Artificial Intelligence

Dr. Rajeev Kumar Gupta

Assistant Professor
Pandit Deendayal Energy University
Gandhinagar, Gujarat
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 Syllabus
Unit-I: INTRODUCTION TO AI AND SEARCHING
❖ AI Problems, Intelligent Agents, Problem Formulation, Basic Problem
Solving Methods. Search strategies, Uniformed Search Strategies, State-
Space Search, Bi-Directional Search, BFS, DFS, Heuristic Search
Strategies, Local Search Algorithms, Hill Climbing, Greedy Best First
Search, A* Search, Simulated Annealing, Measure of performance and
analysis of search algorithms.

Unit –II: KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND INFERENCE

❖ Game playing, Knowledge representation using-Predicate logic,
Introduction to predicate calculus, Resolution, Use of predicate calculus,
Knowledge representation using other logic, Structured representation of
knowledge, Production based system, Frame based system, First order logic.
Inference in first order logic, propositional Vs. first order inference,
unification & lifts forward chaining, Backward chaining, Resolution.
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Unit – III: NEURAL NETWORKS
❖ Characteristics of Neural Networks, Historical Development of Neural
Networks Principles. Artificial Neural Networks: Terminology, Models of
Neuron, Topology, Basic Learning Laws, Pattern Recognition Problem,
Basic Functional Units, Pattern Recognition Tasks by the Functional Units.

Unit –IV: Expert System

❖ Introduction to Expert systems - Architecture of expert systems, Roles of
expert systems - Knowledge Acquisition –Meta knowledge, Heuristics.
Example of expert systems - MYCIN, DART, XOON, Expert systems
shells, Introduction to Planning.

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 What is Intelligence?
1) Learning
➢ The simplest is learning by trial and error. For example, a simple computer
program for solving mate-in-one chess problems might try moves at random
until mate is found. The program might then store the solution with the
position so that the next time the computer encountered the same position it
would recall the solution.

➢ This simple memorizing of individual items and procedures—known as

rote learning—is relatively easy to implement on a computer.

➢ More challenging is the problem of implementing what is called

generalization. Generalization involves applying past experience to related
new situations.

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2) Problem solving
➢ Problem solving, particularly in artificial intelligence, may be characterized
as a systematic search through a range of possible actions in order to reach
some predefined goal or solution.

➢ Problem-solving methods divide into special purpose and general

purpose. A special-purpose method is tailor-made for a particular problem
and often exploits very specific features of the situation in which the
problem is embedded.

➢ In contrast, a general-purpose method is applicable to a wide variety of

problems.

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3) Reasoning
➢ To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation. Inferences are
classified as either deductive or inductive.
➢ The most significant difference between these forms of reasoning is that in
the deductive case the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion, whereas in the inductive case the truth of the premise lends
support to the conclusion without giving absolute assurance.
➢ In deductive, “Sachin must be in either the museum or the café. He is not in the
café; therefore he is in the museum,”
➢ In inductive, “Previous accidents of this sort were caused by instrument failure;
therefore this accident was caused by instrument failure.”
➢ Inductive reasoning is common in science, where data are collected and
tentative models are developed to describe and predict future behaviour—
until the appearance of anomalous data forces the model to be revised.
➢ Deductive reasoning is common in mathematics and logic, where elaborate
structures of irrefutable theorems are built up from a small set of basic rules.

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4) Perception
➢ In perception the environment is scanned by means of various sensory
organs, real or artificial, and the scene is decomposed into separate objects
in various spatial relationships.
➢ Analysis is complicated by the fact that an object may appear different
depending on the angle from which it is viewed, the direction and intensity
of illumination in the scene, and how much the object contrasts with the
surrounding field.

5) Language
➢ A language is a system of signs having meaning by convention. In this
sense, language need not be confined to the spoken word.
➢ Traffic signs, for example, form a minilanguage, it being a matter of convention
that ⚠ means “hazard ahead” in some countries.

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 Artificial Intelligence
➢Artificial intelligence (AI) involves machines that can
execute tasks that are similar to that of human
intelligence; they were first invented in 1956 by John
McCarthy.

➢AI, the ability of a digital computer or computer-

controlled robot to perform tasks commonly
associated with intelligent beings.

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Humanly v/s Rationally

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History of Artificial Intelligence

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❖Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)
• Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done
by Warren McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a
model of artificial neurons.

• Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for

modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now
called Hebbian learning.

• Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and
pioneered Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing
publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which he
proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit
intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called
a Turing test.
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❖The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

• Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first
artificial intelligence program"Which was named as "Logic
Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics
theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.

• Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by

American Computer scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth
Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.

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❖The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)
• Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms
which can solve mathematical problems. W. Joseph created the first
chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.

❖The first AI winter (1974-1980)

• The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter
duration. AI winter refers to the time period where computer scientist
dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI
researches.
• During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence
was decreased.

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❖A boom of AI (1980-1987)
• Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert
System". Expert systems were programmed that emulate the
decision-making ability of a human expert.
• In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American
Association of Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford
University.

❖The second AI winter (1987-1993)

• The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI
Winter duration.
• Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research
as due to high cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as
XCON was very cost effective.
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❖The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)
• Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a
world chess champion.
• Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of
Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
• Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006.
Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

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❖Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence
(2011-present)
• Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show,
where it had to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had
proved that it could understand natural language and can solve tricky
questions quickly.
• Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now",
which was able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
• Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot won a competition in the infamous
"Turing test."
• Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics
with two master debaters and also performed extremely well.
• Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual
assistant and which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on
other side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.

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History of Artificial Intelligence

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 Artificial Intelligence

➢ AI has three different levels:

 Narrow AI: An artificial intelligence is said to be narrow

when the machine can perform a specific task better
than a human. The current research of AI is here now

 General AI: An artificial intelligence reaches the general

state when it can perform any intellectual task with the
same accuracy level as a human would

 Active AI: An AI is active when it can beat humans in

many tasks

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Different Areas Under Artificial
Intelligence

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Artificial Intelligence, Machine
Learning and Deep Learning

Image Source: https://datacatchup.com/artificial-intelligence-machine-learning-and-deep-learning/

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 Machine learning
➢ Machine learning is a simple way of achieving AI. Arthur Samuel
summoned the phrase not long after AI, in 1960, defining it as, “the
capability to train without being overtly programmed”.

Deep learning
➢ It is a subset of machine learning and is called deep learning because it
makes use of deep neural networks. Deep learning is a computer software
that mimics the network of neurons in a brain.
➢ In deep learning, the learning phase is done through a neural network. A
neural network is an architecture where the layers are stacked on top of each
other

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Machine Learning and Deep Learning
Performance w.r.t. Data

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 Machine Learning v/s Deep Learning

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 When to use ML or DL?

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What are the Most Popular Languages
for Machine Learning

 Python
R
 MATLAB
 SAS (Statistical Analysis System)
 Scala
 JAVA
 C++
 Hadoop
 Expert System
➢ In artificial intelligence, an expert system is a computer system that
emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert.

➢ Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning

through bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than
through conventional procedural code.

➢ The first expert systems were created in the 1950s and then production
increases in the 1980s.

➢ Expert systems were among the first truly successful forms of artificial
intelligence. For Example
➢ MYCIN: To identify various bacteria that can cause severe infections and
can also recommend drugs based on the person’s weight.
➢ CaDet: It is a clinical support system that could identify cancer in its early
stages in patients.
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 1) Huge amount of data
2) Some time difficult to code express honesty, confidence, facial
expression etc. that can be achieve by interaction
3) Some time rule can be unknown
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 A shift from rule-based approach to a data-driven

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 Agents
➢ An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act
in their environment. The environment may contain other agents.
➢ An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and
acts upon that environment through effectors.
Current + History

Agent
Program

 Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the information to other
electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.
 Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The actuators are
only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, etc.
 Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms,
fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
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 Examples of Agent
➢ A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose,
tongue and skin parallel to the sensors, and other organs such
as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.

➢ A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for

the sensors, and various motors and actuators for effectors.

Goals of Agent
➢ High Performance

➢ Optimized Result

➢ Rational Action (Right or accurate)

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 PEAS Representation
 PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works
upon.
• P: Performance measure
• E: Environment
• A: Actuators
• S: Sensors

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs
Actuators: Steering, accelerator, break, signal, horn
Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

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 Types of Environment
Fully Observable vs Partially Observable Environment

➢ If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment

at each point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is
partially observable.
➢ A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the
internal state to keep track history of the world.
➢ An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is
called as unobservable.
Ex.
• Chess – the board is fully observable, and so are the opponent’s moves.
• Driving – the environment is partially observable because what’s around the
corner is not known.

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Deterministic vs Stochastic:
➢ If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine
the next state of the environment, then such environment is called a
deterministic environment.
➢ A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined
completely by an agent.

Single-agent vs Multi-agent
➢ If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then
such an environment is called single agent environment.
➢ However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an
environment is called a multi-agent environment.

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Static vs Dynamic:
➢ If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static
environment.
➢ Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to
continue looking at the world while deciding for an action.
➢ However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the
world at each action.
➢ Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword
puzzles are an example of a static environment.

Discrete vs Continuous:
➢ If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that
can be performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete
environment else it is called continuous environment.
➢ A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is a finite number
of moves that can be performed.
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 Types of Agents
❖Simple Reflex Agents

❖Model-Based Reflex Agents

❖Goal-Based Agents

❖Utility-Based Agents

❖Learning Agent

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 Simple Reflex Agents
➢ Simple reflex agents ignore the rest of the percept history and act only on
the basis of the current percept.
➢ The agent function is based on the condition-action rule.
➢ If the condition is true, then the action is taken, else not.
➢ This agent function only succeeds when the environment is fully
observable (i.e. not suitable for partial observable).

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 Model-based Reflex Agents
➢ It works by finding a rule whose condition matches the current situation.

➢ A model-based agent can handle partially observable environments.

➢ The current state is stored inside the agent which maintains some kind of
structure describing the part of the world which cannot be seen.

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 Goal-based Agents
➢ These kinds of agents take decisions based on how far they are currently
from their goal(description of desirable situations).

➢ Their every action is intended to reduce its distance from the goal.

➢ They usually require search and planning. The goal-based agent’s behavior
can easily be changed.

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 Utility-based Agents
➢ The agents which are developed having their end uses as building blocks are
called utility-based agents.
➢ When there are multiple possible alternatives, then to decide which one is best, utility-based
agents are used. They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state.
Sometimes achieving the desired goal is not enough. We may look for a quicker, safer,
cheaper trip to reach a destination.

➢ Agent happiness should be taken into consideration. Utility describes

how “happy” the agent is.

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 Learning Agent
➢ A learning agent in AI is the type of agent that can learn from its past
experiences or it has learning capabilities. It starts to act with basic
knowledge and then is able to act and adapt automatically through learning.
A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
1. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from the
environment
2. Critic: The learning element takes feedback from critics which describes how well the agent
is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
3. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
4. Problem Generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to
new and informative experiences.

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 Rational and Intelligent Agent
❖ Intelligent Agent
➢ An intelligent agent is a goal-directed agent. It perceives its environment
through its sensors using the observations and built-in knowledge, acts upon
the environment through its actuators.

❖ Rational Agent
➢ Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having
good sense of judgment.

➢ Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon

what the agent has perceived.

➢ A rational agent always performs right action. The problem the agent solves
is characterized by Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and
Sensors (PEAS).
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 Turing Test in AI
➢ In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think
like a human or not, this test is known as the Turing Test. I

➢ n this test, Turing proposed that the computer can be said to be an intelligent
if it can mimic human response under specific conditions.

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General Problem Solving Components
❖ Every problem should be properly formulated in artificial
intelligence. Problem formulation is very important before
applying any search algorithm.

❖ In AI one must identify components of problems, which are:-

❑ Problem Statement
• Definition
• Limitation or Constraints or Restrictions
❑ Problem Solution
❑ Solution Space
❑ Operators
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❖ Definition of Problem
 The information about what is to be done? Why it is important to build AI
system? What will be the advantages of proposed system? For example “I
want to predict the price of house using AI system”.

❖ Problem Limitation
 There always some limitations while solving problems. All these limitations
or constraints must be fulfill while creating system. For example “I have
only few features, some records are missing. System must be 90%
accurate otherwise it will be useless”.

❖ Goal or Solution
 What is expected from system? The Goal state or final state or the solution
of problem is defined here. This will help us to proposed appropriate
solution for problem. For example “we can use some machine learning
technique to solve this problem”.
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❖ Solution Space
 Problem can be solve in many ways. Some solution will be efficient than
others. Some will consume less resources, some will be simple etc. There
are always alternatives exists. Many possible ways with which we can solve
problem is known as Solution Space. For example “price of house can be
predict using many machine learning algorithms”.

❖ Operators
 Operators are the actions taken during solving problem. Complete
problem is solved using tiny steps or actions and all these consecutive
actions leads to solution of problem.

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 Mouse Path Problem
• Problem Statement
• Problem Definition: Mouse is hungry,
mouse is in a puzzle where there are some
cheese. Mouse will only be satisfied if
mouse eat cheese
• Problem Limitation: Some paths are close
i-e dead end, mouse can only travel through
open paths
• Problem Solution: Reach location where is
cheese and eat minimum one cheese. There are
possible solutions (cheese pieces)
• Solution Space: To reach cheese there are
multiple paths possible
• Operators: Mouse can move in four possible
directions, these directions are operators or
actions which are UP, DOWN, LEFT and RIGHT

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 Water Jug Problem
• Problem Statement
• Problem Definition: You have to
measure 4 liter (L) water by using
three buckets 8L, 5L and 3L.
• Problem Limitation: You can
only use these (8L, 5L and 3L)
buckets
• Problem Solution: Measure exactly 4L
water
• Solution Space: There are multiple
ways doing this.
• Operators: Possible actions are fill
water in any bucket and remove water
from any bucket.

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 8 Puzzle or Slide Puzzle
• States: A state description specifies
the location of each of the eight tiles
and the blank in one of the nine
squares.
• Initial state: Any random shuffled
state can be designated as initial state
• Actions:
• Slide Left
• Slide Right
• Slide Up
• Slide Down
• Transition model: Given a state and
action, this returns the resulting state
• Goal test: This checks whether the
state matches the goal
• Path cost: Each step costs 1
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 Search Algorithm Terminologies
➢ In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal problem-solving methods.

• Search: Searching is a step by step procedure to solve a search-problem in a given

search space. A search problem can have three main factors:
• Search Space: Search space represents a set of possible solutions, which a
system may have.
• Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the search.
• Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state and returns whether
the goal state is achieved or not.
• Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The root
of the search tree is the root node which is corresponding to the initial state.
• Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to the agent.
• Transition model: A description of what each action do, can be represented as a
transition model.
• Path Cost: It is a function which assigns a numeric cost to each path.
• Solution: It is an action sequence which leads from the start node to the goal node.
• Optimal Solution: If a solution has the lowest cost among all solutions.
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 Properties of Search Algorithms
❑ Completeness: A search algorithm is said to be complete if it guarantees to
return a solution if at least any solution exists for any random input.

❑ Optimality: If a solution found for an algorithm is guaranteed to be the best

solution (lowest path cost) among all other solutions, then such a solution
for is said to be an optimal solution.

❑ Time Complexity: Time complexity is a measure of time for an algorithm

to complete its task.

❑ Space Complexity: It is the maximum storage space required at any point

during the search, as the complexity of the problem.

❑ Systematicity: Does it visited each node at most once.

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 Types of search algorithms
❖ Uninformed/Blind Search
➢ The uninformed search does not contain any domain knowledge such
as closeness, the location of the goal.
➢ It operates in a brute-force way as it only includes information about
how to traverse the tree and how to identify leaf and goal nodes.

❖ Informed Search
➢ Informed search algorithms use domain knowledge. In an informed
search, problem information is available which can guide the search.
➢ Informed search strategies can find a solution more efficiently than
an uninformed search strategy.
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 Difference between Informed and
Uninformed Search
Informed Search Uninformed Search
It uses knowledge for the searching It doesn’t use knowledge for searching
process. process.

It finds solution slow as compared to

It finds solution more quickly.
informed search.

Cost is low. Cost is high.

It consumes less time. It consumes moderate time.

It provides the direction regarding the No suggestion is given regarding the

solution. solution in it.

Less complexity (time, space) More complexity (time, space)

Greedy Search, A* Search, Graph Search Depth First Search, Breadth First Search
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Types of search algorithms

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 Node Data Structure

❖A node used in the search algorithm is a data structure

which contains the following:
1. A state description
2. A pointer to the parent of the node
3. Depth of the node
4. The operator that generated this node
5. Cost of this path (sum of operator costs) from the start state

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The Basic Search algorithm

For Tree

For Graph

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 1. Depth-first Search
➢ It starts from the root node and follows each path to its greatest depth node
before moving to the next path.

➢ DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.

➢ The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

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The equivalent search tree the graph

S -> A -> B -> C -> G

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Calculate the order to print all the nodes of the graph starting from node H to E

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Algorithm

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 Applications of DFS
1) We can detect cycles in a graph using DFS. If we get one
back-edge during BFS, then there must be one cycle.
2) Using DFS we can find path between two given vertices u
and v.
3) We can perform topological sorting is used to scheduling jobs
from given dependencies among jobs. Topological sorting can
be done using DFS algorithm.
4) Using DFS, we can find strongly connected components of a
graph. If there is a path from each vertex to every other
vertex, that is strongly connected.

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 Properties of DFS
Completeness: Not complete. It is complete
within finite state space as it will expand every Completeness
node within a limited search tree. Time Complexity
Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS Space Complexity
will be equivalent to the node traversed by the Optimal
algorithm. It is given by:
T(n)= 1+ b2+ b3 +.........+ bm=O(bm)
Where, m= maximum depth of any node and
b is the branch factor)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to

store only single path from the root node, hence
space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the
size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).

Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal,

as it may generate a large number of steps or
high cost to reach to the goal node.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of DFS
❖Advantage:
➢ DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes
on the path from root node to the current node.

➢ It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it
traverses in the right path).

❖Disadvantage:
➢ There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no
guarantee of finding the solution.

➢ DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the
infinite loop.
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 2. Breadth-first Search
➢ Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree
or graph. This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is
called breadth-first search.

➢ BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands
all successor node at the current level before moving to nodes of next
level.

➢ Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

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BFS algorithm from the root node S to goal node K

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BFS algorithm from the root node S to goal node K

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The equivalent search tree for the graph

Path: S -> D -> A -> G

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Algorithm for Tree

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Algorithm for Graph

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 Applications of BFS
1) Search engine crawlers are used BFS to build index. Starting
from source page, it finds all links in it to get new pages
2) Using GPS navigation system BFS is used to find
neighboring places.
3) In networking, when we want to broadcast some packets,
we use the BFS algorithm.
4) Path finding algorithm is based on BFS or DFS.

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 Properties of BFS
Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS
algorithm can be obtained by the number of Completeness
nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Time Complexity
Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest
solution and b is a node at every state.
Space Complexity
T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd) Optimal

Space Complexity: Space complexity of

BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size
of frontier which is O(bd).

Completeness: BFS is complete, which

means if the shallowest goal node is at some
finite depth, then BFS will find a solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a

non-decreasing function of the depth of the
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Advantages and Disadvantages of BFS
❖Advantages:
➢ BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.

➢ If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will
provide the minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.

❖Disadvantages:
➢ It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into
memory to expand the next level.

➢ BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

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 3. Depth-Limited Search Algorithm
➢ A depth-limited search algorithm is similar to depth-first search with a
predetermined limit. Depth-limited search can solve the drawback of the
infinite path in the Depth-first search. In this algorithm, the node at the
depth limit will treat as it has no successor nodes further.

➢ Depth-limited search can be terminated with two Conditions of failure:

1) Standard failure value: It indicates that problem does not have any solution.

2) Cutoff failure value: It defines no solution for the problem within a given depth
limit.

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Advantages:
➢ Depth-limited search is Memory efficient.

Disadvantages:
➢ Depth-limited search also has a disadvantage of incompleteness.

➢ It may not be optimal if the problem has more than one solution.
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Algorithm

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 Properties of Depth-Limited Search

➢ Completeness: DLS search algorithm is

Completeness
complete if the solution is above the depth- Time Complexity
limit. Space Complexity
➢ Time Complexity: Time complexity of DLS
Optimal
algorithm is O(bℓ).

➢ Space Complexity: Space complexity of DLS

algorithm is O(b×ℓ).

➢ Optimal: Depth-limited search can be viewed

as a special case of DFS, and it is also not
optimal even if ℓ>d.

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 4. Depth-First Iterative Deepening
(DFID)
➢ First do DFS to depth 0 (i.e., treat start node as having no successors), then,
if no solution found, do DFS to depth 1, etc.

➢ Advantage

✓ Linear memory requirements of depth-first search

✓ Guarantee for goal node of minimal depth

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Procedure

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 Property


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 5. Bidirectional Search Algorithm
➢ In normal graph search using BFS/DFS we begin our search in one direction
usually from source vertex toward the goal vertex, but what if we start
search from both direction simultaneously.

➢ Bidirectional search is a graph search algorithm which find smallest path

from source to goal vertex in a directed graph. It runs two simultaneous
search –
1) Forward search from source/initial vertex toward goal vertex

2) Backward search from goal/target vertex toward source vertex

➢ Bidirectional search replaces single search graph(which is likely to grow

exponentially) with two smaller sub graphs – one starting from initial vertex
and other starting from goal vertex. The search terminates when two graphs
intersect.

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➢ Suppose we want to find if there exists a path from vertex 0 to vertex
14. Here we can execute two searches, one from vertex 0 and other
from vertex 14.

➢ When both forward and backward search meet at vertex 7, we know

that we have found a path from node 0 to 14 and search can be
terminated now.
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When to use bidirectional approach?
1. Both initial and goal states are unique and completely defined.
2. The branching factor is exactly the same in both directions.
Completeness
Time Complexity
Space Complexity
Optimal
Performance measures
➢ Completeness : Bidirectional search is complete if BFS is used in both
searches.

➢ Optimality : It is optimal if BFS is used for search and paths have uniform
cost.

➢ Space Complexity : Space complexity is same as BFS and DFS.

➢ Total time complexity would be O(bd/2 +bd/2) which is far less than O(bd). 90
A -> B -> C -> D

J -> I-> G -> D

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 6. Uniform-cost Search Algorithm
➢ UCS is different from BFS and DFS because here the costs come into play.
In other words, traversing via different edges might not have the same cost.
Uniform-cost search is a searching algorithm used for traversing a
weighted tree or graph.

➢ This algorithm comes into play when a different cost is available for each
edge. The primary goal of the uniform-cost search is to find a path to the
goal node which has the lowest cumulative cost.

➢ Uniform-cost search expands nodes according to their path costs form the
root node. It can be used to solve any graph/tree where the optimal cost is in
demand.

➢ A uniform-cost search algorithm is implemented by the priority queue. It

gives maximum priority to the lowest cumulative cost.

➢ Uniform cost search is equivalent to BFS algorithm if the path cost of all
edges is the same. 92
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Advantages:
➢ Uniform cost search is optimal because at every state the path with the least
cost is chosen.

Disadvantages:
➢ It does not care about the number of steps involve in searching and only
concerned about path cost. Due to which this algorithm may be stuck in an
infinite loop.

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 Informed Search Algorithms
 Informed search algorithm contains an array of knowledge such as how far
we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node, etc. This
knowledge help agents to explore less to the search space and find more
efficiently the goal node.

 Informed search algorithm uses the idea of heuristic, so it is also called

Heuristic search.

 Heuristics function: Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed

Search, and it finds the most promising path. It takes the current state of
the agent as its input and produces the estimation of how close agent is
from the goal.

 The heuristic method, however, might not always give the best solution, but
it guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.

 The value of the heuristic function is always positive.

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 Heuristic function is given as:

h(n) <= h*(n)

 Here h(n) is heuristic cost, and h*(n) is the estimated cost. Hence heuristic cost
should be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

Pure Heuristic Search

 Pure heuristic search is the simplest form of heuristic search algorithms. It
expands nodes based on their heuristic value h(n). It maintains two lists,
OPEN and CLOSED list. In the CLOSED list, it places those nodes which
have already expanded and in the OPEN list, it places nodes which have yet
not been expanded.

 On each iteration, each node n with the lowest heuristic value is expanded
and generates all its successors and n is placed to the closed list. The
algorithm continues unit a goal state is found.

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101
102
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 In the informed search we will discuss two main algorithms

1) Best First Search Algorithm(Greedy search)

2) A* Search Algorithm

Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search):

 Greedy best-first search algorithm always selects the path which appears
best at that moment.

 It is the combination of depth-first search and breadth-first search

algorithms. It uses the heuristic function and search.

 In the best first search algorithm, we expand the node which is closest to
the goal node
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 Best First Search Algorithm:
Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list.

Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty, Stop and return failure.

Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of
h(n), and places it in the CLOSED list.

Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n.

Step 5: Check each successor of node n, and find whether any node is a goal
node or not. If any successor node is goal node, then return success and
terminate the search, else proceed to Step 6.

Step 6: For each successor node, algorithm checks for evaluation function
f(n), and then check if the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If
the node has not been in both list, then add it to the OPEN list.

Step 7: Return to Step 2.

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110
 Time Complexity
Time Complexity: The worst case time Space Complexity
complexity of Greedy best first search is
O(bm). Complete

Space Complexity: The worst case space Optimal

complexity of Greedy best first search is
O(bm). Where, m is the maximum depth of
the search space.
Complete: Greedy best-first search is also
incomplete, even if the given state space is
finite.
Optimal: Greedy best first search algorithm
is not optimal.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Best
First Search
Advantages:
 Best first search can switch between BFS and DFS by gaining the
advantages of both the algorithms.

 This algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages:
 It can behave as an unguided depth-first search in the worst case scenario.

 It can get stuck in a loop as DFS.

 This algorithm is not optimal.

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 A* Search Algorithm
 A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search.

 It uses heuristic function h(n), and cost to reach the node n from the
start state g(n).

 A* algorithm is similar to UCS except that it uses g(n)+h(n) instead of g(n).

 It has combined features of UCS and greedy best-first search, by which it

solve the problem efficiently.

 A* search algorithm finds the shortest path through the search space using
the heuristic function.

 This search algorithm expands less search tree and provides optimal result
faster.

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 In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach
the node. Hence we can combine both costs as following, and this sum is
called as a fitness number.

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Advantages:
 A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

 A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.

 This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

Disadvantages:
 A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.

 The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated

nodes in the memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.

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Find the most cost-effective path to reach from start state A to
final state J using A* Algorithm.

125
Find the path by using Greedy Algorithm and Heuristic A* algorithm.

Path highlighted with red shows the path taken by Greedy

Algorithm and the path highlighted with green shows the
path taken by Heuristic A* algorithm. 126
 8-Puzzle using A* Algorithm.
Find the most cost-effective path to reach the final state from initial
state using A* Algorithm.

F(n) = h(n) + g(n)

Consider g(n) = Depth of node

h(n) = Number of misplaced tiles. 127
128
 Hill Climbing
 Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously
moves in the direction of increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the
mountain or best solution to the problem.

 It terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor has a higher

value.

 It is also called greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate
neighbor state and not beyond that.

 Hill Climbing is mostly used when a good heuristic is available.

 In this algorithm, we don't need to maintain and handle the search tree
or graph as it only keeps a single current state.

129
 Features of Hill Climbing
Greedy approach: Hill-climbing algorithm search moves in the direction
which optimizes the cost.

No backtracking: It does not backtrack the search space, as it does not

remember the previous states.

Feedback Mechanism: The feedback from the previous computation helps in

deciding the next course of action i.e. whether to move up or down the slope

Types of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1) Simple hill Climbing:

2) Steepest-Ascent hill-climbing:

3) Stochastic hill Climbing:

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 1. Simple Hill Climbing:
 Simple hill climbing is the simplest way to implement a hill climbing algorithm. It
only evaluates the neighbor node state at a time and selects the first one which
optimizes current cost and set it as a current state. It only checks it's one
successor state, and if it finds better than the current state, then move else be in the
same state.
This algorithm has the following features:
 Less time consuming
 Less optimal solution and the solution is not guaranteed

Algorithm for Simple Hill Climbing:

Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and Stop.
Step 2: Loop Until a solution is found or there is no new operator left to apply.
Step 3: Select and apply an operator to the current state.
Step 4: Check new state:
If it is goal state, then return success and quit.
Else if it is better than the current state then assign new state as a current state.
Else if not better than the current state, then return to step2.
Step 5: Exit. 131
132
8 Puzzle Problem using Hill Climbing
Consider h(n) = Number of misplaced tiles.

133
 2. Steepest-Ascent hill-climbing:

 Steepest-Ascent Hill-Climbing algorithm (gradient search)

is a variant of Hill Climbing algorithm.

 In the case of hill climbing technique we picked any state

as a successor which was closer to the goal than the
current state whereas, in Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing
algorithm, we choose the best successor among all
possible successors and then update the current state.

134
Algorithm for Steepest-Ascent hill
climbing

135
 3. Stochastic hill climbing
 Stochastic hill climbing chooses at random from among the uphill moves.

 Stochastic hill climbing does not examine for all its neighbor before
moving. Rather, this search algorithm selects one neighbor node at
random and decides whether to choose it as a current state or examine
another state.

 The probability of selection can vary with the steepness of the uphill move.

 Stochastic hill climbing usually converges more slowly than steepest ascent,
but in some state landscapes, it finds better solutions.

 Stochastic hill climbing is NOT complete, but it may be less likely to get
stuck.

136
Hill Climbing Algorithm Example

137
Local Maximum and Local Minimum

138
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140
8-puzzle: a solution case

141
8-puzzle: stuck at local maximum

142
 Blocks World Problem with Local Heuristic Function
+1 for each block that is resting on the thing it is suppose to be resting on.
-1 for each block that is resting on wrong thing.

A D
D C
C B
B A
Initial Goal

143
144
 Blocks World Problem with Global Heuristic Function
 For each block that has the correct support structure : +1 to every block in the
support structure.
 For each block that has the wrong support structure : -1 to every block in the
support structure.

A D
D C
C B
B A
Initial Goal

145
146
 Blocks World Problem with Local Heuristic Function
+1 for each block that is resting on the thing it is suppose to be resting on.
-1 for each block that is resting on wrong thing.

A H
H G
G F
F E
E D
D C
C B
B A
Initial Goal

147
 Blocks World Problem with Global Heuristic Function
 For each block that has the correct support structure : +1 to every block in the
support structure.
 For each block that has the wrong support structure : -1 to every block in the
support structure.

A H
H G
G F
F E
E D
D C
C B
B A
Initial Goal
148
Solution to Overcome Problems in Hill
Climbing
1. Local maximum:
Utilize the backtracking technique.
Maintain a list of visited states. If the
search reaches an undesirable state, it
can backtrack to the previous
configuration and explore a new path.

2. Plateau: Make a big jump. Randomly

select a state far away from the current
state. Chances are that we will land in a
non-plateau region.

3. Ridge: In this kind of obstacle, use two

or more rules before testing. It implies
moving in several directions at once.
149
 Hill Climbing Search Example with
Local Maxima

 Hill Climbing is sometimes called greedy local search because it grabs a good neighbor
state without thinking ahead about where to go next.
150