Organisational

UNIT 4 ORGANISATIONAL Communication Process

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the purpose of communication;
• outline the process of communication;
• describe the media and channels of organizational communication;
• state the basic objectives of organizational communication;
• describe the intentional and unintentional barriers that prevent organizational
communication to be effective; and
• explain how a manager can make communicate effectively.
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Communication Process
4.3 Organisational Communication
4.4 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
4.5 Channels of Communication
4.6 Barriers to Effective Communication
4.7 Communicating Effectively
4.8 Summary
4.9 Self Assessment Questions

4.1 INTRODUCTION
We all know that communication in an organisation is very important for its
success and growth. Communication should be effective and two ways, viz.,
from top to bottom and bottom to top. It is important that each player learns how
to communicate to seniors as well as to juniors. In fact, good communication is
the foundation for sound management. No managerial activity is possible without
communication, and a manager spends most of his/her working time
communicating. Hence, it is no exaggeration to say that communication is very
vital for every organisation and the success of an organisation largely depends
on the effectiveness of the communication system in it.

Communication refers to sharing of ideas, facts, opinions, information and

understanding. Simply stated, communication is the dissemination of information
and understanding form one person to another. It involves at least three elements:
the sender, the receiver, and the message or information that is shared. You must
appreciate that if information flows form one end, the knowledge of its effects is
received from the other end in the form of feedback. Whether or not the effect
produced is the desired one depends upon how well the receiver understands the
meaning of the information. Communication has, therefore, been aptly said to
be ‘transmission of meaning’. 5
Organisational Processes One of the important roles of a manager is to share information with his/her
peers, subordinates and others about different issues relating to their jobs and
responsibilities. That is, he/she seeks and disseminates information about his/
her job and the organisation to all those who are concerned with it. As such, this
act takes a considerable part of his/her time. In some cases, between 40 to 60 per
cent of the work time in a typical organisation is spent in some kind of
communication. Further, the top and middle level managers typically spend 60
to 80 per cent of their total working hours communicating.
According to Peter Drucker, good communication is the foundation for sound
management. The managerial functions of planning, organizing, directing and
controlling depend on communication in an enterprise. For planning to be realistic,
it is essential that it is based on a sound information system in an enterprise. If
the latest developments in the market are not shared with the planners, the future
plans may become totally meaningless. Adaptation to external environment may
not be possible without good communication. Again, in order to achieve stated
objectives, it is necessary that leadership is exercised, decisions made, efforts
coordinated, people motivated and operations controlled. Each of these functions
demands interaction with the people in the organisation. We may, therefore,
conclude that the important fact of organizational life for a manager is
communication, and his/her success will depend on his/her effectiveness to
communicate with others. In other words, how successfully s/he can put his/her
ideas across to those who work with him/her and thereby, persuade them to work
for achievements of the goals of the organisation.
In this unit, we first describe the communication process and then discuss the
goals of organizational communication. We explain various channels of verbal
and non-verbal communication. Finally, we highlight the barriers to effective
communication and present suggestions on how to communicate effectively.

4.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

The essential elements of the simplest model of the communication process can
be illustrated as under:
Sender Message Receiver
If any one of the three elements in missing, communication does not take place.
However, the process of communication is in practice, more complex and consists
of at least five elements, which are subject to various influences. The model of
the communication process is depicted in Figure 4.1.
Sender’s
Thoughts Encoding Channel Decoding Understanding By receiver

Receiving
Decoding Channel Encoding Response Transmission
Response

Figure 4.1: Model of the Communication Process

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Let us explain what the various elements of this model mean. Organisational
Communication Process
Source: In this model the first element is the source of the communication form
where the communication originates. The source or sender can be a person, group,
or even a machine. The sender initiates communication because s/he has some
need, thought, idea or information that s/he wishes to convey to the other person,
persons or machine. If, for example, fire has broken out accidentally in some
part of a godown in a factory, the security officer (source) will need to convey
the message immediately to the fire station (receiver). Fire alarm (machine) can
also function as the source instead of the security officer.

Encoding the Message: The information to be transmitted has to be encoded as

encoding enables the thoughts to be put in the form of symbols. Normally language
provides the symbols that are used in the transmission of thoughts to another
person. However, non-verbal means such as, gestures, like wink, smile, grunt,
frown wave of hand, etc. provide another form through which thoughts can be
transmitted. Similarly, an involuntary shriek may adequately convey the degree
of alarm felt by the victim.

Channel: The next element in the process of communication is the channel

through which the communication is transmitted. It links the sender and the
receiver. The most commonly used channels are sight and sound. In an
organizational environment, the channel could take the form of face-to-face
conversation, written memos, telephonic exchanges, group meetings, etc. Outside
the organisation, the channels could be letters or circulars, magazines radio
programmes or TV shows, etc. For communication to be effective, the channel
used should be appropriate for the message as well as the receiver. For an urgent
message, telegram, telephone, fax, e-mail, etc. or radio would be the appropriate
channel. As a power utility employee, you may like to communicate the duration
of power cut. Which channel will you choose? Newspaper, Radio or TV?

Activity 1: Channels of Communication

List the various channels of communication that you use while communicating
with

Your Boss Your Subordinate

1) .................................................... 1) ..........................................

2) .................................................... 2) ..........................................

3) .................................................... 3) ..........................................

4) .................................................... 4) ..........................................

5) .................................................... 5) ..........................................

Decoding: Decoding and understanding the message constitute the last two
elements in the communication process. The receiver first interprets and translates
it into thoughts, understanding and the desired response. A successful
communication occurs when the receiver decodes the message and attaches a
meaning to it which very nearly approximates the idea, thoughts or information
the sender wished to transmit. This is possible when there is compatibility between
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Organisational Processes the sender and the receiver. However, when an individual is engaged in
communication with another person of a significantly different educational or
cultural background s/he will have to put in greater effort to ensure successful
communication.

Feedback: Response and feedback complete the two-way process of

communication. It is through the feedback that the source (sender) comes to
know if his/her message was correctly received and understood. In case it is
found that the message has been received incorrectly, it is possible to make
corrections subsequently, if the response is timely.

In general, any communication can result in a desired change, an undesired change

or no change. We consider communication as successful only when it produces
the desired response.

Noise: Surrounding the entire spectrum of communication is the noise that can
effect the accuracy and fidelity of the message communicated. Noise is any factor
that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication. It can arise
at any stage in the communication process. The sender may not be able to encode
the message properly or s/he may not be properly audible. The message may get
distorted by other sounds in the environment. The receiver may not hear the
message, or comprehend it in a manner not entirely intended by the sender of the
message. The channel may create interference by ‘filtering’, i.e., allowing some
information to pass through and disallowing, others. In any case, there is so
much of noise or interference in the entire process that there is every possibility
of the communication being distorted. We shall see later in this unit why distortion
takes place and what can be done to minimize the distortion of communication.

4.3 ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

In recent years, communication has attracted increasing attention. Some
innovative and successful practices have been evolved. For example, in BHEL
(Bhopal Unit), Management-Employee Communication Meetings (MECOMs)
have been effectively used. A MECOM is an open forum, in which more than
700 persons participate. It has contributed positively to mutual sharing of
information and concerns and better understanding between management and
employees. MECOM has helped in effective implementation of decisions.
However, establishing this system has not been easy; a lot of work was one prior
to and during the evolution of MECOM.

In TISCO, the Chairman keeps communication with his employees by answering

every letter that is addressed to him (Some 80,000 per year) and holds an open
house at his residence between 7 a.m. and 9 a.m. every day where any one can
walk in and discuss personal or work-related problems. He also holds “dialogues”
with large groups, sometimes of 2500 persons. The most systematic attention to
communication has probably been paid in VST Industries, including regular
business-related communication with the Union, with great benefits.

Organisational communication may be defined as the process of the flow

(transmission and reception) of goal-oriented message between sources, in
a pattern and through a medium or media.

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An additional element in organisational communication (not present in Organisational
Communication Process
interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus, there are
seven elements in organisational communication – the transmitting source; the
receiving source (the target); the transmitted message; the received message; the
goal of the message; the medium or media; and the flow pattern (which is called
network) (Figure 4.2). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people
sending and receiving the message, respectively.

ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Transmitted
Message

Transmitting Receiving
Source Source

ORGANISATIONAL
COMMUNICATION Received
Message

Flow Pattern
Goal of the
Message

Media

Figure 4.2: Elements in Organisational Communication

Goals of Organisation Communication

Organisational Communication has several goals. These are described in
Box 4.1
Box 4.1: Goals of Organisation Communication

Information Sharing: Various types of information are required to be shared

in an organisation. These include policies, rules, changes and developments
in the organisation, such as settlement with the union, major changes, awards
and rewards, etc.
Feedback: Feedback has to be given to the employees on their achievements,
to the departments on their performance; and to the management on the
fulfillment of goals and difficulties encountered. It helps in taking corrective
measures and making necessary adjustments. It can motivate people for
developing challenging and realistic plans.
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Organisational Processes
Control: The management information system (MIS) is well known as a
control mechanism used to ensure that various activities are being carried
out as per plans. Communication helps in ensuring such control as a
monitoring mechanism and directing different aspects for optimum results
as critical information reaches the appropriate level of people in the
organisation.
Influence: One purpose of communication is to influence people. This is
very clear in the case of communication form a trainer in a training group.
The higher the management level, the more is the influencing role of the
manager. The manager communicates to create a good climate, right attitudes
and congenial working relationships.
Problem Solving: Communication between the management and the union
on some issues (negotiation) is aimed at finding a solution to problems.
Many groups meetings are held to brainstorm alternative solutions for a
problem and to evolve acceptable solutions. Such communication can be in
small or in large groups.
Decision-Making: Communication helps a great deal in decision-making.
A more important role is played by the communication of alternative solutions
and the exchange of views on various matters.
Change: The effectiveness of a change introduced in an organisation depends
to a large extent, on the clarity and spontaneity of the communication.
Communication between the consultants and the managers, between the
managers and the employees, and amongst the employee helps in knowing
the difficulties in the planned change, and in taking corrective action.
Group Building: Communication helps in building relationships. Even under
conditions of severe conflict, good relations can be restored only if the
communication process is continued. If communication breaks down, the
group may disintegrate. Communication provides necessary lubrication for
proper functioning of a group. The communication of feelings, concerns,
and support is particularly important in this context.
Gate keeping: Communication helps to build linkages of the organisation
with the outside world. The organisation can use its environment to increase
its effectiveness. It can also influence the Government, its clients, the resource
systems, etc.

Written communication is more effective in the transmission (and reception and

comprehension) of cognitive messages. On the other hand, oral and specially
face-to-face communication is more effective in bringing about changes of
opinions and attitudes.

4.4 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION
A communication in which words are used is verbal communication.
Communication over lng distance takes place usually through verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication refers to the use of ‘body language’
in communicating ideas form the sender to the receiver. Non-verbal
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communication most often takes place unconsciously, and it invariably fortifies Organisational
Communication Process
and supplements verbal communication.

The main characteristic of verbal communication is the use of words, either

written or spoken.

Written Communication
Written communication include personal letter, memoranda, policy and procedure
manuals, and notices placed on the notice boards. Examples of oral
communications are conferences, committee meetings, telephone conversation,
loudspeaker announcements, etc. (Box 4.2). Both written and oral communication
have their merits and demerits.

Box 4.2: Different Verbal Media in Organisational Communication

Group Oral Written

Small Group Conversation Letters/Memos
Telephone Telex
Large Group Lectures Circulars
Meetings Newsletters
Radio Handbooks/Manuals
Short Circuit Posters/Bulletion Board

A written communication has the advantages of being easily verifiable, more

precise and accurate. For clarity, we must use simple and familiar words or phrases
and short sentences. Spoken messages cannot always be verified so easily.
Moreover, written communication becomes absolutely necessary when dealing
with lengthy and complicated messages. It would be difficult to understand and
retain a lengthy message if it were only in oral form. In spite of such advantages,
written communication has drawbacks such as the following:
• Being slow, if we consider the total amount of time involved form the
formulation an of idea by the sender to the understanding of the idea by the
receiver.
• Ambiguity or lack of clarity despite the fact that a greater degree of
preciseness is aimed at while preparing a written communication.
• Too much paper-work due to over-reliance on written communication.
This not only consumes time, money and energy, but also infuses a lack of
trust among the employees of the organisation.

Box 4.3: How to Communicate Powerfully by E-mail

As with all written communications, your e-mails should be clear and concise.
Sentences should be kept short and to the point.

This starts with the e-mail’s subject line. Use the subject line to inform the
receiver of EXACTLY what the e-mail is about. Keep in mind that the subject
line should offer a short summary of the e-mail and allows for just a few
words. Because everyone gets e-mails they do not want spam etc. Appropriate
use of the subject line increases the chances that your e-mail will be read
and not discarded into the deleted e-mail file without so much as a glance.
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Organisational Processes
Because e-mails have the date and time they were sent, it is not necessary to
include this information in your e-mail correspondences. However, the writing
used in the e-mail should be liked that used in other business writings. The
email should be clear and concise, with the purpose of the e-mail detailed in
the very first paragraph.
The body of the e-mail should contain all pertinent information and should
be direct and informative.
Make sure to include any call to action you desire, such as a phone call or
follow-up appointment. Then, make sure you include your contact
information, including your name, title, phone and fax numbers, as well as
snail-mail address. If you have additional e-mail addresses, you may want to
include these, as well.
If you regularly correspond using e-mail, make sure to clean out your e-mail
inbox at least once each day. Of course, the exception here may be on days
you do not work, such as weekends and holidays.
Make sure you return e-mails in a timely manner. This is a simple act of
courtesy and will also serve to encourage senders to return your e-mails in a
timely manner.
Internal e-mail should be treated as regular e-mail, following the same rules
as outlined above. However, internal e-mail should be checked regularly
throughout the working day and returned in a much quicker manner as much
of these detail timely projects, immediate updates, meeting notes, etc.
Nonetheless, internal e-mails, just like e-mails, should not be informal.
Remember, these are written forms of communication that can be printed
out and viewed by others than those originally intended for.
Tips for Effective E-mail
Think before you write. Just because you can send information faster than ever
before, it does not mean that you should send it. Analyse your readers to make
certain that you are sending a message that will be both clear and useful.
Remember that you can always deny that you said it. But if you write it, you may
be held accountable for many many moons. You may be surprised to find where
your message may end up.
Keep your message concise. Remember that the view screen in most e-mail
programs shows only approximately one half of a hard-copy page. Save longer
messages and formal reports for attachments. On the other hand, do not keep
your message so short that the reader has no idea what you are talking about.
Include at least a summary (action or information?) in the first paragraph of your
message.
Remember that e-mail is not necessarily confidential. Some companies will retain
the right to monitor employees’ messages. Do not send anything you would not
be comfortable seeing published in your company’s newsletter (or your
community’s newspaper).
Do not attempt to “discipline” your readers. It is unprofessional to lose control
in person — to do so in writing usually just makes the situation worse.
Do not “spam” your readers. Do not send them unnecessary or frivolous messages.
Soon, they will quit opening any message from you.
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Oral Communication Organisational
Communication Process
Although an organisation cannot function without written communications of
various kinds, yet a significant percentage of information is communicated orally.
It has been observed that managers spend 60 to 80 percent of their work time in
oral communication. Oral communication has the merit of being instantaneous.
Generally, the spoken word is a less complicated way of getting one’s ideas
across, if articulated well. Also, it offers the possibility of two-way information
flow, and therefore less possibility of misunderstanding. The creation of a less
formal atmosphere and generation of fellow feelings are other advantages of
oral communication.

However, the oral communication also has disadvantages. It is less effective for
presenting complicated and lengthy data. Since there is no record, it is subject to
misinterpretation and the effects of barriers arising from interpersonal relationships.
That is why while negotiating with management, unions emphasize on written
commitment.

The choice of the mode of communication is, generally speaking, determined by

the situation. However, the use of both will very often strengthen and reinforce a
message. For example, the study material for this course is the written
communication. It will be fortified subsequently through oral communication in
video-conferencing sessions. The two together, we hope, will further increase
your understanding of the concepts and application of management.

We would like to present a few guidelines for making verbal communication

more effective (Box 4.4.).

Box 4.4: Guidelines for Effective Communication*

• Use simple words and phrases, short and familiar words.

• Use personal pronouns (such as “you”) whenever appropriate.
• Give illustrations and examples.
• Use short sentences and paragraphs.
• Use active verbs such as in “The manager plans”.
• Economise on objectives.
• Express thoughts logically and in a direct way.
• Avoid unnecessary words.
Non-verbal Communication
In determining the effectiveness of communication, non-verbal communication
plays an important role. Experts in the field of human communication have found
that, in a typical message between two persons, only about 7 per cent of the
meaning or content of the message is carried by the actual words being used.
Another 38 per cent of the message is carried by one’s tone of voice (which
includes pacing, timing, pauses, and accents). The major part (55 per cent) of the
content of the message is in the form of our body language.
Non-verbal communication can take place with our actions or with our body
gestures.
Source: “Human Behaviour at Work: Organisational Behaviour” by Keith Davis.
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Organisational Processes For example, a manager who pounds his first on the table while announcing that
from now on participative management will be practiced in his organisation
creates a credibility gap between what he says and what he practices. Think of a
manager who says that he belives in an open door policy for all his employees
but is busy with his own files while an employee gives him certain suggestions
towards improvement in work environment. Is he not making non-verbal
communication quite in conflict with his verbal communication? In such
situations the non-verbal message is so strong that the verbal message will cease
to be effective.

Body gestures that “communicate” may relate to your handshake, your smile,
your eye-contact, your posture while standing or sitting, your facial expression
while listening, the shrug of your shoulders, indeed, the movement of any part of
your body. Therefore, you must be watchful of your body language so that it
does not contradict your verbal message. This is indeed difficult because the
body language is so involuntary that we are not even aware of it.

Some non-verbal actions which assist or impede communication are listed in

Box 4.5.

Box 4.5: Non-verbal Actions that Assist or Impede Communication Actions

that assist communication:
• Maintaining eye contact.
• Occasionally nodding the head in agreement.
• Smiling and showing animation.
• Leaning towards the speaker.
• Speaking at a moderate rate, in a quiet tone.

Actions that impede:

• Looking away or turning away from the speaker.
• Sneering or using other contemptuous gestures.
• Closing your eyes.
• Using an unpleasant tone of voice.
• Speaking too slow or too fast.

4.5 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

An organisation provides a number of channels for the flow of information, that
is an organisation has a network of communication channels. These channels
can be either intentionally designed, or they may develop of their own accord.
When a channel is intentionally created/prescribed for the flow of communication
in the Organisation, we call it a formal channel. The communication passing
through a formal channel is formal communication. On the other hand, channels,
outside the formal channels, are referred to as informal channels. The
communication through informal channels is informal communication.

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Formal Communication Organisational
Communication Process
An organisational chart shows the direction of formal communication flow. It
identifies the various transmitters and receivers, and the channels through which
they must communicate. The authority relationships indicate the direction of
communication flow in an organisation. A formal communication takes place
between a superior and subordinate in the form of instructions and directions.
Such a flow takes place in the downward direction.

Another formal communication takes place from the subordinate to the superior
when reporting on performance. Since the subordinate initiates communication
to the superior, the flow is upward. We call this upward communication. The
upward communication can take the form of progress reports, budget reports,
profit and loss statements, requests for grants, etc.

Formal communication can also take place between one division of an

organisation and another. This can be lateral or diagonal. For example there can
be formal communication between the technical and accounts divisions of your
utility. Formal communication may pass across organisational levels and can
help in coordination and quality control. For example, communication between
maintenance and financial units helps the utility to serve its customers better and
earn better image.

Finally, formal communication may also arise between the organisation and
outside parties, e.g., suppliers, customers, Government, etc. This may happen
when the management is required to provide information on certain aspects of
the working of the organisation. Communication of this kind is usually one-way.

Networks in Formal Communication

You have seen how the formal organisational structure prescribes the channels
through which communication flows take place. These channels are designed to
keep the flow of information in an orderly manner and to protect the higher level
managers from an overload of unnecessary information. However, the way in
which these channels are designed and work can affect the speed and accuracy
of information as well as the task performance and satisfaction of members of
the group. As such, managers have to think of how best to design the organisational
structure and the communication network which meets the requirements of the
situation.

Figure 4.3: Formal Networks

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Organisational Processes Some research in the design of communication networks has been carried out
which indicates their relative merits for use in different situations. Although
these networks can assume many forms, the most frequently discussed are the
wheel, chain, ‘Y’ and circle, shown in Figure 4.3.

These forms can well be looked at as an organisational structure made up of five

members.

The ‘circle’ network represents a three-level hierarchy in which there is

communication between superiors and subordinates, with cross communication
at the operative level. The ‘chain’ can represent a five-level hierarchy, in which
communication can take place only upward and downward, and across
organisational lines.

The ‘wheel’ or ‘star’ represents an administrator and four subordinates with whom
s/he interacts. There is no interaction amongst the subordinates.

In the ‘Y’ network two subordinates report to the superior. It may be regarded as
a four-level hierarchy.

The effectiveness of a communication pattern is determined by network centrality.

The ‘Y’ and ‘wheel’ networks are highly centralized, with the superior occupying
the central position. The ‘circle’ and ‘chain’ networks are decentralized with no
member being able to influence all other members.
The centralized networks perform faster and more accurately for simple tasks.
For complex tasks, the decentralized networks are comparatively quicker and
more accurate.
The centrality of networks also influences the emergence of a leader and the
satisfaction of group members. In centralized groups, whether the tasks are simple
or complex, one person who occupied the central position by virtue of the control
of information emerges as the leader. In decentralized networks no one position
could emerge as the leadership position.
These factors have certain implications (given below) for the design of
organisational structure and the communication network:
• An organisation with mostly routine, simple tasks is likely to work more
efficiently with a formal centralized network of communication, while more
complicated tasks would require decentralized networks.
• The problem-solving objectives of speed and flexibility cannot be achieved
by the same pattern of communication. Rather, speed in problem-solving
can be achieved at the expense of flexibility, and vice-versa. As such, the
communication pattern should be designed with reference to the objective
that is regarded as more important.
• The pattern that leads to the highest average morale and greatest flexibility
in adapting to changed conditions is the one in which there are a large number
of active participants in decision-making process.
• Access to information is an important source of power in organisations.
So far we have discussed patterns for formal communication in an organisation.
We shall now discuss informal communication and its channels.
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Informal Communication Organisational
Communication Process
Communication that takes place without following the formal lines of
communication is said to be informal communication. This channel is not created
by management and is usually not under the control of management. An informal
system of communication is generally referred to as the 20 ‘grapevine’ because
it spreads throughout the organisation with its branches going out in all directions
in utter disregard of the levels of authority and linking member of the organisation
in any direction.

The informal communication normally works where there is communication

gap between employees and the management. It has been observed that problems
relating to work and unfavourable reactions to various organisational practices
are transmitted through informal communication. Since the channels are flexible
and establish contacts at personal levels among members of organisation at
different hierarchical levels, the grapevine spreads information faster than the
formal system of communication. About 10 to 40 percent of employees receive
information (or misinformation) about the organisation through informal channels
of communication.

The grapevine transmits information from one person to a group of persons more
rapidly in a cluster chain arrangement. The cluster chain is made up of individuals
who act as information sources. Each individual passes the information to several
others, some of whom repeat the message to others. Some of those who receive
the message may not pass on the information to others but the information may
lead to a change in their thinking on the subject and may sometimes affect their
behaviour as well. Figure 4.4 illustrates the cluster chain network of informal
communication.

Cluster Chain Network

Figure 4.4 : Cluster Chain Network of Informal Communication

Though it has been found that informal communication carries accurate

information about three-fourths of the time, there are strong possibilities of its
communications being highly distorted. This happens because of the process of
‘filtering’ whereby each member of the chain passes on only that part of
communication which s/he regards important. The receiver is left to fill in the
gaps and complete the story according to his/her own imagination. This may at
times cause serious problems in the organisation.
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Organisational Processes Since the grapevine is a fast channel of communication with tremendous capacity
to carry information both helpful and harmful, as a manager, you are expected
utilize the positive aspects and minimize the negative aspects. In order to do
this, you can identify the members of the organisation who usually seek and
spread information. It is possible that different individuals are active at different
times but usually it will be found that some individuals tend to be more active
carriers of information than others. After identifying such individuals, you can
use them as sounding boards. If it is discovered that misleading rumours are
circulating, it may be desirable to release the official information to clarify the
situation. At times, management may even find the informal communication
channel more useful in transmitting information than the formal channel. A
common method of using informal communication is by ‘planned leaks’, or
strategically planned ‘just between you and me’ remarks, which would obviously
reach all parts of the organisation far quicker than any kind of communication
through formal channels.

Activity 2: Informal Communication

Narrate a solution from your experience, in which informal communication
channel saved a situation from turning ugly.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

Problems in Communication
Communication may not always be effective. The main criterion to find out
whether a communication is effective or not is the fulfillment of its purpose. In
Fig. 4.3, the various purposes of communication in the four directions have been
stated. If the purpose is not fulfilled properly, the problem should be looked into.
There may be several sources of problems in communication.

Rumours: A rumour is usually a belief which is passed as an item of information

from one person to the other without verification of evidence. Remours spread
like wildfire in periods of stress or unrest. Two conditions for the spread of
rumours are: importance of the topic to people, and lack of availability of correct
information about it. The third factor is the critical sense of people. We know
that if people have the capacity for decision-making after reflection and on the
basis of some information, rumours don’t spread.

Activity 3: Problems in communication

Take any two common rumours in your organisation and prepare an action
plan to cope with the rumours, and preventive steps to minimize them in
future.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
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 Organisational
4.6 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Communication Process

One of the biggest dangers in communication is to assume that communication

has taken place. Most of us indeed make a great effort in formulating ideas, and
finding appropriate words for communicating them to others. In an organisation,
considerable money and energy are spent to develop a system of communication.
And yet, if you assess the effectiveness of communication in terms of the desired
response, you will be surprised at the results. You may logically ask: What causes
failure of communication? How can we make communication more effective to
bring about a desired change?

The failure in communication is caused by barriers between the sender and the
receiver. To make communication effective, it must be ensured that these barriers
are removed/overcome. Now-a-days media has become very powerful only
because it has devised ways to reach the target audience. The barriers either
prevent the communication from reaching the receiver or distort it in such a
manner that it ends up either as non-communication or as miscommunication.
Since a manager has to use communication as a means of getting work done
through his/her subordinates, s/he must ensure that the barriers are minimized.

The barriers that interfere with the understanding of the communication are of
three kinds: semantic, psychological and organisational. We now discuss these
one by one.

Semantic Barriers
Most difficulties in communication arise because the same word or symbol
signifies different things to different individuals. You may recall how Shiny
Abraham was disqualified and lost her gold medal, despite coming first by a
very wide margin in the 800 m race, at the Asian Games at Seoul (1986). She
had crossed the track at the place where she should not have done. According to
her, she mistook the symbol, i.e., the colour of the flag. In our country, the red
flag indicates danger but in South Korea, white flag is used for the same purpose.

Words, action or a feeling, can have several meanings. For example, abstract
words like merit, effectiveness or responsibility, can be interpreted differently
by different persons. Difficulty in understanding may arise even in the case of
words which have different contextual meanings in different regions/countries.
To give you an example, a problem arose in interpreting the meaning of the word
‘steps’. In a training programme of health workers relating to family health in
Jamaica, this question was asked: “What are some of the steps that a mother
should take to make sure that her baby keeps healthy?” There was no response to
this question because the trainees were accustomed to only one meaning of the
word ‘steps’ based on their experience; they just could not make any sense of the
question.Semantic difficulty also arises because of unfamiliarity with words, for
example, a word of a foreign language or a technical word.

An effective communication is one which uses words appropriate to the

environment and mental framework of the receiver. This ensures that
communication is grasped properly and implemented effectively. Read the
following story to understand this point:

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Organisational Processes A proposal for raising the salaries of the faculty members of an agricultural college
was under discussion. The farmers’ block was totally against giving the raise to
the college teachers – they could not see why they should pay those college
teachers $5000 a year just for talking 12 to 15 hours a week. Faculty
representatives made no headway in their negotiations until one of them who
had some farming experience, got an inspiration.

“Gentlemen”, he told the members of the administrative body, “a college teacher

is like a little bull. It is not the amount of time he spends. It is the importance of
what he does!”

The faculty members got the raise.

Semantic barrier can also be created if body language is inconsistent with the
verbal communication. A manager who praises the honesty and sincerity of his/
her subordinate in a sarcastic tone creates doubts in the minds of the subordinate
as to the course of action s/he should adopt in a given situation in future. The
same kind of barrier is created by a divergence between the verbal language and
the action language of the superiors. When action and language are used jointly,
the actions often have more powerful influence on other’s actions than words. A
management may, for example, profess its belief in being guided solely by the
merit of employees while making promotions. But if employees observe that, in
actual practice, promotions are made on considerations other than merit, the
management’s professed policy is bound to be affected by a semantic barrier.

Psychological Barriers
Psychological barriers are the prime barriers in inter-personal communication.
The meaning that is ascribed to a message depends upon the emotional or
psychological status of both the parties concerned. As such, the psychological
barriers may be set up either by the receiver or the sender of the message.You
have already seen that the effectiveness of any communication depends upon the
perception of the right meaning of the message by the receiver. However, the
perception of meaning is influenced by the mental frame of the receiver at the
time the message is received. Emotions which dominate our mood at the time,
e.g., anger, anxiety, fear, happiness, etc., will affect our interpretation of the
message. The phrases ‘viewing with coloured glasses’ or ‘seeing with jaundiced
eyes’ explain vividly how our inner feelings may vitiate our perception of the
message or the situation. Post experience of the receiver in such situations would
also lead to the same effect. The same thing may happen when different individuals
interpret the same event or situation. Let us consider the case of a supervisor
watching a group of employees resting and gossiping on the lawns. How will
this situation be perceived?

To the supervisor, who believes that employees are basically lazy, the situation
communicates that they are playing truant with their work, and, therefore, should
be given more work to do and disciplined.

To the supervisor who believes that his/her workers are self-motivated and sincere,
the situation communicates that they are re-charging their batteries through
recreation and enjoyment.

You will, therefore, see that a particular kind of situation, event, happening or
words and symbols are capable of being interpreted differently by different people
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depending on their psychological states. A receiver who is suspicious or hostile, Organisational
Communication Process
either as a consequence of his/her feeling of insecurity or because of his/her past
experience with the sender of the communication, is more likely to start ‘reading
between the lines’ and describe a distorted meaning to the message.
To the receiver’s mind a communication gets tied up with the personality of the
source. This is what some people call the halo effect. Thus, if we receive a message
from a person we admire, we are more likely to agree with it and act accordingly.
On the other hand, our immediate reaction will be one of disagreement with a
message that has been received from a person we do not like or trust. Thus, the
meaning of the communication may be coloured by our own value judgments
about the source of communication.
A receiver of communication suffers from another problem which psychologists
refer to as cognitive dissonance. Since an individual tends to be fed with too
much of information from different sources, s/he becomes selective in receiving
and responding to the communications. S/he is most likely to ‘hear’ only those
messages that conform to her/his own beliefs, attitudes and judgment.
Communications that conflict with her/his own viewpoint tend to be ignored.
Often the ‘other’ point of view may not only be ignored, it might indeed be
regarded as unfriendly or even hostile. If this happens frequently, subordinates
may start questioning whether their superior really wants to hear, opinions contrary
to her/his own. As a consequence, much of the unfavourable news in an
organisation would never get reported to higher levels until the problem has
assumed the form of a crisis.
One common phenomenon with all communications is the effect of filtering.
This effect is produced when the communication passes through a large number
of persons. Each individual through whom the information is passed interprets
facts differently, judges from her/his own point of view what is important or
relevant, and passes it on with her/his own interpretations, with the result that
the original communication gets altered in the process. The process of filtering
involves a biased choice of what is communicated, on the part of either the
sender or the receiver. Thus filtering refers to the process of ‘selective telling’ or
‘selective listening’. For example, a subordinate may tell the boss what s/he (the
boss) wants to hear. Similarly, though several factors affecting productivity in
the organisation may have been identified by the staff, yet the manager may hear
and respond only to those factors that fit in the process of communication leading
to a distortion in communication.
Organisations are particularly prone to the filtering effect. In large organisations,
filtering takes place at multiple levels. In order to save the time of the busy
executive and to save him/her from information overload, it is common in
organisations for subordinates to prepare notes or abstracts of the communication
before passing it on to the superior. The higher an information has to travel, the
higher is the degree of abstraction, with the possibility that significant pieces of
information may be entirely missed or their significance diluted or distorted.
The larger the number of filtering points in an organisation, the greater are the
chances of distortion.

Organisational Barriers
Organisations provide a formal framework through which communication is
designed to flow. The structuring of the flow itself tends to act as a barrier against
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Organisational Processes free flow of communication between persons and levels in the organisation. Rules
may prescribe how communications are to move from one level to another in
upward or downward directions. Not only is there a possibility of delay in the
communication reaching its destination, but also there is every possibility of
communication getting distorted through the process of filtering as described
earlier. It has been found that when information is channelled through different
levels of the organisation, it alters as people interpreted facts differently. In an
organisational setting, this can be a very big problem since senior level executives
have to depend on the information and interpretations of their subordinates. A
critical information that has lost its criticality because of the actions of the
intervening levels may jeopardize the position of the manager as well as the
organisation itself.

It has been observed that the upward communication is particularly subject to

the influence of filtering in large organisations. Upward communication serves
essentially two purposes in an organisation. First, it helps in coordinating and
controlling the activities of the organisation. Second, it enables the superior to
appraise the performance of his/her subordinates. While the former does not
create any problems, the latter has behavioural implications. It is human nature
to show one’s performance in a better light than what it actually is. This tendency
of an individual naturally brings about a filtering through conscious or
unconscious altering, withholding or interpreting facts to be transmitted upward.

The dependence syndrome of the subordinates heightens the tendency to filter

information. In a superior-subordinate relationship, the subordinate is, generally
speaking, dependent on the superior for his/her advancement. Studies show that
the greater the dependence of the subordinate on his/her superiors for the
satisfaction of his/her needs, the more his/her tendency to filter information of
an unfavourable kind. The subordinates are generally unwilling to communicate
unfavourable information when they feel that their superior has the power to
punish them in someway. Only positive aspects of performance are likely to be
communicated upwards.

The superior-subordinate relationship itself develops a gap between the two.

People are more comfortable in communicating with persons of equal status as
their own. Communication with persons of higher or lower status is likely to be
formal and reticent rather than informal and free. You may have seen that the
parking space, bathrooms, refreshment rooms, cabins with stylized furniture,
carpets, for the CEO are earmarked. Such symbols accentuate the gap between
different hierarchical levels and tend to widen the communication gap.

Perhaps, you may have read that among the several characteristics of Japanese
style of management is the removal of status symbols. For example, under the
Japanese system there are no separate cabins for managers; the uniforms for
workers and managers are the same; they eat the same food in the same cafeteria.
All these are intended to reduce the gap between the workers and the managers
and bring about a better understanding of the problems of the organisation which
is the chief objective of organisational communication. In India, Infosys has
some of these practices.

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 Organisational
Activity 4: Barriers to Communication Communication Process

Identify the barriers that prevent the effectiveness of communication. What

can both of you do to remove these barriers between you and your boss?

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4.7 COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY

In order to make your inter-personal communication more effective, you should
keep in mind the following points:

Use direct, simple language and avoid words which can have ambiguous
meanings.
Use face-to-face communication: Face-to-face communication allows more
accurate feedback to be achieved through two-way communication. Generally
speaking, people express themselves more freely while talking rather than through
writing. Face-to-face communication permits a manager to use and understand
the non-verbal signs also.

Use feedback: Feedback enables us to judge whether or not the ideas have been
received in the manner as they were originally intended. Most often it is assumed
that communication has taken place once a note has been circulated or put on the
notice board. You must devise ways to separate fact from distortion.

Listen with understanding: The biggest block to communication is said to be

the inability to listen to the other person intelligently, understandingly and
skillfully. We tend to confuse listening with hearing. Real communication takes
place when the listener truly understands the position and intent of the speaker.
In order to be a successful manager, you must develop your listening ability. You
must try to understand the factual and emotional content of the message without
making any attempt at criticizing, approving or disapproving it until after you
have fully heard and understood the remarks. The empathetic listening, vastly
improves the understanding of both the parties, bringing in its wake improved
inter-personal relationship in the organisation.

Create constructive environment for the expression of ideas: If you can create a
climate in which people acquire confidence that what they say will be listened to
with sympathy and considered constructively, you can be sure of a successful
and creative communication. This is, however, possible only in an environment
of trust which has to be generated by the management through its policies and
actions.

Be careful about your non-verbal communication: Because you hold a status

higher than your subordinates, your gestures are observed and ‘felt’ by your
subordinates. Your body language, therefore, must be supportive of your
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Organisational Processes communication through words. One of the powerful means of communication
are your actions which speak louder than words. If you expect your
communication to be effective, ensure that your actions are consistent with your
words. Develop and use organisational structures which minimize the chances
of filtering the communication: Decentralisation of authority and broadening of
span of control can be attempted to reduce the levels in the organisation and
minimize the authority filters.

The American Management Association has developed a set of ten suggestions

for improving communication, referred to as “The Ten Commandments of Good
Communication” (Box 4.6).

Box 4.6: The Ten Commandments of Good Communication

1) Clarify before attempting to communicate;

2) Examine the purpose of communication;
3) Understand the physical and human environment when communicating;
4) While planning communication, consult others to obtain their support,
as well as the facts;
5) Consider the content and the overtones of the message;
6) Whenever possible, communicate something that helps, or is valued by
the receiver;
7) Communication, to be effective, requires following up;
8) Communicate messages that are of short-run and long-run importance;
9) Actions must be congruent with communication; and
10) Be a good listener.

We hope that you would be able to put into practice the ideas given here and
improve your ability to communicate with your co-workers, superiors and
subordinates. On this note, we would like to end this unit and present its summary.

4.8 SUMMARY
• Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another.
Successful communication is much more than mere transfer of information
– it is the transfer of meaning and understanding between two persons.

• Communication has paved the way for modern civilization and good
communication is the foundation for sound management. No managerial
activity is possible without communication of some kind, and the major
part of a manager’s working time is devoted to communicating.

• Communication is accomplished through a process in which the sender

encodes an idea, which is transmitted through a channel to a receiver who
decodes the message and gains an understanding of the idea of the sender.
The reverse process of feedback also follows the same pattern. During the
entire process, interference is created by ‘noise’ which can lead to distortion
of the communication.
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• Communication takes place either orally or in writing. It could be just one- Organisational
Communication Process
way or two-way, which allows the sender and receiver to interact with each
other. A two-way communication is regarded better, as it brings about
understanding through clarity of the message. In an organisation,
communication may take place in several directions upward, downward,
lateral and diagonal.

• Words either written or oral convey a very small part of the communication;
most of it is transmitted through non-verbal gestures. A manager ought to
be careful lest his/her non-verbal gestures contradict his/her verbal message.

• Communication within an organisation flows either through formally

designed authority channels or through informal channels spontaneously
formed and cutting across authority levels. Informal channels can have both
positive and negative sides. Cluster chain network of informal
communication permits a rapid flow of information through the formation
of a grapevine. Formal communication is transmitted through several kinds
of networks. The choice of a network will depend upon considerations of
the complexity of a task, speed in decision-making in order to adapt to a
change, and the satisfaction of members desired.

• Interference in communication is caused by semantic, psychological and

organisational barriers. In order to achieve effectiveness in communication,
managers should consciously try to lower these barriers.

4.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Why is effective communication important to the manager?
2) Explain the elements of the communication process.
3) What is ‘noise’ in communication? What factors in the organisational
environment cause noise?
4) What purposes are served through vertical communication?
5) What problems are encountered in vertical communication?
6) Why is informal channel of communication called a grapevine? Should
managers use the grapevine or rely on formal channels?
7) Explain the significance of body messages in communication effectiveness.
8) Explain the statement, “Words are symbols and meaning exists in the mind”.
9) Think of a situation at home or at work place and identify the communication
problems that you have observed or experienced.
10) Suggest ways of overcoming the communication problems that you have
identified in Question Number 9.

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