Unit Five

Genetics and Evolution

Part II
Molecular genetics and inheritance
DNA, Gene, Chromosomes and Cell division
• DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and it is the
molecule that holds the genetic information for a cell
and an organism. DNA molecule contains a code that
can be used by a cell to express certain genes. Specific
sections of a DNA molecule provide the information to
build specific proteins which can then be used by a cell
to express the desired gene. DNA comes in the form of
a long, linear molecule referred to as a strand. Each
strand of DNA is bonded to a second strand of DNA to
form a DNA double helix. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is
found in the nucleus as a tightly coiled double helix.
• DNA molecules are replicated during cell
division. When a cell divides, the two new
cells contain all the same DNA that the
original cell had. In sexual reproduction with
two parents, half of the DNA of the offspring is
provided by each of the parents. The genetic
material of a child is made from 50% of their
mother‘s DNA and 50% their father‘s DNA.
Example

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Structure of DNA and chromosome
• Chromosome is a thread- like structure that is
made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
histone (a set of globular (30) proteins).
• DNA is the molecule that stores genetic
information whereas histone is the core of a
chromosome around which chromosome‘s DNA
wrapped.
• The loosely organized form of chromosome
throughout the nucleus in loops when the cell is
not dividing is called Chromatin.
• Individual chromosomes are not easily
distinguished unless condensed. On the
condensed organization of chromosome,
genes are inactive while uncondensed or loose
organization allows the genes to be active. As
a cell prepares for cell division, the chromatin
loops will have duplicated themselves and
become compacted or ―condensed to form a
chromosome that is visible under light
microscope.
 Chromosome Structure
Metaphase chromosome as seen in the electron microscope

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Chromosome Structure …

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• DNA-is made up two strands of polynucleotides joined
together and twisted into a double helix and the strands
are anti-parallel to each other. The basic unit of DNA strand
is a nucleotide (monomers of DNA). There are four types of
nucleotides:-
– Adenine (A) – containing nucleotide
– Guanine (G) – containing nucleotide
– Cytosine (C) - containing nucleotide
– Thymine (T) – containing nucleotide (in DNA, or Uracil (U)
nucleotide in RNA)
• All nucleotides have: a phosphate group, a pentose sugar
(deoxyribose in DNA and ribose sugar in RNA) and one of
four nitrogen bases- adenine, cytosine guanine and either
thymine (DNA) or uracil (RNA).
Structures of deoxyribose and ribose in DNA and RNA:

• The only difference is at the 2C position, where RNA

has a hydroxyl (OH) group, while DNA has only a
hydrogen.
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 DNA Nucleotide

Phosphate
Group

O=P-O 5'

O
O
N
1' Nitrogenous base
4' (A, G, C, or T)

Sugar
(deoxyribose)
3'
2' 11
Notice that the 1’, 2’, … refer to a numbering system for
the carbon atoms that make up the sugar.

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 Nitrogenous Bases

• Purines have double carbon-nitrogen rings

Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
A or G
• Pyrimidines have single rings of carbon-nitrogen
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
T or C

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• Bonds between the sugar in one nucleotide and the
phosphate group in the next hold the nucleotides together.
• The base does not take in this linking of the nucleotides in a
strand. That is the reason why we say sugar- phosphate‘
backbone. The nucleotides in one strand are paired with the
nucleotides in the other strand according to the base pairing-
rule.
– Adenine – Thymine(uracil in RNA)
– Cytosine – Guanine
• DNA is a very stable molecule at normal temperature. The
hydrogen bonds hold the two strands together in position
through the bases.
• The stability of the DNA molecule is important in ensuring the
genetic code in the DNA molecule – does not become
corrupted.
 Base Pairing Rule
• Purines only pair with Pyrimidines-This is called
complementary base pairing
• A (adenine) pairs with T (thymine)
• C (cytosine) pairs with G (guanine)
 Charfaff’s rule:
C = G and T = A
• Three hydrogen bonds required to bond Guanine & Cytosine
3 H-bonds

G C

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• Two hydrogen bonds are required to bond Adenine
& Thymine

T A

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 DNA
5 O 3

3 O
P 5 P
5 O
1 G C 3
2
4 4
2 1
3 5
O
P P
5
T A 3
O

O
5
P 3 P
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Structure of DNA
DNA replication and cell division (stop
radA)
• The ability of DNA to make copy of itself (DNA-
replication) is the basis for reproduction and
inheritance. DNA molecule exists within
chromosome (in the nucleus) and is surrounded
by a 'soup' of free DNA nucleotides (which is to
build new DNA molecules). DNA structure is
double helix and must replicate semi-
conservatively.
• Replication is called semiconservative because
each new double helix is composed of an old
(parental) strand and a new (daughter) strand
 Mechanism of DNA Replication:
semiconservative

Proposed DNA Replication Models:

• Conservative replication model
• Dispersive replication model
• Semiconservative replication

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• Several Enzymes are involved in this process and the
main are:
1. DNA helicase enzyme - break H-bonds to reveal two
single strands and unwind (open) the helix DNA
2. DNA polymerase follows the helicase enzyme along
each single-stranded region, which acts as a template for
the synthesis of a new strand. DNA polymerase
assembles free DNA nucleotides into new strands
alongside each of the template strands. The base
sequence in each of these new strands is complementary
to its template strand because of base-pairing rule, A-T, C-
G.
DNA replication
DNA replication …

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 Cell division
• Cell division is the process by which a parent cell
divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell
division usually occurs as part of a larger cell
cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types
of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby
each daughter cell is genetically identical to the
parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell
division, whereby the number of chromosomes in
the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce
haploid gametes (meiosis).
• Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells
by undergoing one round of DNA replication
followed by two divisions. Homologous
chromosomes are separated in the first
division, and sister chromatids are separated
in the second division. Both of these cell
division cycles are used in the process of
sexual reproduction at some point in their life
cycle. Both are believed to be present in the
last eukaryotic common ancestor.
• Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative
cell division known as binary fission, where
their genetic material is segregated equally
into two daughter cells. While binary fission
may be the means of division by most
prokaryotes, there are alternative manners of
division, such as budding, that have been
observed. All cell divisions, regardless of
organism, are preceded by a single round of
DNA replication.
• For simple unicellular microorganisms such as amoeba, one
cell division is equivalent to reproduction; an entire new
organism is created.
• On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can create progeny
from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from
cuttings.
• Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms
to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself was
produced by meiotic cell division from gametes.
• After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual
construction and repair of the organism.
• The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell
divisions in a lifetime.
• The primary concern of cell division is the
maintenance of the original cell's genome.
• Before division can occur, the genomic
information that is stored in chromosomes must
be replicated, and the duplicated genome must
be separated cleanly between cells.
• A great deal of cellular infrastructure is involved
in keeping genomic information consistent
between generations.
Major types of cell division
 Protein synthesis
• Code for protein synthesis is specified by DNA and has to be sent to
ribosome. DNA is a huge molecule and remains in nucleus to
assemble amino acids in the correct sequence to form protein.
• Events during protein synthesis
i. Transcription – DNA code for protein is rewritten in a molecule of
messenger RNA (mRNA)
ii. mRNA travels from nucleus to ribosome
iii. Free amino acids are transported from cytoplasm to ribosome by
transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules
iv. Ribosome read mRNA code and assembles amino acids presented
by tRNA into a protein by a process = translation. Translation – is
process in which mRNA code is converted into a sequence of amino
acids
DNA code  mRNA codon  protein/ polypeptide
 Thanks!
Have a nice week!