STEM007: BIOLOGY 1.

CLASSICAL GENETICS
- Foundation of all areas of genetics
MODULE 1: GENETICS AND ITS IMPORTANCE - Based on observable traits and inherited patterns

GENETICS
BASICS OF CLASSICAL GENETICS
- From Greek word “genesis” (origin)
(MENDELIAN GENETICS)
- Study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in
living organisms.
Gregor Johann Mendel
- Father of Genetics
GENES
- Short segments of DNA
1. Principle of Segregation
- Determine the traits of an organism - Two alleles for each gene are placed in
- Basic physical unit of heredity different gametes

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid 2. Principle of Independent Assortment

- Blueprint of life - The inheritance of one gene doesn’t affect the
- Strands are looped and coiled into chromosome inheritance of any other genes

CHROMOSOME 3. Principle of Dominance

- Genes packaged in a bundle - When two different alleles are present, only
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (for a total one is dominant and will be expressed
of 46)
- 1 pair is the sex chromosomes (determines
whether you are male or female) METHODS USED IN CLASSICAL GENETICS
- The other 22 pairs are autosomal chromosomes AND AS OF TODAY

GENOME a. Pedigree Analysis

- Complete set of DNAs of a living thing - An ancestral line or chart depicting lineage or
descent of an individual
GENE POOL
- Total sum of all genes of all individuals in a given b. Karyotyping
population - Laboratory technique to analyze chromosomes
in order to detect major chromosomal anomaly.
HEREDITY
- Also called as ‘inheritance’ 2. Molecular Genetics
- Transmission of genes from parents to offspring - Deals with the formation, structure, and function
of macromolecules
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Deals with the role in cell replication and
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION transmission of genetic information
- Involved in the discoveries of recombinant DNA
VARIATIONS techniques
- The differences in living organisms of their own
kind GENE THERAPHY
- Normal gene transformed into individual
INHERITED TRAITS genome to repair a mutation that causes a
- Passed from parents to offspring genetic diseases
- Cannot be changed - A normal cell is inserted into the nucleus of a
mutant cell (to integrate into chromosomal site
LEARNED TRAITS different from the defective allele).
- Learned behavior - To repair a gene, the new mutation may
- Mostly directly taught integrate a normal gene into another functional
- Learned from experiences gene.

GENE DISORDER
3 MAJOR AREAS OF GENETICS a. Down Syndrome - Extra copy of #21
b. Patau Syndrome - Extra copy of #13
TERMS IN GENETICS c. Edward’s Syndrome - Extra copy of #18
a. Diploid organism d. Triple X Syndrome – Female; triple X Chrom
- having two complete set of chromosome e. Turner Syndrome – Female; 1 instead of 2
in organism cells f. Cri Du Chat Syndrome – Missing of #5
b. Allele g. XYY Syndrome – Males, 47 X; extra Y
- variants of genes / flavors of genes h. Klinefelter Syndrome – Males, 47 X; extra X
c. Gametes
- a reproductive cell of an animal or plant 3. Evolutionary Genetics
d. Homozygous - The field of genetics that deals with the
- both alleles are same mechanisms of evolutionary change and the
e. Heterozygous changes in frequencies in populations.
- both alleles are different
f. Dominant Changes includes:
- genes are always expressed a. Evolution of Genome Structure
g. Recessive b. Genetic basis of speciation and adaptation;
- genes which are usually suppressed and and
expressed only in homozygous form c. Genetic change in response to selection
h. Phenotype within population.
- externally observable characters
i. Genotype
- genetic make up
 - Created their famous two-strand / double helix

EVOLUTION OF GENOME STRUCTURES DNA STRUCTURE

Step 1: Synteny Analysis - Genetic material passed on from parents to offspring
The presence of two or more genes on the - Contains necessary genes for the survival of every
same chromosome of a given species. organism
- DNA is 2 nm (nanometer) wide
Step 2: Lineage Specification - Is double helix
The presence of two or more genes on the - Made up of nucleotides
same chromosome of a given species.
Nucleotide
Step 3: Shared Shuffling Events - Makes up nucleic acid. Each nucleotide is
Method for the generation of sequence made up of three parts:
libraries containing the information from a a. Phosphate group
family of related genes. b. 5 carbon sugar
c. Nitrogenous bases
SPECIES
- An independent evolutionary unit of organism TYPES OF NIRTOGENOUS BASES
- Same species can interbreed a. Purines
- Offspring can reproduce - Adenine
- Gene pool - Guanine
b. Pyrimidines
SPECIATION - Thymine
- The process by which an ancestral species - Cytosine
splits into two or more new species
- Development of new species that can occur CHARGAFF’S RULE
when populations are reproductively isolated 1. Adenine (A) must pair with Thymine (T)
- Group within a species separates from other 2. Guanine (G) must pair with Cytosine (C)
members of its species and develops its own 3. Their amounts in a given DNA molecule will
unique characteristics. be about the same
- Occurs when two populations of a particular
species can no longer interbreed. DNA SYNTHESIS

GENETIC BASIS ON SPECIATION DNA Replication

a. Allopatric - process by which copies the DNA to produce two
- Species separates into two groups identical DNA molecules
- There is a geographic barrier
1. Helicase Enzyme does unzipping of DNA
b. Peripatric which resulting of replication fork
- New species is formed from an isolated 2. Primase Enzyme (Priming) starts the
peripheral population process. makes small pieces of RNA called
- Small groups of individuals break off from the primer
larger group 3. DNA Polymerase Enzyme (Synthesis of new
DNA strand) binds with primer and make
c. Sympatric new strand of DNA (from 5 to 3)
- Gene flows between parts of the population 4. Leading Strand is made continuously
that mate of different types is reduced 5. Lagging Strand cannot be made continuously
- Occurs in the same area but is separated by a in opposite strand
barrier (behavior, temporal, habitat) 6. DNA polymerase can only make a series of
small chunks strand called Okazaki
d. Parapatric Fragments
- smaller population is isolated; differentiated to 7. Exonuclease removes the primer
the point of becoming new species 8. DNA Ligase Enzyme liking to fragment that
forms during the replication of lagging
strand
MODULE 1: CENTRAL DOGMA
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) STRUCTURE
Central Dogma - Single stranded molecule
- Explains that DNA codes for RNA, which codes for - Sugar backbone is called ribose
proteins. This includes process of: - Role is to convert the information store in DNA into
proteins
a. Replication - Copies the DNA - Uracil replaces Thymine as one of the nitrogenous
b. Transcription - Converts the DNA into RNA bases in RNA
molecule (mRNA)
c. Translation – Interprets the mRNA as codons RNA TRANSCRIPTION
into amino acids to produce - Transfer of information from DNA where it is stored
protein into RNA which can be transported and interpreted

DISCOVERY OF DNA
THREE MAJOR CLASSES OF RNA
Johann Friedrich Miescher (1844-1895) a. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- First to discover the novel molecule known as DNA - Helps in transferring amino acid to correct
(1860s) sequence in RNA
- Swiss physician and biologist - located in cytoplasm
b. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Rosalind Franklin - Helps in transferring amino acids to the
- Obtain images of DNA using X-ray crystallography correct sequence in the mRNA
- located in cytoplasm
c. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Watson and Crick - Structural component of ribosomes
 - located in ribosome

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- The end product of central dogma
- Building blocks of life

Codon
- three-letter genetic sequence found in both
DNA and RNA. It codes for a specific amino acid
or start and stop signals for the protein
synthesis process.

Anticodon
- A tRNA anticodon pairs with its
complementary codon on the mRNA molecule,
ensuring that the appropriate amino acid is
inserted into the polypeptide
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Primase enzyme
- start the process putting of primer
MODULE 1: GENETICS AND CENTRAL DOGMA
DNA polymerase enzyme
Diploid organism - bind with the primer and make new strand
- having two complete set of chromosomes in
organism cells Leading strand
- continuous process
Allele
- variants of genes / flavors of genes Lagging strand
- lagging process
Gametes
- a reproductive cell of an animal or plant Okazaki Fragments
- small chunk strand
Homozygous
- both alleles are same Exonuclease
a. Homozygous Dominant – AA - responsible to remove the primer
b. Homozygous Recessive – aa
DNA Ligase enzyme
Heterozygous - glueing/ linking the small chunks of strand
- both alleles are different (ex. Aa)
Process of central dogma
Dominant a. DNA will replicate this will be the template
- genes are always expressed of mRNA
b. mRNA will transcript the DNA template
Recessive c. mRNA will move from nucleus to cytoplasm
- genes which are usually suppressed and d. mRNA will attach to ribosome
expressed only in homozygous form e. Translating the codes – codon
f. Codon will translate into proteins
Phenotype
- externally observable characters, physical [ Please practice Punnett square and protein
traits synthesis. Tip for that, analyze first the problem
and identify the homozygous dominant,
Genotype homozygous recessive, and heterozygous.]
- genetic make-up, behavior

Codon MODULE 2: ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY

- A codon is a DNA or RNA sequence of three
nucleotides that forms a unit of genomic 1. Circulatory system
information encoding a particular amino acid - contains the heart and the blood vessels and
moves blood throughout the body.
Gregor Mendel
- Father of Genetics a. He observed pea plants 2. Digestive system
- breakdown the food into substances that the
Johann Miescher body can use for energy, growth, and tissue
- first discovered the DNA he called it as repair
nuclein
3. Endocrine system
Rosalind Franklin - made up of glands that make hormones
- used Xray crystallography to see the DNA
4. Excretory system
James Watson and Francis Crick - removes excess and waste products from the
- they discovered that DNA is double helix body to maintain homeostasis

Purines 5. Integumentary system

- 2 rings - body’s outer layer (skin, hair, nails)

Pyrimidines 6. Nervous system

- 1 ring - controlling the body (includes the brain, spinal
cord, and a complex network of nerves)
Chargaff’s Rule
a. Adenine pair with Thymine 7. Muscular system
b. Guanine pair with Cytosine - a system consisting of skeletal, smooth, and
c. Their amount in a given DNA molecule cardiac muscle. It permits movement of the body,
will be maintains posture, and circulates blood
the same throughout the body.
i. Adenine (30%) = Thymine (30%)
Guanine (20%) = Cytosine (20%) 8. Skeletal system
50% = 50% - body’s support, bones, teeth

Helicase 9. Immune system

- unzipping the DNA - body’s defense against viruses, white blood cell
 - When food reaches the large intestine, any
water or electrolytes are reabsorbed in the
10. Respiratory system bloodstream and what’s only left is the stool
- takes up oxygen from the air we breathe and a. Large Intestine
expels the unwanted carbon dioxide. - Stores stool until it passes through the
anus in bowel movement
11. Reproductive system
- continuation of the living organisms ESSENTIAL PARTS OF DIET
1. Vitamins
12. Lymphatic system a. Water Soluble Vitamins
- part of the immune system, keeps body fluid - (Vitamin C and Vitamin B)
levels in balance and defends the body against -Transported as free compounds in blood
infections. and serves as co-enzymes in metabolic
reactions

6 PROCESSES IN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM b. Fat-Soluble Vitamins

-(Vitamin A,D, E, and k)
1. Ingestion - transported in the blood as complexes that
- The process of taking in food through the are linked to lipids
mouth. In vertebrates, the teeth, saliva, and
tongue play important roles in mastication 2. Minerals
9preparing the food into bolus) - inorganic molecules that provide ions for
functioning of many enzymes or proteins
2. Propulsion
- Also known as “swallowing”
- Begins when we swallow food and passes PHOTOSYNTHESIS
through the esophagus down into the stomach - Is a process of converting energy from the sun
a. Sphincters into chemical energy in the form of glucose, which
- Muscles on either side of the esophagus plants use to grow and thrive
tube which contracts and relax to permit the
food and liquid to pass. a. Light Dependent Reactions
- Helps in preventing unchewed food from - First stage of photosynthesis (the photo
entering the esophagus and keep part)
stomach acid from rising upwards - Also known as Light reactions
- These reactions take place only in the
3. Physical and Mechanical Digestion presence of light
- This really begins with chewing the food and - Takes place in the thylakoid membranes of
breaking down a bite into smaller, more digestible Chloroplast
pieces
- It continues as food moves through the b. Light Independent Reaction
esophagus and stomach - Also known as Dark Reaction/Calvin Cycle
- The muscle linings of the esophagus and - The second stage of photosynthesis
stomach combines with stomach acid, results in - As long as ATP is available, these
mixing the chewed food and digestive acid called reactions can occur in the presence or
chyme absence of light
- Takes place in the stroma of the
4. Chemical Digestion Chloroplast
- Through the digestive tract as acid and enzymes
to break food into protein, carbohydrate, and fat
molecules HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- Important step: body is only able to absorb
smaller substances Male Reproductive Systems
- Major process works in small intestine-bile External Organs
(helps in digesting fats and some vitamins; break
down chyme into individual chemical components) 1. Penis
- The organ by which sperm is introduces into the
5. Absorption female
- Allows the body to access nutrients it needs to - Contains spongy tissue that becomes turgid and
produce energy to build new cells, tissues, erect when filled with blood
enzymes, and hormones a. Erectile Tissues
- Steps involves transferring of nutrients (fat, ▪ Corpus Spongiosum – the mass of spongy
protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, and tissue
antioxidants – from digestive system to ▪ Corpus Cavernosa – one pair of sponge
bloodstream) ▪ Urethra – tube that conveys semen out of
a. Small Intestines the body during ejaculation
- Absorption like fluids and electrolytes ▪ Glans – the rounded, highly sensitive head
b. Large Intestines of penis
- Does not produce enzymes; continues the ▪ Prepuce – A fold of skin, covering the head
process of digestion that the small intestine of penis
were not broken down
2. Scrotum
6. Defecation - A pouch of skin formed from the lower part of
- Waste Elimination the abdominal wall
- The scrotum keeps the testes at a temperature - The vaginal opening is located between the
slightly cooler than body temperature urethra and the anus

Internal Organs
1. Testis/testes Internal Organs
- The testes are the two-oval shaped male organs 1. Vagina
that produce sperm and hormone testosterone - The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the
a. Testosterone cervix and the uterus. It leads to the outside of
- The primary male sex hormone the body. Parts of the vagina are made of
collagen and elastin, which help it expand during
2. Epididymis sexual stimulation and child birth
- A tightly coiled tubes against the testicles
- It acts as a maturation and storage for sperm 2. Cervix
- The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that
3. Vas Deferens separates the lower uterus and the vagina. It may
- The vas deferens is a thin tube that starts from play a role in lubrication
the epididymis to the urethra in the penis
3. Uterus
- The uterus is located in the lower belly area
between the hips (pelvis), through the vagina just
past the cervix. It’s also called the womb. The
4. Accessory Glands uterus is where fetus develops during pregnancy.
a. Seminal Vesicles The uterus has three layers of muscles and is one
- Sac-like structures attached to the vas deferens of the strongest muscles in the body.
at one side of the bladder
- They produce a sticky yellowish fluid that 4. Ovaries
contains fructose - The ovaries are small organs located on both
sides of the pelvis. They play an important role in
b. Prostate Gland female hormone production and produce eggs
- Surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the base of during ovulation
the urethra, just below the bladder
- The prostate gland is responsible for making the 5. Fallopian Tube
production of semen, a liquid mixture of sperm - Also known as oviduct that connects the ovaries
cells, prostate fluid and seminal vesicles to the uterus on each side. Hairlike structures
called cilia guide the egg from ovary to the
c. Bulbourethral Gland (Cowper’s Gland) uterus. Fertilization occurs
- 2 small glands located on the sides of the
urethra just below the prostate gland 6. Hymen
- These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that - IS a thin tissue that sits at the vaginal opening.
empties directly into the urethra It has no known biological function, though it may
play a role in preventing bacteria and other
foreign agents from entering the vagina
Female Reproductive System
External Organs
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
1. Mons pubis Asexual Reproduction
- The mons pubis is the rounded, fleshy area on
the front of the pelvic bone (lower belly area) 1. Binary Fission
where pubic hair usually grows - A parent organism splits in two
- Prokaryotic animals (bacteria and some
2. Labia Majora invertebraes)
- The labia majora are the fleshy outer folds of
protective skin located on each side of the vaginal 2. Budding
opening. They cover and protect the more - Reproduced by forming an outgrowth from a
delicate external genital organs. part of the parent organism’s body

3. Labia Minora 3. Fragmentation

- The labis minora are skinfolds that are just - Organism is produced from the detached body
inside the labia majora. In some people, the labia part of its parent
minora extends past the labia majora – labial
hypertrophy Sexual Reproduction
1. Fertilization
4. Clitoris - The fusion of the egg cell and the sperm cell.
- The clitoris sits at the top of the vulva above the - Results in the formation of zygote; eventually
urethral opening will become the embryo

5. Urethral Opening 2. Cleavage

- The urethra is the tube that carries the urine - Zygote undergoes cell division without size
from the bladder to the outside of the body. Its increase
opening is located below the clitoris, directly a. Blastula
above the vaginal opening. - The end formation
b. Blastocyst
6. The Vaginal Opening - Varies in structures among vertebrates
3. Gastrulation 3. Tissue Culture
- Movement of cells - Pieces of tissues from one plant are placed on
- Produces three primary germ layers (endoderm, sterile medium and used to grow on new plants
ectoderm, and mesoderm) with different
developmental fees Sexual Reproduction in Plant
1. Pollination
4. Organogenesis - Is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the
- Process where cells from 3 primary layers stigma of the flower
interact to form the body organs a. Self-pollination
- Happens when the pollen lands on the
5. Fertilization stigma of the flower coming from the same
a. External fertilization plant
- Takes place when the sperm and egg meet
outside the female’s body b. Cross-pollination
- Occurs when the pollen lands on the
b. Internal Fertilization stigma of a flower coming from a different
- Takes place inside the female’s body plant

2. Seed Dispersal
- Happens when the seeds together with its fruit
are sometimes carried away from the parent plant

c. Hermaphroditic
- One individual has both ovaries and testes 3. Germination
- Both have male and female reproductive organs - Is the actual birth of the new plant
- Common in invertebrates such as worms, slugs, - It is also referred as the process of sprouting
or snails into a new plant

PLANT REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction

Vegetative Reproduction
- Is the type of reproduction in plants wherein
vegetative parts of specialized reproductive
structures are used. In this process, new plants
are produced naturally

1. Tubers
- New shoots arise from the auxiliary bud within
the swollen and fleshy stem

2. Runner
- New plants arise at the nodes of a horizontal
stem above the ground

3. Corm
- New plants arise from the short and thick
underground stems with thin and scaly leaves

4. Rhizome
- New plants arise at the nodes of a horizontal
root like underground system

5. Bulb
- New plants arise from an auxiliary bud on the
very short stems with thick fleshy leaves

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

- It is a type of reproduction in plants that is
aided by human
- faster compared to the natural way or through
seedlings
- New plant produced are genetically identical
with the parent plants

1. Cutting
- New plants grow from the cut leave, stems, or
even roots that are replanted to the soil

2. Graft and Budding

- Small leaves from the one plant are attached to
the larger stems of another plant
 LESSON 2
STEM008
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 Valence Shell
- Is the outermost shell of an atom. It is usually said
that the electrons in this shell make up its valence
electrons that determine how the atom behaves in
LESSON 1 chemical reactions

ATOMIC ORBITALS Valence Electrons

- Are the electrons in the highest occupied energy
level of the atom
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION - Are the only electrons involved in bond formation
- Describes how the Electrons are distributed among
the orbitals STABILITY OF NOBLE GASES
- Standard notation used to describe the electronic - The noble gases, also known as the inert gases or
structure of an atom rare gases, are located in Group VIII A of the periodic
- When assigning electrons to orbitals, we must follow table
a set of three rules: - Group VIII is sometimes called Group 0
a. Aufbau Principle
- States that the electrons fill the orbitals, one OCTET RULE
at a time, starting with the lowest energy orbital - States that when atoms of elements lose, gain, or
then proceeding to the one with high energy. share electrons to form compounds, it is to achieve an
Example: Ca – 20e electron arrangement same as a specific noble gas
= 1s1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2 3 p6 4 s 2 - The octet rule states that atoms are most stable
when they have full shell of electrons in the outside
a. Pauli-Exclusion Principle electron shell. The first shell has only two electrons in
- States that in an atom or molecule, no two a single s subshell
electrons can have the same four electronic - The ‘s’ and ‘p’ subshells often are the only valence
quantum numbers electrons, thus the octet rule is named for the eight ‘s’
and ‘p’ electrons
b. Hund’s Rule
- States that: STABILITY OF NOBLE GASES
1. Every orbital in a sublevel is singly - Noble gases have a [core]ns2 np6 electron
occupied before any orbitals is doubly configuration with a complete octet. (n is the period
occupied number)
2. All of the electrons in singly occupied - Their closed shell electron configuration makes them
orbitals have the same spin (to maximize have a very low reactivity
total spin)
LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
NOBLE GAS CORE CONFIGURATION - Lewis structure use Lewis symbols to show valence
- Previous noble gas’s electron configuration is electrons in molecules and ions of compounds
replaced with noble gas’s element symbol in brackets
Example: F = [He] 2 s 2 2 p5 IONS
- Is an atom or group of atoms that has an electrical
QUANTUM NUMBERS charge, either a positive charge or a negative charge
- A series/ set of specific numbers use to describe the - Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons to
location of an electron in an atom become stable
- Specify the properties of atomic orbitals and the - An atom is stable when the valence shell is full
properties of electrons in orbitals
- An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum a. Anion
numbers to describe its state: - A type of ion that has negative charge
a. Principal Quantum Number (n) b. Cation
- Indicates the energy level or shell where an - A type of ion that has positive charge
atomic orbital can be found
RULE FOR NAMING ION
b. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) - When metals lose electrons they became ions, but
- s, p, d, f their name does not change
- Shape of orbital Example: Na – Na Mg – Mg
- Also known as orbital, subshell or sublevel Sodium Magnesium
- Indicates the shape of the orbital within a shell - When non-metals gain electrons they become ions,
- Only integer values between 0 t0 n-1 are and their name does change
Allowed Example: F – F
Fluorine – Fluoride
c. Magnetic Quantum Number (m l)
IONIC BONDING
- Determines the orientation of orbitals within a
- Bonds that are formed by transfer of electrons from
subshell
one element to another
- orientation of orbitals
- Each element (now an ion) will have a complete
octet after the transfer of electrons
c. Spin Quantum Number (m s )
- ionic bons are formed through the electrical force of
- Direction of spin attraction between oppositely charged ions.
- Opposite spin attracts e- to each other and
helps overcome the negative repulsion they IONIC COMPOUND
have for each other - Compounds in which electrons are transferred from
one atom to another are called ionic compounds
- In this type of compound, electrons actually move in
between the atoms rather than being shared between
the,
- Ionic compounds generally form between elements
that are metals and elements that are nonmetals
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
- Ionic Compounds are bound by a strong electrical - Is a description of the three-dimensional
force and because of this: arrangements of atoms within a molecule
a. They have high melting and boiling point - For molecules that contain only few atoms, its
b. They conduct electricity in aqueous solution molecular geometry can be predicted using the Lewis
structure of the molecule and the valence shell
COVALENT BOND electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
- Occurs when pairs of electrons are shared by
atoms VSEPR THEORY (Valence Shell Electron PAIR
- Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms in order REPULSION)
to gain more stability, which is gained by forming a full - Based on electron Dot (Lewis Structures)
electron shell - Theory predicts shapes of compounds
- By sharing their outer most (valence) electrons. - states that electron pairs around an atom to assume
Atoms can fill up their outer electron shell and gain an arrangement in space that reduces repulsions
stability between them

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT BOND MOLECULAR SHAPE

- Covalent compounds are bound by a weak forces and - VSEPR Theory assumes that the shape of a molecule
because of this: is determined by the repulsion of electron pairs
a. They have low melting and boiling point
b. They do not conduct electricity LIMITATION TO VSEPR THEORY
c. they are liquid or gas at room temperature - The VSEPR model is not a theory. It is an algorithm
d, They are soft and brittle that accurately predicts the structures of a large
number of compounds
TYPES OF COVALENT BOND - VSEPR is simple and useful but does not work for all
a. Single Bond = 2e- chemical species
- When two atoms share one pair of electrons (2
electrons) a single bond is formed. It is depicted by
a single line between the two atoms All monocentric molecules can be represented by a
- This form of bond is weaker and has a smaller VSEPR formula
density than a double and triple bond AXE
A = central atom
b. Double Bond = 4e- X= Outer Atoms (doesn’t matter what they actually
- When two atoms share two pair of electrons (4) a are or how many bonds they held by)
double strand is formed E= lone pairs of electrons on the central atom only
- It is depicted by two horizontal lines between two
atoms in a molecule COMMON MOLECULAR SHAPE/GEOMETRY
1. Linear
c. Triple Bond = 6e- - 2 atom attached to center atom (bonding domain)
- When two atoms share three pair of electrons (6) - 0 unshared pairs (lone pairs)
a triple bond is formed Formula: A X 2
- Triple bonds are the strongest among the
covalent bond and are thus represented as the 2. Trigonal Planar
shortest among the three. - 3 atoms attached to center atom
- 0 unshared pairs
LEWIS STRUCTURE OF COVALENT COMPOUND
Formula: AX 3
- Covalent molecule also satisfies the octet rule
9and duet rule) for each of the atoms that
3. Tetrahedral
compromise them
- 4 atoms attached to center atom
- In writing Lewis structure of covalent compound,
- 0 unshared pairs
connect the atoms in a molecule with a covalent
Formula: AX 4
bonds by rearranging the valence electrons of the
atoms so that each atom has a complete octet
- In simple molecules with more than two atoms, 4. Trigonal Bipyramidal
the single atom in the formula is set as the central - 5 atoms attached to center atom
atom and surrounded by the terminal atoms - 0 unshared pairs
- A central atom is an atom that is covalently Formula: AX 5
bonded to more than one atom
- Terminal atom is the one bonded to the central 5. Octahedral
atom - 6 atoms attached to center atom
- 0 unshared pair
FORMAL CHARGE Formula: AX 6
- Determines the number of electrons that each atom
contributes to the molecule 6. Trigonal Pyramidal
- It is the difference between the number of valence - 3 atoms attached to center atom
electrons of each atom and the number of electrons - 1 lone pair
the atom is associated in the Lewis Structure Type: AX 3 E

FC = no. valence e- of atom – nonbonded e- - no. of 7. Bent

bonds - 2 atoms attached to center atom
- 1 or 2 lone pairs
NET CHARGE Formula: AX 2 E1∨ AX 2 E 2
- Sum of all the formal charge