BTEC Learner Assessment Submission and Declaration

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Learner Name: Mr. R.G.Chathura Ranathunga

Pearson Registration Number: 509631/ PF37572

Assessor Name:

BTEC Programme Title: HND in Engineering (Electrical & Electronic

Engineering)

Unit or Component Number and Title: Unit 16: Instrumentation & Control Systems

Assignment Title: Control Concepts

Date Assignment Submitted:

Learner declaration

I certify that the work submitted for this assignment is my own. I have clearly
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System terminology and Concepts

Nowadays modern systems are converted into digital systems and the controller becomes a
computer in case the error is calculated and processed then the result is applied to the control
element. Following diagram shows a basic digital system for controlling the speed of motor.
In a process industry, all the digital systems are probably controlled from a central control room
and to do this everything is linked by Fieldbus. It is arranged as a hierarchy with a central
computer at the top then the operator can monitor the system the next layer will be the PLCs
each controlling a process. The bottom level consists of all the parameters such as sensors,
actuators, lights, switches, Etc.

System Response
For any of the systems described, the controlled variable is t 1 and the set point is t2. The error is
(te=t2-t1) for a system using negative feedback. If the set point t 2 is changed or if a disturbance
occurs to the controlled variable t 1 the system must bring the controlled variable back to the set
point. The way that the controlled variable changes with time is called the system response and
this is a plot of the input and output signals against time. In dynamic systems such as robots, the
changes occur rapidly and time responses are slower and the responses are more likely to be
measured in minutes.

Inductance or inertia
These properties make it difficult to speed up and slow down and so makes things act out of
phase with the correcting action. For example, hitting the brakes on a car does not produce an
instant stop because of inertia. Putting your foot down on the accelerator does not produce an
instant increase in speed because of inertia. The same effect occurs with any pipe carrying a fluid
so a change in flow might happen at one end but not at the other until a small time later.
Inductance in electrical circuits delays the change in current but these are small in comparison.

Capacitance/Elasticity
This is a property that delays things happening because it absorbs some of the input action. For
example, if you had a spring between your brake pedal and the lever you would have to press it
further before sufficient force is transmitted to the lever. You get the same effect if air gets into
your hydraulic lines because the air compresses and this would make a delay. In electronic
systems, capacitors affect the electrical signals in the same way. The filling of tanks takes time
(e.g. the level control previously) and this introduces time delays. The raising of pressure in a gas
vessel takes time because of the compressibility of the gas. The raising of temperatures takes
time because of the thermal capacity of the system (e.g., temperature control)

Resistance or Frictions
Resistance reduces electrical signal strength, this combined with the other effects has a dramatic
affect on the time lags. For example, pressuring a gas vessel through a partly closed valve takes
longer than when the valve is fully open. When capacitive and resistive elements combine to
delay a signal the lag is called the Transport Lag or Transfer Lag.

Steps and Ramps

If the set point is changed suddenly or a sudden disturbance occurs, the change resembles a step
on the response diagram. If the changes occur at a constant rate, they resemble ramps on the
diagrams which is known as velocity change. Other forms of changes can occur such as cyclic
sinusoidal changes but these are more applicable to dynamic systems rather than process control.
The diagrams do not show how the output responds to the changes.

Level Control System and Change

The actual level t1 is sensed by the pressure transducer. The electrical output will be converted
into a standard air pressure. This is sent to the control unit. The set value for the level is ti and the
error is te = t2 – t1. The error is present inside the controller in signal form and this results in a
signal to the control valve and a flow rate into the tank tp. Any error results in the supply valve
being opened or closed to increase the inflow and outflow.

Offset error
Concern that the level is correct. In this case there will be no inflow. When liquid is drawn off,
the level will drop and the valve will open to allow an inflow. It is impossible to maintain the
correct level while liquid is flowing out of the tank because we need an error to keep to the valve
open. The level will only settle at the set point when there is no outflow and no inflow. In a
system like this, we get an Offset error as shown.

Time delays and lags in the system of this example, can observe such delays might cause the
system to Hunt or Cycle because the levels Overshoot and undershoot and the correcting action
gets out of time (phase) with the level. A major cause of this is too much gain and a fast Reaction
rate.

Dead Time
This is also called (Distance-Velocity Lag). Suppose the input is changed suddenly. Due to
various affects, sometime will pass before the output starts to change. This is the dead time. For
example, a long pneumatic control line and inertia and back lash in the actuator mechanism will
produce a time delay before the actuator moves. The result can be shown as follows.

Feedforward control and Feedback control

Feedforward control requires identification and direct measurement of all disturbances in the
system.It sensitive to modelling system and sensitive to modelling errors.Sensitive to process
parameter changes as well.

Feedback control does not require measurement of all the disturbances in the system.Insensitive
to modelling errors and insensitive to parameter changes.

Forming a Process Control Unit (PCU)

There are several techniques for tuning a Process Control Units. The main objective is to produce
the fastest correction without offset error or cycling. The controller parameters need to be set in
order to optimize of the performance of the system. The late Zeigler and Nichols produced a
practical guide for setting up three term controllers for plant systems dating back to the 1940’s.
The following is still useful for that purpose.

Zeigler-Nichols Methods of Tuning

1.Closed loop method

In this method only proportional gain is used and kp or P is adjusted until instability just occurs
and the controlled variable (plant output) cycles. The system is then at the limit of instability.
The gain and periodic time (time to complete one cycle) Tp are noted. kp is then reduced to 0.6
(equivalent to increasing the proportional band by 1.7) of its value and the other two parameters
are set so that:

Ti=Tp /2 Td=Tp/8

This will produce a response to a step change in the form of a decaying oscillation and the
amplitude of the second cycle will be 1⁄4 of the initial amplitude as shown. This is accepted as a
reasonable setting for most process plant systems.
These figures are different when there is no differential control (P + I) and when only P is used.
The figures are given in the table below.

Procedure List
1. Remove integral action on the controller by increasing the integral time (Ti) to its
maximum.
 2. Remove the derivative action by setting the derivation time (Td) to 0.
3. Wait until the process reaches a stable condition.
4. Reduce the proportional band (increase gain) until the instability point is reached.
5. Measure the time for one period (Tp) and register the proportional band setting at this
point.
6. Using this setting as the start point, calculate the appropriate controller settings according
to the table below.

Type of Controlled Prop. Band Setting Integral Time Ti Derivative Time Td

Used
P+I+D x1.7 Tp/2 Tp/8
P+I x2.2 Tp/1.2
P x2

2.Open Loop Method

In this method the feedback path is disconnected usually by switching to manual in the Process
Control Unit. A step change is made to the set point and the output is monitored. A typical plant
process produces an open loop response as shown below.

τ is the Effective Dead Time or time delay due to the transfer lags. T is the time constant of the
system. H1 is the input step and H2 the resultant output step in the steady state. The steady state
gain is H1/ H2 The settings for the controller are then adjusted as follows.

Kp=1.2xTH1/τH2 Ti=2τ Td=0.5τ

3.Bumpless Transfer
Sometimes it is necessary to remove the automatic control and most PCUs have a switch for
manual control. When this is done the feedback t1 becomes zero and the error would suddenly
change. The system would try to respond to this step change. To avoid this, the value of t1 is
locked when switching to manual control. In a digital system this would involve storing and
holding the digital value of t1 in a register and performing the numerical comparison with this
value instead of the live value.

4.Self-Tuning Controllers
Modern systems and sub-systems especially digital systems, provide the ability for automatic or
self-tuning of the PID parameters. The self-tune controller switches to on/off control for a certain
period of time. During this period, it analyses the results of its responses, and calculates and sets
its own P I D parameters. The modern controller can now operate what is termed an adaptive
function, which not only sets the required initial P I D terms, but monitors and re-sets these terms
if necessary, according to changes in the process during normal running conditions. Such
controllers are readily available and relatively inexpensive. Their use is becoming increasingly
widespread, even for relatively unsophisticated control tasks.

References
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