB03—Change over contact.
EB10—SOE signals.
In input modules all binary contacts are to be taken into bus. It is of 2 types. Status indication module having
LEDs and non- status indication module. Any disturbance is indicated by LED alarm.
Binary Output Modules:-

Voltage output signals AB 01—It is an electronic output signal of 24V at 100 mA. It is of 16 channels and
can be connected to relays or lamps—front panel status indication. Module size is of 1T (1T= 17 mm).

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Potential free contacts AB 02—It can withstand 500V between cable and contacts— Switching capacity 6
VA.

Processor Module (PR 05):- It is a 16 bit controller. This module can operate individually or redundant
fashion. It is used to run any application logic or application program. Simulation can also be done in the
processor module. It can observe the data flowing on the bus.

Drive Control Module ( 70AS04):- No simulation, even if bus fail we can operate through push button.
Besides these there are so many other modules such as
BV 05—Local bus traffic director
BA 01—Bus end module
BK 02— Local bus IPB coupler
BK03—Bus coupler from panel to panel or from panel to other peripheral (like PC) devices
BL 02—Rack to rack cable connection
BL 03—Cable between two cubicles
BA 02—Bus access module
FV 01-- IPB traffic director
FK01-- IPB access coupler.

In procontrol addresses are of two type:- Bus address & Internal address.
Bus signals are available in IPB and can be transferred to any other panel.
Internal signals are available in local bus and be present in that bus only i.e. in that station only.

Hardware document includes rack layout, all modules position, SFD (Signal flow diagram).
Software document means FCD (Functional control diagram).
1st Rack (AA) - Power supply supervision module XT 377 & XT 382. From two sources USA1 & USB1
(24V), then there are 6 nos of bkrs for different rack like AA, BA, CA, DA, EA etc & fan rack.
In a 6 rack system there are 2 racks for fan. All racks are 19'' rack and contain 1 to 24 & 29 to 35 tee location.
The under-voltage, over-voltage & thermal settings are there in the rack.
PRAUT- Process Automation.
GCOS- Operation System.
Pose- Process Operator & Supervisory Environment.
MMI/HMI- Man Machine Interface.
Versa Dos- Operating System.
PMS- Plant Information & Management System.
3 parts in PMS.
Operator activities, Picture engineering, Database Engineering.

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GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION OF THERMAL POWER PLANT
Introduction:

In a Thermal Power Station, Chemical Energy of fuel, which is either Coal or Oil, is converted to Electrical
Energy. Actually, this energy conversion takes place in different stages.
Firstly, in Boiler, the chemical energy in fuel (Coal /Oil) is converted into heat energy. During process of
combustion, the carbon, sulphur etc available in the fuel reacts with air and liberates heat & flue gases. This
heat is absorbed by the water of water-walls of the furnace and generates steam (heat energy).
Secondly, in Turbine, this heat energy, in the form of steam, is converted into mechanical energy.
And finally, in Generator, which is directly coupled with the turbine, this mechanical energy is converted
into electrical energy or electricity.
Therefore, a Thermal Power Plant/Station can be regarded as a Process Industry. Now, for successful
completion of the process, a good numbers of process parameters (like steam pressure & temperature, drum
level, feed water flow, etc) need continuous monitoring, which demands instruments.

In a modern boiler of a Thermal Power Station, combustion process is very fast due to high steaming rate
with increased unit capacity. More over, to reduce cost, the present boilers are operated at maximum
permissible temperature limit of its metal.
Further, due to small capacity Drum and high steam output to water storage ratio, the modern boiler
demands continuous water feeding and constant drum water level. This is essential to prevent starvation of
the boiler.
To prevent boiler explosions and flame failure, the furnace draft (pressure) is to be maintained constant.
From the viewpoint of metallurgical aspects, steam temperature is to be maintained constant at turbine end.
All the above things indicate that the steam pressure & temperature, drum water level, furnace draft etc is to
be maintained constant.
In older and low capacity boiler, most of the above parameters are maintained manually. But in modern
boilers, due to high process reaction rate, the control of various reactions mentioned above is beyond the
purview of human and hence necessitates automatic control, which intern demands instrumentation.
At present, from the technical aspect of view, we are going through that Era when technology reaches to the
State of Art. In this Art of State era, a remarkable revolution has takes place in the field of Instrumentation.
Digital Control System (DCS) has replaces the conventional instrumentation system. Adaptation of DCS
has creates a new era of instrumentation.
Just like other process plant, the instrumentation system of a thermal power plant has two parts ---
Measurement & Control.
Measurement part deals with the measurement of different parameters of the process by deploying different
sensor which is mainly known as primary instrument and brings it (measured value) in the notice of
operating personnel by displaying it on indicator or recording it on recorder or storing it in Data
Acquisition System (DAS) or in some cases, by generating audiovisual alarm signal & protective signal.
Indicator, Recorder & DAS are mainly known as secondary instrument.
Sometimes, primary instrument i.e. primary sensing device is termed as Transmitter or Transducer.
Transduction means the conversion of energy. So Transducer is the device, which converts energy from
one form to another form.
Control part takes care for automatic/manual control of different parameters of the process. Setter, error
generator, controller (Mainly PI controller. In some cases it may be PID controller), auto/manual station,
amplifier, electrical to pneumatic converter, posisoner, actuator, etc. are the main component of control
part.

MEASUREMENT OF PROCESS PARAMETERS:

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Normally, in Thermal Power Plant, different parameters like Pressure (Gauge Pressure), Temperature,
Flow, Level, Thermal Expansion, Displacement etc at different point/part of the process are measured.
Measurements of these parameters are essential and required: -
To Guide for operating personnel, (ii) To operate the plant efficiently, (iii) To test the performance of the
plant (iv) To record the history of the plant and (v) To generate audio-visual alarm signal and or trip signal
if required.
The said measurements are done by measuring system, which consists of (i) Primary Instrument or Sensor
--- mainly Gauges, Transmitter etc, and (ii) Secondary Instrument --- mainly Indicator, Recorder, Data
Acquisition System (DAS), etc.
Depending upon the importance of the parameter, which is to be measured, these instruments are
mounted/erected (i) on Spot --- mainly Local Gauge (Pressure & Temperature), Rotameter type Flow
meter etc, (ii) on Local Panel or Instrument Rack --- mainly local panel gauge, local indicator,
transmitter/transducer etc, and (iii) on Panel at Unit Control Room --- mainly Secondary instrument i.e.,
Recorder, Indicator, and DAS etc.

Pressure Measurement:
Pressure & Vacuum are the most common & important process parameter of a thermal power plant.
Pressure & Vacuum are measured at so many points / parts of the process. Still Drum Pressure, Steam
Pressure at Turbine end, Deaerator Pressure, Furnace Pressure, Lube Oil Pressure, Furnace Oil Pressure,
Feed Water Pressure, Condenser Vacuum are the most important process parameter.
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge, Diaphragm Pressure Gauge, Capsule Pressure Gauge, Bellow Pressure
Gauge, Electronics Pressure Transmitter (Bourdon Tube, Bellow, Diaphragm or Capsule type) &
Kenotometer (For back pressure measurement. Here for Condenser Vacuum measurement) are mainly used
for measurement of Pressure & Vacuum.
Depending upon the importance of the parameter, which is to be measured, either Pressure Gauge or
Electronics Transmitter is used for measurement of that particular parameter.
The Electronics Pressure Transmitters, which are normally used in thermal power station, are mainly either
(i) Reluctance Type or (ii) Capacitance Type. Now a day, Capacitance type transmitters are widely used.
The Reluctance type transmitters, which are mainly used in thermal power plant, operate either on the basis
of LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) principle or Force Balance principle. All Russian type
& George Kent, U. K, type electronic transmitter are reluctance type. Russian transmitters are based on
LVDT principle. The output of these transmitters is 1-0-1 Volts AC. Delta – pi transmitters of George Kent,
U. K, are based on Force Balance principle. The output of these transmitters is 4 - 20 mA DC.
Fuji and Rosemount make transmitters are mainly Capacitance type. The output of these transmitters is 4 -
20 mA D.C.
All the above pressure transmitters are used in process plant where conventional instrumentation is adopted.
Now a day, in a modern process plant, where modern instrumentation system like DCS has replaces the
conventional instrumentation system, microprocessor based capacitance transmitters are widely used. These
transmitters are normally known as ‘Smart Transmitter’. As per requirement of the user, the out put of these
transmitter may be conventional 4 - 20 mA D.C or conventional 4 - 20 mA D.C signal in Digital Form or
both conventional signal and conventional signal in digital form.

Temperature Measurement:
Temperature may be defined as Degree of Heat, where as heat is usually taken to mean Quantity of Heat.
Thermometer is used to measure temperature. A thermometer measures the temperature of a body. But
the quantity of heat, which the body contains, depends upon not only ‘its temperature’ but also ‘its mass’
and ‘nature of its materials.
Like pressure, temperature is also a most important process parameter of a thermal power plant.
Temperature is measured at so many points / parts of the process. But steam temperature, Drum
temperature, SH & RH metal temperature, T/G Lube Oil & Bearing Babbitt temperature, Generator Gas

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temperature, HPT exhaust temperature etc has great importance in thermal power plant. Depending upon
the importance of the parameters, which is to be measured, either Expansion thermometer or Change of
state thermometer or Radiation and Optical Pyrometer or Electrical method of temperature detection
system is normally used in thermal plant. Out of above said thermometers, only Expansion thermometer
and Electrical type thermometer are widely used.
For measurement of temperature at those points / parts of the process, which has comparatively less
important and where only indication is required for guidance of operating personnel, Expansion
thermometer and / or Change of state thermometer are normally used. Normally, Mercury & Alcohol
filled liquid-in-glass thermometer, Mercury fill bulb type, Mercury vapour fill bulb type, Mercury fill
bulb-capillary type, Mercury vapour fill bulb-capillary type and Bi-metallic temperature gauges are used
for the said purpose i.e. where only temperature indication is required for guidance of operating
personnel.
And for measurement of temperature at those points / parts of the process, which are remote & critical
from location point of view and / or which demands accuracy, precision and remote transmission, are
normally measured by deploying Electrical method of temperature detection system. Normally, K – type
Thermocouple (TC), Copper Resistance thermometers (CRT) and Platinum Resistance thermometers
(PRT) are widely used in a thermal power plant.
We know, by means of a suitable apparatus, a change of temperature can be converted into a variable
electrical quantity i.e. voltage, current or resistance. TC, CRT & PRT operates on the basis of this
phenomenon.
Thermocouple (TC): When two dissimilar metals are welded together at one end and then heated, a voltage,
which can be measured and the measured value can be calibrated in terms of temperature, is developed
on the free end. This phenomenon is known as the principle of thermoelectricity and discovered by
Seeback in the year 1821. Commercial TC generates on the order of 20 – 50 mV through the range of
their operating temperature. TC can be of the different types of material and construction. It may be a
single/ simplex TC or duplex, Chromel / Alumel, Copper / Constantan; beaded, mineral insulated etc.
Depending upon measuring range, Chromel – Alumel, Chromel – Copel and Platinum Rhodium –
Platinum thermocouple are widely used in a thermal power plant.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): The resistance of pure metallic conductors increases with
temperature and this change can be detected electrically. RTD operates on the basis of this principle. It is
a highly accurate method of temperature measurement and particularly useful for measurement of lower
temperature scales down to – 400 OF and can be used up to 1300 OF.
In practice, Copper, Nickel and Platinum wire are used for RTD because they can be manufactured to a
high degree of purity and they have high temperature co-efficient and are able to resist corrosion and
oxidation. Normally, CRT is used for lower temperature scales. Nickel is a cheap substitute of Platinum
up to 600 OF and Platinum can be used up to 1300 OF.
Radiation Pyrometer: The industrial radiation Pyrometer is a practical application of the Stefen-boltzmann’s
Law of radiation energy, which states that the intensity of radiation energy emitted from the surface of a
body increases proportionally to the fourth (4th) power of the absolute temperature of the body. Energy
from the target (target means a portion of the object whose temperature is to be measured) is focussed on
a thermopile (thermopile means a number of small TC connected in series) by the pyrometer lens. The
thermopile generates an emf, which is proportional to the amount of energy falling on it. Therefore, the
emf is proportional to the temperature of the target. It is normally used where atmospheres are
detrimental to TC and cause erratic measurement & short life.
Optical Pyrometer: It is a portable instrument, which works on brightness comparison principle and normally
used for measurement of furnace temperature. The hot object, whose temperature is to be measured, is
focussed through a telescope. In the field of the telescope, there is a filament, which is heated through
electric current from a battery. Until the brightness of object just matches with that of the glowing
filament, the current through the filament is increased slowly by varying the resistance connected in
series with the battery and the filament. When brightness of the object and brightness of the filament are
equal, the image of the filament just vanishes and at that moment, filament current is measured and

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calibrated in the scale of temperature. Presence of suitable filter in the optical path of telescopic lens can
change the range of the instrument. The accuracy of the instrument is not so high.
Measurement of Level:
In thermal power plant, measurement of level is essential for the purpose of safe and efficient operation of
the plant. For the purpose of co-ordination and control, level measurement is also required. In thermal
power station, measurement of level is carried out for liquid and solid. The coal level in the pulverize coal
bunkers are measured, which are the example of measurement of level of solid. Measurement of Boiler
drum water level, Deaerator water level, Condenser Hot well level, etc is the example of measurement of
level of liquid.
When liquid level is monitored for the purpose of guidance for operating personnel, level is measured by
sight glass method. These are normally known as Direct Gauge Glass. Local gauges of Deaerator water
level, Condenser Hot well level, Boiler Drum water level, HP heaters & LP heaters shell water level
(HPH’s & LPH’s drip level), Lube oil tank level, etc falls under this category.
In some cases, to guide the operating personnel, liquid level is measured by buoyancy method. Normally,
float pulley mechanism and displacer float are used for said purpose. Local gauges of DM water tank level,
Fuel oil tank level, etc falls under this category.
In thermal power plant, liquid level is also measured to generate audiovisual alarm signal as well as
protective signal when the measured level falls below or raises above a preset value (level). Normally, float
& switch type level sensor, which works on buoyancy method, is used for this type of level measurement.
Condenser hot well level High / Low -- alarm, HPH / LPH level High / Low -- alarm, Deaerator level High
/ Low -- alarm, etc are generated by the float & switch type level sensor.
In some cases, level is measured for remote indication and for control. For this type of level measurement
differential pressure transmitters (dp transmitter) are normally used. The dp transmitter may be of LVDT
type, Reluctance type or Capacitance type.
Now a day, resistance method of liquid or water level measurement is widely used for measurement water
level of pressurised vessel i.e. for measurement of boiler drum water level, Deaerator water level, HPH’s
shell water level, etc. Hydra-state and Level state are most familiar level measuring device of this
category. These are an electronic replacement of Gauge glass providing a significant improvement in
accuracy, visibility, reliability & safety, enabling transmission of the water level condition to a remote
display and the application of alarm and control functions. The discrimination between water and steam is
based on the significant difference in resistivity between the two states over the saturation range. The
dimensions of the Probe of device are selected to provide a resistance typically less than 105 ohms when the
Probe is immersed in water which results in a resistance greater than 5X106 ohms for the steam condition.
In some power station, Capacitance type level sensor is for measurement of water level of Generator Stator
Cooling water tank.

Measurement of liquid level of a pressurised vassal by DP transmitter:

Here, to explain level measurement by deploying DP transmitter, we will consider the case of boiler drum
water level measurement by DP transmitter.
Boiler drum water measurement scheme is shown in the figure above. From the scheme, it clear that the
differential pressure (DP), which is measured by the transmitter, is equal to the pressure at pt–A minus the
pressure at pt-A’.
So,

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For liquid level measurement, why DP Transmitters are calibrated by reversing its range?
Again it is clear from equation (1) that the DP will be minimum when L = H and DP will be maximum when
L= 0.
For drum water level measurement, if we use a dp transmitter, which is calibrated in normal way, then the
out put of the transmitter will be minimum i.e. 4 mA when water is full of the measuring range of the
transmitter i.e. drum water level is at or above pt-B and the said output will be maximum i.e. 20 mA
when there is no water in the measuring range of the transmitter i.e. drum water level is at or below pt-A.
Now, with this dp transmitter, if we use any secondary instrument like recorder and or indicator for display
of drum water level, then the secondary instrument will show no water condition when water is full of
the measuring range of the transmitter and full water condition when there is no water in the measuring
range of the transmitter.
So, if precautionary measure is not taken for liquid level measurement by DP transmitter method then the
secondary instrument will display the reverse of the reality.
This phenomenon is not only true in the case of boiler drum water level measurement but also true in all
cases of all liquid level measurement when liquid level is measured by differential pressure measurement
method.
To avoid this practical problem, the DP transmitters are reverse calibrated for liquid level measurement.

Measurement of Flow:
Like pressure, temperature and level, flow is also most important process parameter, which is monitored
continuously for purpose of Control, Co-ordination and Safe Operation of the process.
In a thermal power plant, flow of liquid as well as flow of solid is also measured for periodic as well as for
on line efficiency calculation, which plays an important role in the modern concept of power plant
operation, of the process.
Normally, rate flow instruments are widely used for measurement of flow of Steam, Feed Water, Spray
Water, Fuel Oil, Air, D. M. Water etc and integrators are used for measurement of flow of Coal. Coal
flow integrators are basically required to know the coal consumption, coal stock and to assess the
performance of the unit and to deal with supplier.
Normally, for remote indication and control, differential pressure transmitters (dp transmitter) are widely
used for measurement fluid flow. But, when local indication of fluid flow are required for guidance of
operating personnel then ‘Rote-meter’ or / and ‘Turbine flow meter’ are used for measurements of fluid
flow.

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We know that if a restriction is introduced in the flow path of fluid then a differential pressure (dp) is
developed across the restriction. Now, this DP has a relationship the quantity of fluid flowing in the path.
This relationship can be mathematically expressed as: -

Where, Q is the quantity of fluid flowing in the path, dp is the

differential pressure developed across the restriction and k is a constant which depends upon the cross
sectional area of the flow path and density of the flowing fluid.
This relationship can be derived from Bernoulli’s equation, which states that sum of the Pressure
Head, the Velocity Heat and the Elevation Head at one point is equal to their sum at another point
in the direction of flow from the first point plus the loss due to friction between the two points.
Normally, in a Thermal Power Plant, Orifice Plate, Flow Nozzle, Piezomatric Ring etc are used as restriction.
Flow Nozzle is used for Steam Flow (M.S. Flow) and Feed Water Flow measurement. Orifice Plate is
used for measurement of Condensate Flow, BFP & CEP re-circulation Flow, SH & RH attemparation
Flow etc. Piezomatric Ring is used for measurement of Air Flow.

Analytical Instruments or Analyser:

Unlike the aforesaid instruments, where measurement is done by displacement and mechanical means –
based on physical properties, some instruments are used to analyse the sample – based on chemical
heating or paramagnetic effects. Such instruments are normally termed as ‘Analytical Instruments or
Analyser’.
In a modern thermal power plant, analytical instruments are essential to measure ‘Oxygen in Flue Gas’,
‘Dissolved Oxygen in Feed Water’, ‘Conductivity of Feed Water’ at different points of the process or
circuit, ‘PH of Feed Water’ at different points of the process or circuit, ‘Silica content of Feed Water’
and ‘Purity of Hydrogen’ in generator casing.
Oxygen in Flue Gas: The percentage of O2 in flue gas is an indication of percentage of excess air. Too much
excess air leads to inefficiency and low excess air leads to improper and incomplete combustion. So,
measurement of O2 in Flue Gas provides good information to the operating personnel for safe and
efficient operation.
Dissolved Oxygen in Feed Water: At high temperature and pressure, O2 in the Feed Water reacts with metal
parts of Boiler and Turbine and results into corrosion. Dissolved O2 is removed effectively by deaeration
and further traces of Dissolved O2, if any, is taken care by proper dozing of Hydra gene. So,
measurement of O2 in Feed Water provides good information to the operating personnel for safe
operation.
Conductivity of Feed Water: The conductivity of boiler make-up water and condensate water in an
indication of dissolved salts in the water, which is fed to the Boiler Drum. Increase of conductivity will
cause silica deposition on last stages of the turbine and causes damage to the thrust bearing and it may
damage the turbine if no corrective action is taken. So, measurement of Feed Water Conductivity is
essential for safe operation of the unit.
pH of Feed Water: The PH value of liquid gives an indication that whether the liquid is acidic or alkaline or
neutral. The liquid is called acidic if the pH value is in between 1 and 6 and alkaline if the pH value is in
between 8 and 14 and neutral if the pH value is 7. To prevent corrosion of the pressurised parts of the
boiler, the pH value of Feed Water must be higher than 7.
Silica content of Feed Water: Silica in steam causes fine silica deposition on the turbine blades particularly
on the last stages. Again silica deposition on turbine may cause the damage of the turbine. So for safe
operation, measurement of silica in Feed Water is very much essential.
Hydrogen Purity: In thermal power plant, H2 is used for cooling of the core and winding of both the Stator
and the Rotor of Generator or Alternator. The decrease of H2 purity in generator casing will cause
increase of the core and winding temperature of both the Stator and the Rotor of Generator. Again the
increase of the core and winding temperature of both the Stator and the Rotor of Generator will lead to

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the reduction of load of the generator i.e. the load of the unit. So, measurement of generator casing H2
purity is most important for economic operation of the unit.
Stator Cooling Water Resistivity: In some thermal power station, where generator stator winding is cooled
by D. M. water, the resistivity of stator cooling water is measured. If the said resistivity falls below a pre-
set value then the generator trips automatically because electrical current conduction may take place
from generator stator winding to earth through stator cooling water due to its low resistance or low
resistivity. So, stator cooling water resistivity is most important parameter for safe operation of the
generator.
Special Supervisory Instruments for Turbine:
Some instruments, which are called as Turbine Supervisory Instruments, are required to monitor the
characteristics of turbine under different load condition. These instruments play an important role during
start-up and shutdown of the turbine as well as during sudden load disturbances.
Turbine supervisory Instrumentation System monitors the following main parameters of the turbine. Axial
Shift, Differential Expansion, Shaft Eccentricity, Over all Thermal Expansion of HPT & IPT,
Turbine Speed, TG Bearing Vibration & TG Bearing Babbitt Temperature.
In the past, Pneumatic Instruments were used for measurement of Axial Shift, Differential Expansion, and
Eccentricity & Speed. After that, with advancement of technology, Variable Reluctance type pickup and
Taco Generator were used for measurement of these parameters. Now a day, with further advancement
of technology, Eddy Current Pick-up are widely used for supervision of turbine parameters.
CONTROL OF PROCESS PARAMETERS:

We know that in a thermal power station, controlling of some process parameters are essential for safe
and economic operation of the unit or station.
The controls in a thermal power station may be Pneumatic or Electronic. In the past (few decade ago),
Pneumatic Control System was widely used for controlling of the process parameters of process industry.
After that, with advancement in electronic field, Electronic Control System made a favourable footing in
some cases where more complex & more number of control functions are involved. But, now a day, with
further advancement in electronic field & introduction of computer, Electronic Control System is widely
used in almost all modern thermal power stations.
The control system of a process industry consists of the followings:

Auto / Manual Station: Practically, it is a changeover switch or selector switch. If selected for Auto
(Auto Operation) then the corrective signal of the Controller directly goes to the Final Control
Element. Now, when selected for Manual (Manual Operation) then the corrective signal of the

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Controller is blocked and the operating personnel has to adjust the corrective signal for the Final
Control Element manually as and when deviation occurs.
Final Control Element: It is either a Pneumatic Motor (Diaphragm or Power Cylinder) or a Reversible
Electric Motor or a Hydraulic Motor (Piston and Cylinder assembly). It is directly coupled (by
mechanical link) with Control Valve or Control Vane or Control Damper and operates as per the Auto
Signal or Manual signal which it receives from Auto / Manual station. Practically, it is the drive of
Control Valve or Control Vane or Control Damper of the process.

Valve or Vane or Damper: Practically, these are gate or door of the different part of the process whose
opening is controlled for controlling the process parameter. It is mechanically coupled with the Final
Control Element and driven by the Final Control Element.
Position Indicator: Basically, it is either an Ammeter or Voltmeter whose scale is calibrated from 0% to
100%. It shows the actual position (Opening) of the Control Valve or Control Vane or Control Damper
of the process. Practically, position feedback transmitter (or some suitable means) converts the
movement of Control Valve or Control Vane or Control Damper to an equivalent electrical signal, which
is measured by this position Indicator.

CONCLUSION:
Let us see, in a process plant, which type of instruments is applied for what purpose.

The indicating instruments are provided to monitor the process for safe and efficient operation.
The recording instruments (Recorder, data Acquisition system) are provided to study the performance of the
unit and to suggest the operating personnel regarding the correct way of operation. The recording instruments
are essential to build up the history of the unit and play an important role in modification work for further
improvement of performance.
The signalling or annunciating instruments alerts the operating personnel at right time to take corrective
action for safe and efficient operation.
The controlling instruments regulate the process to maintain the designed operating parameters.

The instruments are, therefore, designed and provided at suitable locations of the power station for safe,
efficient and economic operation.
68
PROCESS PARAMETER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Process variables need to be measured for a number of reasons :
1. To maintain product quality .
2. For material saving .
3. For cost accounting .
4. Facilitate production inspection & testing .
5. Provide plant safety & comfort .

Following terms are important in respect to measurement system :

STATIC TERMS –
Range – Limit within which a variable is measured , received or transmitted is expressed by stating the
lower and upper range values .
Span – The algebraic difference between the upper and lower range values.

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Resolution – The least interval between two adjacent discrete details which can be
distinguished one from other .
Sensitivity- The ratio of change in output magnitude to the change in input which causes it after the
steady state has been reached. In case of non linear device the application input level must be stated .
Zero error – The error of a device operating under specified condition of use when the input is at the lowest
range value .
Span error – Difference between actual & ideal span expressed as %.
Hysteresis – The difference in output at the same value of input under specified conditions during rising and
falling states .
Dead band – The range through which an input can be varied without initiating observable response .
Repeatability-The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for
the same value of the input under the same operating conditions ,approaching from the same direction for
full range of traverses
Deviation –Any departure from a desired or expected value .
Linearity – The closeness to which a curve approximates a straight line .
Drift – Undesirable output –input relation change over a period of time .

DYNAMIC TERMS –
Damping – The progressive reduction or suppression of oscillation in a device or system .
Critically damped – Time response is as fast as possible without overshoot .
Underdamped – Overshoot occurs .
Overdamped- Response is slower than critical .
Noise – Unwanted component of a signal which obscures the information
Response time – Output expressed as a function of time , resulting from the application of a specified input
under specified operating conditions .
ENERGY RELATED TERMS –
Power consumption , air consumption , supply pressure , supply voltage etc to be considered .
OPERATION RELATED TERMS –
Operating conditions , ambient temp , interference ,ambient pressure etc are important terms to be considered
for instrument selection .

Classification of mechanical measuring instruments :

A. Depending on power supply –
a. Self operated type –used for experimental or developmental programme only.
b. Power type – normally used for operational measurement in control system .
B. Depending on position of instrument –
a. Self contained- Primary and secondary element both situated in the area of parameter itself .
Local gauges and self controllers are of this category .
b. Remote indicating type - Primary element is located hundreds of feet away ( usually in
control room ) from secondary instrument .
C. Depending on requirement of operator service –
a. Manual – Operator service required . Used for laboratory
sampling .
b. Automatic – Required for on-line , continuous service.
D. Depending on principle of operation –
a. Direct comparison type –
b. Indirect comparison type –
Points to be considered for instrument selection :
i. How accurate is the measurement to be made .
ii. When the final data required , at the time of taking measurement or later .

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iii. Cost .
iv. Data should be displayed in what form – indicating , recording , integrating , monitor,
photographs etc.
v. Quantity to be measured is time variant or constant .

Different stages of measuring instruments :

a. Primary sensing device
b. Transducer
c. Intermediate modifying stage
d. Terminating stage or secondary indicating instrument .

Sources of error :
1. Noise – can be eliminated by filtering , careful selection of components , shielding & isolating
measuring system .
2. Response time – can be minimized by suitably damping .
3. Design limitation –
4. Friction – In case of moving instruments
5. Resolving power-
6. Energy exchanged because of interaction .
7. Transmission error.
8. Deterioration of measuring system .
9. Ambient influence .
10. Errors of observation & interpretation .
Errors may be classified as –
Sytematic error –repeated consistently with a repetation of experiment Random error – accidental and its
magnitude and sign cannot be predicted .
Grades of measurement :
Depending on the level of accuracy grades of measurement may be defined as –
1. International standard
2. Primary standard
3. Secondary reference
4. Industrial purpose
5. General purpose
Measurement of Temperature :
In thermal power plants , temperatures of the range of ambient to about 1200 degC need to be measured and
controlled .So various means are adopted for different applications . Common temperature sensors in use are
– Thermocouples , Variable resistance temp detectors , Thermistors , Filled systems , Bimetals & Radiation
thermometry .
THERMOCOUPLE – converts thermal energy directly into an electrical voltage when a temperature
gradient exists between two end junctions of a pair of dissimilar metal wires . Open circuit developed voltage
is a function of Seebeck co-efficient of the two metals and the difference in temperature .
Most commonly used thermocouples are-
J Type - Is the combination of IRON ( +VE ) and CONSTANTAN (-VE)
This usually used for upto a mexm.. temp of 870 degC .
But this is not suitable for low temp measurement ,as , IRON
may get rusted in presence of water .
T Type – Is the combination of COPPER ( +VE) and CONSTANTAN
(-VE) . Recommended for mild oxidizing and reducing
atmosphere upto 400degC .It may be used in moist atmosphere
also . As the homogeneity of component wires can be maintained
,so low temperature can also be measured accurately .

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K Type- Is the combination of CHROMEL(+VE) and ALUMEL (-VE) .

This can be used in clean oxidizing atmosphere upto 1260 degC
, so most commonly used in thermal power plants .This could
not be used at oxygen starved atmosphere as temperature- mv
characteristic will no longer follow the standard curve .
For ready reference few points from characteristic curve of K
type thermocouple is mentioned here.

Temp.°C 0 30 100 200 300 400 500 600

mv 0 1.2 4.1 8.13 12.21 16.4 20.65 24.91

E Type – Is the combination of CHROMEL(+VE) and CONSTANTAN

(-VE) . Suitable for cryogenics (-223 degC).
**In thermal power plant thermocouples are used for steam temp , flue gas temp and boiler/turbine metal
temp measurement .
Main advantages of using thermocouples are-
(i) Response time low-as the wires can be made very thin so response time can be of the
order of msec .Grounded elements are faster than ungrounged . For metal temperature
measurements surface cement type thermocouples are used for fast response .
(ii) High shock absorber as the construction is heavy duty .
(iii) Small in size .
(iv) Probes can be made flexible
(v) Cost effective

Some of the limitations of thermocouple application are –

(i) Accuracy –less than RTD .
(ii) Resolution – cannot be lowered than 10 microvolt / degC .
(iii) Drift – characteristic curve drifts at high temperature .
(iv) Leads- only compensating leads ca be used .
(v) Construction –high precision silver soldering with borux flux required .
Variable resistance thermometer :
Resistance of most metals increase linearly with temp , using this property variable resistance thermometers
are widely used for moderate temperature measurement .
Advantages of Variable Resistance thermometers ( commercially called RTD –Resistance temperature
detector ) are-
• Accurate
• Sensor itself can operate indicator/recorder/controller etc.
• Using protection tubes of suitable metals , can be used for a wide range -200 to 500 degC.
In practice PRT (Platinum resistance thermometers ) & CRT ( Copper resistance thermometers ) are used in
thermal power plants .Variation of resistance is conventionally measured by Wheatstone bridge . Presently
software driven (curve fitting principle ) temperature scanners are used as secondary instruments with RTDs
(Resistance Temperature Detectors ).
Platinum has inherent advantages –
• It is a noble metal , so not oxidized but contaminated by CO and other reducing
atmosphere .
• Commercially available in pure form .
• Melting point high so does not volatilize below 1200 degC.
Pt100 is most frequently used in power plants for air, water , motor winding/bearing etc temperature
measurement usually within 400 degC. This is called Pt100 because it has 100 ohm resistance at 0 degC &
will increase linearly with temperature . The selected part of the temperature-resistance table is given below.

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Temp °C 0 50 100 150 200 250

Res Ω 100 119.09 138.5 157.3 175.8 194.08

Cu53 is used in thermal power plants for turbine bearing and generator winding /bearing temperature
measurement within 100 degC . General range of use - -50 to 180 degC .
A portion of the temperature –resistance table for Cu53 is given below –
Temp °C 0 25 75 100 125 150
Res Ω 53 58.65 69.93 75.58 81.22 86.87

Disadvantages of RTD are –

• Not suitable for very high temp .
• Lead resistance introduces error .
• Circuit to be made low voltage driven , otherwise self heating will make the result erroneous .
• At vibration prone area thermocouples are preferable than RTD .

Bimetallic thermometers :
When two metal strips having different co-efficient of expansion are brazed together , a change in
temperature will cause free deflection of assembly . The important properties which matter in selection of
alloy metals are –
• Co-efficient of expansion .
• Co-efficient of elasticity .
• Electrical conductivity .
• Ductility .
• Metallurgical stability .
High temp welding process is employed to form strips of two alloys ,which involves no use of intermediate
bonding material . INVER & TIN are most frequently used alloys .
The bimetallic strip is wound in a helix form , one end of which is fixed on a fixed shaft and the other end is
freely attached with a movable pointer . When the metal strip subjected to temp increase , it will try to
unwind itself and the rotation of the movable shaft is calibrated in terms of temp .
These gauges are used only upto 100 degC .

Thermistors –Non metallic semi-conductor of ceramic materials having –ve temperature co-efficient of
resistance are used for this purpose . This temp coefficient at room temp is about ten times higher than that of
copper or platinum .So thermistors are more sensitive as well as smaller in size .Used only upto 100 degC .
In thermal power plants thermistors are used for HT DRIVE bearing temp measurement .
Thermistors are made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxides such as manganese ,nickel ,cobalt ,copper ,
iron and uranium.
Important points about thermistors are –
• Identical elements cannot be manufactured so individual elements to be calibrated separately .
• Self heating will induce error .
• Lead resistance will not be a problem as thermistor has very high resistance .
• Mainly used for switching purpose.

Filled system :
These are most commonly used temperature gauges for local display .
Advantages –
• Simple
• Inexpensive
• Self contained , does not need auxiliary power
• System can be so designed to drive controllers .

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Limitations –
• Size may be too large .
• Performance will vary with type of filling liquid .
• Maximum temperature limited .
• Failure of any small mechanical part needs complete replacement of the system .
Categories –
• Volume principle – Mercury in steel or glass filled . Other liquid filled . Expansion of liquid
calibrated in terms of temperature .
• Pressure principle – Vapour filled / gas filled .
Radiation Thermometry :The radiant energy emitted from a body increases with temperature and this
property is used in measuring temperature particularly in high temperature zone .
W=O * e *T4 W=Radiant energy, O=Stefan constant, e= Emissivity of the surface ,T=Absolute
temperature.
Advantages –
• High temp application
• Direct contact not required
• Long life as not exposed to direct temperature
Disadvantages –
• High cost
• Regular maintenance required
• Calibration table is not uniform
In thermal power plants most suitable for furnace temp measurement .
Fibre optic temperature sensor :
A spectrally modulated light beam infers the temperature .
Pressure Measurement :
Pressure is the amount of force applied to the unit area of a surface .
Normally expressed in terms of kg/cm2 , bar , mmwcl ( mm of water column ) , mmhg (mm of mercury
column ) etc .
Gauge pressure- A gauge that indicates zero at atmospheric pressure measures the gauge pressure .It is the
difference between actual and atmospheric pressure .
Absolute pressure – It is the actual total pressure acting on a surface . So
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum – Pressure gauges for this type are designed to indicate pressure below zero or atmospheric pressure
.
Mechanical pressure elements –
• Liquid column elements – U tube manometer , Well manometer etc .
• Elastic elements – Diaphragm , Bellow ,Bourdon tube , Capsule etc.
• Pressure elements – Strain gauge .
Electrical pressure measuring elements –
• Reluctance type
• Capacitance type
U Tube Manometer :
Both end open glass U-tube partially filled with mercury is used for this purpose . At one end atmospheric
pressure is applied and at the other end the pressure to be measured . From the difference in heights of the
two columns gauge pressure is measured in terms of mmHg .
Absolute pressure manometer :
Glass U-tube partially filled with mercury having top of one leg evacuated and sealed. The pressure to be
measured is applied at other end .KENETOMETER for condensor vacuum measurement uses this principle .
Diaphragm :

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Is a flexible disk, usually with concentric corrugate .This converts pressure to deflection . Commonly used
metals for making diaphragms are phosphor bronze , beryllium copper , stainless steel etc.Linearity and
sensitiviry are the main factors to be considered for selecting the material .
Bellow :
Is a thin walled metal tube with deeply convoluted sidewalls which permit axial expansion and contraction .
Materials used are brass , phosphor bronze , monel , stainless steel , berrylium copper , inconel etc . These
are used where high force measurement required .
Capsule :
Formed by joining peripheries of two diaphragms through soldering or welding .

Bourdon tube :
Curved or twisted tube whose transfer section differs from a circular form . The tube is closed at one end and
if bent or distorted has the property of changing its shape with internal pressure variation which cause the
cross section become more circular and the shape to straighten , resulting in motion of the closed end of the
tube . This motion commonly called tip travel ultimately makes a pointer to travel on a scale , thus showing
the pressure applied .

Strain gauge :
Any form of container when pressurized is strained . It is the resulting strain which is sensed by the bonded
wire strain gauge fitted onto the surface . The output of the strain gauge is calibrated in terms of the applied
pressure .
Suitable for transient pressure measurement .
Variable reluctance type pressure transmitter :
The device consists of two E-shaped magnetic pieces placed equally around a diaphragm . Two coils are
wound around these E-shaped pieces . When pressure difference exists across the diaphragm , the flexing of
the diaphragm cause it to move toward one pole piece and away from the other , thereby altering the relative
inductances . The output of this is measured by electric circuitry .
Capacitive pressure transducers :
Most commonly used in thermal power plants for remote measurement .
A measuring diaphragm (elastic element )moves relative to one or two fixed plates . Change in capacitance
are detected by an oscillator or bridge circuit .
The change of capacitance can be amplified and used to operate into phase , amplitude or frequency
modulated carrier system.. A frequency modulated system using tuned resonant circuit is shown in fig.
In the conventional capacitive pressure sensor , the diaphragm is so selected that the device will produce
about a 25 % change in capacitance for a full scale pressure change . Backstops are used on either side of the
diaphragm for over pressure protection .
Recently all silicon sandwich design provides the transducer better thermal stability , as material mismatch is
eliminated.
Advantages –
• Low mass
• High resolution
• Good frequency response
Limitations-
• Requirement of sophisticated signal conditioning
• Sensitive to temperature .
• Stray noise effect on sensor leads .
• Permanent defamation may cause it not suitable for long-term stability
Silicon , ceramics , quartz exhibit minimal hysteresis .

Piezoelectric pressure transmitter :

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When certain asymmetrical crystals are elastically deformed along specified axes , an electric potential
produced within the crystal causing a flow of electric charge in external circuit, called piezoelectric
effect .Quartz / tourmalin ( natural crystals ) . Recently JFET / MOSFET etc are replacing conventional
circuits .
Smart transmitter :
ICP are integrated circuit piezoelectric sensors with built in microelectronics ( amplifier and signal
conditioner ) which operate over a simple two wire cable is called smart sensors .
When microprocessors and miniature electronics are used with the transmitter for storing important
parameters like range , scale , calibration , self diagnostic trouble shooting etc with a remote capability
for sending data to and receiving data from a measurimg unit located at field .
Advantages –
• Drift free
• Calibration remote & easy
• Can be directly connected to modern DCS system
Flow Measurement :
Flow can be measured by Flow rate & Flow volume .
Flow rate is integrated velocity of the individual stream lines making a total velocity profile across the
conduit .
Flow volume is total volume of fluid which has passed through the conduit over a given period .In
Thermal power plant flow volume is generally measured .
Classifications of different flowmeters -
• Pressure differential flowmeters : Ventury , Orifice plate , Nozzle etc together with a differential
pressure transmitter .
• Mechanical flowmeters : Turbine flowmeter , Target flowmeter , open channel flowmeter
• The variable area flowmeter
• Electromagnetic flowmeter
• Vortex flowmeter
• Mass flowmeter
• Ultrasonic flowmeter
Pressure differential flowmeters :
Basic principle depends on the fact that when a fluid passes through a conduit of varying cross section a
pressure difference is observed .Bernoulli’s law gives a definite relation between this pressure energy
and flow energy . In order to get variable cross section some form of restriction , called primary flow
element is placed in the conduit .
Pressure differential= Constant * Flow2
Advantages –
• Simple & no moving parts .
• Wide range application available .
• Repeatability good
• Long term stable
Disadvantages –
• Square root relationship limits the accuracy at lower range
• Temperature & pressure correction to be made
• Unrecoverable head loss occurs
Commonly used pressure elements :
Orifice plates – It consists of a thin metal plate with a central hole .Upstream side has sharp edge of the
hole . The pressure taps must be one at upstream and one at down stream .Applicable to everywhere
since head loss is not considerable here , but not much durable in high pressure application .

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Nozzle – Restriction part of the nozzle consists of a convergent portion of rounded profile and a
cylindrical throat .Corner pressure taps should only be used .Nozzles should be used where head loss is
not very important .
Durable but cost is high .
Ventury tubes- Head loss is minimum here . Available in two forms .
Nozzle entrance type consists of a cylindrical entrance followed by a followed by a nozzle entrance
throat followed by a conical divergent section .Pressure taps are taken at the face of the nozzle section
and in the throat of the nozzle .
Conical entrance type consists of a cylindrical entrance section followed by a conical convergent section
leading into a cylindrical throat which in tern is followed by a conical divergent section . Pressure taps
are taken at a distance of half the pipe diameter from the start of the converging cone and in the center of
the converging cone . Size , weight and price of this element is much higher in comparison to others .

Turbine flowmeter :
Basically a rotor fitted with number of blades mounted in the center of a pipeline with its axis parallel to
the flow .The blades rotate when the fluid impinges on them .Angular velocity is proportional to the
linear velocity of the fluid which in tern is proportional to the flow rate ..An electrical pick-up coil
detects the angular velocity , which is electronically conditioned to give the flow rate .
Advantages –
• Accurate
• Repeatability good
• Can operate under high pressure and temperature condition
• Fast response
• Easy to install
Disadvantages –
• Unsuitable for high viscous fluid
• Moving parts subject to wear and damage
• Unsuitable for dirty liquid

Variable area flowmeter :

Consists of a vertical tapered tube containing a free float .The tube tapers out from the bottom to the top
and the direction of flow is also from bottom to the top .As the flow through the meter increases the float
rises increasing the area of concentric orifice through which fluid flows . Float is lifted to a position of
equilibrium between downward gravity and upward force caused by flowing medium .
Advantages –
• Simple , direct flow reading available from a linear scale .
• Can measure very low flow
• No power supply required
• Head loss is low
Disadvantages –
• Not suitable for high flow and pressure , dirty liquid .
• Remote display not possible
• Meters must be mounted in vertical position

Electromagnetic flowmeter :
Is based on the principle of Faraday , that the EMF induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic
field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor . So suitable only for conducting fluid .
Vortex flowmeter:
This is based on the principle of Vortex shedding which occurs when a fluid flows past an obstruction .
If the obstruction is in form of a bluff body vortices formed behind it and vortex shedding alters from
side to side of the bluff body . The frequency of vortex shedding is proportional to the fluid velocity .

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Mass flowmeter :
Uses Coriolis principle to measure the mass flow instead of volume flow .
Ultrasonic flowmeter :
Piezoelectric crystals are used to generate high frequency sound waves and fluid velocity is measured by
Doppler shift or by time of flight .
Level Measurement :
Direct measurement – Gauge glasses are fitted by the side of the tank directly to have the level
measurement locally .

Indirect measurement –
• Differential pressure method – The pressure difference between the top and bottom of the vessel
corresponds to the level of the liquid in the vessel , if the density of the liquid is known .The
differential pressure is usually measured in respect to a constant head unit ( dry type and wet type) in
case of a closed vessel where changes in atmospheric pressure can occur .Dry type is used where
there is no chance of fluid carryover into the top measuring leg.
For open vessel a single connection is made from the base of the vessel to the differential pressure
measuring device (high pressure side ) and the low pressure end left open to atmospheric pressure.

• Hydrastep – Operating principle is the difference of resistivity between water and steam in case of a
drum . No of electrodes are placed in the pressure vessel which is directly connected with the vessel
whose level to be measured. Depending on the resistivity electrodes generate different signals which
in turn makes either red or green lamps on at control room thus give the drum level .
• Capacitive system – An instrument probe is located at the preset level point . A radio frequency
signal is applied to the probe . When the probe is covered by the medium being measured ,its
capacitance changes which is detected by an electronic circuit which operates alarms or any
controller if required .
• Ultrasonic system – This system transmits ultrasound waves towards the surface of the liquid and
measures the time taken by wave to bounce off the surface back to the source . This way the level is
measured .
• Float system – A float rises and falls with the movement of the level Continuous display as well as
for switching purpose it is used .
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69
ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Analysis by instruments can be of two types; QUANTATIVE and QUALITATIVE. In the former type
results yield numerical value of constituents while in the later the molecular /atomic species, structural
features or functional groups in a sample can be obtained.
In our power plant, most of the analytical instruments are meant to provide us with a continuous online
quantitative data. The instrumentation system may be in-citu or with an additional sampling system.

The analytical instruments that are in use in our power plant can be broadly classified as stack monitoring
instruments, gas analysers and steam and water analysers . However, a few more portable instruments are
used in chemical laboratory.

Oxygen Analyser
The oxygen analyser probe is designed to measure the net concentration of oxygen remaining after all fuels
have been oxidised. The probe is permanently positioned within the exhaust duct and performs the system
without any sampling system.

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The equipment measures the oxygen percentages by reading the voltage developed across a heated
electrochemical cell, which consists of a small yttria–stabilized, zirconia disc. Both sides of the disc are
coated with porous metal electrodes. When operated at a proper temperature, the millivolt output voltage of
the cell is given by the Nernst Equation:
E.M.F. =KTLOG1O (P1/P2) + C
Where:
P2 is the partial pressure of the oxygen in the measured gas on one side of the cell
P1 is the partial pressure of the oxygen in the reference air on the other side
T is the absolute temperature
C is the cell constant
K is the arithmetic constant

When the cell is at the operating temperature and there are unequal concentrations across the cell, oxygen
ions will travel from high partial pressure oxygen side to the low partial pressure side of the cell. The result is
a logarithmic related output voltage. Because the magnitude of the output is proportional to the logarithm of
the inverse of the sample of the oxygen partial pressure, the output signal increases as the oxygen
concentration of the sample gas decreases. This ensures a high output even for low oxygen concentration.
Hydrogen Purity meter. (analyser)

The measurement principle used in the on-line hydrogen purity meter is the thermal conductivity of gases.
Gases have thermal conductivities, which are different for different gases. The thermal conductivity of a
gas mixture is a function of individual conductivities and gas concentrations and is approximately given by

where is the thermal conductivity of the j th gas whose concentration is so that.

The analyser used in Bk.T.P.P. is unselective, exact concentration of the measured component can be
measured only in a binary (two-component) gaseous mixture.
If the sample gas contains other gas components, their influence has to be taken care within factory set
parameters.

Measurement of thermal conductivity involves the measurement of thermal loss due to heat conductions.
This is accomplished in hot wire cells, referred as Katharometer cells. The cells consist of a heating element
in the form of a straight wire mounted in a chamber. This hot wire cells are temperature dependent ohmic
resistances serves to supply heat input by electrical energy conversion and simultaneously measures
temperature change by resistance. Platinum is used more often as the hot wire for its good chemical stability
large temperature coefficient of resistance.

Two sets of cell sealed in a glass are placed within a chamber; one flushed with sample gas and the other
with encapsulated reference gas. The sample gas free from any measured components should have thermal
conductivity approximately same as reference gas. The four wires connected in a wheat-stone bridge pattern
is powered by a bridge current source, thus heating the resistance wires and making them assume a
temperature dependent on the thermal conductivity of the reference or sample gas. The lesser the difference
between the thermal conductivity of the sample gas and that of the reference gas, the lesser will be the effect
of fluctuation in the ambient temperature on the equilibrium of the bridge.

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If the sample gas contains the measured component its thermal conductivity changes thus changing the
temperature and resistance in the wires flushed by the sample gas; equilibrium of the bridge is disturbed. The
resultant bridge diagonal voltage is a measurement of the concentration of the measured component in the
sample gas.

Dust and Opacity monitor

When a beam of light crosses a medium containing smokes or dust particles, some of the light is transmitted
and some is lost due to scattering. The fraction, which is transmitted, is called the transmittance and the
fraction, which is lost, is the opacity.

Beer Lambert’s Law

The mathematical relationship between the light transmitted by a medium and the quantity of pollutant
present is given by Beer Lambert’s Law and is given by:
τ = I / I0 = τ -acl
where: τ = Transmittance
I0 = Intensity of light into the medium
I = Intensity of light out of the medium.
a = Attenuation coefficient
c = Concentration of pollutant
= Distance of light beam travels through the medium

since opacity (Op) = 1- τ , the above equation becomes

( 1 – Op ) = - log10 τ = - acl / 2.303
The dust concentration can be derived as
DUST = K x O.D. where K= 2.303/al

By comparing a series of optical density measurements with gravity dust measurements, it is possible to
derive the value of K in real time application. It should be noted here that in a double pass system a path
length correction factor is required for correcting the change in path lengths between the measurement and
exit diameters of the stack.
SOx and NOx analyser
Non-dispersive absorption type IR spectroscopic technique is used to measure SOx and NOx. A non-
dispersive type uses narrow frequency band source.

Equal intensity chopped infrared beams are passed through a measuring cell (MC) and a reference cell (RC)
simultaneously. The reference cell is filled with a standard non-absorbing gas while the measuring cell
contains the process gas.

The analyser mounted in Bk.T.P.P. is not an in-citu and hence a sample handling system is required. Apart
from collecting the flue gas sample from the duct, all moisture present that may be present in the sample is
removed and drained out.
Even all such gases that may absorb wavelengths in the given range are also filtered out using filter cells.

The beams from the MC and RC pass on to the detector D that consists of two sealed absorption chambers
A1 and A2 filled with the measuring gas and separated by a thin metal diaphragm which forms a parallel
plate capacitor with an adjacent perforated fixed metal plate. These gas chambers will therefore, selectively
absorb radiation. Chamber A1 receives radiation which has already been absorbed in parts in the MC and the
gas in A1 will not further absorb the same energy as would the gas in A2 so that the chamber gases would be

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unequally heated to cause a movement of the metal diaphragm to produce a change in the capacitance which
is measured by a bridge and amplifier-detector.

SWAS
SWAS is the commercial name adopted for the steam and water analytical system. The instruments available
under this system have a separate sampling handling system and henceforth are not in-citu type. In the main
power plant these package is provided by ABB and for the DM plant lab. these are mostly of YBL make.

Dissolved Oxygen measurement

The sensing probe for the dissolved oxygen is a membrane electrode, which allows electro chemical reaction.
A typical cell has inner cylindrical anode made of lead and outer perforated cathode usually of silver- the
combination being immersed in an aqueous solution of KHCO3, which is held in a position by a silicone
rubber membrane. This membrane is permeable to oxygen but not to water or other ions likely to be present.
Diffused oxygen is reduced at the cathode as per the equation :
O2 + H2O + 4e- == 4OH-
and a current proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen is obtained. With change in temperature this
current changes and hence a temperature compensating circuit is required. For this a continuous monitoring
of temperature is done by a RTD.
The anode gets eroded on continuous use, the rate of erosion being dependent on the amount of oxygen
measured and the initial size and shape of the electrode. It is therefore required to replace the probe after
specified periods.
pH measurement

pH is the measure of degree of acidity or alkalinity in a fluid. The scale value is defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, or
pH = -log10[H+]
+ -
In a solution both H and (OH) are present. The dissociation constant is defined as the product of the
number of H+ ions (OH)- ions and this is 14 always.

The principle of pH measurement is based on the property of H+ ions, which react with a special glass
membrane/electrode and produce a potential difference between the solution and the electrode. A suitable
measuring circuit measures this potential difference. For a potential difference to exist a salt bridge needs to
be developed; linking the two cells that has conductivity but does not alter the emf conditions in the two cells

The reference electrode used here is a calomel electrode, which consists of an inner tube containing calomel
i.e. Hg and Hgcl in which the Pt wire is immersed. The inner tube also consists of glass wool placed at the
bottom where a small hole is made for bridging. The inner tube is placed in an outer glass envelope
containing sat. Kcl soln. The outer tube is provided with a filling neck and a bridging hole for contact with
the measuring solution.

The measuring electrode a glass electrode has special glass wall bulb at the bottom, which separates a buffer
solution contained in the bulb from the measuring solution. The electrode wire is dipped in the buffer.
Between this buffer whose pH is known and constant and the unknown solution an emf is generated which is
proportional to the measuring PH.

Conductivity measurement
Conductivity is defined as the current carrying ability of an electrolyte and is denoted as conductance per
meter or S/m.

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Measurement of conductivity involves cell, which conduct small alternating current through known precise
volume of the liquid under measurement. The cell consists of a pair of electrodes spaced a constant distance
apart and an external circuit does the measurement of resistance. Conductance is given by the equation:
C = a/R where: ‘a’ = cell constant given by manufacturer
R = resistance
Silica analyser
The technique of analysis is partly chemical and partly optical with both techniques automated in one single
unit.

The chemical method used in the monitor utilizes the reaction between silicate species in the sample, acid
and molybdate reagents to form yellow molybdosilicic acid complex. The acid conditions are chosen so that
specifically beta-molybdosilicic acid is produced which excludes interference from other forms of the acid
complex. To increase the sensitivity of the method the yellow acid is reduced to the blue form, which is
measured colorimetrically in the optical system.
The sequence of events is:
Sulphuric acid is added to the sample to reduce the pH to a value between 1.4 to 1.8 pH. .
Ammonium molybdate is added to the acidified sample
The solution enters the first reaction coil in the temperature controlled block (providing two minutes delay)
where the yellow beta-molybdosilicic acid is developed.
Sulphuric acid plus citric acid is added before the solution enters the second reaction coil in the temperature
controlled block (providing two minute delay) to reduce the pH further to a value between 0.8 to 1.0 pH.
This is the value required to stop further development of silica and to provide conditions for the next reaction
(reduction) to take place. Citric acid is used to destroy any phosphate complexes if present which would
augment the colour developed in the next stage.

The reduction solution (ascorbic acid) is added before the solution enters the third reaction coil in the
temperature controlled block (providing a one minute delay) reducing the yellow complex to the blue form.
The fully developed solution passes to the measuring cuvette in the optical system where the intensity of the
colour is proportional to the original silica concentration.
In a typical colorimetric set-up visible radiation from ac source passes through a wavelength selector (filter)
F to fall on the sample cell SC (cuvette). The amount of radiation that is not absorbed by the sample passes
through the cell and excites the photo detector PD, the output of which is then amplified by an amplifier and
indicated by the indicator I.

Sodium analyser
The sodium analyzer is an electro chemical cell with a facility to do online calibration.
The sample passes through one half of a heat exchanger, which is used during the calibration sequence to
bring the standard solution close to the temperature of the sample. This reduces the calibration time.

From the heat exchanger, the sample passes through a solenoid valve to the constant head unit, which
removes the effect of changes in the sample pressure and flow-rate. The over flow unit also ensure self
starting of the system when the sample is lost and enables the monitor to function over a wide sample flow.

The sample is then delivered to the T piece and a stainless steel entrainment tube, where an alkaline vapour
reagent (ammonia soln.) is added to the sample to raise the pH value, before flowing past the sodium and
reference electrodes mounted in the flowcell. The sample leaves the flowcell and is passed on to the drain.

The potential developed between the sodium ion-responsive electrode and the calomel reference electrode is
logarithmic with respect to changes in sodium ion concentration. The emf developed is given by the
equation:

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R = (RT/F) ln Qna + K1

where: R = gas constant

F = Faraday constant
T = temperature in K
Qna = Sodium ion concentration
K1 = a constant

A temperature sensor fitted in the flow cell detects the temperature of the sample and is used for the
automatic temperature compensation.

Hydrazine analyser
The measurement technique involves cell potential measurement and is a galvanic action. Sample enters
through a grommet in the bottom of the case and travels to a constant head unit. From there, it travels to the
solenoid valve, which is used as a change over valve for calibration purpose. From the valve, the sample
flows through caustic (sodium hydroxide) dosing chamber to raise the ph of the sample to 10.5 and on to the
mixing coil before passing to the hydrazine chamber.

The hydrazine sensor and its overflow funnel are mounted on a separate chamber whose height relative to
standard solution container allows correct rate of flow through the sensor. Even the flow can be adjusted by
raising or lowering the overflow tube in constant head unit.
The hydrazine sensor consists of silver oxide cathode covered by porous porcelain tube over which a
platinum anode is formed. The cell potential developed initiates a galvanic action with the following reaction
at the anode
N2H4 + 4OH- N2 + 4H2O + 4e
and
4e- + 2Ag2O + 2H2O 4Ag + 4OH-
At the cathode. The diffusion rate of hydrazine at the anode is directly proportional to its concentration and
the current is limited by this diffusion rate.

70
P I D CONTROLLERS

In Power Plants, process variables like pressure, temperature, flow, level and chemical analysis
are required to follow some desired value. It would be possible to control the process more efficiently by use
of some form of automatic control. Proportional (P), Proportional plus integral (PI) and Proportional plus
integral plus derivative (PID) Controllers are used to generate a correction signal to the final control elements
(Control valve) to eliminates the error (error = actual value – set value).

A controller is called direct acting if its output increases when its measurement rises and the
controller is called reverse acting, if its output decreases when its measurement rises.
There are several basis of modes of control :-

(01) Proportional control.

(02) Integral control.
(03) Derivative control.

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(04) Proportional plus integral control.

(05) Proportional plus derivative control.
(06) Proportional plus integral plus derivative control.

Various combination of this basic mode may be employed to suit the plant characteristics.
Proportional control : The proportional control is directly related to the error or deviations signal.
Proportional controller continuously adjust the manipulated variable so that the input to the process is
approximately in balance with the processed demand. The equation describes the operation of the
proportional controller is ;
100
m = KpE +b = x E + b
PB
where m = the output signal of the controller.
Kp = proportional sensitivity or gain of the controller.
= 100/PB.
E = the deviation from set point or, error.
b = controller output with zero error.
PB = proportional band
The proportional controller responds only to the present. It cannot consider the history of the error or
the possible future consequences of an error trend, it simply the responds the present value of the error. It
responds to all errors in the same manner in proportionate to them. When a small error results in a large
responds, the gain (Kp) is set to be large or the proportional band is set to be narrow. Inversely, when it takes
a large error to cause a small responds the controller is set to have a small gain (Kp) or a wide proportional
band. If the deviation is increasing rapidly the controller will apply correction rapidly. If the load changes or
coming disturbances, the measured value will deviate from desired value and the controller output varies
proportionately in an attempt to correct for this deviation. If the deviation is within the range, the controller
will assume a position or equilibrium and the measured variable again be under control but a different value.
The amount of controlled measured value deviates from the desired value is the ‘OFF SET’, and its depends
on the amount of load change.

Pneumatic proportional controller is designed by the flapper - nozzle and proportional bellow
arrangement.

To correct the ‘OFF SET’ the relative positions of the desired value and proportional band must be
altered.

Advantage : Can give steady control.

Disadvantage : (a) ‘OFF SET’ presents.
(b) Too narrow a proportional band can cause of hunting.
Used where load changes are small and ‘OFF SET’ can be tolerated.

Integral control : This mode is called ‘RESET’ mode of control because after a load change it returns the
control variable to set point and eliminates the ‘OFF SET’ which the plain proportional controller would
leave. The mathematical expression of this integral control is
t
m = 1/Ti ∫ E dt + b ;
0
where Ti the integral time setting of the controller which is called ‘RESET TIME’.

The integral mode has been introduced in order to eliminate the ‘OFF SET’ which plain proportional control
can not be removed. The reason proportional control must result in an ‘OFF SET’ is because it disregards the
past history of error. The integral control, on the other hand continuously looks at the total past history of the

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error by continuously integrating the area under the error curve and eliminate the ‘OFFSET’ by forcing the
addition or removal of mass or energy which should have been added or removed in the past.
Advantage : Eliminate the’OFF SET’.
Disadvantage : This control action is slow speed with response of the load change.

Derivative Control : The derivative action the controller is not influenced by the desired value but changes
in accordance with direction with rate of change of deviation. If the change in the variable is a certain step
movement, the controller will changes with ramp by an amount proportional the rate of change of deviation
until stop the rate of change of deviation. The derivative mode anticipates its future state and acts on that
prediction. Whereas the proportional mode considered the present state of the process error and the integral
mode looks at its past history. The equation of controller output in derivative mode (rate) is
m = Td (dE / dt )+b
where Td = derivative time
dE / dt = rate of error change in percent per second or minute.
b = controller output with no error change.

When the error changing rapidly the controller can anticipate what action is needed for more correction.
This corrective action based on the rate of change of error.

In the starting portion of the curve, the error is changing and the derivative action signal is transmitted to the
valve. The unit of the derivative setting is the derivative time (Td).

In the middle portion of the curve where the error is constant the derivative contribution to the output signal
to the valve is also zero.

On the right of the curve the error is still positive, the derivative action is already negative as it is anticipating
the future occurrence where the loop might overshoot in the negative direction and is correcting for that.

Advantage : Can anticipate what the control condition is going to do.

Disadvantage : Long recovery time slow to respond to rapid changes.

Proportional plus Integral : The combination of proportional action and integral action is called PI
Controller. The mathematical expression for PI controller is
m = Kp [E+1/Ti ∫ E dt ]+ b
where m = Controller output
Kp = Proportional gain
E = Error signal
Ti = Integral time setting of the controller
b = Controller output with zero error

In PI controller the error signal generated from disturbance has two terms, a straight proportional signal and a
signal which is a scaled time integral .

Suppose a steady offset error is present. The integral signal will ramp, causing the controller signal to
change and reduce the error. When the error is zero, the integral signal will be steady. Therefore, the effect
of integrator will, in the steady state, bring the error to zero. But the time taken to remove the error depends
on the proportional gain and the time integral.

Advantage : Elimination of OFFSET.

Disadvantage : Recovery time longer than with P alone.

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PD controller : The combination of proportional plus derivative control is called PD controller. The
equation of for a PD controller can be written as
m = Kp [ E+Td dE/dt)] + b.

Advantage : Shorten recovery time, Good where plant lags high, gives good stable control.
Disadvantage : OFFSET still present.

PID Controller : The combination of proportional, integral and derivative is called PID controller which is
required to control difficult processes.
When the error changes rapidly the controller can anticipate what action is needed for more correction and
the error will reduces. This corrective action is called derivative action. The combination of PI and the rate of
change of error are used to reduce offset caused by any disturbances over a period of time.
When deviation of us the controller output under proportional control is directly proportional to the
deviation. The controller output then continued under integral control at a constant rate towards its extreme
position. The combined proportional and integral wave lag behind proportional wave by a value of less than
90° and is dependent upon the relative sensitivity. The integral derivative action gives a slight offset because
the rate of change is low. As the change progresses at a constant rate the deviation action remains constant.
The graph showing in fig-2.1 & 2.2.
t
The output of the PID Controller is m = Kp [E+1/Ti ∫ E dt + Td(dE/dt)]+ b
0
where Td = derivative time constant.
dE/dt = rate of change of error or deviation.

Advantage : Shorten recovery time, offset minimum. Gives good stable control.
Disadvantage : Most complex.
Used in the process industry to control slow variables.

Electro Pneumatic (I/P) Converter : An Electro Pneumatic converter converting the electrical signal to
pneumatic signal by flapper nozzle device or force balance device. This mechanical movement is normally
achieved by Electro magnetic mechanism and ensures the pneumatic signal pressure 0.2 to 1.0 Kg/cm². The
supply air pressure for this device is 1.5 Kg/cm² and the current applied to the coil is 4 to 20mA resulting the
pneumatic output pressure is 0.2 to 1.0 Kg/cm² via restriction and flapper nozzle arrangement. The
permanent magnet and the amount of current applied to the coil controls the gape between nozzle and flapper
resulting the pneumatic output pressure increases or decreases between 0.2 to 1.0 Kg/cm².

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Control of outlet pressure is achieved by variation of pressure in the control volume. The steady state
position of the pistons is such that both v/v s are closed, thus minimising the air consumption.
Increasing the control volume pressure causes the pistons to move downwards, opening the inlet v/v . Supply
air flow to the outlet and the outlet pressure starts to increase. This increases the force on the bottom of the
pistons. The inlet v/v returns to the closed position when a state of pressure balance has been re-established.
Reducing the control volume pressure causes the piston to rise and open the relief valve to allow the outlet
pressure to decrease. When pressure balance is once more achieved the relief valve is closed.

Pressure control is achieved by the use of a Reedex high speed precision solenoid v/v operated by an
electrical reed relay in which a flexible reed can be deflected by a magnetic field generated in a coil. In the
Reedex v/v has a small orifice which is normally closed by a seal. Deflection of the reed causes the orifice to
be opened. Air is constantly being bled from the control volume via the bleed orifice. This causes a steady
fall in the control volume pressure. The Reedex v/v is opened for a few millisecond at a frequency of approx.
10Hz to allow supply pressure to enter the control volume and increase its pressure.
In the steady state condition, the air supplied through the reedex balances that lost through the bleed. Thus a
constant average pressure is maintained in the control volume and hence at the outlet port. Due to this
periodic ‘tapping up’ the outlet pressure oscillates slightly about the set point at a frequency of 10hz. The
magnitude of this oscillation is too small to affect v/v actuators.
The pressure signal produced is compared with the demand current signal to produce an error signal. The
width of the pulse sent to the reedex is proportional to this error signal. If the outlet pressure falls or the
signal current rises then the length of the pulse increases causing the pressure in the control volume to rise
and vise versa..

If the outlet pr. falls or the signal current rises then the length of the pulse sent to the reedex increases
causing the average pressure in the control volume to rise. This causes air to be supplied to the load to
increase the o/l pressure. As the outlet pr. rises the width of the reedex pulse decreases until the state of
balance is achieved. Conversely if the o/l pr. rises or the signal current falls the width of the pulse sent to the
reedex is decreased allow the control volume pr. to fall and open the relief v/v. As the o/l pr. falls the reedex
pulse width is gradually increased until the state of balance is achieved.
When the signal current falls or is reduced below about 3mA the reedex is unable to open and the pr. falls to
a low value due to the bleed, thus ensuring fail safe operation.
In normal operation the reedex v/ can be heard to click at a constant rate of 10Hz. The diagram shown in fig-
2.4.

Positioner : The positioner is a high gain proportional controller & the primary function of a positioner is
to ensure that the control valve plug position is always directly proportional to the controller output pressure
0.2 to 1.0kg/cm2, regardless of gland fiction, actuator hysteresis, off balance of forces on the valve plug etc..
The controller output signal does not directly actuate the valves stem but is fed to a bellows or diaphragm
unit, which is connected to the flapper- nozzle or spool valve system. Assume that the system is in
equilibrium and then the controller output increases slightly. The flapper is moved towards the nozzle and the
variable output pressure begins to increase. This output pressure continues to increase until the valves spindle
moves, mechanical feed back (cam arrangement) then restores the equilibrium. Thus the force applied to
move the valves spindle is sufficient to overcome the effect of all forces. So, the positioner is a servo-
amplifier used with the valve actuator to assure that the control v/v stem accurately takes the position that the
input signal commands.

Positioners are not normally required for ON-OFF service. Most positioners are used where air as the
operating fluid and as source of power.

PNEUMATIC ACTUATOR: An actuator is that portion of a valve that responds to the applied signal and
causes the motion resulting in modification of fluid flow. Thus an actuator is any device that causes the valve

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stem to move. It may be a manually positioned device, such as a hand wheel or lever. The manual actuator
may be open-closed, or it may be manually positioned at any positioned between fully open and fully closed.
Other actuators are operated by compressed air, hydraulics, and electrically. Pneumatic actuators to an air
signal moving the valve trim into a corresponding throttling position. Diaphragm/spring type and Piston type
actuators are used for moving the valve to any position from fully open to fully close or fully close to fully
open.
In a spring and diaphragm actuator, variable air pressure is applied to a flexible diaphragm to oppose a
spring. The combination of diaphragm and spring forces acts to balance the fluid forces on the valve.
In a piston actuator, a combination of fixed and variable of air pressure is applied to a piston in a cylinder to
balance the fluid forces on the valve. Sometimes springs are used , usually to assists valve closure. Excluding
of springs, there two variations of piston actuators; cushion loaded and double acting. In the cushion loaded
type, a fixed air pressure, known as cushion air pressure, is opposed by a variable air pressure and is used to
balance the fluid forces on the valve. It is necessary to have a single acting positioner to move the valve. In
the double acting type, two opposing variable pressures are used to balance the fluid forces on the valve by
using the positioner. This positioner has two variable air pressure outputs, one connected above the piston
and the other below.
In rotary type double acting piston actuator operate at higher air pressures and can provide higher torques,
suitable for large ball or butterfly valves.
In connection with the performance of these actuators, an analysis is presented of the various forces
positioning the plug, including diaphragm, spring and dynamic forces generated by the forces fluid. An
understanding of the interrelationships among these forces will allow the reader to properly size these
actuators and make the correct spring selection. Both the spring and diaphragm and the piston type actuator
produce linear motion to move the valve.

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Proportional Band : The proportional is expressed as a percent of span, but it may also be expressed as
controller gain in other. Proportional band and controller gain are related inversely by the equation,

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If the proportional band is reduced to zero, the result would be ‘ON-OFF’ control.

Proportional Action : Curve OBCD ,

Integral Action : Curve O to G.
Derivative Action : Curve ABEFD.

Feedback control (CLOSE LOOP ) : A control algorithm looks at the desired value, the actual value and
possible outside disturbances effecting the plant and on the basis of these observations adjusts the plant
actuators to bring the process variable to the desired value.
The control algorithm has to cope with two circumstances. The desired value may be changed continuously
or the process variable itself may be affected by disturbances.
In many analog system, a variable such as temp., press., level, flow is required to be kept automatically at
some preset value.

It works well as a regulator to maintain a desired operating pt. by compensating for various disturbances.

Feed forward (Open loop) control : Feed forward control is another basic technique used to compensate for
uncontrolled disturbances entering the system. In this system, the control action is based on the state of a
disturbances input without reference to the actual system condition. Feed forward control is much faster
correction than feedback control, and in the ideal case, compensation is applied in such a manner that the
effect of disturbances is never seen in the process output. So, the feed forward control is very powerful but
unfortunately, it is difficult to implement in a pure form in most process control applications.
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TURBINE SUPERVISORY INSTRUMENTATION
Specification of a Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) system can be an exhausting process when the
individual parameters must be specified.
When an existing TSI system is being retrofitted, the immediate indication is that a one-for-one replacement
of each original parameter is sufficient. This approach may be adequate if the original system was complete.
However, recent experience with retrofitting TSI systems has brought to light that many of the existing

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systems can be greatly enhanced with additional parameters. Also, certain parameters should be considered
for complete replacement including a different type of sensor.
TSI systems not only measure bearing vibration levels, but can include:
• Shell expansion
• Differential expansion
• Eccentricity
• Valve position
• Turbine speed and acceleration
• Thrust position
• Shaft Relative Vibration
• Case Vibration
• Phase angle
• Bearing temperature
Monitoring Parameters:

Radial Vibration is usually the heart of the TSI system. It gets the most attention and generally gives the
first indication of out of specification conditions. Most OEM TSI systems utilized a shaft rider transducer
system to monitor vibration with a shaft absolute output signal. An exact replacement transducer system can
be supplied, but most customers and OEMs are specifying Eddy Probe Systems. A complete vibration system
would install two probes per bearing, with the sensors located 90° from each other (X and Y).

Thrust Position indication includes one or two Eddy Probe Systems to observe the position of the thrust
collar within its bearings. This system is an internal installation and need not replace the existing system
because many original installations utilize a differential pressure system that interfaces with the turbine
hydraulic control system.
Shell Expansion is the measure of a turbine case or shell moves in relation to a fixed location usually
measured with a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). Some existing OEM systems still use
spindle micrometers or dial indicators that are subject to mechanical damage and human error. Although
many systems installed with only one LVDT are adequate, a complete TSI system specification should
consider two LVDTs located at each corner of the turbine shell. A second sensor will monitor shell cocking
or uneven thermal growth, which is a fairly common occurrence during startup when the sliding feet may
have inadequate lubrication.

Differential Expansion measurements are an important parameter receiving much attention during turbine
startup and warming. This parameter measures how the turbine rotor expands in relation to the turbine shell,
or casing. A new differential expansion system using Eddy Probes can be retrofitted to any existing system.
An Eddy Probe is more reliable and robust than OEM supplied induction coil systems.

Valve Position - Correct valve positioning is required to efficiently operate a steam turbine. Some turbines
may require several throttle valves be monitored, and some turbines will instrument the main stop valve(s) to
determine when they crack from their seats. Retrofit valve position measurements use DC LVDT or DC
Rotary Potentiometer. All OEM TSI systems include valve position measurement(s) as a startup and
operation parameter. Some OEM systems utilized AC LVDTs while others use mechanical linkages and
scales for indication. A retrofitted system can be installed in the same position or relocated to a more
accessible or protected position.

Eccentricity - A rotor, which has been sitting idle during overhaul or has been inadvertently stopped during
coast-down for an extended period will develop a bow or bend. This condition must be corrected by turning
gear operation and, possibly, with auxiliary heating prior to high speed operation to prevent internal
clearance rubbing. Eccentricity systems installed by OEMs monitor the turbine stub shaft or a shaft collar

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using induction coils. A retrofit Eddy Probe system will monitor at the same location, and many times use
the same bracketry.

Speed - Turbine speed indication supplied by OEMs comes in many forms: observing a gear wheel located
inside the front standard, electrically converting the generator output frequency, or monitoring the turning
gear. A retrofitted system using Eddy Probe's can be specified to observe any multi-toothed gear wheel.
Applications monitoring generator output frequency without an integral turning gear may require installation
of a custom gear wheel. Speed indication may be specified as an analog display or as a digital display and
can be interfaced to a zero speed system for turning gear engagement.

Rate of Acceleration is usually monitored during startup to prevent over-torquing the rotors as the turbine
approaches critical speeds, and as the operating speed is reached prior to line synchronization. Once the
generator has been synchronized and is being controlled by load dispatchers the acceleration rate is not
monitored. Acceleration rate measurements use a speed input to derive its output display. Eddy Probe
systems can be installed as a replacement or supplement an existing application.

Phase or phase angle, is a measure of the relationship of how one vibration signal relates to another vibration
signal and is commonly used to calculate the placement of a balance weight. This parameter is not usually
displayed continuously but is monitored periodically to determine changes in the rotor balance condition,
deviations in system stiffness such as a cracked shaft. Phase angle measurements are sometimes not supplied
by OEMs, but can be installed using an Eddy Probe system. Installation involves locating or installing a
once-per-turn event such as a key or notch that the Eddy Probe will view. An Eddy Probe viewing a notch is
easier to install and adjust, but the installation of the notch requires special tooling to cut the notch. Keys are
easier to apply using glues or epoxies and are subject to coming off due to centrifugal forces.

Temperature of bearings is a measure of the how hot a bearing is operating. It may be due to
overloading, mis-alignment, improper lubricant pressure and/or flow. Nearly all turbine generator
bearings were originally installed or retrofitted with bearing temperature sensors. These sensors
may be thermocouples or RTDs. This parameter is often overlooked possibly due to the OEM
output display located at some other panel not within the vicinity of the retrofitted TSI system. Any
bearings that were not originally equipped with temperature sensors can be retrofitted to accept
thermocouples or RTDs.

Differential Expansion :

Differential Expansion (DE) and/or Rotor Expansion (RE) are very important measurements usually
supplied by the Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM) as part of a Turbine Supervisory
Instrumentation System (TSI) on large steam turbine generator applications. Although the
application of Differential Expansion and Rotor Expansion have much in common, it is important to
understand the difference between the two measurements. Differential Expansion on a turbine is the
relative measurement of the rotor's axial thermal growth with respect to the case.Rotor Expansion on
a turbine is the absolute measurement of the rotor's axial thermal growth with respect to the turbine's
foundation.

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A typical large steam turbine power generation unit will have a thick case, on the order of 12" to 18". Due to
the mass of this case, it will expand and contract at a slower rate than the relatively thin (hollow) rotor.
During turbine startup, extra care must be used to ensure that the case has been properly heated and expanded
sufficiently to prevent contact between the rotor and the case. Several DE or a combination of DE and RE
measurements may be employed on a single large turbine generator.

For many years, Power Generation Utilities and other owners of large steam turbines have been retrofitting
the original OEM supplied TSI systems with modern TSI systems which are more accurate, and easier and
less costly to maintain.

Eddy Probe Transducer Systems have been very successful replacing the older single or dual coil capacitive
and inductance type transducer systems. Eddy Probe Transducer systems are available with up to 1000 mils
(1") of linear range. When properly applied, these transducers can replace any existing DE or RE transducer
system even those with ranges over several inches.

Eccentricity
Shaft Eccentricity plays a very important role as part of a Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation (TSI) System
on large steam turbines and should be included in retro-fit plans when at all possible.

Operators use eccentricity measurements to determine when a combination of slow roll and heating have
reduced the rotor eccentricity to the point where the turbine can safely be brought up to speed without
damage from excessive vibration or rotor to stator contact.

Eccentricity is the measurement of Rotor Bow at rotor slow roll which

may be caused by any or a combination of

1. Fixed mechanical bow

2. Temporary thermal bow
3. Gravity bow

In extreme cases of thermal/gravity bow, caused by a sudden trip of the unit and failure of the turning gear to
engage, the rotor may be positioned and stopped 180° out of phase (bow up) to allow gravity to work entirely
on the bow and substantially shorten the time required to reduce the bow.

Eccentricity is measured while the turbine is on slow roll (1 to 240 RPM below the speed at which the rotor
becomes dynamic and rises in the bearing on the oil wedge) and requires special circuitry to detect the peak-
to-peak motion of the shaft. This is accomplished using circuitry with long update times selectable between
20 seconds (> 3 RPM) and 2 minutes (<3 RPM).

As the eccentricity measurement is not required after a turbine is brought to speed and under load provisions
are made to lock the measurement to zero. This can be accomplished without external contacts through the
use of a speed measurement channel with underspeed or overspeed alarms.

As it is impractical to mount Eddy Probe Transducers (Non-Contacting Pickups) midspan on the rotor where
the eccentricity measurement would be the highest the transducer(s) are mounted outside the pressure case as
far from the bearing (Node Point) as practical.

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The bearing should be avoided as a mounting location because during slow roll operation the rotor is turning
in the bottom of the journal bearing and is not dynamic while the eccentricity measurements are being made.
This effect forces the bearings to become nodal points.

Assuming uniform stiffness and weight, the rotor mid- span eccentricity may be expressed as the ratio of the
transducer span from the bearing over the transducer measured eccentricity to 1/2 the bearing span over the
midspan eccentricity or calculated using the following formula,

(Tecc x ½Bspan)/Tspan = MSecc.

Where Tecc = Transducer measured eccentricity
Bspan= Bearing Span
Tspan= Transducer span from bearing
MSecc= Midspan eccentricity

OEM's (Original Equipment Manufacturers) should be consulted for actual calculations.

Turbine owners who are retrofitting existing eccentricity systems supplied by the OEM or others will mount
the eccentricity transducer at the same location as the original installation. In many cases only minor
modifications to the existing bracket are required. Using the same location has several advantages and
simplifies installation.

1. OEM's original installation as a rule included an eccentricity collar or other good target for an Eddy
Probe System.
2. Eddy Probe eccentricity measurements will agree closely with the original OEM supplied system as
the measurements will be taken at the same location.
3. Operators will need less training on how to interpret the new systems measurements, as they will be
basically the same.
4. Eccentricity historical data will be valid.
5. Existing brackets may be modified.
6. Case or standard penetration for cable may be reused
with minor modification.

Eccentricity is normally measured P/P (Peak to Peak) to agree

with previously established conventions. The actual excursion
from shaft centerline caused by bow would be one half that
measurement or the 0/P (Zero to Peak) measurement. The

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Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation may be calibrated in either fashion to suite the users requirements.

Thrust Position
Thrust Position Monitoring was one of the earliest applications for Eddy Current Transducers. When utilized
for this application, it is one of the most important components of a complete machinery protection system.

Thrust bearing failure produces one of the most catastrophic failures of a rotating machine. This could result
in very expensive repairs and the possibility of machine replacement.

Shell or Case Expansion

Shell or Case Expansion is a very important measurement as part of a Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation
(TSI) System for large steam turbines. This measurement should be included in turbine retrofit plans when at
all possible.

The Shell Expansion measurement is utilized by operators to monitor the proper thermal growth of the
turbine's shell during startup, operation, and shutdown. The turbine's shell is anchored to the foundation at
one end of the machine and allowed to expand or grow by sliding towards the opposite end. The expansion
or growth of the turbine's shell Expansion is the measurement of how much the turbine's shell expands or
grows as it is heated. As large turbine cases grow or expand thermally, in some case up to several inches, and
was usually supplied as part of the Original Equipment Manufactures TSI system supplied with the turbine.

Used in conjunction with a Differential Expansion (DE) measurement (Case to Rotor) the thermal growth of
both the case and rotor can be monitored to prevent costly rubs between the rotating and stationary parts of
the turbine.

The recommended Shell Expansion measurement device is a LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer) engineered and manufactured to provide long measurement ranges, long life and simple
installation.

Both retrofit and new applications may be accommodated easily with LVDT design as it incorporates a
protective epoxy coated aluminum housing with mounting flanges and a spring-loaded plunger with an
adjustable roller tip.

Occasionally due to improper turbine shell pre-heating, maintenance or the location of the steam inlets being
used to preheat the turbine the turbine shell may become distorted which can cause internal damage.

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Valve position measurements are an important aspect of a complete Turbine Supervisory Instrumentation
system. Typically, the Main Steam Control (or Throttle) Valve is always included in the system with other
valves added depending upon the control system incorporated in the turbine design. Addition of a position
transducer to a hand wheel operated throttle valve, which was equipped only with a graduated scale for
indication, will allow more precision in valve positioning.

Valve position indication is actually a measurement of the amount a valve is closed or open. This
measurement is usually made with a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT), but sometimes a
Rotary Potentiometer is used for special applications. Nearly all applications require bracket made to attach
the transducer and another bracket in physical contact with the moveable portion of the valve (stem or
linkage).

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FURNACE SAFEGUARD SUPERVISORY SYSTEM (FSSS )

A. Introduction :
The Furnace Safeguard Supervisory System (FSSS) is designed to assure the execution of a safe, orderly
operating sequence in the start up and shut down of fuel firing equipment and to prevent errors of
omission and commission in following such a safe operating procedure. The system provides
protection, should there be a malfunction of fuel firing equipment and associated air systems. The safety
features of the system are designed for protection in most common emergency situations. However the
system cannot supplement the intelligence and the reasonable judgment of the operator in all the
situations.

B. Basic Functions of FSSS :

a. Prevent any fuel firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge sequence has first been completed.
b. Prevent start-up of individual fuel firing equipment unless certain permissive interlocks have
first been satisfied.
c. Monitor and control the proper component sequence (manual or automatic) during start-up and
shutdown of fuel firing equipment.
d. Make continued operation of fuel firing equipment subject to certain safety interlocks remaining
satisfied.
e. Provide components status feedback to the operator.
f. Provide flame supervision when fuel-firing equipment is in service and initiate fuel trip upon
certain adverse operating conditions.
g. Provide master fuel trip when certain adverse operating conditions exists.

This FSSS is provided for a natural circulation, HO fired boiler with coal as primary fuel and light oil
(LO) as the start-up fuel. Heavy oil (HO) is used as fuel for warm up and stabilization .The system
provides three elevations (AB, CD, EF) of high-energy arc (HEA) igniters, oil guns with atomizing
steam in all four corners. Only AB elevation has LO firing guns with atomizing air. This boiler has six
elevations (a, b, c, d, e, f) of coal firing with 24 coal nozzles. Mill system includes ball and race mill,
seal air fan & dampers, primary air fan, coal feeder, hot air gate, mill inlet / outlet gates hot / cold PA
control dampers.

Discriminating scanners are provided for sensing flame of both coal and oil. FSSS has
been designed for energized to open & energized to close philosophy.

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C. Boiler Trip Conditions :

1. Both ID fans OFF.
2. Both FD fans OFF.
3. 3.TotalAir flow (secondary + primary) less than 30% of MCR (252 tph).
4. Furnace pressure very high (+150mmwc).
5. Furnace pressure very low (-175mmwc).
6. Drum level very high (+225mm) 10secs delay.
7. Drum level very low (-225mm) 5 secs delay.
8. Loss of all fuel trip. *
9. Loss of reheat protection 10 secs delay. **
10. 10.Loss of 220V dc > 2secs.
11. 11.Loss of unit critical supply (24V dc).
12. 12.Loss of 110V AC > 2secs & loss of fireball. ***
13. 13.Generator class-A trip.
14. 14.Flame failure trip. ****
15. 15.Both emergency push buttons pressed.

*Loss of fuel trip generates when all coal feeders OFF and (all LONV closed or LOTV closed) and (all
HONV closed or HOTV closed). Logic is armed from any oil nozzle valve not open.
**Loss of Reheat protection generates when any coal feeder proven and Generator Circuit Breaker open
and (any HPBP or LPBP valve < 2%). When turbine is in service either of the HPCV or HPBP and
either of the IPCV or LPBP both valves should be open > 2% and any feeder proven.
***Loss of 110vAC & loss of fireball happens when all feeders OFF and 110vAC fails in an oil
elevation in service or in a coal elevation with mill ON condition.
****Flame failure logic exists in coal firing condition only. Coal elevation not in service votes for flame
failure. If running coal elevation monitoring fireball scanner not showing 2/4 flame and is not supported
by ¾ oil guns then it will also vote. If any feeder running and all coal elevation vote for flame failure
then flame failure logic acts and boiler trips on flame failure.

D. Purge Permissives :
1. No boiler trip condition persists
2. All HAGs closed.
3. All PA fans OFF.
4. All feeders OFF.
5. All HONV closed.
6. All LONV closed.
7. HOTV closed.
8. LOTV closed.
9. All scanners sensing no flame.
10. Aux air dampers modulating.
11. Air flow > 30% & < 40% MCR.

If all these conditions are fulfilled then ‘PUSH TO PURGE’ light glows. Press ‘PURGE
START’ button. 300 secs purge timer starts. Boiler trip circuit resets after purge
complete provided no permissive missed in that period of 300 secs.

E. Selection Of Light Oil / Heavy Oil Firing :

Oil elevation AB is provided with HO / LO firing. Permissives for changeover are follows:
1. Both pairs of oil gun stopped.

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2. All HO/LO nozzle valves closed.

3. HO/LO start permit available.
LOTV LOGICS:
If MFR reset and LO header pressure adequate then LOTV can be operated.
Protections (OR logics):
1. MFT (2/3)
2. Light oil header pressure very low.
3. Atomizing air header pressure very low.
4. NO light oil elevation in start or stop.
LOTV is commanded to close by hardwire circuit on loss of +24v DC.
HOTV LOGICS :
Once MFR resets and all HONV close and HORV open and HO header pressure and
temperature is adequate then HOTV can be open / close.
Protections:
1. MFT.
2. HONV not closed and atomizing steam pr very low and no oil elevation in start / stop

2 secs.
3. HONV not closed and HO header pressure very low >2 secs.
4. HO header temp very low and any HONV nozzle valve not closed >2 secs and HORV valve not
open.

LIGHT OIL ELEVATION START:

Select light oil firing. Then check following conditions:
1. No master fuel trip.
2. LOTV open
3. Pulverizer / feeder start permit available. i.e. nozzle tilt horizontal and air flow >30% and <40%
or any feeder ON
PAIR MODE/ELEVATION MODE LOGICS:
For both LO and HO oil guns are put into service by sequence control logic.

Pair Mode :
Pressing pair start (1-3 or 2-4) PB, if the above conditions are satisfied, it will initiate a 70 secs start
time to place the associated light oil guns in service. Second oil gun gets start command after 15 secs.

Elevation Mode :
When associated coal feeder is in service, oil guns acts under elevation mode. I.e. all four guns put in or
out by single command. When any of the pair ON PB pressed two things happens a) Elevation start
command is issued for corner 1&3 b) A 40 secs counting period is started to established an elevation
start command for corner 2&4. After 70 secs if ¾ nozzle valves are not proven then “unsuccessful
elevation start” alarm is initiated. This will stop corner 1&3 and after 40 secs stop corner 2&4.
This pair mode & elevation mode logic is same for both HO & LO elevations.

CORNER TRIP LOGIC (HO):

1. Oil gun not engaged
2. Lo selected
3. Ho man isolation valve not open
4. Local maintenance switch
5. Steam atomizing man isolation valve not open

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6. Corner start time / scavenge time expired & (corner no flame or HONV not open or steam valve not
open). Similar logics will be there for light oil guns.

START-UP LOGIC:
STEP 1: Open steam / air atomizing valve
STEP 2: If atomizing valve opens then advance HEA igniter
STEP 3. If HEA rod advanced then open HONV / LONV and spark HEA igniter for 15 secs
STEP 4: If HEA rod retracted and oil valve open in condition and disc scanner shows Flame then end
step sequence. If flame does not stable within 15 secs from oil valve open then corner trip
Initiated. All the valves of that corner closed and HEA igniter withdrawn.

SHUT-DOWN LOGIC:
STEP 1: Close HONV / LONV
STEP 2: After oil valve closes, open steam / air atomizing valve
STEP 3: After atomizing valve opens, HEA advances & scavenge valve opens. After
advancement of HEA sparks for 15 secs.
STEP 4: After scavenge time of 300 secs atomizing and scavenge valve close.

HORV OPERATION:
Any HONV not close condition is the protection close for HORV. All HONV close is
Open permissive.
F. MILL LOGICS :
Seal Air Fan:
MFT and electrical trip are the protections for this drive. This can be run
when no protection present.
SAF outlet damper can be opened by operator after 40 sec of SAF ON. Seal air to
Pulverizer inlet damper is automatically open when SAF ON and SAF outlet damper open.
It closes by Pulverizer trip command (30secs pulse ).

HAG Logics:
Mill outlet temp >110oC for >=30 secs and MFT are the protection close.
When no protection is present it can be opened and if PA fan OFF then it can be closed also.

Mill Discharge Gate:

This can be opened any time by open command. But it can be closed
when PA fan OFF & PA general shut off damper closed.

Mill Lube Oil Pump :

When one pump running and lube oil pressure low or flow low
occurs then 2nd pump will takes start. When Mill running and running pump for any
reason gets OFF, 2nd pump will take start.

Mill Inlet Gate:

This can be open any time by open command. Off permissive is
Feeder OFF.

PA General Shut Off Damper:

If PA fan ON and mill discharge valve open then it

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can be opened. Pa fan OFF closes this damper automatically.

PA Fan Permissives :
1. No MFT
2. PA inlet damper in min position
3. PA general s/o damper closed
4. Ignition permit available *
5. Coal elevation start permit available **
6. PA lube oil system o.k.
7. Cold air damper <5%
8. Mill release available ***
9. No pulverizer trip
10. Seal air system o.k ****
11. PA breaker in service

PA Fan Protections :
1. Pulverizer trip
2. 2/3 MFT
3. PA fan electrical trip
4. PA fan lube oil system failed (lube oil pressure 0.4kgf cm-2< more than 60 secs)
5. Loss of FD fan trip (for D, E, F elevation)
*Ignition permit available when adjacent oil elevation has 3/4 oil gun in service or
adjacent coal feeder has feeding >50% (18 tph).
**One running FD fan can give start permit to 1st three coal elevation. 2nd FD fan is
required for 4th coal elevation.

Loss of FD fan trip will be generated when one of the two running FD fans trips with
four mills in operation. It will trip the top mill system.
*** Mill release : Available when PA fan ON or (CAD<5% and PA general shut off damper close &
burner all manual isolation valves open and feeder inlet / outlet gate open and HAG, CAG open and mill
lube oil o.k. and mill gas pressure not low or not very low.
**** Seal air system O.K. will be available when seal air fan ON & SAF o/l damper open and SA to
pulverizer inlet damper open and seal air to hot PA DP >100 mmwc.

Mill Permissives :
1. Mill release available
2. PA fan ON >20 secs
3. PA general s/o damper open
4. Ignition permit available
5. Coal elevation start permit available
6. Pulverizer / feeder start permit available
7. Pulverizer outlet temp not low (>65degC)
8. Mill both discharge valves open
9. Pulverizer breaker in service

Pulverizer / feeder start permit: Burner tilting horizontal and total air flow < 40% or
any feeder running > 53 secs.

Pulv Trip Logics :

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1. 1 Pulv ON and (seal air to hot PA DP low (<100mmwc) >70 secs or seal air fan OFF >60 secs).
2. 2/3 MFT
3. MILL ON and PA fan OFF
4. Mill outlet temp>110 oC and feeder ON
5. Mill release not available
6. Electrical trip
7. Any mill discharge valve not open>3 secs
8. Ignition permit not available and Ignition permit required.
9. Mill gas pressure very low
10. Mill lub oil pressure very low>3 secs or (both lube oil pump OFF or lube oil flow low)>5 secs.

Feeder Permissives :
1. Coal on belt
2. Feeder in remote
3. Pulverizer / feeder start permit
4. Ignition permit
5. Coal elevation start permit
6. Mill outlet temp not high and not low

Feeder protection:
1. Ignition permit not available and Ignition permit required
2. Mill outlet temp high
3. 2/3 MFT
4. No coal on belt
5. Feeder discharge plugged
6. Pulverizer trip
“Ignition permit required” signal is generated when feeder status (ON / OFF) changes and it lusts for 3
minutes.
Flame scanner:
We have 5 elevations (AB, BC, CD, DE, EF) of optical scanner, which can convert flame frequency and
amplitude to a current signal. Coal and oil flame is discriminated by different flame frequency i.e. coal
flame frequency 3.5 to 10 Hz and oil flame frequency 24 to 30 Hz. It thresholds the amplitude and gives
flame / no flame switching signal to FSSS.
PULV AUTO SEQUENCE:
In auto sequence if one step command issued then after getting desired feedback this step command
withdrawn and next step command will be issued.

START-UP:
STEP-1: start oil elevation if ignition permit is not available
STEP-2: Start seal air fan, open its dampers
STEP-3: Start mill lube oil pumps
STEP-4: Open mill discharge valve
STEP-5: Start PA fan & open general s/o damper
STEP-6: Start Pulverizer
STEP-7: Start feeder
SHUT-DOWN:
STEP-1: Start oil elevation if ignition permit is not available
STEP-2: Run feeder speed to min
STEP-3: Stop feeder

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STEP-4: Stop mill

STEP-5: Stop PA fan
STEP-6: Close general s/o damper
STEP-7: Stop seal air fan, close mill discharge gates, stop mill lube oil pumps after 30 minutes.
G. SECONDARY AIR DAMPER CONTROL:
Coal air damper : A, B, C, D, E, F modulates as a function of coal feeding in auto mode.
Oil air damper : AB, CD, EF Opens 70% when oil gun in service. Else acts as aux air damper.
Aux air damper : BC, DE Modulates in auto to maintain wind box to furnace DP. DP set point is a
function of boiler load. Over fire dampers : Modulates in auto as a function of boiler load to prevent
SOx, NOx. When MFT operates, all these dampers are forced to 100% open and stays there for 5 mins.

Scanner Fan:
Two scanner air fans (AC, DC) are provided. Normally AC fan is running if it trips or scanner duct to
furnace DP low (150mmwc) comes then DC fan takes start. Scanner fan normally takes suction from FD
fan discharge and supply air to the flame scanner duct. One emergency damper is provided in the
suction. In case of both FD fan OFF, this damper will provide alternate suction.

Mill Fire Fighting Inerting System:

After mill trip, fire fighting inerting command can be given. It closes Mill inlet / outlet gates, general s/o
damper, seal air to mill inlet damper. After that all the steam valves to mill open for 30 secs. After 30
secs steam valve closes and cycle stops.

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Automatic Turbine Startup
First check the ATS STARTUP RELEASE in the Turbine Startup/Shutdown page (P1152) UFF
(Unfulfilled Criteria). All the following conditions should be fulfilled.
1. MS 105,MS 106 drain valve OPEN or GCB CLOSED. (MS LINE DRAIN TO UNIT FLASH TANK)
2. HRH 101, HRH 102 OPEN or Generator Load >42 MW. (HRH line drain to F/T)
3. DC pumps power supply AVAILABLE. (DC EOP, SOP, JOP)
4. AVT NOT On.
5. ATS NOT END/OFF.
6. Trip test NOT ON.
7. Temperature Mode (VERY HOT/HOT/WARM/COLD) Selected.
8. SEMI AUTO/AUTO mode ON.
9. SGC Turbine shutdown NOT ON.
10. Startup NOT abnormal.
Following may be the reasons of Startup abnormal:
a. Turbine Lube oil temperature NOT OK (<35°C OR >50°C)
b. EHG heavy fault.
c. MHG mode ON.
d. MFT (86U) Acted.
e. AVR on Manual.
f. Run down operation Yes.
g. Boiler fire NOT ON.
h. Turbine Lube oil pressure LOW (<1.1 kg/cm²).

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURE
1. Select ATS SEMI AUTO/AUTO Mode.
2. Select Temperature Mode depending on HP Casing Temperature:
• Cold Mode (HP Casing Temp<250°C)
• Warm Mode (HP Casing Temp>250°C & < 410°C)
• Hot Mode (HP Casing Temp>410°C & < 460°C)
• Very Hot Mode (HP Casing Temp>460°C)

Please check MS 105, MS 106, HRH101, HRH102 OPEN and AVR ON AUTO and Turbine Drains ON
AUTO.
Please check once again ATS Startup Release and fulfill the conditions, which are not True.

3. Put SGC Turbine (ATS/ASD PB OR VPC) AUTO

4. Put SGC Turbine (ATS/ASD PB OR VPC) ON

Now again go to UFF and monitor the step operations:

Step1 Release
• SGC Turbine Startup ON

Step2 Release
• Step1 ON

Step3 Release
• 77M closed (0%) OR MSV Left & Right, RSV Left & Right NOT Closed (77M – Starting & Load
Limiting Device)

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• 65 P (0%) OR GCB Closed (65P – Power Setter)

• Turbine Drains Auto
• 65 F 0% OR Turbine speed > 1030 RPM (65F – Speed Setter)
• Exciter circuit breaker open OR Turbine Speed > 2950 RPM
• Condenser vacuum > 608 mmHg
• At least two CW Pumps running
• 65 M Open (100%) (Mechanical Speed Setter)

Step4 Release
• Emergency Trip Device NOT Operated
• Thrust bearing protection device NOT Operated
• Emergency Governor 1 & 2 NOT Operated
• Change Over Valve in normal position (Change Over valve is used for ATT & AVT online operation,
normally it is Closed)
• 86T(TLR) Reset (TLR – Turbine Lockout Relay)
• Turbine NOT tripped OR MSV Left & Right, RSV Left & Right NOT Closed
Step5 Release
• All Extraction Check Valves closed OR Load > 42 MW (Non return valves to supply extraction steam
from turbine to LPH 2,3 & HPH 4,5)
• Reheat Check Valve closed OR Turbine Speed >1030 RPM (Non return valve in CRH Line to prevent
supply from CRH to Turbine)
• All Extraction Stop Valve (No. 2,3,4,5,6) Closed Or Load > 42 MW (Motorised valves for supply of
extraction steam to heaters downstream of Extraction Check valves)
• MAL 13,14 open OR Load > 10.5 MW (HP Connection pipe drain valve left & right)
• MAL 11,12 NOT < 25%, MAL 26,31 OPEN OR GCB Closed (MSV/MCV Warm up valve left &
Right)
• MAL 22, 27,32,40,50,51,52,54,65,81 Opened (HPC, IP Connection pipe, Cross side pipe, EXT 5, EXT
4, EXT 3, EXT 2, CR pipe, GS pipe drain valves)
• CRH 101,105, HRH 101,102, MS 105,106 Opened (CRH line manual drain, Gland Steam Header
Drain etc.)
• MSV Left & Right, RSV Left & Right, MCV 1,2,3,4, ICV L&R Closed OR Turbine Speed>1030 RPM
OR 77M > 42%

Step6 Release
• TSI parameters NOT abnormal
1. Bearing metal temperature NOT high
2. Lube oil temp after cooler NOT > 55°C
3. HP Casing differential temperature NOT > 30°C (From TSE)
4. IP Casing differential temperature NOT > 30°C (From TSE)
5. Shaft vibration NOT high
6. Shaft position NOT abnormal
7. HPT differential expansion NOT > 4.5 mm (Rotor with respect to Casing)
8. IPT differential expansion NOT > 7.5 mm (Rotor with respect to Casing)
9. LPT differential expansion NOT > 18.5 mm (Rotor with respect to Casing)
10. Turbine eccentricity NOT > 75 µm PP
11. LP exhaust temperature NOT > 90°C

Check for the Abnormal condition in UFF

• Condition for MSV open (Pressure) (Criteria X2 from TSE)
• Condition for MSV open (Temperature) (Criteria X1 from TSE)
• Boiler outlet MS temperature > 50°C Superheat (Ex: In atmospheric pressure 100+50=150 degc)

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• Reheat outlet temperature > 50°C Superheat

• Turbine Speed > 60 RPM
• Condenser vacuum > 608 mmHg
• At least one CEP ON
• CEP discharge header pressure OK
• Gland steam pressure control AUTO
• MS 105,106 both NOT closed
• HRH 101,102 any one open OR Turbine Speed > 2950 RPM
• DRAINS NO FAULT
• Trip oil pressure > 5.5 kg/cm²
• CRH 101 OPEN OR Load > 42 MW

Step7 Release
• 77M ≥ 42%
• MSV Left & Right open
• RSV Left & Right open

Step8 Release
• MAL 11,12 open OR GCB closed OR 77M 100%

Step9 Release
• CW Pump discharge header pressure NOT LOW (>1.3 kg/cm²).
• Condition for IPT steam admission YES (Criteria X4 from TSE)
• Condition for HPT steam admission YES (Criteria X3 from TSE)
• HPT inlet steam temp >50°C Superheat
• IPT inlet steam temp >50°C Superheat
• HP inlet steam pressure >68 kg/cm²
• Turbine Speed >60 RPM
• Generator Condition Normal

Check for the Generator Abnormal condition in UFF

Step10 Release
• MSV metal differential temp Normal (From TSE)
• HPC metal differential temp Normal (From TSE)
• HPT rotor differential temp Normal (From TSE)
• IPT rotor differential temp normal

ALL MARGINS SHOULD BE >30°K

• TSI parameters NOT Abnormal

Step11 Release
• MAL 11,12 <25% AND 77M OPEN (100%)
• OR Turbine speed >2950 RPM

Step12 Release
• Speed raise ON
• Cold / Warm / Hot / Very Hot Selected
• Speed change rate Slow / Fast

Step13 Release
• 65F heat soak speed

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• Turbine speed >1030 RPM

Step14 Release
• ATS Temperature mode Active

WAIT FOR 30 MIN IF COLD SELECTED

• MSV metal differential temperature Normal
• HPC metal differential temperature Normal
• HPT rotor differential temperature Normal
• IPT rotor differential temperature Normal

ALL MARGINS SHOULD BE >30°K

• Condition for speed UP (Criteria X5 from TSE)
• TSI parameters NOT Abnormal

Check for the Abnormal condition in UFF

Step15 Release
• Turbine speed >2950 RPM
• Speed set Rated ON

Step16 Release
• ATS temperature mode active

WAIT FOR 5 MIN IF COLD SELECTED AND 1 MIN IF WARM SELECTED

• AC AOP Status OFF
• Generator condition Normal

Step17 Release
• TSI parameters NOT Abnormal

Check for the Abnormal condition in UFF

• Generator voltage >90%

Step18 Release
• IN SEMI AUTO/OPERATOR GUIDE MODE SELECT SYNCHRONIZING ON
• In AUTO mode no action required, SYNCHRONIZER will be on automatically

If there is a problem with “Auto Synchronizer” then Press “SGC Turbine Start” PB OR “ATS LOCK”
then “UNLOCK”
Step19 Release
• Generator Circuit Breaker Closed

Step20 Release
• Auto Mode OR Load Up ON
• Waiting Time at 10.5 MW Over

Wait for 55 Min in Cold Mode, 10 Min in Warm Mode

• MSV metal differential temperature Normal
• HPC metal differential temperature Normal
• HPT rotor differential temperature Normal
• IPT rotor differential temperature Normal

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ALL MARGINS SHOULD BE >30°K

• Condition for Loading Yes (Criteria X6 from TSE)
• Initial Loading Yes
• Power change rate 15.3/4.6/2.9/1.3 MW/Min
• MAL 11,12,26,31 Closed

Step21 Release
• Load set 20%
• Actual power >17% (>35.7 MW)

Step22 Release
• No. 2,3,4,5 drain valve group Closed
• MS 105,106 Closed

BYPASS OPERATION
• You can bypass any STEP by pressing “STEP BYPASS KEY” and “PB RELEASE KEY”
SIMULTANEOUSLY
• You can bypass some CRITERIA in some STEP by pressing “STEP BYPASS KEY” OR from VPC
“STEP BYPASS”

Following Criteria can be bypassed:

Release for Step5
1. MSV Left & Right, RSV Left & Right, ICV Left & Right, MCV 1,2,3,4 Closed
2. Reheat Extraction Check valve No. 2,3,4,5,6 Closed
3. All Extraction Stop valve Closed
4. All Drain valve Opened

Release for Step6

1. MS 105,106, HRH 101,102 Feedback

Release for Step7, Step8, Step11

All the conditions
Release for Step20
MAL 11,12,26,31 Close Feedback
ATS Lock Set by:
Pushbutton Command OR
ATS Startup abnormal OR
(77 M NOT Open AND SGC Turbine Step 10 Command AND Secondary Oil Pressure >1.5 kg)
ATS Lock Reset by:
ATS/ASD selection PB OR
(ATS Lock Selection OFF AND Startup NOT Abnormal)
Generator Condition Normal
All the conditions mentioned below should be true
1. Any one Bearing Chamber Exhaust Blower On
2. Any one AC SOP ON
3. Oil level in Pre Chamber (TE) & (EE) NOT HIGH
4. H2 purity in Generator NOT LOW
5. H2 purity in Generator casing > 97%
6. H2 pressure in Generator casing NOT < 1.2 kg/cm2
7. Liquid in terminal bushing (Bottom) & Generator (TE) NOT HIGH

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8. Seal oil and H2 differential pressure > 0.9 kg/cm2

9. Cold Gas temperature after H2 coolers 2A/2B & 2C/2D NOT HIGH
10. Cold air to main exciter < 43 DEGC
11. Seal oil pressure to seals (TE) & (EE) > 2 kg/cm2

74
CO-ORDINATED MASTER CONTROL

As electrical energy can not be stored in a large quantity it is necessary to balance its generation with
momentary consumption. The grid frequency is the factor indicates the degree of balance between production
and the consumption.
In absence of the storage of electrical energy it is a must for a modern power plant to have adequate control
system to respond to rapid load changes and at the same time control the process/ the equipments so that no
part of the plant runs into a dangerous operating state i.e. any process parameters must not cross the designed
/ safe operating limits of a particular equipments, otherwise, the availability and required safety of the man
and machine will be endangered.
In order to achieve the best efficiency and the best availability with requisite safety, it is necessary that
operation of both the main plant equipments (i.e. Boiler & Turbine) is co-ordinated using suitable control
system and there should be possibility of decoupling them during disturbances by means of bypass system.
There are many control loops in a modern power plant e.g. air flow control, furnace pressure control, drum
level control, load control etc. Co-ordinated control system is a system to co-ordinate between several
individual loops related to energy input and power output systems. It also looks after any emergency
operation such a failure of Pulveriser, Boiler feed pump, ID fan etc. changing the unit load in such a manner
so that thermal stress developed in turbine can’t exceed a safe value. It also takes care the situation of
sudden machine de-synchronization from grid i.e. the hose load operation.
The automatic plant control systems have three different important modes of control systems, viz.
1. Turbine follow mode
2. Boiler follow mode
3. Co-ordinated master control mode

Amongst the above modes, the first two can be put into service separately while in co-ordinated master
control mode the other two controllers will be con-ordinated by co-ordinated master controller.
For above three modes, there are three master controllers, viz
• Turbine master known as Electro Hydraulic Governor.
• Boiler master
• Unit master i.e. Co-ordinated master controller.

Turbine master (EHG) controls turbine in three different modes, viz.

Power Control: Controls power output of generator as per the load set point given, with a particular load
gradient (MWMIN) given to it.
Pressure control: Controls the main steam pressure at turbine inlet (by throttling or opening the control
valves) as per the set point given irrespective of generator output.
Speed Control : Controls the turbine speed as per the speed set point given it will be active only when
generator in de-synchronized condition.

Boiler Master controls the fuel firing rate in boiler as per load demand.
Co-ordinated master controller co-ordinates between Boiler master & Turbine Master while in service.
Turbine follow mode
Turbine follow mode means turbine will follow the boiler. In this mode, turbine master (EHG) will be in
auto & boiler master will be in the manual mode. Turbine master will act as pressure controller. Then

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turbine follow mode will try to maintain the turbine inlet steam pressure according to the set point given.
This mode does not look after the power output. For controlling the turbine inlet steam pressure as per
set point given, this will throttle or open the control valves at steam entry. The load will vary according
to the variation of fuel feeding, but the inlet steam pressure will almost remain constant. Figure. I will
explain the job of turbine follow mode. The figure will show that for very high rate of pressure deviation
from the set point, the controller output will be higher owing to a larger change in power output.

This system implies an inherent time lag after a change in fuel firing due to the characteristic of any
combustion / heat transfer process. But the controller action is very fast as there is no energy conversion
process. So, during a fluctuation in combustion load fluctuation will be there. In case of Pulveriser
tripping or putting a Pulveriser into service , it handles the situation smoothly keeping M.S. pressure and
drum pressure constant by changing load, owing to very little fluctuation in drum level as pressure
change is absent. But there are some disadvantages as it abruptly changes the load without watching the
turbine stress evaluating parameters differential expansions, turbine casing and rotor top-bottom
temperature differences etc.

FIGURE - 1
Boiler follow mode
Boiler follow mode means boiler will follow turbine. This means that turbine will change power output
leading to change in turbine inlet pressure, boiler master will try to maintain that pressure according to the set
pressure by changing fuel firing rate. So in this mode, boiler master will be on auto mode, turbine master will
be on manual mode and act as power controller to achieve the required power output as per demand given.
Before putting boiler master into auto mode, its set point will track the actual power output (in MW
compared to steam flow) and during putting on auto, this value becomes the initial set point for the boiler
master. Minimum one no. coal feeder, air flow controller furnace draft controller and drum level controller
will be in auto mode for providing boiler master into auto mode.
During any change in the power output, main steam pressure will change which will be counter balanced by
changing the fuel rate by boiler master in auto as its set point will change due to change in the main steam
pressure from the given set point. As soon as fuel flow changes, air flow, being in auto changes
instantaneously to maintain the oxygen percentage in flue gas as per set point given. Draft controller will act
to maintain the furnace draft in the changed situation. Thus in boiler follow mode, the total combustion
system acts on auto. Figure -2 will explain the job of boiler follow mode.
Boiler master output is fuel demand. There is an internal calculation which gives the information about the
specific fuel consumption calculated from instantaneous values of fuel and steam flow, depending on which
boiler master gives the fuel demand. Initially, it gives the fuel demand proportionate to the instantaneous
main steam flow. But when pressure changes, it is an indication of mismatching of energy input and energy
output. Then a factor proportionate to the MS pressure deviation is added to the signal proportionate to steam
flow to give the final fuel demand going to coal feeders to balance the aforesaid mismatch.

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In boiler follow mode, combustion system is fully automatic. If it works properly, the MS pressure will
almost remain constant for a fixed maintained load. But there are some difficulties inherent to the system, as
the system consists of energy conversion process, there is an inherent time delay due to conversion of
chemical energy of fuel to heat energy and subsequent heat transfer to steam. Naturally, the desired change in
pressure to come back to its set value takes place after a certain period of time. This makes the system slower
in application again, until the pressure deviation becomes zero, the boiler master continuously changes at a
particular direction (i.e. increasing or decreasing) though the required action has been taken at the beginning.
As a result, when the action of fuel changes starts, pressure fluctuation may occur in a large amount. For
combustion of solid fuel, where air fuel changes starts, pressure fluctuation may occur in a large amount. For
combustion of solid fuel, where air –fuel mixture is not perfectly homogenous, the delay in combustion is
much more then that for combustion of liquid or gaseous fuel. So a large pressure fluctuation may occur in
this mode. To overcome this, in BkTPP a dead band of ± 2 MW is introduced in the power controller if boiler
follow mode is active so that , if pressure fluctuates power controller will try to adjust by decreasing or
increasing the control valve position up to a change of 2MW in power output. The load will come back to
set value after boiler master handles the system properly.

Co-ordinated Master Control (CMC)

From the above discussions, it is understood that in turbine follow mode, system passes through a faster
response while in boiler follow mode, the system goes through a slow process. Moreover, in turbine follow
mode, the system does not look after the load, so fluctuation of load is obvious for change in coal quality. In
Boiler follow mode, the system does not look after the load, so fluctuation of load is obvious for change in
coal quality. In boiler follow mode pressure fluctuation is large due to slower boiler response. So it is
obvious that for a steady and reliable system with constant load output and minimum pressure fluctuation,
some other system will be needed to co-ordinate between the slow responding boiler with the fast responding
turbine. CMC concept has been developed to do this in a proper way.
To put the machine in CMC mode, turbine will be in auto with power control mode in service and boiler
master also in auto. If load change command is given, boiler master set point is varied by CMC depending
upon both pressure and load deviation. In parallel, it also gives a delayed command to turbine master through
a gradient circuit to change the power set point, which restricts the turbine to change load instantaneously.
Before, giving that command a pressure correction is made to maintain the fixed MS pressure. Turbine will
look after boiler and wait until boiler gets affected from the change in combustion. In above way, both the
load and pressure deviation will be made minimum. Thus CMC works for proper balance of energy and
keeps the unit steady condition. It reduces the fluctuation and time required to achieve load in a steady
manner as it gives a calculated fuel change rate to boiler. Figure-3 shows the control in CMC mode.

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CMC also includes the following additional features:

The system is having the provision for automatic correction of unit load demand during frequency changes.
A frequency corrected output is summated with the unit load demand w.r.t. standard 50Hz frequency to cope
up with the fluctuating grid conditions.
In BkTPP the unit load demand is corrected to ± 50MW after a dead –band provided from 49.75 to 50.25 for
a change of frequency1.5 Hz decreasing or increasing afterwards respectively. This system incorporated in
CMC is termed as “Defeat Switch” which if is made on will provide the frequency influenced load demand,
otherwise not.
Maximum load limiter: sets the maximum load depending on the choice of the operator to restrict the load
change during frequency correction increment up to + 50 MW from load demand given.
Minimum load limiter: sets the minimum load depending upon the choice of the operator to restrict the load
change during frequency correction decrement up to -50MW from load demand given.

2. The system is provided with a unit load rate change limiter which limits the rate of change of load demand
given as per the adjustment made by operator.
3. Run back limiter: Provides automatic runback of the unit load demand on loss of critical auxiliary
equipments which is predetermined depending upon the weightage of the each piece of the auxiliary
equipments. Following are the upper limits of load for various equipments tripping:

Equipment tripping Load Limit

One BFP , CEP, CW Pp tripping (if standby does not take start ) 125MW
One FD fan / One ID fan tripping 125 MW
One Pulveriser / One PA fan tripping 168 MW
Two pulverisers / Two PA fans tripping 112MW
Three pulverisers / Three PA fan tripping 56 MW

If above all cases happen in the same time, the upper limit will be the minimum one of them

4. CMC also incorporates a feature is provided to change load automatically without giving command for load
change, if any one of different control loops related to system steadiness not acting properly. It looks after
the condition and tries to bring down the control deviation of the incapable control loop within limit by
changing load until the deviation minimizes. This feature is called run down, which becomes active
proportionately to the maximum of the following deviations.

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Drum level element control deviation >9.8% and BFP scoop (maximum scoop of BFP A, B or C) >
93%
Air flow deviation > 9.8% and ID fan scoop (maximum of fan A or B) > 85%
Furnace pressure deviation >9.8% and ID fan scoop (maximum of fan A or B)>85%
Coal flow deviation > 10% and maximum feed rate > 90%
Load control deviation >20%

5. In some conditions of equipments tend towards a limiting value, CMC will try to restrict the load increase or
decreases as applicable. If CMC restricts load to increase or decrease further, these are called UP
DIRECTIONAL BLOCKING and down directional blocking respectively. The conditions are stated below:
Up directional blocking
3 element drum level control deviation >9.8 %
BFP scoop (maximum of scoop of BFP A, B or C) > 93%
Air flow deviation (set –actual) > 98%
Maximum of FD fan A or B blade pitch > 85%
Coal flow deviation > 10%
Coal feeder rate >15%
Load control deviation <-20%

Another feature in CMC is to watch the condition of turbine supervisory during load change. If thermal
stresses are developed in different positions of turbine viz. HPT shaft and casing. IPT shaft and casing MSV
depending on the calculations made by turbine stress controller (TSC) and if it crosses the margin for load
change, CMC restricts the load change by influencing load change rate with the help of TSC.

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75
Turbine Stress Controller

TSC is an intelligent supervisory system

Checks transient thermal load in all phases of operation

Monitors operation of turbine in three startup modes Fast (Cold), Normal (Warm) and
Slow (Hot)

Operation modes are selected depending on HP casing Temperature.
Turbine Stress Controller
1. Performs computation & display of permissible temp. & load guidance
2. Accumulated fatigue & residual life analysis
3. Long term storage of data for monitored turbine components
4. Formation of turbine startup criteria

Turbine Stress Controller

1. Functions of TSC is divided in two parts
2. Functions that have direct effect on process are executed in DCS Processor Module PR05 in CJJ01
Panel
3. Extensive & highly accurate computation & long term data storage operations for accumulated fatigue &
life computations are executed in PC

Thermal Load
1. Steam temp. change in turbine interior is followed by metal temp. of various turbine components with
time lag.
2. Free & restricted strains occur in turbine components
3. Strains causes material stresses of thermal load, leads to accumulated fatigue of the material
4. During normal operation stress occurs in alternating direction (compressive & tensile) due to heating &
cooling in regions of assembly component surfaces exposed to steam & also in the shaft axis

Thermal Load

Determining factors of thermal stress are time sequence of steam temp. change, heat transfer from steam
to metal, geometric shape & material properties
Task of TSC
1. Three thermal load limits are used
2. One for high speed operation with increased accumulated fatigue rates
3. One for normal operation
4. One for low thermal load (stress) with reduced accumulated fatigue rates
5. Rare cold startup which requires more time can be achieved rapidly by accepting higher accumulated
fatigue rates –so energy is saved
6. Depletion of service life can be compensated by following slow mode operation at appropriate time

Task of TSC
1. Influence the turbine control system by means of reference limiter (temp.margins)
2. Turbine Startup Criteria are evaluated depending on the thermal behavior of different parts and
provided to ATRS
Temperature Margins
1. Temperature margins are calculated for MSV, HPC, HPS & IPS
2. In each case Ti (Surface Temp or 100% Temp) & Tm (Mean temp or 50% Temp) are measured or
simulated.

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3. Tm of HPS, IPS are simulated from HP inlet steam temp. & IP inner casing temp as shaft temp.
measurement is not possible
4. (Ti –Tm) is calculated
5. Then compared with permissible differential temp ‘dT permU’or ‘dT permL’which are available from
turbine manufacturer

Temperature Margins
1. This comparison yields the temp. margins ‘ddTU’ & ‘ddTL’
2. Margin with subscript ‘U’ (upper) is used for raising the turbine’s temp (increasing speed or power)
3. Margin with subscript ‘L’ (lower) is used for reduction of the turbine’s temp (decreasing speed or
power)
4. Smallest of the temp. margin is transmitted to the setpoint controllers of turbine control system for
loading or unloading of the turbine.

Startup Criteria (X Criteria)

1. Startup criteria are generated for essential steps of turbine control like:
2. Opening of MSV
3. Rolling the turbine on steam
4. Accelerating to nominal speed &
5. Applying load
6. These criteria determine whether the superheating intensity or the steam temp. are adequate for
continued operation
Startup Criteria (X Criteria)
1. Criteria X1: Condition for steam admission to MSV (Temp)
2. Criteria X1-U & Criteria X1-L are calculated from MSV 50% Temp as per permissible limit
Condition for MSV Open true when:
1. Boiler O/L stm. Temp.–Criteria X1-U<0.6 0C &
2. Boiler O/Lstm. Temp.–Criteria X1-L>0.6 0C

Startup Criteria (X Criteria)

Criteria X2: Condition for steam admission to MSV (Pressure)

Criteria X2 are calculated from MSV 50% Temp as per permissible limit
Condition for MSV Open true when:
1. Boiler O/Lstm. Pres.–Criteria X2<0.2 kg &
2. Boiler O/Lstm. Pres.>5 kg
Startup Criteria (X Criteria)
1. Criteria X3: Cond. for steam adm. to HPT
2. Criteria X3-U & Criteria X3-L are calculated from HPC 50% Temp as per permissible limit
Condition for Steam adm. To HPT true when:
1. HPT inlet stm. Temp.–Criteria X3-U<0.6Degc&
2. HPT inletstm. Temp.–Criteria X3-L>0.6Degc

Startup Criteria (X Criteria)

1. Criteria X4: Cond. for steamadm. to IPT
2. Criteria X4-U & Criteria X4-L are calculated from IPS 100% Temp (IP inner casing) as per permissible
limit

Condition for Steamadm. to IPT true when:

1. HRH stm. Temp.–Criteria X4-U<0.6Degc&
2. HRH stm. Temp.–Criteria X4-L>0.6Degc

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Startup Criteria (X Criteria):

1. Criteria X5: Condition for Speed Up
2. Criteria X5-U & Criteria X5-L are calculated from HPC 50% Temp as per permissible limit

Condition for Speed Uptrue when:

1. HPT inletstm. Temp.–Criteria X5-<0.6Degc&
2. HPT inletstm. Temp.–Criteria X5-L>0.6Degc

Startup Criteria (X Criteria)

1. Criteria X6: Condition for Load Up
2. Criteria X6-U & Criteria X6-L are calculated from IPS 100% Temp (ie. IP inner casing )as per
permissible limit

Condition for Speed Uptrue when:

1. HRH stm. Temp.–Criteria X6-U<0.6Degc&
2. HRH stm. Temp.–Criteria X6-L>0.6Degc

Calculation of turbine life expenditure:

1. This func. Is software intensive and impl. in PC
2. Fatigue values of diff. parts are recorded & thermal loads are computed

Material fatigue consists of:

1. Accumulated fatigue life (surface) –LCF
2. Accumulated creep life –CF
3. Accumulated fatigue life (rotor) –SCF

Accumulated fatigue cal are done as per table:

Calculation of turbine life expenditure

LCF CF CF
MSV X X -
HPC X X -
HPS X - -
IPS X X X
Statistics
A temp.-press. matrix shows how many hours the assembly components were exposed to corresponding
temp. & press

Determination of LCF

LCF or Accumulated Fatigue Life (Surface) is due to cyclic strain

The basis for computation is the occurrence of ‘Temp. Diff’ (DT=Ti –Tm) & resulting values of epsilon

They occur in steam side surface ie. in case of casing on inner surface & in case of shaft in outer surface

Accumulated fatigue due to creep (CF)

Design of components exposed to high temp. are based on time dependent strength values known as
“Rupture Strength”

Components are designed for specified operating temp and thus for specified load ie. Warning point

If op. temp & load are constant over op. period acc. Fatigue is computed as the ratio of “Total Op. time”
to “Time until failure” or designed life time.

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Determination of fatigue life (Rotor)

Accumulated fatigue due to Cyclic Stress (SCF) in the shaft axis is described :

For the shaft interior, as for the casing, the accumulated fatigue portion from the startup processes
and steady state operation are totaled cumulatively over total op. time

If perm total Accumulated fatigue is exceeded, detailed inspections are to be carried out

Accumulated fatigue due to creep (CF)

When this ratio is 100% then detailed inspection/overhauling to be carried out

In gen. op. temp & pr change during operation

The total accumulated fatigue due to creep can therefore be represented only as sum of individual
portions corresponding to various time intervals

76
STABLE POWER SUPPLIES IN POWER STATION
A power station is meant for supply power to the user. Normally the power flows from the generating
station to the load end. But in an adverse situation when any unit or the power station is dead suddenly it
requires adequate planning to restore from the adverse situation keeping the process parameters & the
equipments safe.
For running the vital equipments the following stablepowers are used here as described
below –

220V DC :- The principal duty of this system is to provide secure DC supply for the following loads :

Emergency lighting

Providing power to the emergency motors (Turbine DC EOP, DC JOP, DC Seal oil of Generator
etc).

Providing control power to trip/close the breakers (here 6.6KV) as needed for during
normal/emergency.

Providing power to trip the fuel systems (both oil & coal)

Emergency valve operation (TLR, extraction valves)

Running dc scanner fan when ac power is not available.

UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply), 230V AC :- this is considered the second stable source. The
main functions of UPS are
 To provide power in uninterrupted manner to the load.

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 The power should be pure.

 Output Power should be stable irrespective of input voltage or frequency variations.

The standard block diagram of any UPS is as shown in figure 1 ;-

The normal 415v or 230v ac source is the incoming source to UPS. A transformer is used to transform
415v to 230v ac if the supply is 415v. Then this input is filtered & fed into a controlled rectifier ckt for
rectification. The controlled rectifier is used to vary the value of output DC voltage. This voltage is fed to
inverter & also to battery for charging. The inverter transforms the dc input voltage into a stable ac
output voltage. This output voltage is the final UPS output voltage, which is used to feed the critical
loads.
In case if there is no input power to UPS then the output of rectifier is nil. The battery then comes into
the picture. The dc voltage stored in the battery drive the inverter to produce the required AC output
power. Thus in case of any sudden power failure, no interruption to the critical loads would occur.
If there is any problem in the inverter ckt or in battery, the output is automatically switched over to the
bypass system, consisting of SVR (static voltage regulator). This regulator has a regulatory ckt to supply
regulated (constant) voltage output.
Now, to switch over from inverter output to SVR output & vice versa one critical component is needed,
i.e. transfer switch. Normally one switch is kept ON & the other is automatically OFF. The function of
transfer switch is that the load should not experience any change in the supply change over. Normally
within 1.5 cycles of 50 Hz sine wave (30 mSec) this changeover should be completed.
The transfer switch transfer the load automatically to SVR (bypass) in case of
 battery dc voltage low
 Inverter failure.
 Excessive inverter overload/short ckt on load
The load re-transfer, back to the inverter, is completed automatically with the very small interruption in
the output waveform when the inverter has returned to normal & maintained a stable output.

The scheme of BkTPP UPS is shown in fig 2.

Here the UPS output is 230v ac, single phase. This power is fed to critical panels like control desk, all
the computerised operating console, important panels like Turbine protection, turbine control, turbine
supervisory, generator seal system etc.
In normal running condition two static switches1,2 are on catering 50% of load each. In case any one
develops fault, that switch changes to OFF state keeping the healthier one to cater 100% load. The faulty
inverter would break automatically from the load bus before it can affect the operation of healthy
inverter(within one half cycle).
If both failed then the load is transferred to transfer sw 3. All the transfer switches used here consisting
of IGBTs for fast transfer.
There is one maintenance bypass sw which can be made on manually during any major shutdown of UPS
system.
24V DC: - The principal duty of this system is to provide secure DC for the following loads

Process control panels

Annunciation panels

Display of vital parameters

Providing power to some vital remote panels which require 24V power, like LP bypass, AVR
etc
For better supply all the panels are wired from 2 sources with diode coupling.

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BATTERY: - Almost in all the power stations lead acid type is used as the stable battery source. In
charged condition, the positive plate is consisting of lead dioxide; negative plate consisting of lead & the
medium is sulphuric acid.

Discharging
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 < > PbSO4 + PbSO4 + 2H20
Charging

In discharged condition, both positive & negative plates consist of lead sulphate & the electrolyte
medium will be the water.
In older power station, lead acid tubular type cell is used. A newer design of this type is called Plante
type cells. Here the positive plates are made of pure lead instead of pasted plate of older type. The
benefit is good life expectancy. Another modified type of this one is sealed lead acid batteries. It is
called as maintenance free as no topping up of water or monitoring of specific gravity at regular interval
is needed. The electrolyte is kept absorbed in a separator, which is placed in between positive & negative
plates. The separator has special properties to retain the gases. As no acid spillage/acid fumes present in
these batteries it can be kept in an air-conditioned room for better performance.
In some power stations NiCd type rechargeable batteries are also used.
Battery charging: -
In normal running plant, the load is connected to the dc voltage generated from ac source as well as to
the battery. If the batteries are discharged for a brief period during some emergency or for routine
discharge/testing then to top up the charge of battery float charging is necessary which is done by the
same charger after restoration of power.
When the battery is discharged for a longer period, the cell voltage drops down a little bit more then
boost charging is needed to bring back it in normal condition. In boost charging the load have to be cut-
off & only charging of the battery takes place at a greater charging rate.
In unit normal running condition the float charger will be ON & it supplies the dc load with trickle
charging the battery.
A cell when not used (kept as spares) normally getting discharged by self-discharging. A very small
amount of charge in needed to retain the full capacity of the battery. This charge is called as freshening
charge & have to be given periodically.

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PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

PLC is developed as a substitute to conventional relay wirings in electrical panels, which are very
cumbersome process, & troubleshooting time is very high.
The advantages are
 High reliability
 Ease of programming
 On-line troubleshooting
 Small physical size
 Low maintenance cost
 Modular design
 Reprogramming can be done easily
 Computer connectivity & control

Block diagram of a PLC system: -

INPUT DEVICES: -
Inputs are defined as real-world signals giving the PLC a real time status of process variables. The
signals can be of analog or digital, maintained or momentary, low or high frequency signals. Normally
the signals are processed through a filter ckt & opto-coupler/GALVANIC COUPLER for protection of
the total PLC system, as all the internal signals of PLC are low voltage type. Common type signals are
any switch /relay changeover contact, push button, limit switch, lockout switch any protection device
switching etc. Analog types are resistance, current or voltage input.

OUTPUT DEVICES: -
The outputs are also mainly of two types digital or analog. The digitals again can be subdivided into low
current type (<500Ma) or high current type (normally known as relay output type) (< 3A). Practical
digital outputs are indication lamps, solenoid valves, and annunciation windows, command to
MCC/breaker to drive a load. Output ckts are also protected from the field by opto/galvanic couplers.

CPU :-
The CPU (central processing unit) performs the tasks necessary to fulfil the PLC function. It reads the
program as stored in its memory block, checks the input status & gives command to output devices as
per program. It also checks the health of the total devices connected to it. Normally to do the job of
scanning of one complete cycle is called the scan time of the PLC. Inside the CPU card a memory unit is
attached where the executive program is stored. An executive program is the same as OS in a PC. There

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is another program called the user program (application program) where the program is written by the
user. This program can be checked, modified or can by totally changed by the user using
programmer/PC. Different types of chips/chipset are used for memories. They can be of ROM, EPROM,
and EEROM ETC.

Programmer: -
The programmer unit provides an interface between the PLC and the user program during program
development, start-up, & on-line troubleshooting. It is the liaison between what PLC understands in
electronic form & what a person desires to perform during a control sequence. The programmers can be
of dedicated type or can be used with the PC with suitable software.
Different Type of PLC languages are used in different make PLCs. The most common one is relay ladder
language. Other popular programming types are statement list, functional block diagram etc.

Major differences between a PLC & DCS: -

If the input/output is more digital type then PLC is better choice. If on the other hand they are of
mainly analog type & process related application type DCS is suitable.

Programming language is much easier in PLC than in DCS systems.

Maintenance & trouble shooting is much easier in PLC.

PLCs are designed to operate near the equipment that is in hot, humid, dirty, noisy industrial
environments while DCS is normally designed to operate in clean air-conditioned environment.

Input output modules can be expanded easily in PLC.

Major PLCs used here are for sequential running of coal conveyor belts, in sequential empting of ash
hoppers, running of hydrogen generation plant, sequential running of DM plant chains. There are so
many minor PLCs used here for small applications.
The makers of PLC used here are of Siemens, GE Fanuc, ABB, Omron, Allen Bradley make.

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BLACK START OF UNIT AFTER TOTAL POWER FAILURE
ACTIVITIES AFTER TOTAL POWERE FAILURE :

To ensure start of Turbine DC Emergency Oil Pump, DC Jacking Oil Pump, DC Seal Oil Pump &
DC Scanner Air Fan..

To ensure start of at least one DG set and to check 415 V Emergency MCCs (1MC, 2 MC & 3 MC )
are energised by DG.

To open Condenser Vacuum Breaker and isolate the gland steam controller isolating valve.

To ensure closing of HP BP & LP BP valves.

To ensure HOTV & LOTV valves.

After availability of DG set power, close MS-1 and MS-2 valves.

To start turbine AC AOP, AC JOP, AC Seal Oil Pump and AC Scanner Air Fan.

STOP DC DRIVES.

Ensure closing of all NRVs and isolating valves of turbine Extraction line valves.

Put the turbine on Barring Gear, if not, hand barring to be started after turbine speed comes down to
zero.

Isolate line drains connected to flash tanks (CRH-101, CRH-105, HRH- 101, HRH-102, HRH-103,
HEH-104, HRH-115 & HRH-116).

Isolate Main Ejector steam valve(s). Open only steam valve of Starting Ejector. Close Ejector steam
line drains connected to Condenser.

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Watch the LP Turbine exhaust hood temperature, if found increasing, identify and manually isolate
the respective valves.

Open MS line drains (MS-105 & MS-106), CRH line atmospheric drains (CRH-103, 104), CRH-105
line atmospheric drains.

Open HPBP line drains (BP-101 & BP-103) and isolate HPBP warm up valves BP-3 and BP-4.

Run all major auxiliary lub oil pumps, which can be run from 415V MC bus (All lub oil pumps will
trip automatically after 10 minutes of starting of DG set as per interlock.).

Give stop command / press LOS of major auxiliaries including fuel oil pumps.

Check the DG set diesel oil level, if it runs for a longer period.

On receiving survival power from the grid, at least one machine should be synchronised at the
quickest possible time.

SPECIAL NOTE:

If DC Seal Oil Pump fails to start and Emergency MCC could not be charged through DG power, immediate
action is to be taken for purging out Hydrogen from Generator.

RESTORATION ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY GCR ENGINEER:

o Obtain information of Dg start from MCR and changeover 415 V SMA Switch Gear to DG source.
o GCR Control Engineer to interact with CENTRAL LOAD DESPATCH WBSEB, Howrah for
ARRANGEMENT of start up power from GRID.
(REQUIREMENT OF START-UP POWER IS 20 MW FOR ONE UNIT).

o 1st. Preference : Restoration of Power through 220 KV Bidhan Nagar Feeder #1 or # 2.

o 2nd. Preference : Restoration of Power through 220 KV Satgachia Feeder #1 or # 2.
o To normalize 220 KV / 33 KV , ST-3 Transformer & 33 KV Bus ( Sec-1 , Sec-2 & Sec-3 ) by
closing the respective 220 KV and 33 KV Transformer Breakers and 33 KV bus section breakers (
Sec. 1 , 2 & 3 ).
o To normalize 33 KV / 6.6 KV, ST-1 & ST-2 Transformers by closing corresponding 33 KV bkrs.
and inform UCR electrical engineer to normalise 6.6 KV station buses. (OSA, OSB, OSC, OSD,
OSG-A & B) from their end and to proceed further for normalisation of other electrical system for
light up and synchronisation of units.
o Normalise SPA Switch Board after getting information from UCR and changeover SMA Switch
Board to normal source (change over to SPA). Reset battery charger panel.

OTHER ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN FROM GCR END:

 Normalise 33KV Tilpara Intake Feeders and normalise Intake Pump House Switch Gear ( 1SA )
& MCC (1MA) . Reset Relay Flags.
 Normalise RWSA ( Raw Water Pump House ) after getting clearance fro UCR electrical
engineer. Reset Relay flags. Energise WPA, WMA, WMB, WPB1, WPB2 and inform UCR to
run Raw Water Pumps and other equipments at DM Plant area.
 Normalise Bk Dam Pump House Switch Gear (1SB) & MCC (1MB) after getting clearance from
CHP ( charging of SS-2) . Normalise DAM MCC (1MC) . Ensure DAM DG to stop. Reset
Flags.
 After synchronisation of one unit and drawal of auxiliary power through respective UATs,
normalise station power through IBT-1 & IBT-2.
 Other 33 KV outgoing feeders like construction power Feeder -1 ( Suri) may be normalised.

ACTION TO BE TAKEN BY UCR ENGINEERS :

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On getting clearance from GCR Control Engineer that ST-1 & ST-2 have been charged from
33KV end, 6.6 KV incoming breakers of OSA, OSB, OSC, OSD, OSG-A, OSG-B will be
switched on from respective SACPs ( located at UCR of Unit #1, Unit #2 & Unit#3 ). Reset
Relay Flags.

To energies 1SA / 1SB, 2SA / 3SB , 3SA / 3SB by closing corresponding upstream 6.6 KV
Circuit Breakers at OSA / OSB / OSC / OSD / OSG-A / OSG-B Sw. Grs from SACPs of
respective UCRs and downstream 6.6 KV Bkrs. at 1SA / 1SB, 2SA / 3SB , 3SA / 3SB Sw. Grs.
From respective UACPs of UCR of Unit #1, Unit #2 & Unit#3 . Reset Relay Flags.

Normalise 415 V PA,MC, MA, MB buses of all the three units.

Isolate DG from MC after synchronisation with grid power and stop DG set.. Reset annunciation
at DG local panel. Reset Battery Charger panel at DG Room and Power House Battery Room.

To energise 6.6 KV / 415 V OXA / OXB / OXC / OXD / OXI / OXJ transformers ( Station 415
V Sw. Gr. OPA / OPB / OPC source ) by switching on corresponding 6.6 KV & 415 V bkrs.
from respective SACPs ( Located at UCR of Unit #1, Unit #2 & Unit#3 ). Reset Relay Flags.

To energise 6.6 KV / 415 V, transformer WXA or WXB (CW Pump House 415 V OCW PMCC
source) by closing its corresponding 6.6 KV breakers from SACP (located at UCR) and to
switch on 415 V incoming breakers of OCW MCC & OCY MCC located at CW Pump House.

Inform UCR shift Charge Engineer to run ACW & CW Pumps.

Inform Shift Charge Engineer to run Compressors as per their requirement.

To energise 6.6 KV / 415 V transformer OXG or OXH (FO Pump House MCC source) by
switching on 6.6 KV up-stream breakers from SACP and corresponding 415 V downstream
breaker of OFM MCC located at fuel oil pump house.

To energise 6.6 KV / 415V transformer XG or XH (any one of the three units) and their
corresponding 415 V PMCC – 1PB or 2PB (located at ESP cum Fly Ash building). Inform
Mechanical Operation to run HFO Pump for boiler Light Up.

To energise 6.6 KV / 415V transformer XE and XF of all the three units and their corresponding
415V PMCCs IPC, 2PC, 3PC. Reset Relay flags. Inform UCR to run CT fans.

To light up Boiler after Purging, proceed for hot start up and synchronisation of the unit.

To normalise all other electrical system of IPH, OPH , CHP, Ash Plant, Raw Water & DM Plant
etc. area one after another.

SPECIAL NOTE FOR OPERATING ENGINEER:

One Machine should be synchronised at the quickest possible time by energizing at least one 6.6 KV
station bus (OSA / OSB /OSC / OSD / OSG-A / OSG-B) and one 6.6 KV unit bus of any unit along with
their corresponding 415 V SW. GR / MCCs that will be necessary to run the minimum load bearing
equipments to light up the boiler and synchronise the machine with the grid.

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