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 RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

UIC, the International Railway Association founded in 1922,

counts 240 members across 5 continents, including railway
companies, infrastructure managers & rail-related transport
operators & research institutes. UIC’s members represent
over 1 million kilometers of tracks, 2,900 billion passenger-km,
10,000 billion tonne-km and a workforce of 7 million railway staff.
The UIC mission is to promote rail transport at world level and
meet the challenges of mobility and sustainable development.
The UIC Energy Environment & Sustainability (EES) Platform
manages 5 expert networks (Energy & CO2, Emissions,
Sustainable Mobility, Noise and Sustainable Land Use) and
a portfolio of projects focusing on the development of best
practice, benchmarking for environmental sustainability and
reporting of corporate and social responsibility.
For info www.uic.org

The Community of European Railway and Infrastructure

Companies (CER) brings together more than 70 railway
undertakings, their national associations as well as
infrastructure managers and vehicle leasing companies. The
membership is made up of long-established bodies, new
entrants and both private and public enterprises, representing
73 % of the rail network length, 80 % of the rail freight business
and about 96 % of rail passenger operations in EU, EFTA
and EU accession countries. CER represents the interests
of its members towards EU policy makers and transport
stakeholders, advocating rail as the backbone of a competitive
and sustainable transport system in Europe.
For more information, visit www.cer.be or follow us via Twitter
at @CER_railways.

i
 F ore w ord

I must thank European rail companies for sharing their

environmental performance data with UIC. These data underpin
the majority of the figures presented in this publication and lay
the foundation for the environmental case for rail transport.

In order to drive continuous improvement, CER and UIC

members of the European region have agreed targets and a
vision for sustainable mobility in the coming decades. These
targets, adopted in 2010 and presented in this publication, have
now been updated with increased ambition for greenhouse gas
emissions. The targets set at the European level in partnership
with CER are fully compatible with those adopted by the UIC
global membership and announced at the United Nations
Climate Summit in 2014.

This publication provides the evidence to demonstrate why rail

is the backbone of sustainable transport.

Jean-Pierre Loubinoux
UIC Director-General

ii
Transport, energy, and climate policies can play a very
significant role in strengthening Europe’s economic security,
its competitiveness and its ability to pursue a robust external
policy. Europe needs to move away from imported fossil fuels
towards a low-carbon economy while also reaching high
efficiency standards. A resilient transport and energy system is
crucial to achieving this goal. Rail, as a low-oil and low-carbon
transport mode, can make a vital contribution as the backbone
of a sustainable transport system for Europe.

The Community of European Railway and Infrastructure

Companies (CER) and the International Union of Railways
(UIC) have joined forces to compile this booklet. It aims to
support decision makers in shaping the future of the European
transport system with up-to-date and comprehensive data for
all transport modes.

Libor Lochman
CER Executive Director

iii
 RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Table of Contents

1 Climate change.................................................3

2 Energy ............................................................. 11

3 Electricity use.................................................. 19

4 Land use.........................................................23

5 Local air pollution.............................................27

6 Noise...............................................................33

7 External costs..................................................39

8 Targets and vision...........................................45

9 European transport: core statistics.................47

10 Glossary..........................................................57

11 References......................................................59

1
 1
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Climate change
Rail is the most emissions-efficient major mode of transport, and
electric trains powered by renewable energy can offer practically
carbon-free journeys and transport.
Rail contributes less than 1.5 % of the EU transport sector’s total CO2
emissions even though it has over 8.5 % of total market share.

The European railways will reduce their specific average CO2

emissions from train operation by 40 % by 2020 and by 50 % by
2030 compared to the 1990 base year, measured per passenger-km
(passenger service) and tonne-km (freight service).
The European railways will reduce their total CO2 emissions from
train operation by 30 % by 2030 and strive towards carbon-free train
operation by 2050 in order to provide society with a climate-neutral
transport alternative.

Impact of global warming

Evidence for global warming and the challenges caused by its impact contin-
ues to grow. In its Fifth Assessment Report in 2013, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) established that warming of the climate
system is “unequivocal”, and it is “extremely likely” that human influence has
been the dominant cause of warming since the mid-20th century. Continued
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) will cause further warming it said,
adding that “limiting climate change will require substantial and sustained
reductions of greenhouse gas emissions.”
There are six gases regulated under the Kyoto Protocol where action is fo-
cused: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydro-
fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6). By far the most significant of these is carbon dioxide which represents
82 % of emissions in the EU and 99 % of emissions from transport1.

EU targets
EU policy supports cutting GHG emissions in line with the reductions
considered necessary by the IPCC for developed countries, in order to keep
the overall increase in average global temperature below 2 ºC. The EU aims
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 80-95 % by 2050 compared
to 1990, and is actively pursuing a global climate agreement at the Paris
Climate Change Conference in December 2015.
1. EC 2014a

3
 Climate c h an g e

During 2014, the European Commission worked on a 2030 Framework for

Climate and Energy Policies Communication to replace the EU’s existing
climate and energy policies with more ambitious targets for the post-2020
period. The Commission Communication lists three key goals: a reduction
in total domestic GHG emissions of 40 % on the 1990 level by 2030; an
EU-level binding target for renewable energy of at least 27 % in total energy
consumption; and reducing the EUs energy use by 30 % by 2030.
There are already existing targets set specifically for transport: in 2011, the
EU Communication “Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area” (also
known as the Transport White Paper) set, for the first time, EU-wide targets
for the reduction of GHG emissions from transport. The roadmap envisages
a reduction of at least 60 % of GHG by 2050 with respect to 1990, and
an interim target for 2030 of reducing GHG emissions to around 20 %
below their 2008 level. Unlike all other sectors, emissions have risen sub-
stantially in transport since 1990, and the proposed 2030 target would still
likely leave emissions above their 1990 level. The EU still needs a formal
confirmation in legislation of the 60 % reduction of transport emissions by
2050 with an additional binding target for 2030.
Future EU GHG range of reductions by sector
compared to 1990 emissions

2030 2050
Power - 54 to - 68 % - 93 to - 99 %
Industry - 34 to - 40 % - 83 to - 87 %
Transport + 20 to - 9 % - 54 to - 67 %
Residential / services - 37 to - 53 % - 88 to - 91 %
Agriculture - 36 to - 37 % - 42 to - 49 %

Note: Each sector was given a target range adaptable to whatever decar-
bonisation scenarios are ultimately adopted. Together the sectors must
make a total reduction of at least 80 % by 2050.
EC 2011a

EU transport sector today

Transport is responsible for around 20 % of all GHG emissions within the
EU28, a figure that rises to 24 % if emissions from international aviation and
maritime transport are fully taken into account (these currently fall outside
Kyoto Protocol targets). It is the only sector where emissions have con-
tinued to rise since 1990: between 1990 and 2012, emissions from trans-
port within the EU28 rose by 14 %.

4
 Greenhouse gas emissions by sector in EU28, 2012

Other
Agriculture, 5,3 %
Forestry, Energy
Fisheries Industries
12,0 % 31,0 %

Residential 9,4 %

Commercial/
Institutions
3,9 %

Transport Industry
19,7 % 18,8 %
Note: percentages exclude LULUCF (Land Use, Land Use Change and
Forestry) emissions and international bunkers (international traffic departing
from the EU)
EC 2014A

EU27 share of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion

by sector, 2011

Residential 10,1 % Other 4,5 %

Agriculture, Forestry
Manufacturing and Fishing 1,5 %
14,3 %

Navigation 14,4 %
Road 70,9
Transport 31 %
%
Aviation 12,6 %

Rail 1,5 %
Other Transport
0,6 %
Electricity and Heat
38,6 %

Note: emissions from

Electricity and electric rail traction, aviation
Heat and navigation (maritime)
Manufacturing
Residential Other
international bunkers
Agriculture, are and
Forestry included
Fishingin the transport sector
Transport
Road Navigation
Aviation Rail UIC/IEA 2014
Other Transport

5
 Climate c h an g e

EU27 transport modal share, 2011

Passenger Freight Total

(passenger-km) (tonne-km) (TU)

ROAD 83.6 % 46.9 % 70.3 %

AVIATION 8.8 % 0.1 % 5.7 %

NAVIGATION 0.6 % 41.9 % 15.5 %

RAIL 7.0 % 11.1 % 8.5 %

UIC/IEA 2014

Rail accounts for just 0.6 % of transport’s GHG emissions through direct
usage (diesel) and by around 1.5 % if emissions from electricity generation
are taken into account, even though railways represent 8.5 % of transport
activity. In contrast, the road sector accounts for 71.9 % of transport
CO2 emissions, while aviation and shipping account for 12.6 % and 14.4 %
respectively.
Total GHG emissions from transport in the EU28 peaked in 2007, reaching
the equivalent to 1,310.6 million tonnes of CO2 and had declined by around
10 % by 2012, although the fall in freight transport demand related to the
economic recession and higher fuel prices was an important factor in this.
A major step-change is still necessary if the 2050 emissions target is to be
reached.
EU27 transport GHG emissions trends and targets
1 200

1 000
2030 transport target (20 % reduction on 2008)
Total GHG emissions (million tonnes)

800

600

400
2050 transport target (60 % reduction on 1990)

200
2050 maritime target (40 % reduction on 2005)

0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

Transport (including international aviation) International maritime transport

EEA 2013a

6
EU transport sector tomorrow
The European Commission made clear in “Roadmap to a Single European
Transport Area” that the EU’s transport system is not sustainable, and that
change is essential if the GHG reduction targets the roadmap outlined for
2030 and 2050 are to be met. “More resource-efficient vehicles and cleaner
fuels are unlikely to achieve on their own the necessary cuts in emissions.
They need to be accompanied by the consolidation of large volumes for
transfers over long distances,” it said. This would mean greater use of
modes that can easily carry large numbers of passengers such as rail, and
multimodal solutions for freight that rely on rail and waterborne modes for
long hauls.
The Roadmap envisages that the existing high-speed rail network should
be tripled in length by 2030 and completed by 2050, so that “the majority
of medium-distance passenger transport should go by rail”. For freight, 30 %
of road freight over 300 km should shift to other modes such as rail or
waterborne transport by 2030, and more than 50 % by 2050.

Rail GHG performance

From 1990 to 2010, the total CO2 emissions from the European railway
sector were reduced by 39 %. This value was caused in part by the reduc-
tion of tonne-km from 1990 onwards, particularly in the freight sector. How-
ever, just as significantly, specific emissions (i.e. emissions per passenger-
km or tonne-km) also fell during the same period, with passenger specific
emissions falling by 27 % and freight specific emissions dropping by 41 %.
To help drive forward further improvement in the rail sector, in 2010 the strat-
egy “Moving towards Sustainable Mobility: European Rail Sector Strategy
2030 and beyond” was jointly agreed and endorsed by members of UIC and
CER to provide a unified approach in the European rail sector. It outlines
how the rail sector should be performing in environmental terms in 2030 and
2050, and provides a framework to allow for suitable long-term plans.
The strategy commits European railways to reduce their specific CO2
emissions by 50 % by 2030, compared to 1990. In addition, by 2030 the
European railways will cut their total CO2 emissions from train operation by
30 % compared to the 1990 base year. Furthermore, by 2050 the European
railways will strive towards complete carbon-free train operation, pro-
viding society with a climate-neutral transport option.

7
 Climate c h an g e

Following strong performance achieved towards the 2020-2030 targets for

CO2 emissions, in 2015 the European railways decided to tighten the targets.
European railway operators will reduce their specific average CO2 emissions
from train operation by 40 % by 2020 compared to the 1990 base year,
measured per passenger-km (passenger-service) and tonne-km (freight ser-
vice). The European railways also committed for a 30 % reduction of the total
CO2 emissions by 2030 relative to 1990.
Past and projected future railway CO2 specific emissions

60
CO2 (g/pkm and g/tkm)

52
50
38
40
31 Passenger
30 26
15,5 Freight
18
20

10

0
1990 2010 2030

Year

UIC Energy/CO2 database, and CER/UIC 2012

Emissions comparisons by mode

On average, rail is clearly more emissions-efficient and emits significantly
lower CO2 emissions than comparable modes of transport. A doubling of rail
freight transport, with the freight shifted from the road sector, could result in
a reduction of GHG emissions of around 45-55 million tonnes of CO2 a
year2. The vision for much greater use of rail by 2050 outlined in “Roadmap
to a Single European Transport Area” would equate to around a 38 % modal
share for rail freight transport and a 27 % share for rail passenger transport.
This would result in an estimated reduction of 238 million tonnes of CO2
a year, equivalent to 19 % of EU27 transport emissions in 2010.

2. CE Delft/TRT 2011

8
 Freight train

Passenger train

Freight barge

Truck

Passenger car

Airplane

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
gCO2/tkm (freight)
gCO2/pkm (passenger)

EEA 2013b

Comparing the emissions of different transport modes on a particular jour-

ney varies due to factors including fuel source of electricity, overall distance,
speed, and weight. Additional indirect emission factors such as emissions
caused by the production of vehicles can also be considered to have the
full picture. For example, vehicle production accounts for 24 % of combined
direct and indirect fuel related GHG emissions for road transport. The Eco-
Pasenger and EcoTransIT webtools allow for detailed calculations to com-
pare journeys by different modes across Europe.

Freight
The chart below compares the total CO2 emissions emitted when transport-
ing 100 tonnes of average goods from Basel, Switzerland to the port of Rot-
terdam, Netherlands. CO2 emissions from rail are 8 times less than by road
and almost 7 times less than inland shipping.
6

4
Tons of CO2

0
Rail (electric) Rail (diesel) Inland ship Truck (EURO V)
www.ecotransit.org

9
 Climate c h an g e

Passenger
The chart below compares the total CO2 emissions from transporting one
person between Brussels and Berlin city centres. For passenger transport,
emissions from rail are nearly 3.7 times less than travelling by road, and
almost 4.3 times less than flying.
CO2 emissions: 1 person Brussels - Berlin (780 km by land)

160
140
120
Kilograms CO2

100
80
60
40
20
0
Train Car Plane

(Train: ICE with average loading; Car: medium-size, diesel Euro IV; Aero-
plane: typical aircraft type for European flights with average utilisation ratio,
climate factor of effect of emissions at high altitude included.)
www.ecopassenger.org

10
 2
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Energy
Europe needs to reduce its import dependence for all fossil fuels.
By using electricity, which can draw its power from a range of
sources, rail is the only major transport mode not dependent
almost entirely on fossil fuels.
Rail’s share of transport energy consumption is less than 2 %
despite a market share of over 8.5 %.

The European railways will reduce their specific final energy

consumption from train operation by 30 % by 2030 and by
50 % by 2050 compared to the 1990 base year, measured per
passenger-km (passenger service) and tonne-km (freight
service).

EU transport sector today

EU energy policy is closely related to policies on reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. Building on the 20-20-20 targets, in 2014 the European Com-
mission set targets for the post-2020 period with the 2030 Framework for
Climate and Energy Policies. The EU will increase the share of renewable
energy to 27 % and realise energy savings of 30 % in the EU’s primary en-
ergy consumption compared to 2007. The long-term energy goals for energy
envisage a major shift away from oil and gas use in order to meet the 2050
GHG emissions reduction target.

The transport sector poses a major challenge as it accounts for 32 % of final

energy consumption in the EU. While transport has become more energy
efficient, in the EU it still depends on petrol and diesel for 96 % of its energy
needs, and use of these rose by 35 % between 1990 and 2007 before falling
back slightly due to the impact of the financial recession.
In 2011, the EU Communication “Roadmap to a Single European Transport
Area” made clear that the challenge is now to “use less and cleaner energy”
and to break the transport system’s dependence on oil. This position was
restated in the “Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe”, also adopted by
the Commission in 2011, which identified transport as one of three crucial
sectors where action is needed. By 2020, overall efficiency in the transport
sector needed to “deliver greater value with optimal use of resources”, with
transport using less and cleaner energy, exploiting modern infrastruc-
ture, and reducing its negative impact on the environment.

11
 Energ y

Final energy consumption 2012 in EU27 by sector and transport

Commercial and public

Agriculture, Forestry and
services
Fishing
11,4%
2,0%
Other
1,1%

Rail
Residential
1,8%
22,3% Road
71,7% Aviation
Transport 12,2%
33,2%

Navigation
13,1%

Other
1,2%
Industry
30,0%

EC 2014A

EU27 transport energy mix evolution (2010 outside - 2005 inside)

1% 5% 1%

1% 1% Coal and coal products

2%
Oil products

Nuclear

96% Renewable

93%

Note: “Oil” takes into account both the fuels used directly (e.g. oil and diesel)
and the composition of the electricity mix for electric traction. Renewable
energy sources include both renewable fuels directly used by transport (e.g.
biofuels) and renewable sources of electricity that are then used in transport.
UIC/IEA 2013

12
 EU27 railway energy mix evolution (2010 outside - 2005 inside)

18% 15%
9% Coal and coal products
22% Oil products

20% Gas
Nuclear
19% Renewable
7%
38%
42%
10%

Note: This is the mix of fuels used by the EU railway sector. It takes into ac-
count both the fuels used directly (e.g. coal and diesel) and the composition
of the electricity mix for electric traction
UIC/IEA 2013

Forecast of the share of renewables in transport

and in railways in EU27, 2005-2020
35%

30%

25%

Renewables
20%
in transport

15%
Renewables
10% in railways

5%

0%

UIC/IEA 2013
If the energy sources used by railways continue to follow the trends of past
years, EU railways will use almost 35 % renewables by 2020. The fuel mix
of the whole transport sector is now 5 % renewables and is set to reach
12 % in 2020. Railways used 14 % of renewables in 2011. It means that
railways already met the 2020 EU target for the transport sector (10 % share
of renewables).

13
 Energ y

EU transport sector tomorrow

Final energy demand in the transport sector has grown in line with transport
activity over recent years. However, despite the projected upward trends in
transport activity beyond 2010, the most recent forecasts for the European
Commission predict that energy demand in 2050 will be marginally lower
than in 2010, with demand decoupling from transport activity beyond 2015.
The main driver of low final energy demand from transport is predicted to be
improvements in fuel efficiency and the uptake of more efficient tech-
nologies. Operational measures such as energy-efficient driving or optimi-
sation of stabling and platforming can also be implemented.
Trends in transport activity and energy consumption 1995 - 2050
260
240
220
200
Index 1995=100

180
160
140
120
100
80
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
GDP Freight transport activity
Passenger transport activity Energy for Freight transportation
Energy for Passenger transportation

EC 2013

Final energy demand in transport 2010 - 2050

Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent Shares in %
400
2 2 2 2
350
Inland 14 16 17 17
Navigation
2 2
300 3 3
Aviation
250 31
34
36 36
200 Rail

150
Freight Road
100 Transport 52
46 43 42
50
Passenger
0 Road Transport

2010 2020 2030 2050

EC 2013

14
 The EU aims for oil use in transport to be reduced by 70 % by 2050 from
2008 levels. While transport oil consumption has reduced slightly, over the
next few years the rate of reduction will need to accelerate in order not to fall
behind the linear target line to the 2050 goal.

Rail traction energy

While rail’s share of transport energy consumption is less than 3 %, its mar-
ket share is around 8.5 %. Railways have improved their energy efficiency in
both passenger and freight transport from 1990 to 2009: on average, 13 %
less energy is needed now for one passenger-km and 19 % less energy for
one tonne-km.
EU27 railway specific energy consumption 1990-2011
500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

Passenger (kJ/pkm) Freight (kJ/tkm)

UIC/IEA 2014

In the 2010 strategy “Moving towards Sustainable Mobility: European Rail

Sector Strategy 2030 and beyond” that was jointly agreed by members of
UIC and CER, the rail sector agreed that by 2030 the European railways will
have reduced their specific final energy consumption from train opera-
tions by 30 % compared to 1990. Furthermore, the European rail sector set
a vision of reducing by 50 % their specific energic consumption by 2050.
Approximately 85 % of total energy consumed by the rail sector is used
directly for rail traction as illustrated below.

Primary energy production, Traction energy (85 %), of which

>
transmission and conver- catenary losses (5-10 %)
sion losses, input to rail grid
from public substation outlet Workshops, buildings, signalling,
(100 %) etc. (15 %)

UIC 2012

15
 Energ y

Freight transport energy comparison

Rail is the most energy-efficient transport mode for freight: the bar chart be-
low compares the total primary energy consumption involved in transporting
100 tonnes of average goods from Basel, Switzerland to the port of Rotter-
dam, Netherlands. As can be seen, rail consumes only 53 % of the energy
used by inland waterways, and only 44 % of the energy used by truck.
Primary energy consumption (well-to-wheel): 100 tonnes cargo,
Rotterdam - Basel (700 km by land)

2 000

1 800

1 600

1 400
Diesel equivalents

1 200

1 000

800

600

400

200

0
Rail (electric) Rail (diesel) Inland ship Truck (EURO V)

www.ecotransit.org

Rail energy efficiency improvement

The rail sector is continuously seeking to improve energy efficiency perfor-
mance, which is based on 3 pillars:

Driver advisory systems and eco driving

The rail sector is adopting more efficient operating methods such as Driver
Advisory Systems and Eco Driving. A case study in Sweden comparing roll-
ing stock equipped with Driver Advisory Systems to standard rolling stock
not fitted with it found that the trains with the Driver advisory system con-
sumed 19 % less energy.

16
Electricity meters
All electric trains operated by DB (Germany) have electricity meters in-
stalled. SNCF (France), SBB (Switzerland) and SNCB (Belgium) are intend-
ing to equip their complete fleet with on-board energy meters by 2019. In
total, 25,000 energy meters will be installed by 2020. The new European
Technical Specification on Interoperability regarding rolling stock will make
on-board energy meters mandatory from 2019 on new, renewed and up-
graded rolling stock. All member states must have arrangements by 2019 to
collect data coming from such meters and exchange it with relevant parties
in the energy market.

Recent EU-funded research and development projects:

œœ Railenergy (2006-2010) www.railenergy.eu
The Railenergy project aimed to achieve a 6 % reduction of the specific
energy consumption of the European rail system by 2020. Recommen-
dations included predicting the energy performance of new rolling stock
using the new technical standard TecRec 100_001, greater use of eco
driving (saving potential between 5 % and 15 %), energy efficient traffic
management (saving potential between 10 % and 20 %), and parked train
management (saving potential of 4 % to 8 %).
œœ Trainer (2006-2008) tinyurl.com/iee-trainer
œœ Hyrail (2007) www.hyrail.eu
œœ ECORailS (2009-2011) www.ecorails.eu
œœ MERLIN (2012-2015) www.merlin-rail.eu

The MERLIN project is investigating and demonstrating the viability of an

integrated management system to achieve a more sustainable energy us-
age in European electric mainline railway systems. MERLIN will provide an
integrated optimisation approach towards a cost-effective intelligent man-
agement of energy and resources, and will also deliver the interface protocol
and architecture for energy management systems in the railway domain. A
10 % reduction in energy consumption is expected to be achieved where the
results of the project are implemented.

17
 3
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Electricity use
Electric traction accounts for over 80 % of rail activity (passenger-
km and tonne-km) in Europe.
Electricity used by railways in Europe is already produced with
an average of 30 % from renewable sources.
There are no technical obstacles to a fully-electric rail sector with
zero CO2 emissions if electricity is from practically carbon-free
sources.

EU electricity generation today

EU energy policy has been supporting a gradual shift towards low or zero-
carbon forms of electricity (nuclear and renewables) over more carbon-
intensive means of generating electricity (gas, coal and oil) for reasons of
both lowering CO2 emissions and improving energy security. Between 1995
and 2011, gross electricity generation in the EU27 rose by 20 % while the
proportion of electricity from nuclear and renewable sources also rose, from
43 % in 1990 to 49 % in 2011.
EU27 electricity production mix evolution, 1990-2011
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011

Coal products Oil products Gas Nuclear Renewable

UIC/IEA 2014

19
 Electricit y u se

EU27 gross electricity generation, 2012

Gas Other
19% Oil 1%
2%
Coal
27%
Wind Biomass
25,8% 18,7%

Renewables
24% Solar
Hydro 9%
45,9%
Geothermal
Tidal 1%
0%
Nuclear
27%
EC 2014b

EU electricity generation tomorrow

The EU proposes that electricity should play a central role in the future low
carbon economy. Its analysis envisages that it will largely eliminate CO2
emissions in electricity by 2050, and also offer the prospect of partially re-
placing fossil fuels with electricity in transport and heating, resulting in a
lower environmental impact and less dependence on imported fuel. The in-
creased use of electricity in these two sectors will be achievable as electricity
consumption overall will only have to continue to increase at historic growth
rates, due to continuous improvements in efficiency. However, in order to
ensure that new electricity generation is low carbon, there will likely be a
need to ensure that the cost of CO2 in the EU Emissions Trading System
is kept at a sufficiently high level that ensures it is not cheaper to produce
electricity using coal.

20
 Future EU electricity generation, by fuel type
Net electricity generation by fuel type Shares (%)
(TWh)
5000 1 4 6
Solar, tidal etc. 5 9

4500 12 15
Wind 22
4000 4
1 26
11
Hydro
3500
23 6 11
Biomass 1
3000 10
6
1
Derived gasses 3 20 8
2500
1
20
Natural gas 1
2000 24 18
1
Petroleum 20
1500
12 1
products
7
1000 Coal and
lignite 27
500 22 22 21
Nuclear

0
2010 2020 2030 2050

EC 2013

Rail’s electricity use

Due to its established use of electricity, rail is the only major mode of trans-
port that is principally and currently capable of shifting from using fossil fuels
to renewable energy without the need for further major technological innova-
tion. But therefore a massive investment is required in infrastructure. Over
half of the European rail network is already powered by electricity, a figure
that continues to increase. With sufficient funding and the political will, it
would be possible to electrify the entire European rail network. If electricity
is fully decarbonised by 2050 as the EU aims to achieve, then rail would
become the first zero-carbon major transport mode.
The emissions from rail’s electricity use are crucially linked with the energy
supply in each member state, which is decided by the national energy sectors
and by political objectives. However, some railways own dedicated railway
electricity production facilities for historic and technical reasons and there-
fore can have a different mix. Yet again other railways in countries with fully
deregulated electricity markets have made a conscious decision to procure
electricity from renewable sources, dedicating this electricity (and its emis-
sions) to rail and thus exempting it from being bought by another procurer.

21
 Electricit y u se

Furthermore, railways are often the biggest users of electricity in a country,

so their purchasing decisions can help shift markets and encourage invest-
ment in cleaner forms of energy production. In this setting, a political will is
also needed as many national railways are still state-owned.
EU27 railway energy consumption by fuel 1990-2011
Coal and coal products Oil products Electricity Rail CO2 share emissions
400 000 3,5%

350 000 3,0%

300 000
2,5%
250 000
2,0%
200 000
1,5%
150 000
1,0%
100 000

50 000 0,5%

0 0,0%

UIC/IEA 2014

Railway electricity mix evolution in EU27

(2010 outside - 2005 inside)

24%
28% 16%
Coal
36%
Oil
1% Gas
Nuclear
33%
Renewable
4% 17%
11%
30%

UIC/IEA 2013

22
 4
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Land use
Railway infrastructure is responsible for around only 4 % of the
total area of land used for transport.
Land take per passenger-km for rail is about 3.5 times lower than
for cars.

EU transport sector today

The negative impact on land use is a significant but often overlooked con-
sequence of transport, and can go beyond the land set aside specifically for
infrastructure. The actual space taken for infrastructure leads to the sealing
of topsoil, as well as disturbances resulting from noise, resource use, waste
dumping and pollution. Transport networks can add to the fragmentation and
degradation of the natural and urban environment due to the “barrier ef-
fects” of infrastructure. Furthermore, the land take by road transport is often
disproportionate: land allocated exclusively to car transport and off-street
car parking tends, in urban areas, to be out of proportion to the land actually
available. This focus on supporting the movement and placement of cars
conflicts with other priorities, such as the need for recreational space.
The growth in demand for new transport infrastructure caused in part by
growing urbanisation means that land take for transport has been increas-
ing in recent years. Road transport is by far the largest consumer of land
for transport: the road network occupies 93 % of the total area of land used
for transport in the EU15, while rail is responsible for only 4 % of land take.
Land-take efficiency (the ratio between land used and the traffic carrying ca-
pacity of the infrastructure) varies significantly from one infrastructure type to
another. Railways require far less land take per transport unit (passenger-km
and tonne-km) than road transport, with land take per passenger-km by rail
about 3.5 times lower than for cars.

23
 L and use

EU transport sector tomorrow

In the EU’s 2012 Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe, transport was
identified as one of three crucial sectors where stronger action was needed
on increasing resource efficiency. It proposed that by 2020, EU policies
should take into account their direct and indirect impact on land use, and the
longer-term aim would be for no additional net land take by 2050. The road-
map made clear the need to minimise the impacts of transport infrastructure
on the sealing of land, a problem most prevalent in road building.

Efficiency of land use

As the graph below shows, rail tracks permit a far higher throughput of peo-
ple in a given unit of time than road, and usually require considerably less
land than urban roads.
Capacity of a 3.5 m wide lane in a city

120
100
People per hour (thousands)

100
80
80

60

40
20 22
20 9
2
0
Car Bus Bus Rapid Light Rail Heavy Suburban
Transit Rail Rail

ADB/giz 2011

The same principle is true in longer, inter-city journeys. Due to high-speed

rail’s very high capacity, the land needed for the large traffic volumes car-
ried is much reduced. On average, a high-speed line uses 3.2 ha/km,
while an average motorway uses 9.3 ha/km. Furthermore, the impact on land
use of new high-speed rail lines can be reduced by laying new lines paral-
lel to existing motorways. Examples of where this has happened include
Paris - Lyon (60 km, 14 % of the total line), Paris - Lille (135 km, 41 % of the
total), Cologne - Frankfurt (140 km, 71 % of the total), and Milan - Bologna
(130 km, 72 % of the total).

24
 COMPARISONS IN LAND USE
MOTORWAY HIGH-SPEED RAILWAY

2 x 3 lanes Double track

75m 25m

1.7 passenger / car 666 passengers / train

1.7 666

4,500 cars per hour 12 trains per hour

4,500 12

2 X 7,650 PASSENGERS / H 2 X 8,000 PASSENGERS / H

UIC 2011

25
 5
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Local air pollution

Electric rail transport emits no local air pollution at the point of
use.

European railways will reduce their total exhaust emissions of

NOx and PM10 by 2030 by 40 % in absolute terms, even with
projected traffic growth compared to the 2005 base year.
European railways will strive towards zero emission of nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM10) from non-electric
trains by 2050.

EU transport sector today

EU policies on air quality have led to significant reductions in concentra-
tions of harmful pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM), sulphur dioxide
(SO2), lead, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO). However,
fine (PM10) and very fine (PM2.5) particulates, and ozone (O3) continue to pre-
sent significant health risks, and up to one-third of Europeans living in cities
are still exposed to air pollutant levels exceeding EU air quality standards.
The EU remains well short of its long-term objective outlined in the 7th Envi-
ronmental Action Programme, which is to achieve levels of air quality that do
not have significant negative impacts on human health and the environment.
Transport is one of the main sources of air pollution in Europe, particularly in
cities and urban areas. Key air pollutants emitted from combustion engines
in all modes of transport include NOx, PM, CO, and volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs). Non-exhaust emissions of PM are also released due to the
mechanical wear of brakes, tyres and road surfaces, but are not currently
regulated. During the period 1990 to 2010, the pollutants showed a decreas-
ing trend in transport emissions: the largest percentage decreases over this
period were for carbon monoxide (76 %) and non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOC) (75 %). While changes to fuel and technological and
efficiency improvements have reduced transport’s impact on air pollution,
transport, and in particular road traffic, continues to play a major role in the
generation of particulates and ozone.

27
 L ocal air poll u tion

Transport emissions of PM2.5, CO, SOx, NMVOC, NOx

in EEA member countries, 1990-2010
Transport emissions of PM2.5, CO, SOx, NMVOC, NOx in EEA member countries, 1990-2010
120

100

SOX
80 PM 2.5
NOX
Index 1990=100

60

SOX excl.
international
40

VOC
20 CO

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

EEA 2012

The decline over the last 20 years has occurred in spite of a growth in trans-
port activities reflected by various indicators such as energy consumption
and passenger and freight transport volumes since 1990. The downward
trend for most pollutants has followed the progressive introduction of tighter
Euro emission standards on new road vehicles supplemented by improve-
ments in fuel quality driven by EU Fuel Quality Directives. Tighter regulations
in emissions from new diesel engines for railway locomotives and the sul-
phur content of marine fuels have also contributed to this downward trend.
However, the general trends in emissions of key pollutants NOx and PM2.5
have been countered by the increased market penetration of road diesel
vehicles since 1990, which generally emit more of these pollutants per kilo-
metre than their gasoline equivalents.

28
 EEA-32 contribution of the transport sector
to total emissions of PM2.5 and NOx, 2009
Primary PM2.5
Road transport
non-exhaust
17%
International
shipping
36%
Non-transport Transport
sectors 27%
73% Road transport
exhaust
36%
Domestic shipping 7%
International aviation
Railways 1% 2%
NOx

Road transport
non-exhaust
57%

Non-transport Transport
sectors 58%
International
42%
shipping 26%
Domestic aviation 1%
Domestic shipping 7%
International aviation
Railways 2% 7%

Note: Rail emissions only include those generated at the point of use (e.g. diesel
engine locomotives) and not secondary sources (e.g. electricity power stations)
EEA 2012

EU transport sector tomorrow

The EU estimates that more than 400,000 people are estimated to have
died prematurely from air pollution annually in the EU, with an economic cost
of the health impacts alone estimated at EUR 330-940 billion (3-9 % of EU
GDP). The EU’s 2013 Clean Air Policy Package set out new interim objec-
tives for reducing health and environmental impacts from air pollution up to
2030. The proposal included a revised National Emission Ceilings Directive,
containing updated national ceilings for six key air pollutants (PM, SO2, NOx,
VOCs, NH3 (ammonia) and CH4 (methane)) for 2020 and 2030. The main
priority for transport policy will be to ensure that the existing legislation fully
delivers on air pollution, in particular with regard to the new Euro 6 stand-
ards for road vehicles, and a revision of the Non Road Mobile Machinery
Directive, which regulates diesel rail vehicles. Air pollutants and greenhouse
gases (including CO2) are often emitted by the same sources, so certain

29
 L ocal air poll u tion

GHG reduction measures can also deliver reductions in air pollutants such
as NO2, SO2, and O3. However, decarbonisation does not always reduce
emissions of particulate matter (PM).

Rail sector targets

The total emissions from rail diesel traction have continuously decreased
since 1990 and are extremely low today compared to the transport sector
as a whole. Diesel traction only accounts for 20 % of European rail traffic
but the rail sector is still looking at new combustion technologies, efficient
transmission systems and exhaust after-treatment that will ensure that rail
diesel traction will remain more environmentally friendly in the future than
road or inland waterways. Electrification of remaining lines is also one of the
many approaches that may be taken, although rail diesel propulsion is still
expected to play an indispensable role for the European transport system in
the coming years.
By 2030 the European railway sector has pledged to reduce their total exhaust
emissions of NOx and PM10 by 40 % in absolute terms, even with projected
traffic growth, compared to 2005. By 2050, the European railways will strive to
have zero emission of NOx and PM10.

Freight transport emissions comparison

The bar chart below compares the NOx and PM caused by transporting 100
tonnes of average goods from the port of Rotterdam, Netherlands, to Basel,
Switzerland (666 km by road).
NOx and PM generated by 100 tonnes cargo,
Rotterdam - Basel (700 km by land)
60
1,75
50

40

30 PM
51,8
NOx
20
0,45
10
12,7
0,13
0 1,1
Train Truck (EURO V) Inland waterway
www.ecotransit.org
30
 Passenger transport NOx and PM comparison
As suburban and urban railway lines are frequently fully-electric across Eu-
rope, the local NOx and PM emissions from rail in urban areas are often
zero. The bar chart below compares the NOx and PM caused by a passenger
journey from Brussels to Berlin.
NOx and PM generated by passenger transport,
Brussels - Berlin (780 km by land)
350

6,2
300

250 6,4

200
PM

150 294,2 NOx

238,5
100

50
2,2
24,3
0
Train Car Plane

(Train: average loading; Car: medium-size, diesel Euro IV, 1.5 passengers;
Aeroplane: typical aircraft type for European flights with average utilisation
ratio, effect of emissions at high altitude included, transport to and from air-
port by car included.)
www.ecopassenger.org

31
 L ocal air poll u tion

Rail sector air pollution reduction projects

The railways continuously seek to improve their technical, operational, com-
mercial and procurement measures. Recent research and development pro-
jects to further reduce air pollution levels include:
œœ GREEN (2006) green.uic.org
GREEN (GREen heavy duty ENgine) was an EU funded research project
aiming to develop an intelligent flexible HD engine system able to achieve
a maximum fuel conversion efficiency of 45 %, while complying with a zero-
impact emission level.
œœ CleanER-D (2011-2013) www.cleaner-d.eu
Clean European Rail-Diesel (CleanER-D) was an EU-funded research
project aiming to develop, improve and integrate emissions reduction tech-
nologies for diesel locomotives and rail vehicles. Furthermore, it used in-
novative methods and hybrid solutions for the best possible contribution to
reductions in CO2 emissions. The project has developed recommendations
to all involved stakeholders on how to boost emission reduction of rail diesel
traction.

32
 6
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Noise
Retrofitting rail freight wagons with low-noise brake blocks can
cut noise levels by 8-10 dB, reducing the perceived noise by up
to 50 %.

The European railways will strive towards noise and vibrations

no longer being considered a problem.

EU transport sector today

Noise is a consequence of all major modes of transport, and is one of the
key concerns for people living near transport infrastructure. Half of the EU’s
urban population is exposed to noise levels above 55 decibels (dB) as a
result of transport (mostly road traffic). In European cities with populations
over 250 000, almost 70 million people are exposed to long-term average
road traffic noise levels exceeding 55 dB Lden (a weighted average noise
over 24 hours that marks the threshold for excess exposure). At night, more
than 48 million people in the same urban areas are exposed to long-term
average road noise levels higher than 50 dB Lnight (the EU threshold for
excess exposure at night time).
Exposure to transport noise in urban areas in Europe
(EU27 plus Norway and Switzerland)
80

70 68

60
Number of people (millions)

50 48

40 Lden > 55 dB
Lnight > 50 dB
30

20

10
10 8
4
2
0
Roads Railways Airports

EEA 2007

33
 Noise

Percentage of citizens who are “highly disturbed”

when exposed to transport noise at night
30

25
% Highly disturbed

20

15

10

0
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
Lnight (outside , facade)
Air Traffic Road Traffic Rail Traffic
UIC 2010

Current EU legislation distinguishes between noise creation (the emission

of noise at source, best tackled on an EU-wide level), and noise reception
(what to do once noise has been emitted, best addressed at national, re-
gional or local levels). The Technical Specification for Interoperability relating
to rolling stock noise (Noise TSI), which was published at the end of 2014,
will ensure that all rolling stock complies with strict noise limits.
The main EU legislative instrument for providing a coherent overview on
dealing with noise reception is the Environmental Noise Directive (END).
The END provides a common basis for tackling noise across the EU by iden-
tifying hotspots. While there are no binding targets at the EU level, the END
requires that member states must calculate noise exposure levels, publish
noise maps, and adopt action plans to prevent or reduce noise exposure
where necessary.

EU transport sector tomorrow

Noise will remain one of the key environmental problems for EU transport for
a long time due to the inherent nature of the problem and its link to transport
growth. To help push forward action in member states, the EU’s 7th Environ-
ment Action Programme (2012) stated that it aimed to ensure that by 2020
noise pollution in the EU will have “significantly decreased”, moving closer
to World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended levels. While the biggest
priority in transport noise is road traffic, the EU is nonetheless making sure

34
that rail noise is also tackled. The European Commission aims to reduce the
level of rail noise without jeopardising the competitiveness of the rail sector.
A review of the END is ongoing and in the future a revision of the Directive
may be realised.
In the Directive 2012/34/EU, a provision on the possible use of track ac-
cess charges to account for environmental externalities was enhanced in
order to develop an economic incentive to tackle rail freight noise. This type
of measure is commonly referred to as Noise-Differentiated Track Access
Charges (NDTAC). The introduction of such charges is currently voluntary
for each EU member state. However, with the upcoming implementing act
of the Commission, harmonised arrangements for NDTAC should be ap-
plicable to those member states that have introduced or will in the future
introduce infrastructure charging due to railway noise. Currently NDTAC sys-
tems, have already been established in Germany and the Netherlands, and
also in non-EU Switzerland – these three countries together represent 23 %
of the European rail network. Other countries such as Belgium, Italy and
Czech Republic are also examining NDTAC systems to consider introducing
them in the future.
In 2013, the European Commission issued a roadmap specifically targeting
noise generated by rail freight wagons that laid out a series of policy options
for further measures. The Commission is expected to produce a Communi-
cation in 2015 to set a mid-term strategy for significantly reducing rail freight
noise. By 2020, some European countries are likely to impose regulatory
measures for noisy freight wagons, in particular Switzerland which is plan-
ning to ban cast-iron brake blocks.

Rail’s noise reduction activity

The European rail sector has long recognised that noise from rail activity
needs to be further reduced. In particular, the rail sector has made the com-
mitment that, by 2030, noise mitigation measures will be integrated naturally
in all relevant processes of the railway, offering sustainable and bearable
solutions, implemented using a toolbox of various innovative and homolo-
gated techniques.
Railway noise measures can be divided into two main categories: rolling
stock-related measures such as modified brakes or damped wheels, and in-
frastructure-related measures such as rail dampers and noise barriers. The
larger potential lies in treating the noise problem at source, which is recog-
nised as the most effective solution both in technical and economical terms.

35
 Noise

The biggest challenge in the rail sector is the noise caused by the large
remaining fleets of older freight wagons. Passenger traffic (high-speed rail
and intercity) is considered to have no noise problem. Since 2006, new and
upgraded wagons must be equipped with composite brake blocks reduc-
ing pass-by noise, but tens of thousands of older freight wagons continue
to operate using cast-iron brake blocks, which in turn cause rough wheels
and rails. Noise is a local issue by definition, and rail noise is considered a
particular nuisance in densely populated central European countries such as
the Netherlands, Germany and Switzerland.
Retrofitting existing freight wagons with low-noise “LL” brake blocks offers a
noise reduction potential of 8-10 dB, reducing the perceived noise by up to
50 %. This impact is particularly beneficial at night when a major percent-
age of freight trains operate. However, there are significant costs involved in
retrofitting existing wagons. The expected cost to retrofit all existing wagons
is at least €1 billion. One also has to consider higher operational costs in ret-
rofitted wagons, which is estimated at almost €2 billion over the next 7 years.
To have an overview on the operational experience and lifecycle costs of the
LL-blocks, the rail sector commissioned the €15 million EuropeTrain project.
The test train consisted of 32 wagons fitted with LL-blocks, and spent over a
year traversing the continent experiencing the most extreme weather condi-
tions found in Europe. The EuropeTrain project was successfully concluded
in 2013. Two types of LL-blocks were homologated in July 2013.
Cost-benefit analysis of railway noise reduction measures

STAIRRS + UIC real cost,

Net Present Value no windows/Present Benefit
350.000 wagons
250
(in millions of persons*years)

200
PB p>Lden 60dBA

150

100

50

0
0 20 000 40 000 60 000 80 000 100 000 120 000 140 000 160 000
NPV EURO (in millions)
1. freight -10 dB 2. k-blocks 3. grinding
4. tuned absorbers 5. 2m barriers 6. max. 4 m barriers
7. k-Bl. Opt. Wh. Tuned abs 8. k-bl, tuned abs. 9. k-bl, 2 m barrier
10. grinding, 2 m barrier 11. k-bl, opt.wh, tun.abs, 2 m

UIC 2013

36
As the graph above shows, solutions that involve composite brake blocks
both on their own and combined with other measures can save consider-
able amounts of money in comparison to noise abatement with only noise
barriers.

Railway noise reduction projects

The rail sector has developed various sector funded or EU co-funded re-
search and development projects to understand and mitigate railway noise.
Recent significant rail noise projects include:
œœ Acoutrain (2011-2014) www.acoutrain.eu
Acoutrain is a research programme, which aims at simplifying and improv-
ing the acoustic certification process of new rolling stock. The goal of the
project is to speed up product authorisation by introducing elements of
virtual testing while retaining the same degree of reliability and accuracy.
œœ Rivas (2011-2013) www.rivas-project.eu
RIVAS (Railway Induced Vibration Abatement Solutions) aimed to reduce
the environmental impact of ground-borne vibration and to provide solu-
tions to vibration issues for surface lines. The project developed world-
leading technologies to ensure efficient control of exposure to vibration
and vibration-induced noise from rail.

37
 7
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

External costs
Road’s average external costs are more than four times higher
than rail for passenger services, and more than six times higher
for freight services.
Rail accounts for just 2 % of the total external costs of transport
in Europe.

The external costs of transport are the negative effects of transport that are
not internalised into the price paid by the user, such as air pollution, ac-
cidents and congestion. They cannot be disregarded as they lead to real
costs to society, such as climate change, health problems, and delays. If
consistent monetary signals are given to users, operators and investors, the
most appropriate choices from the point of view of wider society on issues
such as the mode of travel, the deployment of new technologies, and the
development of infrastructure, will be made.
Various studies have attempted to put values on external costs. The IMPACT
report on internalisation of the external costs of transport, carried out for the
European Commission in 2007 said: “Although the estimation of external
costs has to consider several uncertainties, there is consensus at scientific
level that external costs of transport can be measured by best practice ap-
proaches and that general figures (within reliable bandwidths) are ready for
policy use.”

EU transport sector today

In 2008, the total external costs in the EU27 (excluding Malta and Cyprus,
but including Norway and Switzerland) were estimated at €510 billion, ex-
cluding congestion. When congestion was added in, the costs rose to €660-
760 billion, depending on whether low or high congestion values were used.
The total represented 4 % of the total GDP of the 27 countries considered
if congestion was excluded, or between 5 % and 6 % of GDP if congestion
was included.

39
 External costs

Total external costs of transport by externality

Congestion

22% Other cost categories: nature & landscape, biodiversity

losses, soil and water pollution, urban effects
35%
Up and downstream processes

3% Noise

7%
Climate change
3%
Air pollution
8%
22% Accidents
CE Delft et al. 2011

The road sector generates 93 % of total external costs in transport: pas-

senger cars have a share of about 62 %, followed by trucks (14 %), vans
(9 %), motorcycles (5 %) and buses (4 %). Rail accounts for just 2 %, the
aviation passenger sector (intra-EU flights only) 4 %, and inland waterways
a negligible amount (0.3 %).

Total external costs by transport mode

0% 1% 1%
4%
Inland waterways
14% Air, Passenger
Rail, Freight
Rail, Passenger
9% HDV: Heavy Duty Vehicles
LDV: Light Duty Vehicles
62% 5% Motorcycles and mopeds
4% Buses and coaches
Cars

CE Delft et al. 2011

The total costs divided by traffic volumes indicate the average costs for each
transport mode. This provides an intermodal comparison, showing the costs
that could be avoided by shifting from one mode to another.

40
 Average EU27 external costs (excluding congestion):
passenger transport
EUR per 1 000 pkm
70

2,1 2,1
60
5,7 5,4
0 0,7
7,1
50
17,3 16,3

40
5,7
5,5
30 2
2,8
46,9
9,1
20
32,3 33,6
6
1,3
10 8,1
12,3
1,5 0,9
2,6
0 0,6 0,5
Car Bus/Coach Road Pass. Total Rail Passenger Air Pass
Accidents
Air pollution
CC High
Noise
Up- and downstream
Other cost categories: nature & landscape, biodiversity losses, soil and water pollution, urban effects
CE Delft et al. 2011
Average external costs (excluding congestion) for road transport are more
than four times higher than rail for passenger services and more than six
times higher for freight services.
Average EU27 external costs (excluding congestion):
freight transport
EUR per 1 000 tkm
60

50 3,1
4,7
2,5
40

2,5 14,9
30 3
1,8

9,8 8,4
20

6,7
0,9
10 0,5 1,3
17
3,6
10,2 4,2
1 0,9 5,4
0 1,1
0,2
HDV Road, Total Rail Inland waterways
Accidents
Air pollution
CC High
Noise
Up- and downstream
Other cost categories: nature & landscape, biodiversity losses, soil and water pollution, urban effects
CE Delft et al. 2011

41
 External costs

The current level of internalisation of external costs varies across the differ-
ent modes of transport. For road freight transport, charging is restricted
under EU law for HGVs (lorries) in particular. The charging of HGVs is regu-
lated by Directive 1999/62/EC (the “Eurovignette” Directive). In the most re-
cent revision of the Eurovignette Directive, completed in 2011, EU member
states were finally allowed to set charges for air pollution and noise if they
wish.

EU transport sector tomorrow

The European Commission has acknowledged that greater internalisation
of external costs using market-based instruments would lead to a more ef-
ficient use of infrastructure, reduce the negative side effects of transport, and
improve fairness between modes. In 2008, the European Commission laid
down a common methodology for the charging of all external costs across
the whole transport sector. This was developed further in the 2011 Transport
White Paper, which emphasised the role that price signals can play. “Trans-
port charges and taxes must be restructured in the direction of wider applica-
tion of the “polluter-pays” and “user-pays” principle, … the overall burden for
the sector should reflect the total costs of transport including infrastructure
and external costs,” it stated. It added that full cost charging would generate
revenues and allow for a funding stream to finance future transport invest-
ments. The White Paper envisages the full and mandatory internalisation of
external costs for road and rail transport taking place by 2020.

42
Road-rail comparison
The bar chart below compares the accident and climate costs generated by
100 tonnes of average goods being transported from London to Warsaw by
train and by road. The values are calculated using the online External Cost
calculator, which calculates the climate change and accident costs of any
freight journey across Europe.
Accident and climate costs generated by road and rail freight,
London - Madrid

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000
Climate cost
800
Accident cost
600

400

200

0
Truck Train

(Calculations assume low IMPACT handbook values for climate costs, and
marginal accident IMPACT costs for lorries and average accident IMPACT
cost for rail.)
www.externalcost.eu

The average external accident costs for rail for this journey are nearly
50 times lower than for road, while the climate costs are four times lower.

43
 8
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Targets and vision

In 2008 CER adopted voluntary targets for greenhouse gas emissions.
These were later developed and expanded in partnership with UIC to include
targets to be achieved by 2020 and 2030 in addition to a vision for 2050. In
2010 both UIC and CER formally approved the targets and vision for the
four most important environmental impacts associated with the European rail
sector. Following a decade of strong performance, in 2015 the sector agreed
to a greater level of ambition for reducing green house gas emissions.
The Sustainable Mobility targets are summarized in the table below.

Topic Baseline Horizon Targets and vision

1990 2020 - 40 % CO2 pkm and tkm*

1990 2030 - 50 % CO2 pkm and tkm

Climate
protection Total CO2 emissions 30 % below
1990 2030
the baseline*
2050 Carbon Free Operation

1990 2030 - 30 % consumption pkm and tkm

Energy
efficiency
1990 2050 - 50 % consumption pkm and tkm

2005 2030 - 40 % total PM and NOx

Air quality
2050 Zero Emission
Noise and No longer a problem for the
2050
vibration railways
* targets updated in 2015

The rail sector vision for 2050

œœ Rail is at the heart of an integrated, attractive transport system in which
each mode plays to its strengths, enabling a more competitive European
economy
œœ Rail is central to delivery of a strategy that has resulted in a massive cut
in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, reduced oil dependency and miti-
gated the challenge of congestion
œœ Rail is the enabling factor for sustainable mobility that underpins economic
growth and a dynamic society

45
 9
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

European transport:
core statistics
Freight transport

EU28EU28
performance bybymode
Performance Mode for freightTransport
for Freight transport
1995 1995- 2012
- 2012
billionbillion tonne-kilometres
tonne-kilometres
2200

2000

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Road Sea Rail Inland Waterway Oil Pipeline Air

EC 2014a

Freight transport in the EU28 experienced an overall growth of 22.8 % in

the 1995-2012 period. Road, sea, and air transport saw the biggest growth
levels, with the rail sector experiencing a relatively modest growth of 4.9 %.
The peak year for most modes was in 2007, after which freight levels fell
back by around 10 % on average due to the Europe-wide recession. While
there have been some improvements since 2009, the sector as a whole has
struggled to return to previous levels of growth.

47
 European transport: core statistics

Freight Transport in EU28

billion tonne-kilometres

Inland Pipe-
Road Rail Sea Air Total
Water- ways lines

1995 1289 388 122 115 1154 2 3069

2000 1522 405 134 127 1323 2 3513

2005 1803 416 139 138 1471 3 3969

2010 1764 394 156 122 1424 3 3862

2011 1745 422 142 118 1417 3 3847

2012 1693 407 150 115 1401 3 3768

1995 - 2012 31.3 % 4.9 % 22.8 % - 0.1 % 21.4 % 25.8 % 22.8 %

per year 1.6 % 0.3 % 1.2 % - 0.0 % 1.1 % 1.4 % 1.2 %

EC 2014a

Passenger transport

EU28 performance by mode for passenger transport

EU28 Performance by Mode for Passenger Transport
19951995- -2012
2012
billionbillion
passenger-kilometres
passenger-kilometres
5000 1000

4500 900

4000 800

3500 700
Scale for other modes
Passenger Cars scale

3000 600

2500 500

2000 400

1500 300

1000 200

500 100

0 0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Passenger Cars Buses & Coaches Air

Railways Powered 2-wheelers Tram & Metro
Sea

EC 2014a

48
Passenger activity grew slightly slower than freight, at 19 % over the 1995-
2012 period, but it weathered the 2007-09 financial downturn much better.
The aviation sector experienced the biggest growth, helped by the lack of
fuel tax or VAT on ticket sales, although it was also the only sector to experi-
ence a significant drop in traffic in the two years following the financial crisis
of 2007. The rail sector saw an overall growth of 19 % during 1995-2012
while tram and metro systems saw a growth of nearly 31 %.
Passenger Transport in EU28
billion passenger-kilometres

Passenger Two-wheel Bus & Tram &

Railway Air Sea Total
cars engine Coach Metro

1995 3 937 116 504 352 72 348 44 5 372

2000 4 358 108 549 372 78 460 42 5 966

2005 4 597 124 541 380 84 530 42 6 297

2010 4 721 122 528 407 92 526 40 6 435

2011 4 703 125 529 415 93 579 39 6 484

2012 4 613 126 526 418 94 577 38 6 391

1995 -2012 17.2 % 8.1 % 4.4 % 19.0 % 30.9 % 65.8 % - 15.1 % 19.0 %

per year 0.9 % 0.5 % 0.3 % 1.0 % 1.6 % 3.0 % - 1.0 % 1.0 %

EC 2014a

Railway track length in use by country

The reduction in the length of railway lines within Europe over the last four
decades - railway lines in the EU28 have shrunken by 13 % since 1970 - is
clearly shown in this table. The increases in passenger-km and tonne-km
that have occurred over the last 20 years are a sign of the increased ef-
ficiency of the European railways, as they have taken place despite a shrink-
ing infrastructure.

49
 European transport: core statistics

of which
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2012electri- %
fied 2012
EU28 248,269 240,629 237,671 220,583 215,519 215,734 115,508 54
EU15 175,274 168,150 162,132 152,446 151,559 151,981 86,957 57
BE 4,605 3,971 3,479 3,471 3,582 3,582 3,064 86
BG 4,196 4,341 4,299 4,320 4,097 4,070 2,862 70
CZ 9,444 9,468 9,469 3,217 34
DK 2,352 2,015 2,838 2,787 2,646 2,628 621 24
DE 43,777 42,765 40,981 36,588 33,707 33,509 19,830 59
EE 1,227 993 1,026 968 787 792 132 17
IE 2,189 1,987 1,944 1,919 1,919 1,919 52 3
EL 2,602 2,461 2,484 2,385 2,552 2,554 438 17
ES 15,850 15,724 14,539 14,347 15,837 15,922 9,654 61
FR 37,582 34,362 34,070 29,272 29,871 30,581 16,583 54
HR 2,411 2,437 2,429 2,726 2,722 2,722 984 36
IT 16,073 16,138 16,066 16,187 17,022 17,060 12,126 71
CY - - - - - - - -
LV 2,606 2,384 2,397 2,331 1,897 1,860 250 13
LT 2,015 2,008 2,007 1,905 1,767 1,767 122 7
LU 271 270 271 274 275 275 262 95
HU 8,487 7,836 7,838 8,005 7,893 7,877 3,014 38
MT - - - - - - - -
NL 3,147 2,880 2,798 2,802 3,013 3,013 2,266 75
AT 5,901 5,857 5,624 5,665 5,039 4,894 3,468 71
PL 26,678 27,181 26,228 22,560 19,702 19,617 11,860 60
PT 3,588 3,609 3,064 2,814 2,842 2,541 1,630 64
RO 11,012 11,110 11,348 11,015 10,777 10,777 4,032 37
SI 1,055 1,058 1,196 1,201 1,228 1,209 500 41
SK 3,660 3,662 3,622 3,593 1,578 44
FI 5,804 6,075 5,867 5,854 5,919 5,944 3,172 53
SE 12,203 12,006 11,193 11,037 11,160 11,136 8,194 74
UK 19,330 18,030 16,914 17,044 16,175 16,423 5,597 34
ME 249 239 214 90
MK 673 696 699 699 699 234 33
RS 3,809 3,809 1,279 34
TR 7,985 8,387 8,429 8,671 9,594 9,642 2,840 29
IS - - - - - - - -
NO 4,242 4,242 4,044 4,413 4,199 4,264 2,489 58
CH 3,161 3,178 3,215 3,216 3,597 3,551 3,550 100

UIC data; EC 2014a. Figures in italics are estimates

50
High-speed rail network
High-speed lines continue to be built across Europe as they are popular
with passengers and politicians alike, and offer a credible alternative to fly-
ing. If the EU successfully decarbonises electricity generation by 2050 as is
planned, the rail sector will be able to offer carbon-free train operation and
provide society with a fast, climate-neutral transport option.
Length of lines (km) or sections of lines on which trains can go faster
than 250 km/h at some point during the journey

United
Belgium Germany Spain France Italy Nether-
lands Austria King- EU
dom
1981 301 150 451
1983 417 150 567
1984 417 224 641
1985 419 224 643
1986 419 224 643
1987 419 224 643
1988 90 419 224 733
1989 90 710 224 1,024
1990 90 710 224 1,024
1991 199 710 224 1,133
1992 199 471 710 248 1,628
1993 199 471 831 248 1,749
1994 447 471 1,177 248 2,343
1995 447 471 1,281 248 2,447
1996 447 471 1,281 248 2,447
1997 447 471 1,281 248 2,447
1998 72 636 471 1,281 248 2,708
1999 72 636 471 1,281 248 2,708
2000 72 636 471 1,281 248 2,708
2001 72 636 471 1,540 248 2,967
2002 137 833 471 1,540 248 3,229
2003 137 875 1,069 1,540 248 74 3,943
2004 137 1,196 1,069 1,540 248 74 4,264
2005 137 1,196 1,090 1,540 248 74 4,285
2006 137 1,285 1,272 1,540 876 74 5,184
2007 137 1,285 1,511 1,872 562 113 5,480
2008 137 1,285 1,599 1,872 744 113 5,750
2009 209 1,285 1,604 1,872 923 120 113 6,126
2010 209 1,285 2,056 1,896 923 120 113 6,602
2011 209 1,285 2,144 2,036 923 120 113 6,830
2012 209 1,334 2,144 2,036 923 120 113 6,879
2013 209 1,334 2,515 2,036 923 120 93 113 7,343

UIC high speed department; EC 2014a

51
 European transport: core statistics

Rail passenger usage by country

Passenger-km
Country Rail Operator Year
(millions)

EU
Austria ÖBB 10,667 2014
WB 789 2014
Belgium SNCB/NMBS 10,848 2014
Bulgaria BDZ 1,702 2014
Croatia HZ Passenger 927 2014
Czech Rep. CD 6,952 2014
Denmark DSB 5,765 2014
Estonia EVR 237 2012
Finland VR 3,874 2014
France SNCF 83,914 2014
Germany DB AG 79,340 2014
Greece TRAINOSE 1,413 2014
Hungary GvSEV/RÖEE 298 2014
MAV 5,491 2014
Ireland CIE 1,695 2014
Italy FS 38,612 2014
Latvia LDZ 71 2014
Lithuania LG 372 2014
Luxembourg CFL 373 2012
Netherlands NS 17,018 2014
Poland PKP 11,865 2014
Portugal CP 3,518 2014
Romania CFR Calatori 4,526 2014
Slovakia ZSSK 2,503 2014
Slovenia SZ 696 2014
Spain Euskotren 279 2011
FEVE 183 2011
FGC 804 2012
RENFE 23,753 2014

52
 Sweden SJ 6,132 2014
United
ATOC 59,170 2013
Kingdom
Eurostar 4,364 2011
NIR 321 2011

EFTA
Norway NSB 2,965 2014
Switzerland BLS 920 2014
SBB/CFF/FFS 17,570 2014

CEEC
Bosnia-
ZFBH 22 2014
Herzegovina
ZRS 12 2014
FYR of
MZ-T 99 2012
Macedonia
Montenegro ZICG 101 2008
Serbia ZS 617 2014

CIS
Belarus BC 7,796 2014
Moldova CFM 347 2012
Russian Fed. RZD 128,820 2014
Ukraine UZ 49,203 2012

Turkey TCDD 4,393 2012

Note: figures given are for the companies listed only, and will not necessarily
cover all operators in each country.
UIC database

53
 European transport: core statistics

Rail freight usage by country

Tonne-km
Country Rail Operator Year
(millions)

EU
Austria ÖBB 15,653 2014
GKB 9 2011
Belgium SNCB/NMBS 5,439 2012
Bulgaria BDZ 1,778 2014
BRC 794 2014
Croatia HZ CARGO 2,119 2014
Czech Rep. CD 9,871 2014
Estonia EVR 4,807 2012
Finland VR 9,597 2014
France SNCF 32,012 2014
Germany DB AG 74,818 2014
Greece OSE 538 2009
Hungary FLOYD 243 2011
GySEV CARGO 433 2014
GySEV/RÖEE 692 2012
Ireland CIE 100 2014
Italy FS 10,322 2014
Latvia LDZ 15,257 2014
Lithuania LG 14,307 2014
Luxembourg CFL Cargo 189 2009
Poland PKP 32,017 2014
Portugal CP Carga 2,063 2014
Romania CFR MARFA 5,327 2014
CTV 632 2014
GFR 3,548 20142
TFG 319 2009
Slovakia ZSSK Cargo 6,888 2014
Slovenia SZ 3,847 2014

54
 Spain Euskotren 14 2011
FEVE 388 2011
FGC 46 2014
RENFE 7,557 2014

EFTA
Switzerland BLS Cargo 1,035 2013
SBB/CFF/FFS 8,266 2014

CEEC
Bosnia-Herzegovina ZFBH 885 2014
ZRS 425 2014
FYR of Macedonia MZ-T 423 2012
Montenegro MONTECARGO 150 2010
Serbia ZS 2,589 2014

CIS
Belarus BC 44,997 2014
Moldova CFM 944 2012
Russian Fed. RZD 2,298,564 2014
Ukraine UZ 237,722 2012

Turkey TCDD 11,145 2014

Note: figures given are for the companies listed only, and will not necessarily
cover all operators in each country.
UIC database

55
 10
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

Glossary
Term Explanation
Bunker (fuel) Fuel that powers the engine of a ship or aircraft
CO2 A greenhouse gas, and by-product of any carbon combustion
(carbon dioxide) process (mostly involving fossil fuels) also exhaled by every
living organism
Direct Emissions related directly to the on-board combustion of
emissions diesel or use of electricity
Electrified track Track provided with an overhead catenary or a third rail to
permit electric traction
EU15 Members of the European Union as of the 1995 expansion
(inclusion of Austria, Sweden and Finland)
EU27 Members of the European Union as of the 2007 expansion
(inclusion of Romania and Bulgaria)
EU28 Members of the European Union as of the 2013 expansion
(inclusion of Croatia)
Euro IV, V Emission standards for exhaust emissions from heavy duty
vehicles sold in EU member states
Final energy The energy (diesel or electricity) to be directly consumed
demand by motive power units: the final energy consumption can
be measured in terms of the volume of diesel consumed or
electricity consumed at the pantograph
GHG Atmospheric gases that have a global warming potential.
(greenhouse The Kyoto Protocol specifies six greenhouse gases: carbon
gases) dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydro-
fluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6)
HGVs Heavy Goods Vehicles (lorries)
High-speed rail Generally assumed to be trains that travel above 250 km/h
on new lines and above 200 km/h on upgraded lines
Indirect Emissions related to the initial energy provision (diesel
emissions production or electricity generation)
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the United
Nations’ scientific advisory panel on climate change (www.
ipcc.ch)
K-blocks Low-noise composite brake blocks fitted to all new freight
wagons
Kyoto Protocol A 1997 international agreement linked to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, which sets in-
ternationally binding reduction targets to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions

57
 Glossar y

Term Explanation
Land take Area of land needed for a certain activity, e.g. railway tracks
or stations, highways, cities, etc.
Lden A weighted average noise level over 24 hours that marks the
threshold for excess exposure
Lnight A weighted average night-time noise level as defined in the
Environment Noise Directive (2002/49/EC), and calculated
over all the night periods of a year, typically 22:00 - 06:00
LL-blocks Low-noise composite brake blocks that can be retrofitted
onto existing rail freight wagons
NOx Generic term covering NO (nitric oxide) and NO2 (nitrogen
(nitrogen dioxide), produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen
oxides) in the air during fuel combustion
Passenger-km Passenger-kilometres: 1 pkm = 1 passenger transported 1
(pkm) kilometre
PM10, PM2.5 Particulate Matter – microscopic airborne particles, up to 10
and 2.5 microns in diameter respectively
Rolling stock Collective term for all powered and unpowered vehicles on
a railway, including freight wagons, locomotives, passenger
coaches, and multiple units
Specific emis- The average emission or consumption rate, expressed in the
sions, specific rail sector per passenger-km or tonne-km
consumption
Tonne-km (tkm) Tonne-kilometres: 1 tkm = 1 tonne transported 1 kilometre
Train-km Train-kilometre: unit of measurement representing the move-
ment of a train over one kilometer
TSI (Technical Technical and operational standards that must be met in
Specification for order to satisfy the essential requirements and ensure the
Interoperability) interoperability of the European railway system
VOCs Chemicals used in many products that can evaporate into the
(Volatile Organic air at room temperature
Compounds)
WTW The full life-cycle analysis of transport fuels and vehicles
(well-to-wheel) from extraction to final use

58
 11
RAIL TRANSPORT AND ENVIRONMENT

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TRT 2011
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59
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