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CA Classes-1-5

This document provides an overview of unit 1 of a computer architecture course, covering topics such as computational models, the evolution of computer architecture, processes and threads, parallel processing classifications, and levels of parallelism.

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SrinivasaRao
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23 views5 pages

CA Classes-1-5

This document provides an overview of unit 1 of a computer architecture course, covering topics such as computational models, the evolution of computer architecture, processes and threads, parallel processing classifications, and levels of parallelism.

Uploaded by

SrinivasaRao
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Computer Architecture Unit 1

Unit 1 Fundamentals of Computer Architecture

Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Computational Model
The basic items of computations
The problem description model
The execution model
1.3 Evolution of Computer Architecture
1.4 Process and Thread
Concept of process
Concept of thread
1.5 Concepts of Concurrent and Parallel Execution
1.6 Classification of Parallel Processing
Single instruction single data (SISD)
Single instruction multiple data (SIMD)
Multiple instruction single data (MISD)
Multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD)
1.7 Parallelism and Types of Parallelism
1.8 Levels of Parallelism
1.9 Summary
1.10 Glossary
1.11 Terminal Questions
1.12 Answers

1.1 Introduction
As you all know computers vary greatly in terms of physical size, speed of
operation, storage capacity, application, cost, ease of maintenance and
various other parameters. The hardware of a computer consists of physical
parts that are connected in some way so that the overall structure achieves
the pre-assigned functions. Each hardware unit can be viewed at different
levels of abstraction. You will find that simplification can go on to still deeper
levels. You will be surprised to know that many technologies exist for
manufacturing microchips.

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Computer Architecture Unit 1

The complexity of integration is likely to go on increasing with time. As a


consequence smaller and more powerful computers will go on appearing.
Evidently, which components are used and how they are interconnected,
dictates what the resulting computer will be good at doing. Thus, in a faster
computer, you will find special components connected in a special way that
enhances the speed of operation of the designed computer.
Different computer designs can have different components. Moreover, the
same components can be interconnected in variety of ways. Each design
will provide a different performance to the users. Exactly what components
interconnected in what ways will produce what performance is the subject of
Computer Architecture. In this unit, we will study about the basics of
Computer Architecture.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 explain computational model and its types
 state the different levels of evolution of computer architecture
 differentiate between process and thread
 describe the concepts of concurrent and parallel execution
 identify the various classification of parallel processing
 list the types of parallelism
 list the levels of parallelism

1.2 Computational Model


Computer architecture may be defined as “The Structure and behavior of a
Conceptual model of a Computer System to perform the required
functionalities”.
Computer Architecture deals with the issue of selection of hardware
components and interconnecting them to create computers that achieve
specified functional, performance and cost goals.
Progressing in the earlier mentioned way, the hardware (at least the
electronic part) breaks down to the following simple digital components.
 Registers
 Counters
 Adders

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Computer Architecture Unit 1

 Multiplexers
 De-multiplexers
 Coders
 Decoders
 I/O Controllers
A common foundation or paradigm that links the computer architecture and
language groups is called a Computational Model. The concept or idea of
computational model expresses a higher level of abstraction than can be
achieved by either the computer architecture or the programming language
alone, and includes both.
The computational model consists of the subsequent three abstractions:
1. The basic items of computations
2. The problem description model
3. The execution model
Unlike the ordinary delusions, the set of abstractions that must be selected
to state computational models is not very clear. Some criteria will define
fewer but relatively basic computational models, while a wide variety of
criteria will result in a fairly a huge quantity of different models.
1.2.1 The basic items of computations
This concept recognises the basic items of computation. This is a
requirement of the items to which the computation is referred and the sort of
computations (operations) that are executed on them. For example, in the
von Neumann computational model, the fundamental items of computation
are data.
This data will normally be characterised by individual bodies so as to be
capable of distinguishing among several different data items in the course of
a computation. These identifiable bodies are commonly called variables in
programming languages and are put into operation by register addresses or
memory in architectures.
The acknowledged computational models, such as Turing model, the von
Neumann model and the data flow model stand on the theory of data. These
models are briefly explained as below:

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The Turing machine architecture operates by manipulating symbols on a


tape. In other words, a tape with innumerable slots exists, and at any one
point in time, the Turing machine is in a specific slot. The machine can
change the symbol and shift to a different slot based on the symbol read at
that slot. All of this is inevitable.
The von-Neumann architecture explains the stored-program computer
where data and instructions are stored in memory and the machine works
by varying its internal state, In other words, an instruction operates on some
data and changes the data. So naturally, there is a state maintained in the
system.
Dataflow architecture expressively distinguishes the conventional von
Neumann architecture or control flow architecture. There is a lack of a
program counter in Dataflow architectures. The execution of instructions in
dataflow systems is exclusively concluded depending on the accessibility of
input arguments to the instructions. Even though dataflow architecture has
not been used in any commercially successful computer hardware, it is
extremely appropriate in many software architectures such as database
engine designs and parallel computing frameworks.
On the other hand, there are various models independent of data. In these
models, the basic items of computation are:
 Messages or objects sent to them needing an associated manipulation
(as in the object-based model)
 Arguments and the functions applied on them (applicative model)
 Elements of sets and the predicates declared on them (predicate-logic-
based model).
1.2.2 The problem description model
The problem description model implies in cooperation the style and method
of problem description. The problem description style specifies the way
troubles in a specific computational model are expressed. The style is either
procedural or declarative. The algorithm to work out the problem is shown in
a procedural style. A particular result is then stated in the form of an
algorithm. In a declarative style, all the facts and dealings significant to the
specified problem have to be stated.

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Computer Architecture Unit 1

There are two modes for conveying these relationships and facts. The first
employs functions, as in the applicative model of computation, while the
second declares the relationships and facts in the form of predicates, as in
the predicate-logic-based computational model. Now, we will study the
second component of the problem description model that is the problem
description method. It is understood in a different way for the procedural and
the declarative style. In the procedural style, the problem description model
states the way in which the clarification of the known problem has to be
explained. On the contrary, while using the declarative style, it states the
method in which the difficulty itself has to be explained.
1.2.3 The execution model
This is the third and the final constituent of computational model. It can be
divided into three stages.
 Interpretation of how to perform the computation
 Execution semantics
 Control of the execution sequences
The first stage pronounces the analysis of the computation, which is
strongly linked to the problem description method. The selection of problem
description method and the analysis of the computation are mutually
dependent on one another.
The subsequent stage of the execution model states the execution
semantics. This is taken as a rule that identifies the way a particular
execution step is to be performed. This rule is, certainly, linked with the
selected problem description method and the way the implementation of the
computation is understood. The final stage of the model states the rule of
the execution sequences. In the basic models, implementation is either
control driven or data driven or demand driven.
 In Control driven execution, it is supposed that there is a program
consisting of a succession of instructions. The execution sequence is
then absolutely specified by the command of the directions.
Nevertheless, explicit control instructions can also be used to identify an
exit from the implied execution sequence.
 Data-driven execution is symbolised by the rule that an operation is
made active instantly after all the needed input data is available. Data-

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