Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Analog and Digital Communication
Subject Code: IT-404
Semester: 4th
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UNIT-II
Amplitude modulation: Modulation, need of modulation, types of modulation techniques, amplitude
modulation (DSB-FC), modulation index, frequency spectrum of AM wave, linear and over modulation, power
relation in AM, transmission efficiency, modulation by a complex signal, bandwidth of AM, AM modulators,
square law and switching modulator, advantages and disadvantages of AM. Demodulation of AM: Suppressed
carrier amplitude modulation systems, DSB-SC, SSB-SC, VSB-SC systems, comparison of various amplitude
modulation systems. Demodulation of AM, square law and envelope detector, synchronous detection of AM,
Low and high power AM transmitters, AM receivers, TRF and superheterodyne receivers, sensitivity, selectivity
and fidelity of receivers.
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2.1. INTRODUCTION:
Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channelled and imparted
by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a
feedback. So the basic elements of communication systems are:
• Transmitter: originates the signal
• Receiver: receives transmitted signal after it travels over the medium
• Medium: guides the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and
receiver. For guided media, electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted
pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fibre. For unguided media, wireless transmission occurs through the
atmosphere, outer space, or water.

Figure2.1. Basic communication system

Elements of Communication system:

1. Information source: The message or information originates in the information source which has to be
transmitted.
2. Input transducer: A transducer is the device which converts one form of energy to another form. In
communication system transducer is usually required to convert the output of a source into an electrical
signal that is suitable for transmission.

3. The Transmitter: The transmitter process the electrical signal into a form that is suitable for transmission
through the transmission medium. The transmitter performs the signal processing of the message signal
such as restriction of range of audio frequencies, amplification and modulation. All these processing are
done to ease the transmission of the signal through the channel.

4. The Channel and the Noise: The communications channel is the physical medium that is used to send the
signal from the transmitter to the receiver. In wireless transmission, the channel is usually the free space.
On the other hand, telephone channels usually employ a variety of physical media, including wire lines,
optical fibre cables, and wireless microwave radio. Whatever the physical medium for signal transmission,
transmitted signal is corrupted in a random manner by noise.

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5. The Receiver: The function of the receiver is to recover or reproduce the message signal contained in the
received signal. If the message signal is transmitted by carrier modulation, the receiver performs carrier
demodulation in order to extract the message from the sinusoidal carrier.
6. Output transducer: It is the final stage use to convert an electrical message signal into its original form.

2.2. Modulation:
Modulation is a technique used to convert a low frequency message signal to a higher frequency
modulated signal using a higher frequency carrier.
Definition: Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Signals in the Modulation Process:
1. Message or Modulating Signal
The signal which contains a message to be transmitted is called as a message signal. It is a baseband signal,
which has to undergo the process of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the
modulating signal.
Baseband signal: Baseband refers to the original frequency range of a transmission signal before it is
converted, or modulated, to a different frequency range.
2. Carrier Signal
The high frequency signal which has a certain phase, frequency, and amplitude but contains no information
is called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used to carry the signal to the receiver after
modulation.
3. Modulated Signal
The resultant signal after the process of modulation is called as the modulated signal. This signal is a
combination of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Signal Bandwidth:
The bandwidth of a signal represents the range of its frequency components. A complex signal is made of a
range of frequencies called spectrum. The Bandwidth of a signal is calculated by subtracting the highest
frequency component from the lowest frequency component.
Demodulation: It is the reverse process of modulation, which is used to get back the original message
signal. Modulation is performed at the transmitting end whereas demodulation is performed at the
receiving end.

2.3. Need for modulation:

The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. When the signal is transmitted without
modulation they cannot travel longer distances as low frequency signal get it attenuates, so its strength has
to e i eased odulati g ith a high f e ue a ie a e, hi h does t affe t the pa a ete s of
the modulating signal.
Modulation is needed to achieve the following basic needs:

1. Practicability of antennas: For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of
λ/4 , he e λ is the a ele gth.
λ = /f
Where c: is the velocity of light
f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted
The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is 7.5 Km.
The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install.
Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz The minimum antenna height is 75 meters.
This antenna can be easily installed practically. Thus, modulation reduces the height of the antenna.

2. Avoids mixing of signals

If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than one transmitter,

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then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz. Therefore, all the signals get mixed
together and a receiver cannot separate them from each other. If each baseband sound signal is used to
modulate a different carrier then they will occupy different slots in the frequency domain i.e. through
different channels. Thus, modulation avoids mixing of signals.
3. Multiplexing is possible: Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over
the same communication channel simultaneously. If transmitted without modulation, the different
message signals over a single channel will interfere with each other. So multiplexing helps in transmitting a
number of messages simultaneously over a single channel which reduces cost of installation and
maintenance of more channels.
4. Narrow banding: The frequency translation through modulation converts a wideband signal to a
narrowband, which is termed as narrow banding.
Let us assume a system is radiating directly with the frequency range from 50 Hz to 10 kHz, the ratio of
highest to lowest wavelength is 200. If antenna is designed for 50 Hz, it will be too long for 10 kHz and vice
versa. But if signal is translated to higher frequency of 1 MHz range using modulation, then the ratio of
6+
lowest to highest frequency will be 6
+ 4 ≈ and the same antenna will be suitable for the entire band.
5. Improves Quality of Reception
6. Increase the Range of Communication

2.4. Types of Modulation:

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation.
Continuous-wave Modulation
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is further
divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
• If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
• If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation.
The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.
• If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency Modulation.
• If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Phase Modulation.

Figure 2.2 Types of modulation

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Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses is used as a carrier wave. This is further

 In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in

divided into analog and digital modulation.

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM).
 In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) where the
analog signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is
called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM), which will be discussed in
subsequent chapters. Hence, PCM is a technique where the analog signals are converted into a digital
form.

2.5. Amplitude modulation

Definition:
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal i.e. the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no information varies as per the
amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant.

Mathematical expression:
Let m (t) is the baseband message and C (t) = Ac Cos (ωct) is called the carrier wave. The carrier frequency, fc
should be larger than the highest spectral component in m(t).

Consider a sinusoidal carrier signal C (t) is defined as

C (t) = Ac Cos πfct +Φ t
Where Ac= Amplitude of the carrier signal
fc= frequency of the carrier signal
Φ = Phase a gle.
For convenience, assume the phase angle of the carrier signal is zero. An amplitude-modulated (AM) wave,
S(t) can be described as function of time is given by
S(t) = Ac [1+kam (t)] Cos ( πfct)
Where the parameter ka is a positive constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.
Let e(t) = Ac|1 + ka m(t)| is called the envelope of the AM signal. When fc is large relative to the bandwidth
of m(t), the envelope is a smooth signal that passes through the positive peaks of S(t) and it can be viewed
as modulating the amplitude of the carrier wave in a way related to m(t) as shown in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3.Amplitude modulation envelope in time domain

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The amplitude modulated (AM) signal consists of both modulated carrier signal and un-modulated carrier
signal. There are two requirements to maintain the envelope of AM signal is same as the shape of base
band signal.
1. The amplitude of the ka m(t) is always less than unity i.e., |ka t |< fo all t .
2. The carrier signal frequency fc is far greater than the highest frequency component W of the
message signal m (t) i.e., fc>>W

Assume the message signal m (t) is band limited to the interval –W <f < W

Fig. 2.4.Spectrum of message signal

The spectrum of AM is shown in fig. 3.5.The Fourier transform of AM signal S (t) is

Ac � �
S (f) = [δ f-f + δ f+f ]+ � � [M(f-fc)+ M(f+fc)]

Fig.2.5. Spectrum of AM signal

Fig.2.6. Spectrum of AM signal representing sidebands

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The AM spectrum consists of two impulse functions which are located at f c and -fc and weighted by Ac/2,
two USBs, band of frequencies from f c to fc +W and band of frequencies from -fc-W to –fc, and two LSBs,
band of frequencies from fc-W to fc and -fc to -fc+W.

The difference between highest frequency component and lowest frequency component is known as
transmission bandwidth.
B = 2W

Figure 2.7.Amplitude modulation waveform in time domain

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2.6. Single-tone modulation

In single-tone modulation modulating signal consists of only one frequency component where as in multi-
tone modulation modulating signal consists of more than one frequency component.
Mathematical Expressions:
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
Time-domain Representation of the Waves
Let the modulating signal be,
m (t) = Am Cos πfmt (2.1)

and the carrier signal be,

C(t)=Ac Cos(2πfct) (2.2)

Where,
Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.
The equation for the overall modulated signal is obtained by multiplying the carrier and the modulating
signal together.
S (t) = Ac [1+ka m(t)] Cos( πfct) (2.3)
Substituting in the individual relationships for the carrier and modulating signal in equation (3.3), the
overall signal becomes:
S (t) = Ac [1+ka Am Cos πfmt] Cos ( πfct)
Replace the term ka Am by µ which is known as modulation index or modulation factor.
Or it can be written as
S (t)= [Ac+ Am Cos π fmt)] Cos π fct) (2.4)
Modulation Index:
A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is called
as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. Modulation index can be defined as the measure of extent of
amplitude variation about an un-modulated carrier.
Rearrange the Equation 4 as below.
S (t) = Ac[1 +(Am/Ac) Cos (2π fmt)] Cos(2π fct) (2.5)

S (t) = Ac[1 +µ Cos (2π fmt)] Cos(2π fct) (2.6)

Where, μ is Modulation index or Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator and it is equal to the ratio of Am
and Ac. Mathematically, we can write it as

μ = (Am/Ac)
Calculating the modulation index from AM envelope:
With reference to the figure 3.7 and 3.8, we can calculate the modulation index from the modulated
waveform. We know that μ = (Am/Ac)

Am = (Amax-Amin)/2 (2.8)

Ac = Amax -Am (2.9)

By substituting (3.8) equation in equation (3.9) we get

Ac =Amax - (Amax-Amin)/2 (2.10)

By diving (3.8) and (3.10) equation we get

� �� −� �
μ = (Am/Ac)=� (2.11)
�� +� �
Where

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Amax = maximum amplitude of the modulated carrier signal

Amin = minimum amplitude of the modulated carrier signal

Figure 2.8.AM envelope

Modulation index µ has to be governed such that it is always less than unity; otherwise it results in a
situatio k o as o e - odulatio µ >1). The over-modulation occurs, whenever the magnitude of the
peak amplitude of the modulating signal exceeds the magnitude of the peak amplitude of the carrier signal.
The sig al gets disto ted due to o e odulatio . Be ause of this li itatio o µ , the system clarity is also
limited. The AM waveforms for different values of modulation index m are as shown in figure 3.9.

If µ = 0 we haven't modulating wave, then no information is transmitted while engaging the channel with
the carrier.

If µ= 1 we have the maximum of modulation. When the modulation index is 1, i.e. a modulation depth of
100%, the carrier level falls to zero and rise to twice its non-modulated level.
We are in optimal conditions if µ = 0.5.

If µ > 1 then we have strong crossover distortion. Any increase of the modulation index above 1.0, i.e. 100%
modulation depth causes over-modulation. The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier
level would try to go below the zero point. These phase reversals give rise to additional sidebands resulting
from the phase reversals (phase modulation) that extend out, in theory to infinity. This can cause
interference to other users if not filtered.

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Figure 2.9.AM waveforms for different values of µ

S (t) = Ac Cos πfct) + Acµ/ [ os π fc+ fm)t]+ Acµ/ [ os π fc-fm)t] (2.12)

• Looking at equation (3.12) we can say that 1st term represents un-modulated carrier and two
additional terms represents two sidebands
• The frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is fc –fm and the frequency of the upper sideband (USB) is
fc+ fm
Fourier transform of S (t) is
S (f) =Ac/ [δ f-fc + δ f+fc)] +Acµ/4[δ f-fc-fm + δ f+fc+fm)] + Acµ/4[δ f- fc+fm + δ f+fc-fm)] (2.13)

Bandwidth of AM wave:
• We know bandwidth can be measured by subtracting lowest frequency of the signal from highest
frequency of the signal
• For amplitude modulated wave it is given by
BW = fUSB - fLSB
= (fc + fm) – (fc -fm)
=2 fm
Therefore the bandwidth required for the amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of the modulating
signal.

Figure 2.10. Spectrum of Single tone AM signal

Power calculations of single-tone AM signal:

The standard time domain equation for single-tone AM signal is given by equation 2.12

S (t) = Ac Cos πfct)+Acµ/ [ os π fc+ fm)t]+ Acµ/ [ os π fc-fm)t] (2.12)

We have seen that AM wave has three components:

• Un-modulated carrier
• Lower sideband
• Upper sideband

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Therefore the total power of AM wave is the sum of the carrier power Pc and Power in the two sidebands
PUSB and PLSB. It is given as

Power of any signal is equal to the mean square value of the signal
Pc = Ac2 /2
Upper Side Band power PUSB = Ac2 2 /8
Carrier power

Lower Side Band power P LSB = Ac22 /8

PT = Ac2 /2 + Ac2 2 /8 + Ac2 2 /8

Total power PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

PT = Pc [1+ 2 /2]
Total power

2.7. Multi-tone modulation:

In multi-tone modulation modulating signal consists of more than one frequency component where as in
single-tone modulation modulating signal consists of only one frequency component.

Mathematical Expression
Let us consider that a carrier signal Ac Cos(2π fct) is modulated by a baseband or modulating signal m(t)
which is expressed as :

m (t) = Am1 Cos (2π fm1t) + Am1 Cos (2π fm2t) (2.14)

We know that the general expression for AM wave is

S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct) + m(t) Cos (2π fct)

Putting the value of x(t), we get

S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct) + [Am1 Cos (2π fm1t) + Am2 Cos (2π fm2t)] Cos (2π fct) (2.15)
or it can be written as

S (t) = Ac [1 + Ka Am1 Cos (2π fm1t) + Ka Am2 Cos (2π fm2t)] Cos (2π fct) (2.16)

Replace Ka Am1 by µ1 and Ka Am2 by µ2

So finally we get

�� µ �� µ �� µ
S (t) = Ac Cos (2π fct) + [cos 2π (fc +fm1 )t] + [cos 2π(fc - fm1 )t] + [cos 2π (fc +fm2 )t]
�� µ
+ [Cos 2π (fc - fm2)t] ( 2.17)

Power of multi-tone AM signal is given by:

PT = Pc [1+ µ12 /2 + µ22 /2+ ………..+ µn2/2]

Where Pt = Total power
Pc = Carrier power
PT = Pc [1+ µt2 /2]
Where µt = √µ + µ + ⋯ + µ�

Fourier transform of S(t) is

� �� µ �� µ �� µ
S(f) = � [δ f-fc + δ f+fc)] + [δ f-fc-fm1 + δ f+fc+fm1)] + [δ f-fc+fm1 + δ f+fc-fm1)] + [δ f-fc-fm2)+
�� µ
δ f+fc+fm2)]+ [δ f-fc+fm2 + δ f+fc-fm2)]

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Figure 2.11. Spectrum of Multi tone AM signal

Transmission efficiency:
Transmission efficiency is defined as the ratio of total side band power to the total transmitted power.
The yield of modulation is defined therefore as the ratio between the transmitted information signal
strength content in one of the two side lines, divided by all the power you must transmit.

PLSB +PUSB
η=
�
µ
η= X 100 % (2.18)
+µ

The t a s issio effi ie η of AM a e is defi ed as the pe e tage of total po e o t i uted side

bands of the AM signal. The maximum transmission efficiency of an AM signal is 33.33%, i.e., only one third
of the total transmitted power is carried by the side bands in an AM wave. The remaining two third of the
total transmitted power gets wasted.

Advantages of Amplitude modulation:

Generation and detection of AM signals are very easy
It is very cheap to build, due to this reason it is most commonly used in AM radio broad casting

Disadvantages of Amplitude of modulation:

Amplitude modulation is wasteful of power
Amplitude modulation is wasteful of band width

2.8. Modulation by a complex signal

A comple a ie sig al t , at a a ie f e ue ω c , is described mathematically as the complex
exponential
C(t) = ��� �+ �
For convenience we choose the initial time so that the phase (δ) is zero. Then, if m(t) is the signal or
information that is to be transmitted by the carrier, the signal m(t) is encoded onto the carrier by multiplying
the carrier by m(t)
S(t) = m(t) c(t)
��� �
S(t) =
The carrier’s amplitude is modulated by the signal m(t). Now we know that multiplication in the time
domain is equivalent to convolution in the frequency domain. Thus, the Fourier transform of the signal s(t)
is the convolution of the Fourier transforms of m(t) and c(t).
S(ω) = M(jω) * C(jω)
∞
S(ω) = ∫ � �� � � � − �
� −∞
�

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Earlier we took the Fourier transform of a complex exponential and determined it is a delta function
C(jω) = 2π δ(ω-ωc)
and upon substitution into the convolution equation we obtain
S(ω) = M(j(ω-ωc))
Thus, as a result of modulation, the transform of the signal m(t) is shifted on the frequency axis by the
carrier frequency. We can visualize the situation by considering the magnitude of M (jω). We suppose that
the signal m(t) is a real function of time and that its frequency content is bounded by some maximum
frequency ωm . Hence, all of the signal power lies in the range ± ωm, as depicted in the figure 2.12 below.
The second figure depicts the delta function at ωc and the third figure shows the result of amplitude
modulation.

Figure 2.12 Complex AM spectrum

2.9. Generation of AM waves

The amplitude modulator is a circuit which generates amplitude modulated signal. In the process of
modulation the frequency spectrum gets translated. The output of the modulator contains the frequencies
which are different from those present in the input signal. The amplitude modulator therefore must be
time varying linear systems such as switching or chopping circuit are a non linear time in varying system.
The reason for this is that a linear time invariant system cannot produce new frequencies in its output.
Here two methods for generating AM waves:
1. The square law are power law modulator
2. Switching modulator.
These two methods require non linear element as active device for generating AM signals. These two
methods are use full in the low power generation of amplitude modulated waves.

Square-law modulator:
It consists of the following:
1. A non-linear device
2. A band pass filter
3. A carrier source and modulating signal

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The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with each other and their sum V1(t) is applied at
the input of the non-linear device semi-conductor diodes and transistors are the most common nonlinear
devices used for implementing square law modulators. The filtering requirement is usually satisfied by
using a single or double tuned filters.
When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased and operated in a restricted portion of its
characteristic curve, that is ,the signal applied to the diode is relatively weak, we find that transfer
characteristic of diode-load resistor combination can be represented closely by a square law.

Figure 2.13.Square law modulator

The input output relation for non-linear device is as under:
V0 (t) = a1Vi (t) + a2 Vi2 (t) (2.19)
Where a1, a2 are constants now, the input voltage Vi (t) is the sum of both carrier and message signals

i.e., Vi (t) =Ac Cos πfct)+m (t) (2.20)

Substitute equation (2.20) in equation (2.19) we get

V0 (t) =a1Ac Cos πfct) +a1m (t) +a2 [Ac Cos πfct)+m (t)]2 (2.21)

V0 (t) =a1Ac Cos πfct )+a1m (t) +a2Ac 2 cos2 πfct)+ a2m2 (t) + 2 a2 Ac Cos πfct) m(t) (2.22)

The five terms in the expression for V0(t) are as under :

Term 1: a1m (t): Modulating Signal
Term 2: a1Ac Cos πfct): Carrier Signal
Term 3: a2m2 (t): Squared modulating Signal
Term 4: 2 a2 Ac Cos πfct) m(t): AM wave with only sidebands
Term 5: a2Ac 2 cos2 πfct) + a2m2 (t): Squared Carrier
Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 4 are useful whereas the remaining terms are not useful.

Let us combine terms 2, 4 and 1, 3, 5 as follows to get,

V0 (t) = {a1m (t) +a2Ac 2 cos2 πfct) + a2m2 (t)} + {a1Ac Cos πfct )+2 a2 Ac Cos πfct) m(t)} (2.23)

Now design the tuned filter /Band pass filter with center frequency fc and pass band frequency width 2W.
We can remove the unwanted terms by passing this output voltage V0(t) through the band pass filter and
finally we will get required AM signal.
�
V0 (t) =a1Ac [1+ 2
�
] Cos πfct ) (2.24)
�
Where Ka= 2
�
Assume the message signal m (t) is band limited to the interval –W ≤f ≤W

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Figure 2.14.Spectrum of message signal

Spectrum of AM can represented a one shown in figure 2.15.The Fourier transform of output voltage VO (t)
is given by
VO (f) = a1AC/2[(f-fc) + (f+fc)] +a2 AC [M (f-fc) + M (f+fc)] (2.25)

Figure 2.15.Spectrum of AM

The AM spectrum consists of two impulse functions which are located at f c & -fc and weighted by Aca1/2 &
a2Ac/2, two USBs, band of frequencies from fc to fc +W and band of frequencies from -fc-W to –fc, and two
LSBs, band of frequencies from fc-W to fc & -fc to -fc+W.

Switching Modulator:
In switching modulator the diode has to operate as an ideal switch as one shown in figure 2.16. Let the
modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and c(t)=Ac Cos πfct) respectively.

 The two signals i.e. modulating and carrier signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder)
Working of circuit:

block.
 Assume that carrier wave C(t) applied to the diode is large in amplitude, so that it swings right
across the characteristic curve of the diode and also the diode acts as an ideal switch, that is, it
presents zero impedance when it is forward-biased and infinite impedance when it is reverse-
biased.
 We may thus approximate the transfer characteristic of the diode-load resistor combination by a
piecewise-linear characteristic. Summer block produces an output, which is the addition of
modulating and carrier signals.
 During the positive half cycle of the carrier signal i.e. if C (t)>0, the diode is forward biased, and then
the diode acts as a closed switch. Now the output voltage Vo (t) is same as the input voltage Vi (t) .
 During the negative half cycle of the carrier signal i.e. if C (t) <0, the diode is reverse biased, and
then the diode acts as an open switch. Now the output voltage VO (t) is zero i.e. the output voltage
varies periodically between the values input voltage Vi (t) and zero at a rate equal to the carrier
frequency fc.

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Figure 2.16.Switching modulator

Mathematically, we can write it as
The input voltage applied Vi (t) applied to the diode is the sum of both carrier and message signals.

Vi (t) =Ac Cos πfct)+m (t) (2.26)

Vo (t) = [Ac Cos πfct) +m (t)] gP(t) (2.27)

Where gp(t) is the periodic pulse train with duty cycle one-half and period
Tc=1/fc and which is given by
− −
gp(t) = + ∑∞
�= Cos[ πfct(2n-1)] (2.28)
� �−

Figure 2.17 Pulse train

Substituting gp(t) into equation (2.27), we get
��
Vo (t) = m(t) + Ac Cos πfct) + cos πfct + πfct) (2.29)
� �

The odd harmonics in this expression are unwanted, and therefore, are assumed to be eliminated. In this
expression, the first and the fourth terms are unwanted terms whereas the second and third terms
together represent the AM wave.
Combining the second and third terms together, we obtain
�
Vo (t) = � [ + ]Cos πfct) + unwanted terms (2.30)
���

This is the required expression for the AM wave with µ= [4/πEc].

The unwanted terms can be eliminated using a band-pass filter (BPF). Now design the tuned filter /Band
pass filter with center frequency fc and pass band frequency width 2W.We can remove the unwanted terms
by passing this output voltage V0(t) through the band pass filter and finally we will get required AM signal.
Assume the message signal m(t) is band limited to the interval –W ≤f ≤W as one shown in figure 2.18

M(f)

Figure 2.18 Spectrum of message signal

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The spectrum of Am signal is shown in figure 2.19.The Fourier transform of output voltage VO (t) is given by

VO (f) = AC/4[δ(f-fc) + δ f+fc)] +AC/π [M (f-fc) + M (f+fc)] (2.31)

Figure 2.19. Spectrum of AM signal

The AM spectrum consists of two impulse functions which are located at fc & -fc and weighted by A ca1/2 &
a2Ac/2, two USBs, band of frequencies from fc to fc +W and band of frequencies from -fc-W to –fc, and two
LSBs, band of frequencies from fc-W to fc & -fc to -fc+W.

2.10. Advantages:
1. It is very simple to design and implement
2. It can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components
3. AM receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.
4. AM signal are reflected back to earth from ionosphere layer. Due to this fact, AM signals can reach far places
which are thousands of miles from source. Hence AM radio has coverage wider compare to FM radio.

Disadvantage:
1. Due to large time constant, some distortion occurs which is known as diagonal clipping i.e., selection
of time constant is somewhat difficult
2. The most natural as well as man-made radio noise are of AM type. The AM receivers do not have any
means to reject this kind of noise.
3. Weak AM signals have low magnitude compare to strong signals. This requires AM receiver to have
circuitry to compensate for signal level difference.
4. It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice that of the
highest audio frequency

Application:
 Broadcast transmissions: AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium and short
wave bands.

 Air band radio: VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is used for
ground to air radio communications as well as two way radio links for ground staff as well.
2.11. Suppressed carrier Amplitude modulation systems:
Objective: In full AM (DSB-AM), the carrier wave C (t) is completely independent of the message signal
m(t), which means that the transmission of carrier wave represents a waste of power. This points to a
shortcoming of amplitude modulation, that only a fraction of the total transmitted power is affected by

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m(t).Thus, the carrier signals and one of the two sidebands may be removed or attenuated so the resulting
signals will require less transmitted power and will occupy less bandwidth, and yet perfectly acceptable
communications will be possible.
2.12. Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC) Modulation
Double sideband-suppressed (DSB-SC) modulation, in which the transmitted wave consists of only the
upper and lower sidebands. Transmitted power is saved through the suppression of the carrier wave, but
the channel bandwidth requirement is same as in AM that is twice the bandwidth of the message signal. In
power calculation of AM signal, it has been observed that for single-tone sinusoidal modulation, the ratio
of the total power and carrier power is
� µ
��
= [1 + ]
��
= x 100 % = 67%(for µ = 1)
�
So for 100% modulation that is µ = 1, about 67% of the total power is wasted for transmitting carrier which
does not contain any information. So if carrier is suppressed, saving of two-third power may be achieved at
100% modulation.
Let m (t) be a band-limited baseband message signal with cutoff frequency W. The DSBSC-AM signal
corresponding to m (t) consists of the product of both the message signal m (t) and the carrier signal
C (t), as follows:
S (t) =C (t) m (t)
S (t) =Ac Cos πfct) m (t)
This is the same as AM except with the sinusoidal carrier component is eliminated.
The modulated signal S (t) undergoes a phase reversal whenever the message signal m (t) crosses zero. The
envelope of a DSB-SC modulated signal is different from the message signal. The transmission bandwidth
required by DSB-SC modulation can be seen from figure 2.21 which is same as that for amplitude
modulation that is twice the bandwidth of the message signal 2W.
Assume that the message signal is band-limited to the interval –W ≤f≤ W.

Figure 2.20 Spectrum of message signal

Figure 2.21.Spectrum of DSBSC signal

Single-tone modulation:
In single-tone modulation modulating signal consists of only one frequency component where as in multi-
tone modulation modulating signal consists of more than one frequency components.
The standard time domain equation for the DSB-SC modulation is given by
S (t) =Ac Cos πfct) m (t) (1)
m (t) =Am Cos πfmt) (2)

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Substitute equation (2) in equation (1) we will get

S (t) =Ac Am Cos πfct Cos πfmt)
� �
S (t) = � [Cos π fc-fm t + Cos π fc+fm) t] (3)
The Fourier transform of S (t) is
� � � �
S (f) = � [δ f-fc-fm + δ f+fc+fm)] + � [δ f-fc+ fm + δ f+fc+fm)]

Figure 2.22.Spectrum of single tone DSBSC

Bandwidth:
The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum frequencies
are fc+fm and fc−fm respectively.
fmax=fc+fm and fmin=fc−fm
Substitute, fmax and fmin values in the bandwidth formula.
BW=fc+fm− (fc−fm)
BW=2fm
Power calculations of DSB-SC waves:-
Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave
� �
S (t) = � [ os π fc-fm t + Cos π fc+fm) t]
Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband frequency
components.
PT=PUSB+PLSB
We know the standard formula for power of cosine signal is
�
P= �
Average power delivered to a 1ohm resistor can be calculated as,
� �� 2
PUSB = ( )
√
PUSB = Am2Ac2/8
� �� 2
Similarly; PLSB = ( ) = Am2Ac2/8
√
So total power PT =Ac2Am2/4
� ��⁄
� � �� � 8
�
= =� ��⁄
x 100 % = 50%
�

For the sinusoidal modulation, the average power in the lower or upper side-frequency with respect to the
total power in the DSB-SC modulated wave is 50%.
Generation of DSB-SC waves:
The generation of a DSB-SC modulated wave consists simply of the product of the message signal m(t) and
the carrier wave Ac Cos πfct). Devices for achieving this requirement is called a product modulator. There

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 Balanced modulator
are two methods to generate DSB-SC waves. They are:

 Ring modulator
Balanced Modulator:
1. Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators which are arranged in a balanced
configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as balanced modulator as
shown in figure 4.4.
2. Assume that two AM modulators are identical, except for the sign reversal of the modulating signal
applied to the input of one of the modulators.
3. The same carrier signal C (t) = Ac Cos πf t is applied as one of the inputs to these two AM
modulators.
4. The modulating signal m(t) is applied as another input to the upper AM modulator. Whereas, the
modulating signal with opposite polarity, − t is applied as another input to the lower AM
modulator.

Figure 2.23.Balanced modulator

Mathematical analysis:
The outputs of the two AM modulators can be expressed as follows:
S1 (t) = Ac [1+ka t ] Cos πfct
S2 (t) = Ac [1- ka t ] Cos πfct
Subtracting S2 (t) from S1 (t), we obtain
S (t) = S1 (t) – S2 (t)
S (t) = 2Ac ka t Cos πfct)
Hence, except for the scaling factor 2ka the balanced modulator output is equal to product of the
modulating signal and the carrier signal. The Fourier transform of S (t) is
S (f) =ka Ac [M (f-fc) + M (f+fc)]
Assume that the message signal is band-limited to the interval –W ≤f≤ W as sho i figu e .24 and its
DSB-SC modulated spectrum is shown in figure 4.6.

Figure 2.24.Spectrum of Baseband signal

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Figure 2.25.Spectrum of DSBSC wave

Ring modulator:
One of the most useful product modulator, for generating a DSBSC wave, is the ring modulator shown in
figure 2.26.
1. In this diagram, the four diodes D1,D2,D3 and D4 are connected in the ring structure. Hence, this
modulator is called as the ring modulator.
2. The diodes are controlled by a square-wave carrier C (t) of frequency fc, which applied longitudinally by
means of to center-tapped transformers. If the transformers are perfectly balanced and the diodes are
identical, there is no leakage of the modulation frequency into the modulator output.
3. The message signal m(t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the carrier signals C (t) is applied
between the two centre-tapped transformers.
4. For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1 and D3 are switched ON and the other two
diodes D2 and D4 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied by +1.
5. For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2 and D4 are switched ON and the other two
diodes D1 and D3 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied by -1. This results
in 1800 phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.

Figure 2.26.Ring modulator

Mathematical Analysis:
The square wave carrier c (t) can be represented by a Fourier series as follows:
− −
C(t) = ∑∞ �= � −
� �−
= 4/π Cos πf t + highe o de ha o i s =
Now, the Ring modulator output is the product of both message signal m (t) and carrier signal c (t).
S (t) =c (t) m (t)
− −
S (t) == ∑∞
�= � − m (t) For n=1
� �−

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“ t =4/π Cos πfct) m (t)

There is no output from the modulator at the carrier frequency i.e the modulator output consists of
modulation products. The ring modulator is also called as a double-balanced modulator, because it is
balanced with respect to both the message signal and the square wave carrier signal.
The Fourier transform of S (t) is
“ f = /π [M f-fc) + M (f+fc)]
Assume that the message signal is band-limited to the interval –W ≤f≤ W as sho i figu e 2.27 and its
DSB-SC modulated spectrum in figure 2.28.

Figure 2.27. Spectrum of Baseband signal

Figure 2.28.Spectrum of DSBSC wave

Coherent Detection of DSB-SC Waves:
The base band signal can be recovered from a DSB-SC signal by multiplying DSB-SC wave S (t) with a locally
generated sinusoidal signal and then low pass filtering the product. It is assumed that local oscillator signal
is coherent or synchronized, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier signal C (t) used in the product
modulator to generate S (t). This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous
demodulation.

Figure 2.29.Coherent detection of DSB-SC signal

Analysis of coherent detection:

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The product modulator produces the product of both input signal s(t) and local oscillator signal and the
output of the product modulator is v (t).
S (t) = Ac Cos πf t t
C (t) = Ac Cos πf t + Ø
V (t) = C(t) S (t)
V (t) =Ac Cos πfct+Ø) S (t)
V (t) =Ac Cos πfct+Ø) Ac Cos πfct) m (t)
V (t) =Ac2 Cos πfct+Ø Cos πfct ) m (t)
� �
V (t) = � cos Ø + � Cos 4πfct + Ø) m (t)
In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted by
passing the above signal through a low pass filter. Therefore, the output of low pass filter is
��
Vo (t) = cos Ø
The Fourier transform of Vo (t) is
��
VO (f) = cos Ø �

Figure 2.30.DSB-SC demodulated output

The demodulated signal is proportional to the message signal m (t) when the phase error is constant. The
amplitude of this demodulated signal is maximum when Ø=0, the local oscillator signal and the carrier
signal should be in phase, i.e., there should not be any phase difference between these two signals. The
demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when Ø=±π/ . This effect is called as quadrature null effect.
Costa’s loop detection:
1. The receiver consists of two coherent detectors supplied with same DSB-SC wave while the other input
for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) with −9 0 phase shift to one
of the product modulator as shown in figure 2.29.
2. The frequency of the local oscillator is adjusted to be the same as the carrier frequency fc. The two
detector are coupled together to form a negative feedback system designed in such a way as to maintain
the local oscillator synchronous with the carrier wave.
3. The detector in the upper path is referred to as the in-phase coherent detector or I-channel, and that in
the lower path is referred to as the quadrature-phase coherent detector or Q-channel.
4. The output of product modulator is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter.
5. The output of lower Low pass filter has −900 phase difference with the output of the upper low pass
filter. The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase discriminator. Based on
the phase difference between these two signals, the phase discriminator produces a DC control signal.
6. This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO output. Therefore, the carrier
signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally generated signal (VCO output) are in phase.

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Figure 2.31.Costa s e ei e
Mathematical Analysis: We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is
S (t) = Ac Cos πfct)m(t)
Let the output of VCO be c1 t = Cos πfct+ϕ)
This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product modulator. Hence, the output of the
upper product modulator is
v1 (t) = S(t) c1(t)
Substitute, S(t) and c1(t) values in the above equation.
v1(t) = Ac Cos πfct t Cos πfct+ϕ)
� �
v1(t) = � Cos ϕ + � Cos 4πfct + ϕ) m (t)
This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is
v01 (t) = Ac2cos ϕ m(t)
Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the modulating signal.The output
of −9 0 phase shifter is
c2 t = Cos πfct+ϕ−900 =si πfct+ϕ)
This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator. The output of the lower product
modulator is
v2(t) = S(t) c2(t)
Substitute, S(t) and c2(t) values in the above equation.
v2(t) = Ac Cos πfct t si πfct+ϕ)
After simplifying, we will get v2(t) as
v2(t) = Ac2sinϕm(t)+Ac2si 4πf t+ϕ)m(t)
This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is
v02 (t) = Ac2 sin ϕ m(t)
The output of this Low pass filter has −9 0 phase difference with the output of the upper low pass filter.

2.13. Single Sideband Modulation

Single sideband modulation (SSB) is a form of amplitude modulation which uses only one sideband for a
given message signal to provide the final signal. The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with
the carrier and transmitting a single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or
simply SSBSC.
SSB provides a considerably more efficient form of communication when compared to ordinary amplitude
modulation in terms of the radio spectrum used a can be seen from figure 2.30, and also the power used to
transmit the signal.
Depending on which half of DSB-SC signal is transmitted, there are two types of SSB modulation
1. Lower Side Band (LSB) Modulation
2. Upper Side Band (USB) Modulation

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Figure 2.32.SSB-SC spectrum

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals as follows
Modulating signal m(t) =Am Cos πfmt)
Carrier signal c(t) = Ac Cos πfct)
Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as
� ��
S (t) = Cos [ π fc+fm)t] for the upper sideband
Or
� ��
S (t) = Cos [ π fc−fm)t] for the lower sideband
Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave
As can be seen in figure 2.33, the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm.
Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the bandwidth of
DSBSC modulated wave. Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm and it is equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Figure 2.33 Spectrums of DSBSC and SSBSC

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Power Calculations of SSBSC signal:

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.
� ��
s(t)= os[ π fc+fm)t] for the upper sideband
Or
� ��
s(t)= os[ π fc−fm)t] for the lower sideband
Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.
Pt = PUSB = PLSB
We know that the standard formula for power of cosine signal is
�
� ⁄
√
P = =
� �
In this case, the power of the upper sideband is
� �
PUSB= 8��
Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.
� � �
PLSB=
8�
Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave for 1 ohm resistance is
� � �
Pt = PUSB = PLSB =
8
Advantages
 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.
 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.
Disadvantages
 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.
 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an excellent
frequency stability.
Applications
 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.
 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

2.14. Generation of SSB waves:

1. Frequency Discrimination Method
The frequency discrimination or filter method of SSB generation consists of a product modulator, which
produces DSBSC signal and a band-pass filter to extract the desired side band and reject the other and is
shown in the figure 2.34. Application of this method requires that the message signal satisfies two
conditions:
1. The message signal m(t) has low or no low-frequency content. M ω has a hole at ze o-frequency
Example: - speech, audio, music.
2. The highest frequency component W of the message signal m(t) is much less than the carrier frequency.
Then, under these conditions, the desired side band will appear in a non-overlapping interval in the
spectrum in such a way that it may be selected by an appropriate filter.

In designing the band pass filter, the following requirements should be satisfied:

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1) The pass band of the filter occupies the same frequency range as the spectrum of the desired SSB
modulated wave.
2. The width of the guard band of the filter, separating the pass band from the stop band, where the
unwanted sideband of the filter input lies, is twice the lowest frequency component of the message signal.

Figure 2.34.Filter method

2. Phase discrimination method
1. The phase discriminator consists of two product modulators I and Q, supplied with carrier waves
in-phase quadrature to each other as shown in figure 2.35.
2. The incoming base band signal m(t) is applied to product modulator I, producing a DSBSC
modulated wave that contains reference phase sidebands symmetrically spaced about carrier
frequency fc.
3. The Hil e t t a sfo ˆ t of t is applied to p odu t odulator Q, producing a DSBSC
modulated that contains side bands having identical amplitude spectra to those of modulator I,
but with phase spectra such that vector addition or subtraction of the two modulator outputs
results in cancellation of one set of side bands and reinforcement of the other set.
4. The use of a plus sign at the summing junction yields an SSB wave with only the lower side band,
whereas the use of a minus sign yields an SSB wave with only the upper side band. This
modulator circuit is called Hartley modulator.

Figure 2.35.Phase discrimination method

Demodulation of SSB waves:
Coherent detection: It assumes perfect synchronization between the local carrier and that used in the
transmitter both in frequency and phase. The carrier signal which is used for generating SSBSC wave is used
to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of coherent detector.
In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it with a coherent
carrier and then the resulting signal is passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the
desired message signal.

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Figure 2.36.Coherent detection

Mathematical Analysis:
S (t) = Am A / Cos[ π fc−fm)t]
The output of the local oscillator is
c(t)=Ac Cos πfct)
From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as
v(t) = s(t)c(t)
Substitute s(t) and c(t) values in the above equation
� ��
V (t) = os[ π fc+fm)t] Ac os πfct)
� �� � ��
V (t) = os πfmt) + os[ π fc−fm)t]
��
In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal the scaling factor is . It
can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is
� ��
V0 (t)= os πfmt)

2.15. Vestigial side band Modulation

Vestigial sideband is a type of Amplitude modulation in which one side band is completely passed along
with trace or tail or vestige of the other side band. VSB is a compromise between SSB and DSBSC
modulation. In SSB, we send only one side band, the bandwidth required to send SSB wave is w. SSB is not
appropriate way of modulation when the message signal contains significant components at extremely low
frequencies. To overcome this VSB is used. The o d estige ea s a pa t f o hi h, the a e is
derived.
VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated along with one
sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the figure 2.37. Along with the upper
sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this technique. Similarly, we can
transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper sideband.

Figure 2.37.Spectrum of VSB containing vestige of USB

The vestige of the Upper sideband compensates for the amount removed from the Lower sideband. The

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bandwidth required to send VSB wave is

B = w + fv
Where fv is the width of the vestigial side band.
Therefore, VSB has the virtue of conserving bandwidth almost as efficiently as SSB modulation, while
retaining the excellent low-frequency base band characteristics of DSBSC and it is standard for the
transmission of TV signals.
Generation of VSB Modulated wave:
To generate a VSB modulated wave, we pass a DSBSC modulated wave through a sideband-shaping filter.
The modulating signal m(t) is applied to a product modulator. The output of the local oscillator is also
applied to the other input of the product modulator.

Figure 2.38.VSB modulator

Mathematical Analysis:
The output of the product modulator is then given by :
P (t) =Ac Cos πfct) m(t)
Apply Fourier transform on both sides
P (f) =Ac/ [M f−fc)+M(f+fc)]
The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.
Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f). This filter has the input p(t) and the output
is VSBSC modulated wave S(t).The Fourier transforms of p(t) and S(t) are P(f) and S(f) respectively.
S(f)=P(f)H(f)
Substitute P(f) in the above equation.
S(f)=Ac/ [M f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)
The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.
Demodulation of VSBSC
Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC wave. Here, the same carrier signal
which is used for generating VSBSC wave is used to detect the message signal. Hence, this process of
detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC demodulator is shown in the figure
2.39.In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with a carrier,
which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC modulation. The resulting
signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired message signal.

Figure 2.39.Demodulation of VSB-SC signal

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Advantages of VSB
1. The main advantage of VSB modulation is the reduction in bandwidth. It is almost as efficient as the
SSB.
2. Due to allowance of transmitting a part of lower sideband, the constraint on the filter has been
relaxed. So practically, easy to design filters can be used.
3. It possesses good phase characteristics and makes the transmission of low frequency components
possible.
Application of VSB
VSB modulation has become standard for the transmission of television signal. Because the video signal
need a large transmission bandwidth if transmitted using DSB-FC or DSB-SC techniques.

 In commercial AM radio broadcast systems standard AM is used in preference to DSBSC or SSB

2.16. Comparison of amplitude modulation techniques:

 Suppressed carrier modulation systems require the minimum transmitter power and minimum
modulation.

transmission bandwidth. Suppressed carrier systems are well suited for point –to-point

 SSB is the preferred method of modulation for long-distance transmission of voice signals over
communications.

 VSB modulation requires a transmission bandwidth that is intermediate between that required for
metallic circuits, because it permits longer spacing between the repeaters.

 DSBSC, SSB, and VSB are examples of linear modulation. In Commercial TV broadcasting; the VSB
SSB or DSBSC.

 In standard AM systems the sidebands are transmitted in full, accompanied by the carrier.
occupies a width of about 1.25MHz, or about one-quarter of a full sideband.

Accordingly, demodulation is accomplished by using an envelope detector or square law detector.

On the other hand in a suppressed carrier system the receiver is more complex because additional

 Suppressed carrier systems require less power to transmit as compared to AM systems thus making
circuitry must be provided for purpose of carrier recovery.

 SSB modulation requires minimum transmitter power and maximum transmission band with for
them less expensive.

 VSB modulation requires a transmission band width that is intermediate of SSB or DSBSC.
conveying a signal from one point to other thus SSB modulation is preferred.

 In SSB and VSB modulation schemes the quadrature component is only to interfere with the in
phase component so that power can be eliminated in one of the sidebands.
Parameter of AM DSB-SC SSB-SC VSB
comparison
Carrier suppression NA Fully Fully NA
Sideband suppression NA NA One sideband One sideband
completely suppressed
partially
Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm <BW>2fm
Transmission efficiency Minimum Moderate Maximum moderate
Power requirement More power is Power required is Power required is Power required is
required for less than AM less than Am and less than DSB-SC
transmission DSB-SC but more than
SSB-SC
Power saving (%) 0 66.67 83.33 Lies between DSB
and SSB
Applications Radio Radio broadcasting Point to point TV
broadcasting mobile
communication

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2.17. Demodulation of AM waves:

There are two methods to demodulate AM signals. They are:
1. Square-law detector
2. Envelope detector

Square-law detector:
Square-law detector is used to detect low level modulated signals (below 1v). A Square-law detector
requires nonlinear element and a low pass filter for extracting the desired message signal. Semi-conductor
diodes and transistors are the most common nonlinear devices used for implementing square law detectors
as shown in figure 2.40. The filtering requirement is usually satisfied by using a single or double tuned
filters.

Figure 2.40.Square law detector

When a nonlinear element is suitably biased and operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve,
we find that transfer characteristic of diode-load resistor combination can be represented closely by a
square law :
V0 (t) = a1Vi (t) + a2 Vi 2 (t) (4)
Where a1, a2 are constants
Now, the input voltage Vi (t) is the sum of both carrier and message signals
Vi (t) = Ac [1+ka t ] os πfct (5)
Substitute equation (5) in equation (4) we get
V0 (t) = a1Ac [1+ka t ] os πfct + 1/2 a2Ac2 [1+2 ka m (t) + ka2m2 t ] [ os4πfct] (6)
Now design the low pass filter with cutoff frequency f is equal to the required message signal bandwidth.
We can remove the unwanted terms by passing this output voltage V0 (t) through the low pass filter and
finally we will get required message signal.
V0 (t) = Ac2 a2 m (t)
The Fourier transform of output voltage VO (t) is given by
VO (f) = Ac2 a2 M (f)

Figure 2.41.Spectrum of output signal

Envelope Detector:
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following figure 2.42 is the block
diagram of the envelope detector. It is also based on the switching action or switching characteristics of a
diode. It consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor filter.

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Figure 2.42.Envelope detector

The operation of the envelope detector is as follows.
1. On a positive half cycle of the AM signal, the diode is forward biased and the capacitor C charges up
rapidly to the peak value of the input signal.
2. When the AM signal level falls below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and the
capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor RL till the next positive cycle of AM signal.
3. When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode conducts
again and the process is repeated.
4. The component values should be selected in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly and
discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the
envelope of AM wave as shown in figure 2.43.

Figure 2.43.Input-output waveform for envelope detector

The charging time constant Rs C is very small when compared to the carrier period 1/f c, the capacitor C
charges rapidly to the peak value of the signal.
Rs C << 1/fc
Where Rs = internal resistance of the voltage source, C = capacitor, fc = carrier frequency

The discharging time constant RL C is very large when compared to the charging time constant i.e., the
capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor.
i.e., 1/fc << RLC << 1/W
Where RL = load resistance value, W = message signal bandwidth
Distortions in the Envelope Demodulator Output
There are two types of distortions which can occur in the detector output such as:
1. Diagonal clipping
2. Negative peak clipping
Diagonal Clipping: This type of distortion occurs when the RC time constant of the load circuit is too long.
Due to this, the RC circuit cannot follow the fast changes in the modulating envelope.

Negative peak clopping: This distortion occurs due to a fact that the modulation index on the output side
of the detector is higher than that on its input side. Hence, at higher depth of modulation of the
transmitted signal, the over-modulation may takes place at the output of the detector. The negative peak

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clipping will take place as a result of this over-modulation as shown in figure 2.44.

Figure 2.44.Ditortion in output of envelope detector

4.7. Low and high power AM transmitters:
Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM transmitters. These transmitters are used in
medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast. The MW band has
frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies ranging from 3 MHz to 30
MHz The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on their transmitting powers are:
1. High Level
2. Low Level
The basic difference between the two transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier and modulating
signals. High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level transmitters use low level
modulation. In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may be of the order of kilowatts, high
level modulation is employed. In low power transmitters, where only a few watts of transmitting power are
required, low level modulation is used.
High-Level Transmitters:
In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating signals are amplified before applying
them to the modulator stage, as shown in figure 2.45.
1. Carrier oscillator: The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal, which lies in the RF range. The
frequency of the carrier is always very high. Because it is very difficult to generate high frequencies
with good frequency stability, the carrier oscillator generates a sub multiple with the required
carrier frequency. This sub multiple frequency is multiplied by the frequency multiplier stage to get
the required carrier frequency.
2. Buffer Amplifier: The purpose of the buffer amplifier is to match the output impedance of the
carrier oscillator with the input impedance of the frequency multiplier, the next stage of the carrier
oscillator. It then isolates the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier.
3. Frequency Multiplier: The sub-multiple frequency of the carrier signal, generated by the carrier
oscillator, is now applied to the frequency multiplier through the buffer amplifier. This stage is also
known as harmonic generator. The frequency multiplier generates higher harmonics of carrier
oscillator frequency.
4. Power Amplifier: The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in the power amplifier stage. This
is the basic requirement of a high-level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high power
current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
5. Audio Chain: The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the microphone. The audio driver
amplifier amplifies the voltage of this signal. This amplification is necessary to drive the audio
power amplifier. Next, a class A or a class B power amplifier amplifies the power of the audio signal.
6. Modulated Class C Amplifier: This is the output stage of the transmitter. The modulating audio
signal and the carrier signal, after power amplification, are applied to this modulating stage. The
modulation takes place at this stage. The class C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM signal
to the required transmitting power. This signal is finally passed to the antenna, which radiates the
signal into space of transmission.
Low-Level Transmitters: In low-level modulation, the powers of the two input signals of the

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modulator stage are not amplified. The required transmitting power is obtained from the last stage of the
transmitter, the class C power amplifier. The low-level AM transmitter shown in the figure 2.45 is similar to
a high-level transmitter, except that the powers of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified. These
two signals are directly applied to the modulated class C power amplifier. Modulation takes place at the
stage, and the power of the modulated signal is amplified to the required transmitting power level. The
transmitting antenna then transmits the signal.

Figure 2.45.High level AM transmitter

Figure 2.46.Low level AM transmitter

Coupling of Output Stage and Antenna
The output stage of the modulated class C power amplifier feeds the signal to the transmitting antenna. To
transfer maximum power from the output stage to the antenna it is necessary that the impedance of the
two sections match. For this, a matching network is required. The matching between the two should be
perfect at all transmitting frequencies.
2.19. AM Receiver:
Radio receivers amplify and tune the radio signals. The receiver picks up the signals from the airwaves, and
converts them to the original message signal. The radio signal that is transmitted into the air contains a
carrier wave that is much higher in frequency than message siganl.
2.20. Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver:
A TRF receiver amplifies and tunes the raw radio signal as present in the air waves by means of an RF (radio
frequency) amplifier. Some receivers will have as many 4 or 5 stages of RF amplification before the carrier
signal is stripped away leaving only the audio portion of the signal. The process of removing the carrier
signal is done by the detector circuit of a radio receiver. Afterwards the final process is amplifying the audio
signal to a level strong enough to drive a speaker.
Typically a TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:
 Tuned radio frequency stages: The tuner circuit is an LC circuit, which is also called
as resonant or tank circuit. It selects the frequency, desired by the AM receiver. This consisted of
one or more amplifying and tuning stages. In a TRF receiver a series of loosely coupled tuned
circuits are used to increase selectivity.
 Signal detector: The detector enabled the audio from the amplitude modulation signal to be
extracted. It uses envelope detection.
 Audio amplifier: This is the power amplifier stage, which is used to amplify the detected audio
signal. The processed signal is strengthened to be effective. This signal is passed on to the
loudspeaker to get the original sound signal.
Drawbacks :

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1. Instability
2. Poor selectivity at high frequencies
3. Bandwidth variation over the tuning range
4. Insufficient adjacent frequency rejection
5. In TRF receiver, amplification is not constant over the tuning range.

2.21. Superheterodyne AM Receiver:

In super heterodyne receiver the incoming RF signal is combined with local oscillator signal frequency
through a mixer and converted into signal of lower fixed frequency known as intermediate frequency. It
consists of RF section, frequency converter, IF amplifier, detector, audio amplifier.
RF section:
 RF section mainly consists of a tuneable filter and an amplifier which picks up the desired station by
tuning the filter to the exact frequency band.
 The signal at the antenna has lower signal noise found anywhere in the receiver.
 Then RF amplifier provides gain to increase signal to noise ratio (SNR).
Frequency converter:
 It converts the carrier frequency fc to a fixed IF frequency of 455 KHz.
 A constant frequency difference should be maintained between the local oscillator signal and
incoming RF signal frequency. (Through capacitor tuning in which the capacitance are together and
operated by a common knob.)
 For this purpose it uses local oscillator whose frequency f co is exactly 455 KHz above the incoming
carrier frequency fc and fco=fc+455
IF amplifier:
 The intermediate frequency generated from the mixer/converter is amplified by IF amplifier. After
the IF amplifier the signal is applied at the demodulator which extract the original modulated signal.
 The reason for translating all stations to a fixed carrier frequency of 455 KHz is to obtain adequate
selectivity. The characteristics of the IF amplifier are not dependent on the incoming frequency to
which the receiver is tuned. The selectivity and sensitivity of super-heterodyne receiver are quite
uniform throughout its tuning range.
 The main function of the RF section is image frequency suppression. The mixer or converter output
consists of components of difference between the incoming fc and the local oscillator fco.
 Audio amplifier: Once demodulated, the recovered audio is applied to an audio amplifier block to
be amplified by a power amplifier to the required level for loudspeakers or headphones.

Figure 2.47.Superheterodyne AM receiver

Local oscillator frequency
At design level there are two choices for the local oscillator frequency:
fLO = fRF + fIF (high-side injection) or fLO= fRF − fIF (low-side injection)
Usually for medium wave AM receivers the frequency of the oscillator is higher than the desired RF
frequency (fLO = fRF + fIF).
Image frequency
When the receiver demodulates the incoming desired signal at fRF, unfortunately it demodulates down to IF
also an unwanted signal at fRF+2fIF.This frequency is called image frequency
To reduce the design complexity of the receivers the IF frequency is chosen in such a way that the signal at

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fimage = fRF+2fIF can be rejected by a simple tuneable RF band pass filter such as a tank circuit with a
variable capacitor.

Figure 2.48.Concept of image frequency

2.22. Terminologies of Receiver:
1. Selectivity:
Selectivity is the measure of the ability of a radio receiver to select a particular frequency or particular
band of frequencies and rejecting all other unwanted frequencies. The receiver selectivity performance
determines the level of interference that may be experienced. It is the ability to reject unwanted signals.
The signal bandwidth should be narrow for better selectivity.
The selectivity can be aimed at rejecting signals that may reach the receiver output in a variety of ways.
 Adjacent channel selectivity: Adjacent channel selectivity of the form of selectivity that rejects
signals on nearby frequencies.
 Image rejection selectivity: When using a super heterodyne radio, it is possible for the image
frequency to reach the final stages of the receiver. Rejecting these signals is important as they can
cause significant levels of interference. The selectivity required to remove these signals is contained
within the radio frequency stages of the radio.
 Image frequency rejection ratio is the ratio of gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the image
frequency.I age f e ue eje tio atio α is gi e :
α = √�
Where = fIF/fRF – fRF/fIF; Q is the quality factor of the tuned circuit
2. Sensitivity:
The ability of the radio receiver to pick up the required level of radio signals will enable it to operate more
effectively within its application.
 Sensitivity of a receiver is its ability to identify and amplify weak signals at the receiver output.
 It is often defined in terms of voltage that must be applied to the input terminals of the receiver to
produce a standard output power which is measured at the output terminals.
 The higher value of receiver gain ensures smaller input signal necessary to produce the desired
output power.
 Thus a receiver with good sensitivity will detect minimum RF signal at the input and still produce
utilizable demodulated signal.
 Sensitivity is also known as receiver threshold.
 It is expressed in microvolt or decibels.
 Sensitivity of the receiver mostly depends on the gain of IF amplifier.
 It can be improved by reducing the noise level and bandwidth of the receiver.
3. Fidelity
 Fidelity of a receiver is its ability to reproduce the exact replica of the transmitted signals at the
receiver output.
 For better fidelity, the amplifier must pass high bandwidth signals to amplify the frequencies of the
outermost sidebands, while for better selectivity the signal should have narrow bandwidth. Thus a
trade off is made between selectivity and fidelity.
 Low frequency response of IF amplifier determines fidelity at the lower modulating frequencies
while high frequency response of the IF amplifier determines fidelity at the higher modulating
frequencies.

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