COMPUTER NETWORKS

PRACTICAL
1. Familiarization with Networking Components and devices: LAN Adapters,
Hubs, Switches, Routers etc.
LAN Adapter

An expansion board that is used to connect a computer or computing device to a network. LAN adapter
is the most common and generic alternate name for a Network Interface Card (NIC). However, many
similar products, such as a Wireless USB LAN Adapter is also called a LAN adapter.

Wireless USB LAN adapter

A high-speed wireless network card that is used to access a network through a USB port on a computer
or laptop. Most wireless USB LAN adapters look like small USB flash drives and usually are based on the
802.11g standard which provides a data rate up to 54-Mbps in a wireless LAN environment. Some
wireless USB LAN adapters may also support the 802.11b standard. A wireless USB LAN adapter basically
enables you to share files, folders, printers, other network resources and Internet access.

Network Hub

Definition: In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that joins multiple
computers together. Many network hubs available today support the Ethernet standard. Other types
including USB hubs also exist, but Ethernet is the type traditionally used in home networking. Technically
speaking, two different types of hubs exist:
Passive active

Passive hubs do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before broadcasting them out to
the network. Active hubs, on the other hand, do perform this amplification, as does a different type of
dedicated network device called a repeater. Some people use the terms concentrator when referring to
a passive hub and multiport repeater when referring to an active hub.

Network switch

A network switch (sometimes known as a switching hub) is a computer networking device that is used to
connect devices together on a computer network. A switch is considered more advanced than a hub
because a switch will only send a message to the device that needs or requests it, rather than
broadcasting the same message out of each of its ports.

Router

Router: Routers are devices (computers) containing software that help in determining the best path out
of the available paths, for a particular transmission. They consist of a combination of hardware and
software. The hardware includes the physical interfaces to the various networks in the internet work.
The two main pieces of software in a router are the operating system and the routing protocol.

Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically separate networks. They
accomplish this connection by organizing the large network into logical network segments or sub-
networks. Each of these sub networks is given a logical address.Category wireless banner.
How Routers Works

Routers are interconnectivity devices that are used to transfer the datum packets along networks by
visualizing the networks path. Routers visualizing the networks path to many networks such as
Electronic networks, Transport networks and phone networks. Two ways are exist for routers operation
using either control plane or forwarding plane. In control plane the router sends the precise data
packets to their specific location. On the other hand in forwarding plane router does not remember the
sending or receiving information about the packets.

Advantages of Routers

Routers route the data in an organized way. Routers generate a reliable connection between hosts.
Routers is used for alternatively incase the main is fail to transfer data.
2. Familiarization with Transmission media and Tools: Co-axial cable, UTP Cable,
Crimping Tool, Connectors etc.
What is transmission media

Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information from sender to receiver. We use different
types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through electrical or
electromagnetic signals. An electrical signal is in the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series
of electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be transmitted through
copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum Different Medias have different properties
like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. Transmission media is also called
Communication channel.

Types of Transmission Media

Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media:aare tangible or
have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in
use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has its own characteristics
like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost etc.

Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound transmission media are the
ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by physical
geography. This type of transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless
communication is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and college campuses.
This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission
media.

Guided Transmission Media

Types of Twisted Pair

The two types of twisted pairs are:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

It consists of color-coded copper wires, but does not include any foil or braiding as insulator to protect
against interference. Wire pairs within each cable have varied amounts of twists per foot to produce
cancellation. There are different categories of UTP.The following table shows the UTP categories, the no.
of pairs in each, and the grade of cable each uses and how they are implemented.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

TP is made up of pairs of copper wires that are twisted together.The pairs are covered in a foil or
braided mesh, as well as outer PVC jacket.This foil or mesh prevents the penetration of electromagnetic
noise and eliminate cross talk.This shielding must be grounded to prevent the foil or braided mesh from
becoming a magnet for electricity.

Advantage of STP over UTP

STP is less susceptible to noise as compared to UTP and therefore reduces the cross talk and
interference.

Disadvantages of STP

It must be properly grounded.It is more expensive than UTP.It is difficult to terminate.

Advantages of Twisted pair cable

It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.It is
the least expensive media of transmission for short distances.If portion of a twisted pair cable is
damaged it does not effect the entire network.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable

It offers poor noise immunity as a result signal distortion is more.Attenuation is very high.It supports
lower bandwidth as compared to other Medias. It supports 10 mbps upto a distance of 100 meters on a
10BASE-T.It offers very poor security and is relatively easy to tap.Being thin in size, they are likely to
break easily.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in center and is made of solid conductor. Core
is enclosed in an insulating sheath. Over the sheath the second wire is wrappedaround and that too in
turn encased by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover Because of its structure coax cables
are capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted pair cables. The wrapped structure
provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth rates of up
to 450 mbps.

Fiber-Optics Cable

A cable with central glass tube covered with protective shield which transmit data using photons is fiber
optics cable. These cables transmit data via concentrated bursts of laser beams which are carried
through bundles of hair thin glass fibers.They have advantages over electronic cables technology has
revolutionized telecommunication Fiber optics cables as free from electro-magnetic transmission speed
and volume. This applications which used electronic cables. interference as well as wire tapping.

Unguided Transmission Media:-

It extend beyond the limiting confines of cabling. They provide an excellent Communication Networks
alternative for WANS. The lack of physical restrictions provides larger bandwidth as well as wide area
capabilities. Unbound media typically operate at very high frequencies. The three types of unbound
transmission media are:

Radiowaves Transmission
Although Radio waves are prevalent and well understood, we are just beginning to realize their
enormous potential as a networking medium. Radio waves can operate on a single or multiple
frequency bands.Radiowaves are omni directional i.e. they travel in all the directions from the source.
Because of this property, transmitter and receiver need not to be aligned. Radiowaves can penetrate
buildings easily, so they are widely use for communication both indoors outdoors.

Microwave Transmission
Microwaves have been used in data communications for a long time. They have a higher frequency than
radio waves and therefore can handle larger amounts of data.Microwave transmission is line of sight
transmission. The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station.microwave circuits
considered a broad band communication channel. Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies
of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.

the Advantages of microwaves.

They require no right of way acquisition between towers.They can carry high quantities of information
due to their high operating frequencies.Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small
area.High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.

Disadvantages of Microwaves
Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.Reflected from flat surfaces like water and
metal.Diffracted (split) around solid objects.Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be
projected away from receiver.

InfraRed

Infrared offers a great unbound photonic solution. Like fiber-optic cabling, infrared
communications use light, so they are not bound by the limitations of electricity.

Crimping tool
A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a connector to the end of a cable. For example,
network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool to connect the RJ-45 and RJ-11
connectors to the end of the cable. In the example below picture, this crimper is capable of crimping a
RJ-11 (6-Pin) and RJ-45 (8-Pin) connectors and also includes a wire cutter near the handles that can be
used to cut phone or CAT5 cable.

RJ-45 Connecter

The RJ-45 connector is a form of telephone connector. It sees its most frequent use as a local-area
network connector, and is frequently referred to simply as an Ethernet connector.

BNC Connecter
This connector is commonly used on a Token Ring network. BNC is also short for Bayonet Nut Connector
or British Naval/Navy Connector although more appropriately known as the Bayonet Neill Concelman.
In the picture to the right, is an example of a BNC connector on the end of a coaxial cable.
3.Preparing straight and cross cables.

Straight-Through Wired Cables Crossover Wired Cables

Straight-Through refers to cables that have the pin assignments on each end of the cable. In other

words Pin 1 connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector B, Pin 2 to Pin 2 ect. Straight-Through wired

cables are most commonly used to connect a host to client.An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of

Ethernet cable used to connect computing devices together directly. Normal straight through or patch

cables were used to connect from a host network interface controller (a computer or similar device) to a

network switch, hub or router. A cable with connections that "cross over" was used to connect two

devices of the same type: two hosts or two switches to each other.
4. Study of various LAN topologies and their creation using network devices,
cables and computers.
Type of Topologies are :-
Bus topology

Bus Topology is the simplest of network topologies. In this type of topology, all the nodes (computers
as well as servers) are connected to the single cable (called bus), by the help of interface connectors.
This central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus (thus the name). Every
workstation communicates with the other device through this Bus.

Advantages (benefits) of Bus Topology

It is easy to set-up and extend bus network.Cable length required for this topology is the least
compared to other networks.Bus topology costs very less.Linear Bus network is mostly used in small
networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Bus Topology

There is a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be connected.Dependency on
central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e. bus) encounters some
problem, whole network breaks down.Proper termination is required to dump signals. Use of
terminators is must.It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station.Maintenance
costs can get higher with time.Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected
to it increases.It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.Security is very low because all the
computers receive the sent signal from the source.

Star topology
In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the central device called“hub” which
may be a hub, a router or a switch. Unlike Bus topology (discussed earlier), wherenodes were
connected to central cable, here all the workstations are connected to central device with a point-to-
point connection. So it can be said that every computer is indirectly connected toevery other node by
the help of “hub”.

Advantages of Star Topology

As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t necessarily get
transmitted to all the workstations.Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes
can be added easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed
easily. management. It helps in monitoring the network.Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the
rest of network. At the same time its easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole network goes
down.The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network.Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is depended
onbcapacity of central device.

Ring Topology
In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make closed loop.
Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side, and it communicates with
these two adjacent neighbors. Data travels around the network, in one direction. Sending and receiving
of data takes place by the help of TOKEN.

Advantages of Ring Topology

This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it receives an
empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in only
one direction at very high speed. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is
better than that of Bus topology. There is no need for network server to control the connectivity
between workstations. Additional components do not affect the performance of network. Each
computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This makes
it slower than Star topology. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components. MAU’s and network
cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays data from
other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other
node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant connections,
thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or
routing technique is used in mesh topology.

Advantages of Mesh topology

Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can withstandhigh
traffic.Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.Overall cost of this network
is way too high as compared to other network topologies.Set-up and maintenance of this topology is
very difficult. Even administration of the network is tough.

Tree Topology
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw how in Physical
Star network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other through central hub. And we
also saw in Bus Topology, work station devices are connected by the common cable called Bus. After
understanding these two network configurations, we can understand tree topology better. In Tree
Topology, the numbers of Star networks are connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main
stem of a tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology.
Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology. The diagram below will make it clear.

Advantages of Tree Topology

It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't be
implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best
alternative.Expansion of Network is possible and easy.Here, we divide the whole network into
segments (star networks), which can be

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole
network is crippled.As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes
difficult.Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

Hybrid Topology
Before starting about Hybrid topology, we saw that a network topology is a connection of various links
and nodes, communicating with each other for transfer of data. We also saw various advantages and
disadvantages of Star, Bus, Ring, Mesh and Tree topologies.Now lets discuss what Hybrid Network
topology is and why it finds its application in Wide Area Networks. Hybrid, as the name suggests, is
mixture of two different things.

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology.
The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of network and required corrective
measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of the network.

Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing
existing architecture.

Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by
optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes where traffic is high as well as
where chances of fault are high.

Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can design it in such a
way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while there weaknesses are neutralized.
For example we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star
topology has high tolerance capability (as each node is not directly connected to other but through
central device), so these two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawback of hybrid topology is its design. Its not easy to
design this type of architecture and its a tough job for designers. Configuration and installation process
needs to be very efficient.

Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are
different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures
and should be function even if a part of network is down.

Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of cables,
cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.
5.Configuration of TCP/IP Protocols in Windows and Linux.
Step 1-Click Start->Control Panel->select and double click Network and internet connections->select
and double click Network Connections.

Step 2-Double-click the Local Area Connection icon; highlight Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) tab in the
Local Area Connection Properties window that appears:

Step 3-Double click it or click Properties. The TCP/IP Properties window will display.
Step 4-Now you have two ways to configure the TCP/IP protocol below:Assigned by DHCP Sever.Select
Obtain an IP address automatically and Obtain DNS Server address automatically, as shown in the figure
below. These may be selected by default. Then click OK to save setting.Assigned manually

Select Use the following IP address, as shown in the following figure.

If the router’s LAN IP address is 192.168.1.1, please type in IP address 192.168.1.x （x is from 2
to 253）, subnet mask 255.255.255.0, and default gateway 192.168.1.1.Select Use the
following DNS server addresses, as shown in the following figure. And then type the DNS server
IP address, which should be provided by your ISP. Finally remember to click OK to save settings.

Step 5-Click OK to save and apply your settings.

For Windows Vista & Windows 7

Step 1-Click on windows key+ R key on the keyboard at the same time.

Step 2-Type ncpa.cpl in the box, then press OK.

Step 3-Select the local area connection, right click it and select Properties.
Step 4-Select Internet Protocol Version 4(TCP/IPv4), double click it or click Properties.

Step 5-There are two ways to configure the TCP/IP Properties, Assigned by DHCP server automatically
or manually.

1. Assigned by DHCP server

Select Obtain an IP address automatically and Obtain DNS server address automatically. If necessary,
then click OK to save the settings.

Assigned manually

Select Use the following IP address, type IP address, subnet mask and default gateway IP address into
it.If the router’s LAN IP address is 192.168.1.1, please type in IP address 192.168.1.x （x is from 2 to
253).Select Use the following DNS server addresses, as shown in the following figure.

Step 6-Click OK to save and apply your settings.

Configuration of TCP/IP protocols in Linux:-

This article covers the main TCP/IP network configuration files used by Linux to configure various
network services of the system such as IP Address, Default Gateway, Name servers - DNS, hostname and
much more. Any Linux Administrator must be well aware where these services are configured and to use
them. The good news is that most of the information provided on this article apply's to Red hat Fedora,
Enterprise Linux, Ubunto and other similar Linux distributions.

The Basic Commands for Networking

The basic commands used in Linux are common to every distro: ifconfig - Configures and displays the IP
parameters of a network interface route - Used to set static routes and view the routing table hostname
- Necessary for viewing and setting the hostname of the system

Netstat - Flexible command for viewing information about network statistics, current connections,
listening ports.ARP - Shows and manages the arp table. IP - Multi-purpose command for viewing and
setting TCP/IP parameters and routes. Traffic control command, used for classifying, prioritizing, sharing,
and limiting both inbound and outbound traffic.
6.Implementation of file and printer sharing
Instructions for Installing “File and Printer Sharing” in Windows XPFrom the desktop on your PC, go to

the Start Menu and right click on My Network Places and select properties:

go to the Control Panel and selected Network Connection.)

You should have a screen

File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks has already been installed, on your screen it should

not be listed, if it is, it is already installed. Now hit the Install button.Now select Service form the list of

component types and hit OK. On the next screen select File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks

and hit OK. File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks should now be added to the list. Hit Close to

exit.
7.Designing and implementing Class A, B, and C Networks
IP Address Classes:-IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B, C, D and E. Only classes
A, B and C are available for commercial use.

Class A addresses
Class A addresses are designed for large organizations with a large number of hosts or routers.In this
the first octet of the address identifies the network and the next three octets are used to identify the
host.The first bit of first octet is always 0 and the remaining 7 bits are used to identify the network
address.The next three octets i.e. 24 bits are used to identify the host.The class support addresses from
0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255The first block of network address starts with 1.0.0.0 and the last block of
network address starts with 127.0.0.0.

Class B address
The class B addresses are designed for medium sized organizations with tens of thousands of attached
hosts or routers.In this, the first two octets of the address identify the network and the next two octets
identify the host within the network.The first two bits (high order bits) of first octet are always 1, 0.
Thus the remaining 14 bits identify the network.The third and fourth octet i.e. 6 bits are used to
identify the host.

Class C address
The class C addresses is designed for small organizations with a small number of attached hosts or
routers.In class C, the first three octets of address are used for network and the last octet is used to
identify the host.The first three bits of first octet are always set to 1, 1, 0.The remaining 24 - 3 = 21 bits
are used for network identification and only 8 bits are used for host.In class C, 221 = 2,097,152 network
blocks are possible.
8.Subnet planning and its implementation.
The process of subnetting involves dividing a network up into smaller networks called subnets or sub
networks. Each of these subnets has its own specific address. To create these additional networks we
use a subnet mask. The subnet mask simply determines which portion of the IP address belongs to the
host. The subnet address is created by dividing the host address into network address and host
address.The network address specifies the type of subnetwork in the network and the host address
specifies the host of that subnet. Subnets are under local administration.

Use of commands like ping, ipconfig for trouble shooting network related
problems
ipconfig
The “ipconfig” displays the current information about your network such as your your IP and MAC
address, and the IP address of your router. It can also display information about your DHCP and DNS
servers. Let’s see the basic output of “ipconfig”:

ipconfig output
Depending on your network connection type, you may see different output for different connection.
For example, if you are connected to the network using Ethernet (you plug in your network cable to the
RJ45 jack), you’ll see IP information in the “Ethernet adapter” section. In our case we are connected to
the WIFI (wireless) connection so we our information there.

ipconfig /all
This time there’s much more information present. The IP address, the Subnet Mask and and the Default
Gateway address is still here, but this time you can also see your DHCP server and DNS server. In our
case the DHCP IP address is the same as the router address, which means that DHCP server is currently
residing on the router. DNS server is also the same as router address which means it is also DNS server.

Network troubleshooting with ping

The “ping” command ping command allows you to send a signal to another device, and if that device is
active, it will send a response back to the sender. The “ping” command is a subset of the ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol), and it uses what is called an “echo request”. So, when you ping a device you
send out an echo request, and if the device you pinged is active or online, you get an echo response.

ping command
What happens is we send out four packets to the destination and the destination responds back with
the same four packets. We sent out 32 bytes of data and we got back 32 bytes of data, and we got it
back in 9 milliseconds average. From this we see that the device is alive and see the connection stability
(4 of 4 packets received).