Module 3: Communication and Identity Construction:

Prelude:

Identity is an evolving social process, not an outcome we communicate to others.

What is Identity?

The everyday word for people's sense of who they are (Djite, 2006)

What shapes our sense of ourselves? A mix of internal and external factors.

What shapes our sense of ourselves? A mix of internal and external factors.

1. Society
2. Family
3. Friends
4. Culture
5. Location
6. Media
7. Ethnicity
8. Interests
9. Self-expression

As members of social groups and communities, our identities are not fixed and unitary. Rather, it's
shifting and multiple.

Our self-concept and others' perception of us are not necessarily one and the same.

Stuart Hall (1985) on the heterogeneous nature of identity

"[A]t different times in my thirty years in England, I have been 'hailed' or interpellated as 'coloured,'
'West-Indian,' 'Negro,' 'black,' 'immigrant.' Sometimes in the street; sometimes at street corners;
sometimes abusively; sometimes in a friendly manner; sometimes ambiguously. In fact, I 'am' not one or
another of these ways of representing me, though I have been all of them at different times and still am
some of them to some degree.

But, there is no essential, unitary 'I'—only the fragmentary, contradictory subject I become."
Therefore, your identity is:

 Fluid/continuous (rather than fixed/static)

 Political, as well as personal
 Largely influenced by how others see us
 Formed in the process of interacting with other people
 Acquired, rather than innate (a social phenomenon)

Communication Theory of Identity (CTI) by Michael Hecht et al.

A departure from the view that identity is a central element of

 human existence to identity as a social phenomenon

 Posits that identity not only defines an individual but also reflects social
roles and relations through communication.

 Argues that humans are inherently social beings whose lives revolve
around communication, relationships, and communities and who operate from multiple and
shifting identities.

According to CTI, identity is constructed through language and communication.

Directly in the sense that we use linguistic codes (e.g., naming and kinship terminologies) to describe
and assign characteristics to ourselves, others, and groups of people in different contexts.

indirectly, communication defines us when we internalize judgements of ourselves, others, and social
groups based on our way of expressing ourselves.

The 4 Frames of Identity According to CTI

 1. Personal

 2. Enacted

 3. Relational

 4. Communal

1. Personal

Covers our self-cognitions (including self-image and self-concept) or sense of being. All personal
dispositional characteristics that help us to make sense of who we are belong to this frame.

 How you perceive yourself as a man/woman/nonbinary, etc.

 How you view yourself in relation to your dreams, goals, ambitions, and aspirations
 How you evaluate yourself and dialogue with yourself
2. Enacted

The performance and outward expressions of identity.How we formulate messages to express our
identity belongs to this frame.

Enactments themselves are a frame of identity—that communication is identity and not just caused or
influenced by it.

 How you dress up and present yourself to the world

 How you speak, act, and conduct yourself in public
 How you use different types of media to express your thoughts, ideas, and beliefs

3. Relational

The relational frame demonstrates that we negotiate identity within a particular relationship context.

This frame also allows us to notice how relationships take on identities themselves.

 First, an individual develops and shapes his/her identity partially by internalizing how others
view him/her (i.e., ascribed identity).
 Second, an individual identifies him/herself through his/her relationships with others, such as
someone's spouse and someone's friend.
 Third, identities exist in relationship to other identities (e.g., parent and lawyer, teacher and
spouse, student and child)
 Fourth, a relationship itself can be a unit of identity. A couple, for instance, can establish a
relational identity.

Ex. 1 - We interact differently in a relationship in which we are the child than in a relationship in which
we are the sibling.

Ex. 2 - When people get married they often find that others see them as part of a couple rather than as
separate individuals, and they may see themselves this way too.

4. Communal

Identities are a process of a shared vision of “personhood” for a collective. In this process, identities are
ascribed and avowed to through relationships.

i.e., How you view your identity as a man/woman, student/professional, or as a citizen is influenced by
the tradition, culture, norms, and expectations of the social group where you belong.

These frames of identity are intersectional and exist with one another. If we want to understand
identity, we must look at all four frames in combination.

Ex: I work out who I am (personal frame) by trying out certain behaviors as I interact (enactment
frame) with others (relational frame). How I act is based on the behavior that is expected of members of
those groups to which I see myself belonging (communal frame).
Personal Frame: How individuals see themselves.

Enacted Frame: How individuals express their identity through communication and presentation.

Relational Frame: How identities are shaped in relationships with others.

Communal Frame: How identities are influenced by belonging to a group or community.

While identity frames are usually complementary, the frames can also contradict one another.

There may be a mismatch between a person’s self-concept and others’ ascriptions that they experience
in their relationships. This creates identity gaps.

Common example:

Your view of yourself and how you express yourself clashes with your parents' perception and
expectations of you.

Identity gaps or discrepancies are linked to 3 communication outcomes (Hecht et al., n.d.)

 Communication satisfaction
 Feeling understood
 Conversational appropriateness and effectiveness (i.e., communication that is suitable,
respectful, and in line with the social and cultural norms of a given context)

Identity gaps happen when there is a conflict among the four frames of identity.

Identity gaps refer to discrepancies or disconnects between how individuals perceive themselves
(personal identity), how others see them (relational identity), how they express themselves (enacted
identity), and how their communal identity is represented.

Key Takeaways

 Identities are multiple and not singular. They do not function in total isolation from each other.

 Identity arises from complex relationships we have with others. This understanding allows us to
respect others' identity journeys as we navigate our own.

 Recognizing the diverse nature of identities prevents stereotypes and promotes fair
judgment based on context and perspective, reducing discrimination and conflicts.

The social group we belong to gives us a sense of identity and belonging to a social world.

Understanding Collective Identity Through the Social Identity Theory (SIT)

In their social identity theory (SIT), Henry Tajfel and John Turner (1979) proposed that people
draw pride, honor, and self-esteem from the groups they belong to (e.g. social class, family, football
team, university, etc.). The theory explains how individuals create and define their place in society.
Assigning people and ourselves in groups help us make sense of the world.

What is SIT

It explains how individuals categorize themselves and others into social groups, and how these group
memberships influence attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions.

SIT posits that group membership helps people to instill meaning in social situations. Group membership
helps people to define who they are and to determine how they relate to others.

According to the SIT, our sense of self is influenced by our interaction with society.

 Interpersonal - One-on-one interaction with other individuals. Examples: friends, classmates,

family, and a romantic partner
 Intergroup - Interaction with a large group of people (in-group) and the interaction of the group
with other groups (out-group). Examples: nationalism, religion, race, and ethnicity

The 3 Cognitive Processes/Stages of Evaluating Others and Groups, According to the SIT

 Social Categorization - Assigning people into social categories to understand them and identify
them (e.g., black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and security guard).

 Social Comparison - Determining the relative value or social standing of our own or other group
and its members and comparing it to others. (e.g., school teachers are seen as having higher
social standing than garbage collectors. But compared with university professors, school
teachers can be seen as having lower social standing.)

 Social Formation/Identification - Adopting the identity and conforming to the norms of the
group we have categorized ourselves as belonging to.

The 3 Collective Identities

 1. Racial and Ethnic

 2. National

 3. Religious

1. Racial and Ethnic - A set of ideas about one’s own ethnic group membership.

Dimensions: (1) self-identification, (2) knowledge about the ethnic culture (traditions, customs, values,
and behaviors), and (3) feelings about belonging to a particular ethnic group.

Ethnic identity often involves a shared sense of origin and history, which may link ethnic groups to
distant cultures in Asia, Europe, LatinAmerica, or other locations.
2. National - Identity constructed and conveyed in discourse, predominantly in narratives of national
culture. National identity is socially constructed and “conceived in language, rather than blood.” (Wodak
et al, 1999)

3. Religious - For some people, being identified with a particular religion is a significant aspect of their
identity.

Categories of identity can overlap, which leads us to the concept of intersectionality.

Intersectionality refers to how race, class, gender, sexuality, the body, and nation, etc. come together
to produce social identities and experiences in the social world, from privilege to oppression.

Intersectionality is a concept that acknowledges how various aspects of a person's identity (such as
race, gender, class, sexuality, ability, etc.) intersect and overlap, creating unique experiences of
discrimination and privilege.

How Power Imbalances Result in Collective Identity Issues

“The Production of Collective Identities Is Influenced by Power Dynamics.”

 Collective Identities - The sense of belonging and identification that individuals have with
certain groups or communities (e.g., ethnic groups, national identities, and religious identities).

 Shaping of Collective Identities - The formation and evolution of collective identities are not
arbitrary or solely the result of individual choices. Instead, they are influenced by the unequal
distribution of power within society.

 Power Dynamics - The distribution and exercise of power within a society (i.e., who has power
and influence, who makes decisions, and who controls resources and institutions).

In the process of becoming, dominant groups tend to oppress groups with lesser power.

 People tend to uphold a positive image of their own groups and seek traits, attitudes, and
behaviors that reflect positively on their in-groups due to social identity processes (positive
distinctiveness).

 This bias can lead people to emphasize the negatives of other groups while minimizing their
positives. It affects how resources are shared, products are judged, performance is evaluated,
and information is conveyed between different groups.

How Does Unequal Distribution of Power Affect Collective Identities?

1. The Ruling Class Dominating Over the “Inferior” Class

Societies often have hierarchies where certain groups have more power and privilege than
others. This can affect how different racial, ethnic, national, or religious groups are perceived and
treated which in turn influences how individuals within these groups develop their identities.

2. Control of Narratives and Representation in Media

 The media plays a significant role in shaping how different groups are portrayed and
represented. Those who control media outlets can influence the narratives and images associated with
specific identities.

3. “Othering” of Minority Groups

Educational systems and institutions can promote certain narratives and histories that reinforce
dominant identities while marginalizing others. The power structures within these institutions can
determine the content and perspective of what is taught.

4. Discriminatory Policies That Disadvantage Certain Identity Groups

Government policies can either foster inclusivity and empowerment or perpetuate inequality
and marginalization within a society. Policies related to immigration, civil rights, and cultural
preservation, for example, can significantly impact how people identify with their racial, ethnic, or
national backgrounds.

Simplified:

1. The Ruling Class Dominating Over the “Inferior” Class: This means that there's a group of
people who have more power and control (the ruling class) and they use this power to control
and influence those who have less power (the "inferior" class). It's like a boss telling employees
what to do because they're in charge.

2. Control of Narratives and Representation in Media: This is when certain people or groups have
control over what narratives are told and how different groups are shown in things like movies,
TV, and news. It's like if only one side of a story gets told because the people in charge only want
their version to be heard.

3. “Othering” of Minority Groups: This happens when people treat those who are different from
them as if they're less important or strange. It's like when someone from one group makes
those from another group feel like they don't belong or aren't as good as them.

4. Discriminatory Policies That Disadvantage Certain Identity Groups: This means there are rules
or laws that treat some groups of people unfairly just because of who they are, like their race or
gender. It's like if a school said only boys could play sports, unfairly leaving out the girls.

Some Collective Identity Issues That Stem from Power Imbalance

 Stereotyping

 Microaggression

 Gender discrimination

 Homophobia/transphobia

 Marginalization

 Ethnocentrism
  Racism

 Ageism

 Colorism

 Cultural suppression

 Political corruption

Understanding Collective Identity Through the Positioning Theory

What Is Positioning?

 The process where individuals and groups use language and communication to establish and
negotiate their roles, identities, and relationships in social contexts.

 It recognizes that individuals are not passive in their interactions but actively participate in
constructing and defining their social positions through dialogue and discourse. (Davies &
Harré, 1999).

 Participants position themselves or are positioned by others in different conversational locations

according to changes in storylines.

 Participants of a collective can position themselves/assign individuals to positions in certain

ways, reframe the conversation, and change the storyline. This process is evident in the
reconstruction of collective identities by marginalized groups.

 Positioning involves both objective observations (how others see it) and subjective
coherence (how the individuals involved make sense of their roles). These conversations often
involve the creation of shared stories or narratives that feed into a group’s identity.

Simplified:

Positioning theory is a social theory that focuses on how individuals or groups position themselves
and are positioned by others in social interactions and relationships.

How People Position Themselves in Discourses:

1. Verbal

 Self-identification

 Assertion of opinions and beliefs

 Storytelling

 Expression of agreement or disagreement

2. Non-verbal
  Body language (facial expressions, gesture, posture, eye contact)

 Tone and intonation

 Active listening

3. Adaption to the conversation

4. Narrative construction

Positions Are Not Fixed and Stable.

Since “conversations are on-going discursive practices in which storylines and participants’ roles are
subject to change as conversations evolve,” positions shift and evolved.

This depends on how participants take control of the narrative and change their social representation.