What is Sociology?

Social sciences are a group of Sociological Perspectives

subjects which focus on society and Definition of Sociology.
how it functions as well as how the
Outline Key Thinkers
individuals within that society function
and behave. They include sociology,
Structural consensus approach to society. Believe Durkheim

Functionalism
Psychology and Politics. The systematic study of that the institutions of society work together in order Parsons
society and its institutions to maintain social cohesion and social order. They Merton
Social Institutions are the structures believe that society is similar to the human body –
Organic Analogy.
in society which influence how
society is structured and manage.
They include Family, Media, A structural conflict approach that believes that Marx

Marxism
Education and the Government. society is in conflict between the classes. They Engels
believe that the Bourgeoisie oppress the Proletariat Althusser
through various social institutions without their full Gramsci
Sociological Imagination means the
knowledge.
ability to see things socially and how
they interact and influence each
A set of structural conflict approaches which see Oakley
other. To have a sociological Social Groups

Feminism
society as a conflict between men and women. They Firestone
imagination, a person must be able to
look at ways that women are
pull away from the situation and think
oppressed/disadvantaged by various social
from an alternative point of view. C Class institutions and the means by which equality can be
achieved.
Values are the goals that society
A Age A micro set of approaches which look at how the Goffman

Interactionism
tells us we should be aiming for in
order to be considered a success. individual influences their society through their Cooley
interactions with others and the social institutions. Weber
D Disability Interactionism includes Phenomenology,
Norms are the unwritten rules of
Ethnomethodology, Social Action theory and
behaviour within a society. The rules
G Gender Symbolic interactionism
which tells the difference between
right and wrong as well as rude and A broad approach which sees society in a more Lyotard

Postmodernism
polite. diverse and less structured way. They believe that Baudrillard
E Ethnicity
people have much more choice which means that Foucault
Socialisation means the process of they shape their reality and culture to their own Giddens
learning the norms and values of S Sexuality needs.
society. It happens in 2 stages:
Primary socialisation occurs n the
family or through the primary care
givers.
Secondary Socialisation reinforces Who is Auguste Comte?
primary socialisation through social August Comte is the father of modern sociology. He gave the science of
institutions such as education and sociology its name and applied the methods of the natural science to
the media. the study of society.
 Functionalism

Internal Criticisms of Functionalism External Criticisms of

What is the Organic Analogy and who used it? Functionalism
A consensus theory is one which
believes that the institutions of
Talcott Parsons Key Thinker
society are working together to • The theory is
maintain social cohesion and
Society acts in a similar way to the human Robert K. Merton teleological – a thing
body through the way that social institutions

Logical Criticisms
stability. interact in the same way as human organs. exists because of its
Three Main Criticisms of
Parson’s Assumptions function or effect.
Three similarities between society and • Contradictory – how
A structural theory is one which biological organisms. can something be both
Indispensability – not all social
looks at how the social institutions are functionally functional and
institutions influence the running System: Society and humans are systems of indispensable and that there are dysfunctional
of society and individuals 1 interconnected and inter-dependent parts which function 1 functional alternatives. For example • Unscientific – impossible
behaviours. for the good of the whole. the family are not the only to falsify or verify the
institution that can perform primary theory.
System needs: Organisms like the human body have socialisation.
Value Consensus means that a 2 needs that need to be met and so does society. Social
• Unable to explain
institutions have evolved to meet society’s needs. Functional Unity – Not all social

Conflict Perspective
majority of society agree with
institutions are a tightly linked as
conflict and change in
the goals that society sets to
Functions: Just as the organs of the body function for the Parsons suggests. Some institutions society.
show success. 3 good of the whole so do social institutions, which have 2 are quite far removed form each • It is a conservative
evolved functions which benefit society as a whole. other. For example the rules of ideology that tries to
Anomie means a feeling of banking and Education. maintain the status quo.
normalessness where a person Two means of maintaining value consensus and social order
• Legitimises the position
doesn’t know what it means to Universal Functionalism – Not all the
Formal Social Control – Official groups who enforce of the powerful.
be normal within society. institutions of society perform a
1 societies laws, such as CJS and the Police. positive function for society, instead
3 for some people they are
What are Social Facts and who is dysfunctional, for example • Wrong (1961) –
Informal Social Control – Other social groups such

Action Perspective
the key thinker? domestic abuse makes the family Functionalism is
2 as family and peers who keep us in line through dysfunctional for its members. deterministic
Durkheim punishment and ostracization. • Functionalism reifies
Social facts are things such as institutions, A Manifest Function is the intended society – treating it as a
norms and values which exist external to the The Four Basic needs of society function of a social institution. distinct ‘thing’
individual and constrain the individual.
Goal Attainment (Political Function) – Societies set goals
Durkheim’s Ideas of Society G and decisions about how power and economic resources An example of a manifest function is
are allocated. the rain dance performed by the
Hopi Indians with the intention of
Society shapes the Individual
Adaption (Economic Function) – every society has to • Unable to explain

Postmodern Perspective
making it rain.
It is a top down theory where the diversity and instability
1 institutions of society influence the
A provide for the needs of its members in order of the
society survive. in society.
behaviour of the individual. A Latent Function is the unintended
• Functionalism is
Integration (Social Harmony) – specialist institutions function of a social institution.
Social solidarity socialisation and outdated due to
anomie. Social solidarity and
I develop to reduce conflict in society. For example
being a meta-
education and media create sense of belonging.
cohesion is achieved and An example of a latent function is narrative.
2 maintained through socialisation Latency: The unstated consequences of actions – there also shown by the Hopi Indians, the
process and learning of norms and are 2 types of latency: Pattern Maintenance: Maintaining ran dance also helps to maintain
values. Without this society can fall L value consensus through socialisation and Tension social solidarity
into anomie (Normallessness) Management. Opportunities to release tension in a safe
way.
 Marxism
A conflict theory is a theory that
suggest that society is in conflict Marxist Structure of a Capitalist society. Evaluation of Marxism
between certain groups. In the case of
Marxism the conflict is between social Marx focuses solely on class divisions within society but Weber
classes.
suggest that inequality can be caused by power and status

Over Simplified
Superstructure: Ideologies independently of class structures. Feminists would also argue
Bourgeoisie means the owners of the
and structures of transfer that there is more inequality between genders then there is
means of production and the ruling
class.
between classes.

The two class system is also over simplistic – it is currently

Proletariat means the workers who are
the relations of production and are suggested that there are 7 different classes within British
oppressed by the bourgeoise. Means of Production: society.
Natural Resources, Land,
Alienation means the process whereby Technology
Marx’s whole system is based on economics, and the view

Economic Determinism
the worker is made to feel foreign to
the products of his/her own labor. that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in
society, from inequality to social change.
False Class Consciousness means the Relations of productions
way that the proletariat a led to Weber argues that Marxism completely ignores the role of
believe their oppression by the The people (workers v ideas in social change – e.g. Calvinism’s role in the rise of
bourgeoise is normal and that if they owners) capitalism.
work hard they can become the
bourgeoisie.

The features of Capitalist The features of Communist

Five Stages of society Society . Society . The biggest criticism of Marxism is that the revolution that he
according to Marx said would cause the development to a communist society

Lack of Revolution
has yet to occur and Marx was very vague on the conditions
Primitive communism The proletariat are Collective ownership
1 that would eventually lead to this revolution.
– Classless society legally free and of the means of
1
separated from the 1 production and Marx also suggested that revolution would occur in the most
Feudal Society – Landowners V means of production abolish of production advance capitalist societies and yet it has been the most
2 for profit.
Peasants backward countries (Russia and Cuba) that have seen
Competition Marxist revolutions.
Capitalist Society – Bourgeoisie V
3 between capitalists
Proletariat
lead to the means of Stateless and
2 2 Capitalism has become es exploitative then it was during the
Socialism – Government Owners production Classless society -
4 industrial revolution. Keynesian Economics has led to more
V Workers becoming
concentrated. government oversight of businesses and the development of

Out of date
Communism – Classless Society welfare states.
5
The proletariat do not Reclaiming control
receive the value of over the workers A number of social institutions have become autonomous
their goods that their 3 labour and products from the bourgeoisie – e.g. the media have become critical
3 labour produces, but they create (end of the elite.
only the cost of alienation)
subsistence.
 Neo Marxism

Humanistic Neo-Marxism Structural Neo-Marxism Evaluation of Neo-Marxism

Gramsci’s concept of State Apparatus Under - emphasizing the role of coercive

hegemony means the political and economic forces in holding
dominance in society of the Repressive State Apparatus: back the formation of a counter-
ruling class ideology and the 1 Armies of Men: Police, CJS, hegemonic bloc – for example workers
acceptance of and consent to military. Coercion may be unable to form revolutionary

Humanistic Neo-Marxism
by the rest society.
vanguards because of the threat of state-
Ideological State Apparatus:
Media, education, family etc violence.
2
Voluntarism means that the working class choose manipulation
to accept the ruling class ideology.

3 Levels of Structural Determinism

Economic Level – All activities which

Ruling Class dominance is maintained by…. 1 produce something to meet a need.
Dominates capitalism.
Coercion – the use of the army, police and Political Level – All forms of organisation in
1 other government agencies to force other 2 including the RSA’s which coerce workers
classes to accept ruling class ideology. into the false class consciousness.
Consent – uses ideas and values to persuade Ideological Level – The ways people see
2 the other classes that ruling class ideology is themselves and the world. Including ISA’s
legitimate. 3
which socialise and manipulate people into • Replaces economic determinism is
FCC replaced by a more complex system.
Reasons why Ruling Class hegemony is never
complete
Relative Autonomy means partial autonomy • Discourages political activism by
from the economic level. This means that the suggesting that individuals can do little
Ruling class are the minority – to maintain their

Structural Neo-Marxism
political and ideological levels are more than a to change society.
1 rule they must create a power bloc (alliances)
reflection of the economic level but there is in
with other groups such as the middle class.
fact 2 way causality. Economic level dominates
in capitalism but the political and ideological • Ignores examples of working class
Duel consciousness – Working class can see functions a indispensable as well. struggles changing society.
through the dominant ideology to a certain
2
extent. They are influenced by the bourgeoise Requirements for socialism to come about • Thompson – Althusser is elitist and
ideas but also by their material conditions. suggests people follow communist party
Humanistic Neo-Marxism Structural Neo-Marxism blindly.
Organic Intellectuals are class conscious workers
who organise themselves into a revolutionary Counter Hegemony
political party who will help to create the created by the working
counter hegemony class to over thrown the
cultural hegemony of
the ruling class.
 Feminisms

Feminism in general means he 6 Structures of Patriarchy - Walby Typ Outline Thinkers Evaluation
belief in the social, economic, e
and political equality of the
The state: govt run by men so
sexes. 1 policies and laws tend to favour Believes that equality should Anne Oakley Overly Optimistic about the

Feminism
men's interests. be brought about through Sue Sharpe amount of progress that has

Liberal
Malestream means viewing education and policy been made.
Violence: Men are able to use changes. They try to change
social phenomena mainstream 2 their physicality to intimidate
and usual, from the point of view the system from within. Deals with the effects of
women.
of the man, without regard to patriarchy not the causes.
gender. Domestic Labour: Women still
complete the majority of domestic Believe equality can only be Germaine Gives other forms of feminism
3

Feminism
labour even though there is no achieved through gender Greer a bad reputation.

Radical
Patriarchy means male
reason for this. separation and political
dominance over women.
Paid Work: Women earn less then lesbianism. Change is brought In this theory gender equality
4 men and they are overwhelmingly about through protest and is never full achieved.
in low paid and part time work. violence.

Three Waves of Feminism Sexuality: The difference in how Believe that capitalism is the Michelé Revolution is required for
men and women’s sexuality is cause of women's oppression Bartlett equality and it hasn’t
5

Marxist Feminism
perceived. Women are Sluts, men and that this oppression helps happened yet.
Early 1900’s are players. to reinforce capitalism. This is
Suffragettes striving for done in three ways: Patriarchy exists in non-
Culture: portrayal of women n
1 women's votes. culture and the media is often in a Women as reserve work force capitalist societies.
Emmeline Pankhurst 6 sexual way or in a way that Creation of the next gen of
reinforces women's lower status. workers. It is men not capitalism that
Cushioning Effect – Zaretsky benefit from women's
1960’s General Features of Feminism oppression.
“Private made Political” –
There are inequalities between
Gloria Steinem Believes that other feminisms Judith Butler Focuses on the minutia of
men and women based on
Binging women’s issues into 1

Intersectional
create a false universality of oppression which lessens the
power and status. women's oppression, based on

Feminism
2 the public sphere such as impact and power in
the experiences of western,
abortion, contraception and feminism as a whole.
Inequalities create conflict middle class white women.
domestic violence. 2 between men and women. Different groups of women will
experience oppression differently
and each of these experiences
Gender roles and inequalities needs to be
are generally socially
1990’s 3
constructed. Combines the ideas of the Hiedi Patriarchy is not at system in
#HeforShe, #Metoo
Duel systems

radical and Marxist feminists, Hartman the same way as capitalism

Focus on issues such as
Feminism

The importance of the concept and suggests that women are instead it is a descriptive term
3 gender representations in the of patriarchy: A system of social oppressed by two different Sylvia Walby for practices such as male
media and sexual structures and practices which systems: violence and control of
4
harassment. men dominate, oppress and Capitalism and Patriarchy women's labour.
exploit women.
 Social Action Theory
5 Features of Social
4 Types of Action

Thinker
Action

Key
Max Weber
Instrumental Rational Action: Social actors works out the most efficient way
Social structures area
1 to achieve a goal.
social construction
E.g. the most efficient way to make profit is to pay low wages.
created by individuals. Micro Approach means that the sociologists are
Not a separate entity looking at the individuals in society and how they
1 Value Rational Action: Action towards a goal that seen as desirable for its
above them. shape the world around them
2 own sake.
E.G. Believing in God and completing rituals in order to reach salvation.

Traditional Action: Routine, customary or habitual actions that are done

Verstehen means empathy. To fully understand 3
Voluntarism, free will without thought or choice; more like “we have always don this”
and choice of people social groups you have to be able to ‘walk in
to do things and form their shoes’ Affectual Action: Action that expresses emotion. Weber saw this as
their own identities important in religious and political movements with charismatic leaders
2 4
who attract followers based on emotional appeal.
rather than being
dictated by social E.g. weeping with grief or violence caused by anger.
Summary of Social Action Theory
institutions.
Weber believed that in order to fully understand Evaluation of Weber
Micro Approach, focus society you need to use a combination of both
on individual or small structural and action approaches. Weber's view of action is to individualistic and doesn’t explained

Alfred Schutz
groups rather than shared nature of meanings. For example a student raising their
large scale trends. Example: The Protestant Work Ethic
3 hand in class, THEY mean they have a question or answer, but
Structural cause: Protestant reformation, introduced Weber doesn’t explain how the teacher and other students also
an new belief system – Calvinism. This changed know what is meant by this gesture.
peoples worldview and therefore their behaviour.
Behaviours is driven by It is difficult to apply these ideas as meaning can be misinterpreted
Subjective Meaning: work took on a religious

Application
beliefs, meanings and
meaning, glorifying God through labour and
or reinterpreted by different individuals.
feelings people give to
aestheticism. Making them the first modern E.g. The Trobriand Islanders exchange gifts called ‘Kula’ with
the situation they are in, neighbouring islands. This could be seen as either a traditional
4 capitalists.
or the way they see action as it has been done for generations or it could be seen as
things.
an instrumental rational action because it cements

2 levels of sociological explanation

IT is never possible to truly put yourself into the shoes of another
The use of interpretivist
person, therefore we cannot really know or understand their
Verstehen

methodology in order Cause: explaining the structural factors that

to uncover the 1 shape peoples behaviour. motives.
meanings and
5
definitions individuals
give to their behaviour. Meaning: Understanding the subjective
2 meanings that individuals attach to their actions.
 Symbolic Interactionism

Key Thinkers Taking on the role of the other Labelling Theory Dramaturgical Model

Thinker: GH Mead WI Thomas – the definition of Thinker: Goffman

G.H. Mead something is its label therefore

Definition of the
people label situations, events and Front Stage Self – The act we put on

Presentation of self
Taking on the role of others

situation
people which can have real world for other people. The front stage is
means putting oneself in the
consequences. where we spend most of our lives.
Herbert place of the other person and For example a teacher labels a
Blumer seeing ourselves as they see student as troublesome and will Back Stage – The private place
us. therefore act differently towards where we can truly be ourselves
that student. and prepare to return to the front
Charles How do we take on the role of the stage.
Cooley – the way that we develop

Looking Glass Self

Cooley other?
our self-concept. The use of language, gestures, body
Through the process of social

Management
“I am not who I think I am, I am not language and props to help us pass

Impression
interaction. Firstly as young for the type of person that we want
Erving who you think I am, I am who I think
children through imitative play
Goffman you think I am.” the audience to see. This process
where we start to see ourselves as
Self Fulfilling Prophesy – we become requires us to constantly read the
our significant others see us. Then audiences responses to us and adjust
what others see us as.
we start to see ourselves as the our performance accordingly.
Symbol Versus Instinct wider community do –
Generalised Other Becker and Lemert – the process of
Instinct means responding to labelling, from identification, to the There is a gap between who we
stimulus in an automatic, pre- label being attached, acceptance really are and the roles we play -
‘role distance’.

Career
Key Principals of Symbolic Interactionism

Roles
programmed way. or rejection of the label by the
labelled, to the creation of a master Roles are loosely scripted by society
Thinker: Herbert Blumer status. so we have the freedom to choose
Each stage has its own set of how we play them.
Symbol means the words, Our actions are based on the problems and issues.
objects, expressions and meanings we give to the
gestures that an individual 1 situations, events and people. Evaluation
attaches meaning to.
For example: the shaking of a 1 2 3 4 5
fist can mean many things.
Ethnomethodology Not all action Fails to explain It is more a Dramaturgical
These meanings are based on the argues that
Interpretive Phase means the interactions we have is meaningful, the origin of loose group of analogy has its
although it is
process between especially labels or the descriptive limitation as
2 experienced and are not fixed correct to focus on
experiencing the stimulus and but are negotiable and fluid to interactions, Weber’s idea consistent concepts than everyone plays
Symbolic of traditional patterns that an both roles of
reacting to it, where the some extent. Interactionism fails
actions which we see in explanatory actor and
situation is interpreted in order to explain who the
may hold little peoples theory. audience and
to choose the appropriate The meanings we give to actors create the
interactions are
meanings. meaning for behaviour.
response. situations are the result of often
interpretive procedures we use the actor.
3 improvised and
such as taking on the role of unrehearsed.
others.
 Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology

Phenomenology Ethnomethodology

Edmund Husserl: The world only makes sense because we impose Harold Garfinkel – is interested in how social order is maintained.
meaning and order on it. We construct mental categories to classify and Unlike interactionists who are interested in the effects of the
file information that we experience through our senses. Therefore the meanings; he is interested in how people construct the common
world as we know it is a product of the individual mind. sense knowledge and the rules and processes we use to produce the
meanings in the first place.

Social order is created from…. The Ethnomethodology studies…. The

Alfred Schutz: developed Husserls ideas and applied it to the social process of creating the meanings
members of society creating and
world. He states that the categories and concepts we use to construct by which we make sense of the
applying common sense knowledge
our mental categories are not unique to ourselves but we in fact share world and the rules and methods
to their everyday lives.
these with other people which is how we are able to live in community used to create the meanings.
and social groups.
Indexicality means.. Nothing has a Reflexicality means the use of
Typificiations means… The shared categories that that help us to organise the fixed meaning; everything is common sense knowledge to
dependent on context. interpret everyday situations to
experiences and world around us. Typificiations help to stabilise and clarify
construct a sense of meaning
meanings by ensuring that we are all speaking the same language and agree
and order.
on the meaning of things.
Breaching Experiments
Life World means… the stock of shared typificiations or what many consider
common sense knowledge. It includes common assumptions about the way What are they What is their purpose? What did Garfinkel
things are and what certain situations mean. conclude?
Garfinkle got his students Experiments which aim By challenging the taken
to either act as lodgers to disrupt peoples sense for granted assumptions
in their own home of order and challenge he was able to show
Recipe Knowledge means… the ability to interpret a situation, action or
(overly polite, avoiding their reflexivity by that the orderliness of
motivation without really thinking about it. For example we know that a red
getting personal) or the undermining everyday situations is not
light means stop and this knowledge means that we are able to drive safely.
haggled over the price assumptions about a fixed but an
of groceries at the situation. accomplishment of
checkout of a those who took part.
Natural Attitude means… the belief that society is a real objective thing that supermarket. Social order is
exists outside of use. However Schutz suggests that this is a false belief as it “participant produced”
merely demonstrates how people have the same shared meanings which allow
us to cooperate and achieve mutual goals.
EVALUATION: Carib
Findings of the breaching experiments were trivial as Ethnomethodologists spend
a lot of time uncovering “taken for grated rules” which are of no surprise to
EVALUATION: Berger and Luckman
anyone. EM denies the existence of wider society suggesting instead that it is a
Agree that it is right to focus on the common sense knowledge they disagree with
“shared Fiction” but functionalists would argue that norms and values are not
the idea that reality is an inter-subjective reality but instead that once the shared
fiction but a social fact.
meanings have been created, society becomes an external reality that reflects
Marxists would argue that the “shred common sense knowledge” is in fact the
back on us . For example Religion starts as a set of ideas but becomes powerful
ruling class ideology and the order that it creates serves the interests of capitalism
structures of society which can constrain us.
not the individual.
 Structuration Theory

Two ways that action reproduce existing structures. Evaluation

Thinker
Key
Anthony Giddens
The rules contain the stock of knowledge about Giddens underestimates the power of
how we live our lives. For example earning and the structures to resist change. For
Duality of Structure living and shopping etc involve applying this example Slaves may wish to abolish

Margret Archer
1 knowledge. We use resources as we go about
slavery but lack the power to do so
everyday activities which reproduces the
Structure and action are two sides of the same coin
structures. For example using money to buy through their own agency.
and neither can exist without the other. It is through Protestants were persecuted by the
shopping
our actions that we produce and reproduce catholic church for changing their
structures and it is these structures which allow our Through actions be which reinforce the existing beliefs.
actions to take place. structures because we have the need to ensure
the status quo
How does language illustrate the duality of structure 2

Language is a structure with rules of grammar which Structuration isn’t really a theory at all
determine meanings. We must follow these rules in but describes the kid of things that
order to be understood by others. This shows how our sociologist find when they study society.
actions (communication) are dependent on structure Ontological Security means the need to feel that world Giddens fails to explain how his theory
(grammar). However without action structure around us is as it appears to be, orderly and stable. This
applies to large scale structures such as

Craib
wouldn’t exists. For example grammar would exist if encourages actions that maintain the structures rather
the economy or the state.
than changing them.
people did not use language. Also shows how actions
can change over time with words taking on new
meanings (Gay) and new words being developed (To
Google)
Two ways that the structure of society, action or
agency changes society.
Two elements of structure
Reflexive monitoring - we constantly reflect
on our own actions and their consequences
Rules - the norms , customs and laws which so that we can adjust our actions as needed.
govern action. 1
1

Unintended Consequences – we may

Resources – Economic resources such as raw change the world around us but not always
materials, technology etc and power over in the way we intended. For example the
2 others. 2 Calvinists adopted the protestant work ethic
to glorify God but also started the
development of the modern capitalist state.
 Postmodernism

4 Characteristics of a Modern Society. Postmodernism Late Modernity

Postmodernism is characterised by instability and fragmentation Argue that we are not entering a new era of postmodernism but
Nation State – The key political unit of within a global village where image an d reality are instead are seeing a continuation modernity. They recognise that
modern society. A geographical area
1 indistinguishable. We are defined by what we consume. It is a something important is happening but the elements of modernity
ruled by a powerful central state. completely new era of society and new theory are still present. They believe that we can use the enlightenment
project to improve society.
Capitalism – Private ownership of the
means of production and the use of Meta Narrative means… Relativist Position means… All
Giddens: Key Features of Late Modernity
2
wage labourers. the big picture, a views are true for the people
singular truth which who hold them. No one has a Disembedding – we no longer need face to face
Rationality – Science and technology explains the world monopoly on the truth. contact in order to interact. There is a break down
are the dominate way of thinking. The around us. 1
3 of geographical boarders thus making interaction
move away from religious Baudrillard and Simulacra more impersonal.
explanations.

Individualism – greater personal Lyotard and language Society is no longer based on Reflexivity – we are continually re-evaluating our
freedom and the break from tradition Games production of goods but on ideas and theories, nothing is fixed or permanent
4 and ascribed status. Athough buying and selling of knowledge 2
and everything is up to challenge.
structural inequalities still remain. which bares no relation to reality.
Knowledge is not about
He calls the signs that stand for
truth it is a but a way of nothing Simulacra.
Globalisation means… the increased seeing the world. This is He also talks about hyper-reality Ulrich Beck: Risk Society
interconnectedness of people across preferable as it allows where there is a blurring of reality
national boundaries. marginalised groups to and image. For example reality TV
Manufactured Risk: The risks that we face today have been
be heard. which is partially scripted so bears
no relation to actual reality. created by human activity rather than by nature.
4 Changes of Globalisation Individualisation: we are no longer governed by tradition in
terms of how we act, instead we think for ourselves and
Technological Changes – New Evaluation reflect on the possible consequences of our actions.
technologies have created a time-
1 space compression but also created Risk Consciousness: we have become much more aware
greater risk such as global warming. Philo and Miller Best and Kellner Enlightenment
of risks to ourselves then we ever used to be and work to
Project
avoid and minimise them.
Economic Changes – economic
activity now takes place on a global It ignores power Weak theory as it Postmodernism is a
2 scale and includes the electronic and inequality explains how pessimistic about Evaluation
economy. Money never sleeps. society is but fails to the entitlements
Overlooks the role explain how they project, suggesting
Rustin Hirst Risk & the Poor
Political Changes – globalisation has of poverty in came about. that their view of
undermined the power of the nation restricting objective Capitalism not Movements such as Not everyone has
3 state. We now live in a borderless opportunities. knowledge is technology is the environmentalism the option to
world – Ohmae. TNC have more impossible and cause of risk in are unable to bring minimise the risk
power than government. Wrong to assume nothing can be modern society. about the change that they are faced
people cannot done to change or that Beck suggests with, the poor don’t
Changes in culture and identity – we differentiate improve society. are the yare too always have the
live in a global culture created by between reality and fragmented. means to do this.
4 mass media that has led to the image.
westernisation of the world.
 Research Design

Hypothesis means a supposition or Correlation means the relationships Ethnographies means the scientific Pilot Study is a small
proposed explanation made on the between two variables. It could be a description of peoples and cultures scale preliminary
basis of limited evidence as a starting positive or negative relationship. with their customs, habits, and mutual study conducted in
point for further investigation. differences. order to evaluate
feasibility of the key
steps in a future, full-
Qualitative data is virtually any type of Longitudinal Study means a study that Case Study means a detailed and in- scale project.
information that can be observed and takes place over a long period of time. depth study of a single case, involving
recorded that is not numerical in It can include a number of other an event, group, individual, or
nature and can be in the form of research methods. organization.
written or verbal communication.
The Hypothetico-Deductive Model Factors when choosing a topic
Quantitative data is data that can be
quantified and verified, and is
The personal interests and values of
amenable to statistical manipulation. 1
the researchers themselves
Generally comes in the form of
numbers and figures.
Identify the Theoretical perspective/ political
Gather Identify an 2
issue or beliefs.
background hypothesis or
Reliability means the extent to which a problem you
information question
study can be replicated in the same wish to research
way. You do not need to get the same Opportunity / Access to research
3
results but the process should be the population
same.
Choose a 4 Funding
Validity means how well a piece of Conduct your Conduct a pilot research
research actually measures what it sets research study method and
out to, or how well it reflects the reality sampling frame Society and what is currently “In
5
it claims to represent. Vogue”

Triangulation means using more than

6 Ethical Considerations
one research method to improve the
validity of the study. Analyse the Draw
data collected conclusions
 Factors Influencing Method Choice
Practical Factors Ethical and Moral Factors

Access to the Participants Type of data required Informed Consent Confidentiality

The ability to gain access to the Different methods will provide All participants have to give informed Any and all identifying features
group you wish to study will either qualitative or quantitative consent. This would mean that the about the participants should not be
determine which type of method data, so the type of data required sociologist would have to explain to released to the public or published
you are able to use. For example is will influence the method used. participants what the research was in the report on the study.
your participant are working class about, what taking part would involve
parents they may not have the time and how the data will be used.
to complete interviews but could do Time Available
a questionnaire.
Different methods require Covert Research & Consent Privacy
Personal Characteristics of the different amount of time to
complete and this may influence When conducting covert research it The researcher should not ask or
Researcher
a researchers choice and they may be necessary for the researcher involve themselves in the private
The personal characteristics of the may have a deadline to meet. to gain informed consent after the lives of their participants which do
researcher will influence their choice For example unstructured data had bee collected, the can not pertain to the research they are
of method as different researchers interviews and observations can also gain pre-emptive consent from conducting.
will have different skill sets making take a lot more time to complete a similar group.
some methods easier to use than than a web based questionnaire.
others. For example a researcher Harm
would need good communication Pre-emptive Consent means
Cost / Funding speaking to a similar group to your The participants and researcher
skills in order to use a interview and should not be put in any harms way
good memory and powers of Research funding can influence sample to see if they would give
consent to the researcher and if so during the research, wither physical,
observation f using an observation. the research method used not just psychological or emotional harm.
due to the requirements of the the researcher can assume the
Subject Matter funding body but also the amount sample will as well.
it could cost as the researcher will
The subject you are studying may lend need to stay within budget. Deception means deliberately lying Legality
itself more to one research method to the participants about the
than another. For example it may be The researcher cannot break the
Research Opportunity purpose of the research or how the law during their research or take
difficult for a male researchers to
data will be used. This can part in illegal activities.
interview victims of domestic violence
There are times when a research sometimes be necessary if the
and questionnaires may not be
appropriate for participants who have
opportunity can occur suddenly nature of the research could lead to
English as a second language. meaning that the research will not researcher effects and invalidate
have the time to prepare the data.
Size of the sample structured interviews or
questionnaires. Gate keepers are the people that
The sample size can influence the choice you need to gain permission from in
in methods as if you have access to a order to gain access to your
large sample a interview would take too participants.
long to complete but if you have a very
small sample a in depth interview might
be required to get enough information.
 Primary Research Methods
Practical Ethical Theoretical
Method Description
+ - + - + -
A self complete form with questions Detailed data (Open)
Open Participants may lie
which allow the respondent to answer Easy Low response rate
Questionnaire
in as much detail as they want. Reliable
Someone other than
Cheap Misunderstand the
Informed consent the intended
A self complete form with questions question Large Sample
Closed given by completing Questions may be participant may
which give a set of responses that the Lack of researcher
Questionnaire sensitive. answer
respondent can choose from. effects Answer may not fit Easy to quantify and
Anonymous
those given (closed) analyse (Closed)
Right answerism
A self complete form which is sent out Quick to analyses and
Web based reach conclusions Leading Questions Detachment and
via the internet or by using a site such Lack of rapport
Questionnaire objectivity
as survey monkey..

A conversation between the Allows researcher to

Unstructured researcher and the participant where build rapport with the
Interview the questions are based on the participants. Demand
responses given. Characteristics
In depth detailed
(US) Flexibility Time
(US) Good for sensitive data
A conversation between the Questions could (US) Unreliable
Structured topics
researcher and the participant where Allows for clarification Cost & Training of cause harm if of a
Interview (S) Reliable
the questions are set in advance. of the questions. Interviewers sensitive nature. Small Sample
Hard to Quantify
(G) Peer Group
Where the interview can be structured Influence
Group Interview or unstructured but involves more than
one participant.

Where a researcher tells the

Overt participants that they are being
Observation observed and what they are being Time
observed for.
Cost
Where the researcher doesn’t tell the
Flexible [C] lacks informed Hawthorne Effect
Covert participants that they are being Researcher effect In depth detailed
consent.
Observation observed until after the study is data
[O] Researcher can Hard to Quantify
complete. Requires a certain skill
ask questions Privacy can be
set not all researchers Allows for Verstehen
breached. Small Sample
Where the researcher becomes a will have.
Participant Only option with some
member of the group they are groups. [P] Going Native Unreliable
Observation [C] Relies on memory
researching.

Some groups can be

Non- Where the researcher watches the
hard to access
Participation group from the outside without taking
Observation part.

A study that takes place in a label

Experiments - where the researcher is able to Validity – not normal
Lab manipulate and control all the Time
Highly reliable setting
Deception in order to
variables. Variables are Harm to participants –
Cost deal with researcher
controlled. Stress Causation can be Researcher Effects
effects
Field Experiments take place in real-life determined
Experiments –
settings such as a classroom, the work Small Sample
Field
place or even the high street.
 Secondary Research Methods

Practical Ethical Theoretical

Method Description
+ - + - + -

Large sample
Cheap May not ask the
Official Numerical data that is produced by No ethical considerations in using official
questions specific to Valid
Statistics government of government agencies. statistics.
Easily accessible the research
Reliable

Large Sample
May not ask the
Cheap No ethical considerations in using unofficial Could be biased to
Unofficial Numerical data that is collected by questions specific to
statistics. Valid the views of the
Statistics charities and other organisations. the research
Easily accessible organisation.
Reliable

Open to
Invasion of privacy
interpretation
Documents such as personal diaries,
Personal Can be hard to
letters and other personal Cheap Informed Consent In depth and detailed
Documents access Personal view
correspondence.
Confidentiality
Unreliable

Unreliable
Some can be easy to
In depth data
Public Government documents that have access. Can take time to gain Open to
No ethical considerations
Documents been released such as OFSTED reports access under FOI Act interpretation
Cheap
Biased

Open to
Cheap
interpretation
Original documents that contain May not be specific Confidentiality
Historical Time
important historical information about to the research being In depth data Unreliable
Documents
a person, place, or event. conducted Invasion of Privacy
Can be easy to
Personal View
access

Cheap
May not be exactly
Research that has been carried out in
Prior Research Easy to access the same in terms of No ethical considerations
the same area or on the same topic.
research aims.
Time

Formal Content Analysis is a

quantitative approach to analysing Open to
Cheap
Content mass media content and involves interpretation
Time No ethical considerations Reliable
Analysis developing a system of classification
Easy to access
to analyse the key features of media
sources
 Sampling Methods

A population is the people who Random Stratified Snowball

live within a society.
Description Description Description
An example of random sampling Where the sample reflects the With this method, researchers
would be picking names out of a proportions of different groups in might find a few participants, and
hat. In random sampling everyone the research population. For then ask them to find participants
in the population has the same example if 33% of the RP are themselves and so on.
A research population is the chance of getting chosen. female then 33% of the sample
group of people that you wish to should be female. + -
+ -
study.
Useful to use Sample can be
Easy to create Can lead to + -
when unrepresentative
and can be unrepresentative
researching
created by sample Provides a Can be
had to
A sample is those who are computer representative complicated
access
taking part in your study. sample to create the
groups.
sample.
Systematic
Quota Opportunity
Description
Picking every Nth person from all Description Description
Representative means the possible participants. N = the In this method researchers will be Uses people from target
extent to which a sample mirrors number of people in the research told to ensure the sample fits with population available at the time
a researcher's target population population / the number of people certain quotas, for example they and willing to take part. It is
and reflects its characteristics. needed for the sample. might be told to find 90 based on convenience.
participants, with 30 of them
being unemployed. + -
+ -
Generalisability means the + - Quick and Can lead to an
extent to which their findings Relatively easy Can lead to an easy unrepresentative
can be applied to the larger to create unrepresentative Representative Can be difficult sample.
population of which their sample Sample to find enough
sample was a part. people to fill
the quota.
 Theoretical Factors in Research

Reliability means the extent to Validity means how well a Representative means the Generalisability means the
which a study can be piece of research actually extent to which a sample mirrors extent to which their findings
replicated in the same way. measures what it sets out to, or a researcher's target population can be applied to the larger
You do not need to get the how well it reflects the reality it and reflects its characteristics. population of which their
same results but the process claims to represent. sample was a part.
should be the same.

Factors impacting Reliability Factors impacting Validity Factors impacting

Representativeness and
Research Method Hawthorne Effect Group Dynamics Generalisability

Some research methods such as The idea that participants will Peer group pressure can Sample Size
structured interviews and consciously or unconsciously change a participants
questionnaires are more reliable change their behaviour when behaviour or answers to appear The smaller the sample size the
as they can be repeated in the they know they are being more acceptable to the group less likely it can be generalised
same way multiple times. watched – only applies to or to gain symbolic capital to the wider research
observations. amongst the groups. population and is unlikely to be
fully representative of the
groups.
Data type Social Desirability Demand Characteristics
Quantitative data is more Social desirability refers to the When the participants change Research Method
reliable than qualitative as it is conscious or unconscious their answers or behaviour to
quantifiable and not open to changes people make to their what they think they researcher Some research methods will
interpretation. answers or behaviours so that wants to see or hear. mean that the sample will need
they appear more socially to be small (interviews and
acceptable / normal. Observations) which can limit
both representativeness and
generalisability.
Participants Data Type
It is unlikely that a researcher Qualitative data is open to
will be able to get participants interpretation which can lower
who match exactly when the validity as one researcher
repeating research, so may interpret it differently to
participants will lower the another .
reliability of a study.
 Interpretivism Vs Positivism
Interpretivism Positivism

Verstehen means empathic Social Construction means Social facts are things such as Induction involves accumulating data
understanding of human phenomena that is created by society institutions, norms and values about the world through careful
behaviour. Walking in and not naturally occurring. It will vary which exist external to the observation and measurement
someone else's shoes. from culture to culture. individual and constrain the
individual.
Causality means the relationships
Approach to sociological Natural Science V Sociology between cause and effect. How one
research stimuli can lead to a certain action.
• Causation • Meanings and Approach to sociological
To understand the world you interpretations
research
need to be empathetic in • Observable
order to understand the phenomena • Unobservable Sociology should approach Objective Quantitative Research
meanings attached to research in the same way as
action. • External Stimuli • Conscious
beings / Free
the natural sciences. It should Positivists prefer quantitative data and
Will be objective and logical. as far as possible should follow the
Preferred data type and experimental method of the natural
methods sciences. This will allow them to
Types of Interpretivism uncover and measure patterns of
Preferred data type and
Qualitative data behaviour which will lead them to
Interactionism: methods
create social facts which govern
Methods such as: There can be causal explanation in Quantitative Data society. Also by using quantitative
• Unstructured Interviews sociology but there is no need for a data the positivists believe that they
• Observations hypothesis before starting research. By Methods such as: are able to uncover cause and effect
• Open Questionnaires stating an hypothesis at the start of the • Closed Questions that determine human behaviour.
study Glaser and Strauss argue that • Structured Interviews
1 researchers run the risk of imposing their • Experiments Positivists believe that research should
own views on the data rather than be detached from subjective feelings
Sociological Perspectives
those of the actors being researched. and interpretations it is claimed that a
Social Action theories such Instead there should be a grounded
theory which means allowing ideas to
scientists beliefs and values have no
as Symbolic Interactionism, Sociological Perspectives impact on their findings and
emerge as the data is collected which
Phenomenology, can later be used to produce a sociologists should be the same .
ethnomethodology. Structural Approaches such as
testable hypothesis.
Functionalism, Marxism and
Phenomenology & Feminism
Sociologists Ethnomethodology

Weber Rejects the idea that here can be

Garfinkle cause explanations for human Sociologists
Bulmer behaviour and that society is not out
2 there determining our actions. Instead Durkheim
Goffman
they argue that society is a shared set Comte
Cooley of meanings and knowledge. They are
Mead interested in finding out what these
Husserl shared meanings are and where they
originate from.
 Sociology and Science
5 Components of a Falsification Realists
science Thinkers: Keat and Urry
Thinkers: Popper
Empirical – Count and
1 measure information Position on Sociology as a science. Position on Sociology as a science.
Sociology is not a science but it could be Sociology could be a science depending on definition of science

Testable – scientific
Explanation
2 knowledge can be tested
and retested. Explanation
Popper believes that instead of verification, what makes science
Theoretical – seeks causal unique is the idea of Falsification. Falsification is the idea that a
Realists recognise there are some similarities between Sociology and the
relationships and doesn’t statements can in principal be falsified by evidence. So a good
3 seek to simply describe but theory is one that stands up to any attempts to disprove it. Popper natural science depending on the amount of control the researcher has over
states that sociology at present is not a science because its theories their variables. They identify 2 types of system within science.
to explain.
and statements are not able to be put to the test with the possibility Closed systems – researchers are able to control and measure all the
Cumulative – Builds on of being falsified. For example Marxism states that there will be a relevant variables and therefor can make predictions, similar to chemistry
4 previous knowledge. revolution to overthrow capitalism but this revolution has not yet and physics.
occurred due to false class consciousness. This means that Marxism Open systems – The researcher is not able to control and measure all the
cannot be falsified as if there is a revolution then Marxism is correct variables so cannot make precise predictions due to the complex nature of
Objective – Personal the subject area, for example meteorology. Keat and Urry argue then that
feelings m prejudices etc and even if there is not a revolution Marxism is still correct.
5 But Popper said the sociology could be a science because it is sociology is an open system as there are often complex systems and multiple
have not place in science. variables which the researcher cannot control.
It should be unbiased. capable of producing testable hypotheses

Positivists Interpretivists
Paradigms
Thinkers: Durkheim and Comte Thinkers:
Thinkers: Kuhn
Position on Sociology as a science. Position on Sociology as a science.
Sociology is and should be considered a science. Position on Sociology as a science.
Sociology is not a science but it could be Sociology cannot and should not be a science.
Explanation Explanation
Explanation
Reality exists outside and independently of the mind A paradigm is a basic framework of assumptions, principals
and there for it can be studied objectively and as a real Sociology and science differ on two major areas.
and methods from which the members of the community
thing. They believe that there are social facts which work. It is a set of norms which tell a scientists how to think and
make up the rules of society which are separate and 1) Observable v Unobservable – Sociology is concerned
behave and although in science there are rival schools of
independent of individuals. Due to this belief Positivists with unobservable internal meanings behind action
thought there is still a single paradigm that all scientists
believe that society can be studied in the same way as and not external causes so is unobservable where as
accept uncritically.
the natural world and that patterns can be observed the natural sciences deal mostly with the observable
At present Sociology doesn’t have a single paradigm, there
and analysed to create the social facts which rule cause and effect.
are rival schools of thought and no fundamental agreement
society. This method is called inductive reasoning, which 2) Consciousness – The natural sciences studies matter
on what or how to study society. Kuhn refers to this as being
involves accumulating data about the world through which doesn’t have consciousness and therefore
pre-paradigmatic. Stating that Sociology could become a
careful observation and measurement. From this data a behaviour can be explained as a reaction to external
science if it is able to develop this single fundamental beliefs
theory can be formed and verified through further study. stimulus. Where as sociology is dealing with conscious
system.
Positivists believe that sociology should follow the beings who make sense of the world by attaching
However postmodernists do not think a single paradigm is
objective experimental methods that the natural meaning to action. These meanings are internal and
desirable in sociology as it is too close ot being a meta
sciences follow so that the research remains value free based on experiences so not directly linked to external
narrative.
and patterns and causation can be established. stimulus.
 Value Freedom
Values refer to beliefs, opinion Positivists and Value Freedom Committed Sociology
prejudices that everyone
holds and are influenced by Thinkers: Durkheim, Comte, Marx Explanation: Sociologists shouldn’t just spell out their values in their research but should
our class, gender, ethnicity also take sides and espouse the values and interests of certain groups.
Explanation:
and experiences.
Gouldner Becker
Believe that the study of society should not
Relativism means that there is be the a matter of subjective values or Value free sociology is both impossible Becker argues that it is inevitable that
no independent way to judge personal opinions about what is best. and undesirable. It is impossible because sociologists take sides and that they
if one view is more true than Instead it should focus on uncovering the a sociologists own values or those of their should take the side of the Under dog
any other. truth about how society works and pay masters are inevitably going to be rather than that of the powerful. Partly
uncovering the laws governing its proper reflecting in their research. Undesirable because less is known about these
function. In order to do this sociologists since without values to guide research groups but also because their stories
should stay objective and value free so that sociologists are simply selling their services need to be told in order to redress the
they could say with scientific certainty what to the highest bidder. balance.
is best for society and they would be able Feminists
to prescribe how things should be.
Feminists conduct their research entirely
Value Laden Sociology based on their values and political
opinions. They argue that sociology
Explanation: Gomm argues that ‘a value free should be driven by the desire to make
Sociology is impossible… the very idea is society better and should be used to
unsociological’. He argues that Sociologists react to expose the injustice of patriarchy.
political, economic and social events – and what is
seen as a political or social ‘issue’, a social
‘problem’ is dependent on the power of different
groups to define and shape reality – to define what
is worthy of research. Consequently, it is just as Weber
important to look at what sociologists do not
investigate as what they do – Sociologists are not Explanation:
necessarily immune to ideological hegemony. Sociology cannot be completely value free but there are elements which can be. He makes a distinction
between facts and value judgements. A fact can be proven or disproven by evidence where as value
Three areas where sociology cannot be value free. judgements cannot be proven or disproven.
Choice of Subject or Topic – This can be
Areas where Sociology can be Value Free Areas where sociology cannot be Value Free
subject not only to the values of the
1
researcher themselves but also by those in • Data collection – Weber argues that the • Choice of topic – Values play an important role in
political power. collection of data should be objective and selecting the area of research as it is a reflection on
unbiased. The questions asked should not be what they feel is important and worthy of study.
Funding – the source of the funding to
leading and researchers should not aim to get
complete the research may come with • Interpretation of Data – facts need to have a
2 the respondents to answer in away that reflects
ideological ties to the how the data is theoretical framework so that it is possible to see the
interpreted. their ideas. He states that an hypothesis must significance of the data and draw conclusions. This
stand or fall solely on whether or not it fits the framework will be based around individual values and
Methodology – The choice of the method can observed facts. beliefs.
3 be influenced by the perspective stance that
a research takes.
 Sociology and Social Policy
SOCIAL POLICIES refer to Functionalist View Marxist View Feminist View
laws made by the
government which aim to Functionalists believe that the state acts in Marxists believe that the state represents Feminists believe that the state and society is
improve society or deal the best interests of society and see social the interests of the ruling class and patriarchal and therefore social policies are
with a social policy. policy as being good for all. Social policies therefore social policies will reflect the designed to maintain this patriarchy. For
help to help society to run more smoothly interests of the ruling class as well. example family policies which benefit married
and efficiently. They promote equal Social policies: couples and maternity policies are aimed at
SOCIAL PROBLEMS refers to opportunity and social cohesion. • Provide ideological legitimation to keeping women at home.
social behaviour that Functionalists often favour social policies mask capitalist exploitation. For Feminist research has had an impact in a
causes public friction and which are referred to as piecemeal social number of policy areas including equal
example the welfare state provides
misery, and requires a engineering, meaning they favour a capitalism with a human face, opportunities and gender neutrality. However
collective response.
cautious approach tackling one issue at a making it look like the state cares these policies are often seen as reflecting the
Examples include Poverty,
juvenile delinquency and
time. for the sick and poor. Liberal Feminist view not radical or Marxist
divorce. Sociologists should investigate social • Maintain the labour force for feminist view.
problems scientifically and provide example the NHS keeps workers fit
explanations as well as solutions to social for labour.
problems. Postmodernist View
SOCIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS • Means of preventing revolution by
according to Worsley are
placating the working class and
any pattern of relationships New Right View Postmodernists aren’t really interested in social
that calls for an
making it seem as if the state is
policy however do support policies that
explanation. In other words looking after the working class.
The New Right believe that people should diversity and choices.
any social behaviour or Policies such as the maximum
be self reliant. Therefore they believe that Late modernists believe that social policies
phenomena which requires working hours.
explanation.
the state should not interfere too much in need to adapt constantly to globalisation.
the private lives of the citizen. They are
Sociologists should therefor reveal the
For example why poor particularly against the welfare state which
unpleasant truth about capitalist policies
people are more likely to they see as undermining peoples sense of
rather than solve the problems. This will all
commit crime. responsibility. They believe that social
class consciousness to occur and
policy should aim to restore peoples sense
revolution to start.
of responsibility.

Factors affecting the influence of sociology on social policy.

Electoral Popularity Ideological and Policy Cost / Funding Globalisation Critical Sociology
preferences
Research findings may be If a researchers values or Governments may not have Social policy isn’t just made by Sociologists such a the Marxists
unpopular with voters so perspectives is in line with the the budget to implement a a nation in isolation. are critical of the state and
governments may decide not governments then it is more sociologists recommendations. International organisations therefore unlikely to influence
to follow those likely to have a chance at such as the IMF and EU may policy.
recommendations. influencing policy. For example Whoever is funding the influence social policy within
the New Right had research may influence the individual nations.
considerable influence in the recommendations and
Conservative government of findings that the study
the 1970’s and 1980’s. publishes.