 Breakdown in Electronegative Gases

Electronegative gases are the gases that have similarity towards electrons. When
electron comes into contact with these gas molecules, the gas molecule attracts the
electrons and becomes negative ion.
The gases, which are lacking in one or two electrons in their outer shell are known
as electronegative gases.
The most common attachment processes encountered in gases are :

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  Time Lag of Breakdown

1. Theoretically the mechanism of spark breakdown is considered as a function of

ionization processes under uniform field conditions.
2. In practical engineering designs, the breakdown due to rapidly changing voltage or
impulse voltage is of great importance.
3. Actually there is a time difference in the application of a voltage sufficient to cause
breakdown and the occurrence of breakdown itself. This time difference is called as
the time lag.
4. The Townsend criterion for breakdown is satisfied only if at least one electron is
present in the gap between the electrodes as in the case of applied d.c. or slowly
varying (50Hz a.c.) voltages. This is no difficulty in satisfying this condition.
5. With rapidly varying voltage of short duration (≈10 -6 s), the initiatory electron may
not be present in the gap then the breakdown cannot occur due to not available free
electron.
i. Statistical time-lag(ts): is defined as the time lapsed between the application of
voltage sufficient to cause breakdown and the appearance of initiating electron is
called as statistical time lag.
1. The Statistical time lag depends upon the amount of pre-ionization present in the
gap.
2. This in turn depends on the size of the gap and the quantity of radiation that
produces the primary electrons.
3. The techniques generally used for irradiating the gaps include ultraviolet radiation,
radioactive materials and light sources.
ii. Formative time-lag(tf): After the appearance of electron, the time tf required for
the ionization process to develop fully to cause to the breakdown of gap is called as
formative time-lag. The formative time lags depend mostly on the mechanism of the
avalanche growth in the gap.
iii. Total time-lag (t): is define as the sum total of Statistical time-lag and formative
time-lag T= ts + tf

Fig: Breakdown with a step function voltage pulse

Streamer or Kanal Mechanism of Breakdown of Spark:

1. The streamer Mechanism of Breakdown is also known as “Kanal” mechanism of
breakdown.
2. The Streamer theory removes the limitation and drawbacks of Townsend’s theory.
3. We know that the charges in between the electrodes separated by a distance d
increase by a factor
4. eαd when field between electrodes is uniform
5. This is valid only if we assume that the field E0 = V/d is not affected by the space
charges of electrons and positive ions.
6. Whenever the concentration exceeds 108, the avalanche current is followed by
steep rise in current and breakdown of the gap takes place.
7. The weakening of the avalanche at lower concentration and rapid growth of
avalanche at higher concentration have been attributed to the modification of the
electric field E0 Due to the space charge field.
Streamer theory of breakdown for gas or Avalanche breakdown :
1. Avalanche breakdown or streamer breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in
both insulating and semiconducting materials.
2. It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow very large currents
within materials & causes dielectric breakdown.
3. Formation of finger like discharge is called as streamer.
“A streamer discharge, also known as filamentary discharge, is a type of transient
electrical
discharge. Streamer discharges can form when an insulating medium (for example
air) is exposed to alarge potential difference.”

Process :
1. Streamer breakdown occur when the dielectric medium is exposed to a high
voltage difference.
2. First step is the formation of avalanche.
3. Formation avalanche creates space charge (collection of charge or cloud of
charge).
4. Space charge leads additional electric field.
5. The electric field enhance the growth of new avalanche.
6. Ionised region grows quickly & expand.
7. Applicable for non-uniform electric field
8. When the energy gained by the electrons greater than lattice ionization
potential formation of streamer takes palace. (Condition for streamer
breakdown)
9. Breakdown occur when avalanche exceeds critical size & formation of many
avalanche.
10. Streamer ionise the path & production of large current. Breakdown will be
occurred.
Detailed Procedure:
Fig. shows the electric field around an avalanche as it progresses along the gap and
the resultant field i.e., the superposition of the space charge field and the original
field E0.
A. Since the electrons have higher mobility, the space charge at the head of the
avalanche is considered to be negative and is assumed to be concentrated within a
spherical volume.
B. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5 that the filed at the head of the avalanche is
strengthened.
C. The field between the two assumed charge Centre’s i.e., the electrons and positive
ions is decreased as the field due to the charge centres opposes the main field E0 and
again the field between the positive space charge Centre and the cathode is
strengthened as the space charge field aids the main field E0 in this region.
D. It has been observed that if the charge carrier number exceeds 106, the field
distortion becomes noticeable.
E. If the distortion of field is of 1%, it would lead to a doubling of the avalanche but
as the field distortion is only near the head of the avalanche, it does not have a
significance on the discharge phenomenon.
F. However, if the charge carrier exceeds 108, the space charge field becomes almost
of the same magnitude as the main field E0 and hence it may lead to initiation of a
streamer.
G. The space charge field, therefore, plays a very important role in the mechanism of
electric discharge in a non-uniform gap.
H. This photon falls on the molecules and again electrons are release which is called
photoionization. Photoionization of gas molecules is the secondary mechanism of
ionization responsible for breakdown.
I. On the whole, it is observed that due to (i)Enhancement of field (ii)Primary
ionization (iii) Photoionization
A. Size of the electron avalanche is gradually increased and the avalanches are
transformed into channels of ionization which proceeds towards the anode.
B. Such channels are called the steamer (anode streamer).
C. Finally the gas breakdown, at the moment of breakdown the avalanche has got
specific size which is called critical size of avalanche.

Fig Breakdown with a step function voltage pulse

 Fig: Formation of secondary avalanches due to photo-ionization

Streamer breakdown classification:

Positive streamer
1. Low electric field
2. Positive streamers propagate in the opposite direction.
Negative streamer
1. Negative streamers propagate against the direction of the electric field
2. Negative streamers require higher electric fields
Areas of application
1. Ozone production
2. Air purification
3. Plasma medicine
  Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields and Corona Discharges
1. It is an electric discharge mainly occurring at non uniform electric field
2. Visual and audible discharge
3. The corona will occur when the strength of the electric field around a conductor is high
enough to form a conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or
arcing to nearby objects.
4. It is often seen as a bluish (or other color) glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal
conductors carrying high voltages, and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge
lamp.
5. Potential difference between two electrodes should be greater than threshold value (30kV).
Corona Discharge:
1. If the electric field is uniform and if the field is increased gradually, just when measurable
ionization begins, the ionization leads to complete breakdown of the gap.
2. However, in non-uniform fields, before the spark or breakdown of the medium takes place,
there are many sign in the form of visual and audible discharges. These discharges are known
as Corona discharges.
3. This phenomenon is always accompanied by a hissing noise, and the air surrounding the
corona region becomes converted into ozone.
4. Corona is responsible for considerable loss of power from high voltage transmission lines,
and it leads to the deterioration of insulation due to the combined action of the bombardment
of ions and of the chemical compounds formed during discharges.
5. Corona also gives rise to radio interference.
6. The voltage gradient required to produce visual a.c. corona in air at a conductor surface,
called the corona inception field, can be approximately given for the case of parallel wires of
radius r as

Fig.shows the corona inception and breakdown voltages of the sphere-plane arrangement.
From the figure, it is clear that—
(i) For small spacing (Zone–I), the field is uniform and the breakdown voltage depends
mainly on the gap spacing.
(ii) In zone–II, where the spacing is relatively larger, the electric field is non-uniform and the
breakdown voltage depends on both the sphere diameter and the spacing. (iii) For still larger
spacing.
(iii) at large spacing(zone-III) the field is non-uniform and the breakdown is
preceded by corona and is controlled only by the spacing. The corona inception
voltage mainly depends on the sphere diameter.
Fig :Breakdown and corona inception characteristics for spheres of different diameter in
Sphere - plane gap geometry
Results of corona
a. Power loss
b. Hissing noise
c. Ozone formation
d. Chemical activities
Factors affecting corona
a. Air desnsity & Humidity are inversely proportional to corona.
b. Surface conduction is proportional to corona.
Problems associated with corona
a. Ozone (O3) , Nitric acid & Nitrogen oxide (NOx) production
b. Electromagnetic interference
c. Audible noise
d. Insulation losses
 Liquid Dielectrics

Properties of good liquid dielectric material

1. High density
2. High dielectric strength
3. Should free from moisture
4. Should free from oxidation
5. High resistivity
6. High heat transfer characteristics
7. Chemically stable
8. Applications- Transformer oil, Silicon oil, Synthetic hydro carbon(power cable) &
chlorinated hydro carbon
Breakdown in liquid dielectrics
1. Impurities like gas bubbles, suspended particles etc will reason for dielectric breakdown.
2. Breakdown mechanism depends upon nature of electrodes, physical properties of the liquid
dielectrics, presence of impurities & gas present in the liquid

 Pure liquids & commercial liquids

 Fig: liquid purification system with test cell
 Conduction and Breakdown in Pure Liquid Dielectrics:
Pure liquids are those which are chemically pure and don’t contain any other impurity even
in the trace of 1 in 109 , and are structurally simple.
Examples: n-Hexane (C6H14) n-Heptane (C7H16) Paraffin Hydrocarbons
 Figure 1 shows the characteristic of conduction current-electric field in a hydrocarbon
liquid. The curve has three distinct regions.

 At very low fields, the current is due to the dissociation of ions. With intermediate
fields, the current reaches a saturation value, and at high fields the current
generated because of the field-aided electron emission from the cathode gets
multiplied in the liquid medium by a Townsend mechanism.
 The current multiplication also occurs from the electrons generated at the interface
of liquid and impurities.
The Breakdown voltage depends on,
The applied field
Gap separation
Cathode work function
Liquid viscosity
Liquid temperature
Density and molecular structure of liquid
 The type of breakdown process in pure liquids is called the electronic breakdown,
involves emission of electrons at fields greater than 100kV/cm.
Theories supported for dielectric breakdown in Liquid dielectric material
1. Suspended particle theory
2. Cavitation & bubble mechanism
3. Electro convection breakdown
4. Electronic breakdown
1. Suspended particle theory
1. Commercial liquids will always contain solid impurities like fibers or dispersed solid
particles & gaseous bubbles.
2. Consider the permittivity of liquid dielectrics Ԑ1 & permittivity of solid impurities being
Ԑ2.
3. Ԑ2> Ԑ1
4. When the electric field is applied the force is directed towards areas of maximum stress
case of the presence of solid particles like paper (solid impurities) in the liquid.
5. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present in the liquid (Ԑ2<Ԑ1).
6. If we consider these impunities (solid or gas) to be spherical particles of radius ‗r‘, and if
the applied field is ‗E‘ then the particles experience a force ‗F‘

7. The process of Liquid dielectric breakdown depends up on the size & number of external
impurities (either solid or gaseous impurities)
8. If the field exceeds the breakdown strength of the liquids, liquid dielectric breakdown will
occur.
9. If the number of impurities present are large, they becomes aligned due to these forces, and
thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the
electrodes.
2. Cavitations (Bubble’s theory) theory
1. Theory states that dielectric strength of liquid dielectric material depends up on hydrostatic
pressure.
2. Hydrostatic pressure proportional to higher electric field strength & it is responsible for
changing the phase of liquid dielectrics & results in liquid dielectric breakdown.
3. A kind of small vapor bubble formed inside the liquid dielectrics reason for dielectric
breakdown.
4. The following reasons responsible for the bubble‘s formation in liquid dielectric material -
Gas pockets in the electrode surface - Irregular surface of electrodes - Change in temperature
& pressure - Dissociation of product by electron collision
5. Condition of breakdown- ― Voltage drop along the length of bubble equals to minimum
value of voltage in the Paschen‘s curve‖.
6. The value of breakdown field is given by
Where σ = surface tension of the liquid, Ԑ1=permittivity of liquid, Ԑ2= permittivity of
gaseous bubble, r=initial radios of gas bubble Vb= Voltage drop in the bubble corresponding
to the minimum value in the pachen‘s curve.
1. Breakdown strength depends upon initial size of bubble‘s, which influence by hydrostatic
pressure & temperature.
Limitations
• This theory doesn‘t mention about the formation of initial bubbles.
• Theoretical & experimental calculation of breakdown strength are different.

Thermal Breakdown:
 Based on the experimental observations of extremely large currents just before breakdown.
The high current pulses originate from the tips of the microscopic projections on the cathode
surface with densities of the order of 1 A/cm3.
This high density current pulses give rise to localized heating of the oil which may lead to the
formation of vapour bubbles.
 When a bubble is formed, breakdown follows, either because of its elongation to a critical
size or when it completely bridges the gap between the electrodes.
 The breakdown strength depends on the pressure and the molecular structure of the liquid.
d. Stressed Oil Volume Theory:
 Breakdown strength is determined by the ―largest possible impurity‖ or ―weak link‖ in
commercial liquids where minute traces of impurities are present.
 The breakdown strength of the oil is defined by the region which is stressed to the
maximum (Weak region).
 In non-uniform fields, the stressed oil volume contains maximum stress between Emax
Contour and 0.9Emax Contour.
 This theory defines the breakdown strength is inversely proportional to the stressed oil
volume.
The breakdown voltage determined by,
 Gas content in the oil
 Viscosity of the oil
 Impurities present in the oil
Solid Dielectrics
• Solid dielectrics are commonly used all kinds of electric circuit and devices.
• Provide insulation for current carrying conductors.
Properties of good solid dielectric material
1. Good mechanical strength
2. Free from gaseous inclusion
3. Free from moisture
4. Resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration
5. Low dielectric loss
Types of breakdown mechanism
(a) Intrinsic or ionic breakdown
1. Electronic breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown
(b) Electromechanical breakdown
(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking
(d) Thermal breakdown
(e) Electrochemical breakdown
(J) Breakdown due to internal discharges
Types of breakdown mechanism
Intrinsic breakdown
1. Usually a small number of conduction electrons (free electrons) present in the solid
dielectric dielectric material.
2. The following reasons such as
i) Small number of impurities &
ii) Structural imperfection of dielectric material are responsible for intrinsic breakdown.
3. The impurity atoms, or molecules or both act as traps for the conduction electrons up to
certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures.
4. When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to trapped electrons are
released, and these electrons participate in the conduction process.
5. Presence of free electrons which are capable of migration through the lattice of the
dielectrics.
6. Process will be repeated until the completion of dielectric breakdown of solid dielectric
material.
There are two types of intrinsic breakdown mechanism e.g
Electronic Breakdown and Streamer Breakdown (avalanche).
(1) Electronic breakdown
1. Due to the presence of large density free electrons in a solid dielectrics
2. Whenever a high voltage is applied, collision between large free electrons will take place.
3. As a result electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross the forbidden energy gap
from the valance to the conduction band.
4. Eventually dielectric breakdown takes place
(2) Avalanche or streamer breakdown
1. Similar to the breakdown in gaseous dielectric
2. Avalanche breakdown or streamer breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both
insulating and semiconducting materials.
3. It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow very large currents within
materials & causes dielectric breakdown.
4. First step is the formation of avalanche.
5. Formation avalanche creates space charge (collection of charge or cloud of charge).
6. Space charge leads additional electric field.
7. The electric field enhance the growth of new avalanche.
8. Ionized region grows quickly & expand.
9. When the energy gained by the electrons greater than lattice ionization potential formation
of avalanche takes palace. (Condition for avalanche breakdown)
10. Breakdown occur when avalanche exceeds critical size & formation of many avalanche,
Breakdown will be occurred

(b) Electro mechanical breakdown

1. Consider the following reasons
(i) solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields
(ii) electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the mechanical compressive strength.
2. How do you calculate the ‗maximum value of electric field strength‘ before the
breakdown‘..?
3. Consider a solid dielectric material
4. The thickness of solid dielectric material=do
5. Applied voltage = V
6. Thickness after the applied voltage = d . That means material is compressed.
7. Equation (1) represents electrically developed compressive stress in equilibrium.
where Y is the Young's modulus. From (1) find the voltage V^2

8. The highest apparent electric stress or maximum value of electric field before breakdown is
given by

(C) Thermal breakdown

1. Most of the insulation failures in high voltage power apparatus occur due to thermal
breakdown.
2. When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however small it may
be, flows through the material.
3. The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.
4. The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the
solid dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces.
Mathematical expression
• The heat generated under d.c. stress E is given as

Where ‗σ‘ is the D.C. conductivity of the specimen.

Under A.C. fields, the heat generated
The heat dissipated (WT) is given by

• Normally Wac or Wdc equals to WT

• Breakdown occur when Wac or Wdc Greater than WT