Fundamentals of Maps

THE SPHERICAL earth is best represented bya three-dimensional model of the earth, called a globe. All
parts of the earth can be shown on it in their true shape, area and location along with correct cardinal
directions and distances. But it cannot be made large enough to include detailed surface features. Hence,
maps are much more useful tool than globes. A map is a two-dimensional diagrammatic representation of
the whole or part of the earth and its surface features both natural and cultural at a given scale on a flat
surface. However, all that is shown on the map is not drawn to scale. Only distances and areas are drawn
to scale. We are familiar with the maps of the earth surface. But it is possible to draw maps of other
planets and even the sky when pertinent data becomes available to us. We already have crude maps of
the Mars and the Moon.
A map gives a picture of one or several of the elements of the earth’s surface and being creation of
humans, it gives only those details, which its maker intends to give. Instead of showing the details in their
true or visible shape and size, it uses symbols that may or may not have similarities with the shape and
size of objects represented. Maps have unique advantage of showing objects or patterns that may be
intangible or invisible.
For example, it may show political boundaries or rainfall pattern or crop distribution, which may not be
marked on the ground. Thus, maps are basically symbolic drawing of visible as well as conceived
locational and distributional patterns of whole or a part of the earth, the sky or any other heavenly body.
There are various ways by which the earth can be mapped:
(a) by freehand sketches and diagrams;
(b) by actual survey with the help of instruments like chain and tape, plane table, prismatic compass and
theodolite etc.;
(c) by photographs (ground photographs/aerial photographs);
(d) by satellite and radar charts.
With the availability of high-speed computers and Global Positioning System
(GPS), digital mapping has emerged as an important tool of mapping.

The amount of information given in a map depends on:

• Scale;
• Projection;
• Conventional signs and symbols;
• Skill of the cartographer;
• Method of map making; and
• Requirement of the user.

Types of Maps
Maps are of different types. Each map is unique in its design, content and construction and hence, a type
by itself. Maps are broadly classified on two bases: scale and purpose or content .
Based on the scale, there are two broad categories of maps:
• Large Scale; and
• Small Scale.

Large Scale : These maps represent small area of the earth on a large size of paper/cloth/plastic sheet
with greater details. Examples of some of the large scale maps are:

(i) Cadastral Maps: The term cadastral is derived from French word cadastre’ meaning register of
territorial property.The Cadastral maps are drawn to register the ownership of landed property by
demarcating the boundaries of fields, buildings, etc. They are especially prepared by governments to
realise land revenue and property taxes. The village maps of our country may be cited as an example of
large scale maps. These maps are drawn on a very
large scale, varying from 16 cm to a km to 32 cm to a km so as to fill in all possible details. The city maps
may also be included in this category.

(ii) Topographical Maps: These maps are also prepared on a fairly large scale. They are based on precise
surveys conducted by the Survey of India, Dehradun. They show general surface features in detail both
natural and cultural. Principal topographic features depicted on these maps are relief, drainage, swamps
and lakes, forests, villages, towns, means of transport and communication like roads and railways, and
canals. Indian toposheets are generally prepared on the scale of 1:50,000.

Small Scale : These maps represent large areas on a small sheet of paper. They have fewer details.
Examples of small scale maps are Atlas and Wall maps. The maps included in this book are also small
scale maps. They give only a general picture of the area represented.

(i) Wall Maps: These maps are generally drawn boldly so that they can be seen from a distance. They are
used in classrooms and cater to a larger audience. These maps broadly show very large areas like world
as a whole, hemispheres, continents, and countries, states and districts. The scale is smaller than that of
topographical maps but larger than atlas maps.
(ii) Chorographical or Atlas Maps: The Atlas maps are drawn on a very small scale and give a highly
generalised picture of the natural and cultural aspects such as the physical, climatic and economic
conditions of different regions of the earth. Only a few atlases are prepared on a 1:1,000,000 scale like
the ‘Times Atlas of the World’. The Registrar General of India brings out Census Atlas from time to time.
National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation (NATMO) is a well-known important organisation in
our country that publishes all kinds of maps for various purposes depicting different parts of the country.
Thematic maps are usually prepared on small scale highlighting specific themes such as relief,
temperature, and political divisions. According to purpose or theme, maps could be broadly categorised
as follow :

(a) Physical or Natural Maps

(i) Orographic or relief maps represent features like mountains, plains, plateaus, drainage patterns, etc.
(ii) Bathymetric maps show the depth of the oceans and seas. They are also known as charts.
(iii) Geological maps represent rocks that form the crust of the earth, and their mode of occurrence and
disposition.
(iv) Climate maps show average condition of temperature, pressure wind and
precipitation of the world or part of it over a long period of time.
(v) Natural vegetation maps show natural flora of an area or region.
(vi) Soil map exhibits various types of soils covering the area.
(vii) Weather maps denote the average condition of temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation over a
short period, which may range from a day to a season.
(viii) Astronomical maps show the position of stars and planets in the sky.

(b) Cultural Maps

These maps show the man-made features or human aspects.
(i) Economic maps show distribution of important minerals, agricultural and
industrial products, and lines of transport and communication. They help in
assessing economic development and potential of the area covered by the map.
(ii) Political maps show boundaries between different countries and states within countries.
(iii) Historical maps show the past events and facts.
(iv) Social maps depict elements like language, caste, ethnic groups and religion.
(v) Land utilisation maps exhibit the character of land use.

(c) Military Maps

Maps used by Defence Services are called Military maps.
(i) General maps on a scale of 1:1,000,000 or more depict only the broad topographical features. They
are used by the Defence Services for general planning purposes.
(ii) Maps having scales ranging from 1:1,000,000 to 1:500,000 are often
classified as strategic maps. These maps are used for planning concentrated
military action.
(iii) Maps with a scale of 1:500,000 or less are called tactical maps. They serve as guides to small units
like battalions and patrol units prior to and during movements anywhere near the front line.
(iv) Photomap is an air photograph with strategic and tactical data superimposed on it.

All maps have some common elements. Location and distribution of various features and phenomena are
depicted using distance, direction, and conventional signs and symbols.

Scale
Scale is the relationship between the distance on a map and the real distance on the earth’s surface. It
may be expressed as a representative fraction (ratio), a line scale or a statement scale. It is an important
element of a map because it gives relative picture of the ground reality. As you have read earlier, maps
are generally classified into large scale and small scale. However, there is no universally accepted
standard for classifying maps according to scale. What one considers to be large, may appear to be small
or medium for others. The same person may consider a map to be of large scale for one purpose but of
small scale for another purpose. As a result of this each specialised group of map users sets up its own
standards for classification.
As a matter of convention, maps having a scale 1:50,000 upto are classified as large scale maps, those
falling between 1:50,000 and 1:1,000,000 as medium scale maps and those having scales above
1:1,000,000 are treated as small scale maps. The million sheets of the Survey of India and the National
Atlas of India are considered to be medium scale maps.

Types and definition of scales

The scales can be expressed in three ways:

1. Statement: The scale may be indicated in the form of a written statement. For example 1cm on the map
represents 1 km on the ground. The scale is written as 1 cm to 1 km. This means that 1 cm on the map
corresponds to 1 km on the ground. Although it is simple to express in words, it is difficult for those who
are not familiar with the unit of measurement used. Besides, the scale will not be the same when the
original map is reduced or enlarged. As such, this method is not very useful.

2. Representative Fraction (R.F.): It is also called as numerical scale. It is expressed as a ratio of map
distance and ground distance. For example 1:1,000,000 means one unit of distance on the map
corresponds to 1,000,000 units of distance on the ground. The advantage of R.F. is that it can be used
universally irrespective of the local unit of measurement of distance. The map
can be reduced or enlarged without changing the R.F.

3. Linear Scale or Graphical Scale: This scale is expressed as a horizontal or straight line. The base is
calibrated to express visual equivalents of representative fraction or verbal scale. The bases are divided
into a number of equal parts and are marked to show what these divisions represent on actual ground.
The scale has the advantage that it remains true even after reduction or enlargement of the map.
However, it is useful only to those who are familiar with the particular unit of measurement.

Distances on the map are smaller than the corresponding distances on actual ground. Scale is the means
which enables us to reduce the whole or a part of the earth to a size which is not only convenient and
handy but also logical and scientific. A general definition of scale is that it is a ratio between the distance
on a map and the corresponding distance on the earth. For example if two points located 10 km apart are
shown 1 cm apart on a map, then the scale of the map would be 1 cm to 10 km. It may also be converted
into R.F as given below.
Suppose, 1 cm = 10 KM

MAP DISTANCE
_______________

GROUND DISTANCE

1 cm
_____
10 km

=
1 cm
____________
10 X 10,000 cm

= 1: 1,000,000

(Note: 1 km has 100,000 cm.)

Methods of Measuring Linear Distance

Linear distance on maps are of two types:

(i) Straight lines like roads, railway line, and canals;
(ii) Curved or Zigzag lines, showing streams, coastline etc.

(a) When the line is straight, the distance can be measured with the help of a divider.
Open a pair of dividers and place one of its legs at one end of the straight distance and the other leg on
the other end on the map. Then lift the divider and place it on the calibrated bar scale to get the distance
on the ground

(b) When the route is zigzag, place one end of a thread at the starting point and carry the thread along the
line. After completing the distance stretch the thread and measure the length. It will give approximate
distance.
It can also be measured with the help of a plain divider, as explained earlier, but the measurement will be
less accurate. It can also be done with the help of a strip of paper.

(c) Rotameter is an instrument having a route measuring wheel. Distance between two points is
measured by allowing the wheel of the rotameter to move along the route.

Direction
Direction has been defined as an imaginary straight line on the map or the ground showing the angular
position of various maps with respect to a common base direction. The line pointing to the north is
regarded as the zero direction or base direction line.
A map must have the base directions represented on it to enable the user to locate different features with
respect to each other. North, south, east and west are the four major directions. These are also called
cardinal points. In between cardinal points one may have several intermediate directions
A rough estimation of direction of the true north can be obtained by the Means of an ordinary watch. In
the northern hemisphere if the watch is held in the horizontal position and turned until its hour hand points
to the sun, the line that bisects the angle made by the hour hand with the line joining 12’O clock through
the centre of the watch will point to the south. A similar
exercise in the southern hemisphere will indicate the true north. This is also a crude method dependent
upon the sun .
Legends
Every map contains a legend or a key. It lists the features and the signs or symbols used in the map for
showing these features. As you know various types of features or phenomena are represented on maps.
They relate to both land and sea and are shown with the help of conventional signs and symbols. The
signs and symbols include lines, icons, alphabets, shadings and colours. As a convention, specific
colours show certain area features.
Conventional symbols
Land use Colour
Cultivated area Yellow
Forests Dark green
Grasslands Light green
Built up area Brown
Water features Blue
(Ponds, oceans, lakes, seas, rivers)

Profiles Of Survey Maps 45/D7 and 45/D10

PROFILE OF SURVEY MAP 45 D/7

DESCRIPTION of the Area covered by Survey Sheet No. 45 D/7 (Gujarat and
Rajasthan)

District : Banas Kantha and Sirohi

Location: Latitude 24 degree 15’ – 240 30’ North

Longitude 720 15’ - 720 30’ East

This region lies in western India on the borders of Rajasthan and Gujarat at
the southern end of the Aravalli Hills, immediately north-east of Sheet 45
D/10.

RELIEF : The area is mainly a plain except for:

1. The east central region where the hills rise to almost 500 m.,
2. The lower hills of the north-east corner.
The slope of the land is from north-east to south-west in the northern half
and east to west in the southern portion of the map. (indicated by flow of
rivers)
DRAINAGE1. The Banas river (not to be confused with the Banas river
which is a tributary of the Chambal river to the north) flows into the
swampland area of the Little Rann, north-east of the Gulf of Kutch. On this
survey sheet it flows westward. It has two main right bank tributaries –
Sarod and Arado Nadis and the numerous smaller streams like the one
entering the river near Chekla (8192). The only left bank tributary is the
Balaram Nadi from the south-east. The Banas river varies in width from
1/4km to over 1 km and has a narrow perennial water course. The dry
portion fills in during the rainy seas.
2. The Sipu Nadi is a tributary of the Banas river (the confluence) lying to
the west of the area shown. It flows from north-east to south-west withits
two main tributaries –Varka and Mahadeviyao Nadis joining the left bank.
Both rise in the hilly region to the east.

In the region there are numerous other streams that join main rivers. They
rise in the higher ground adjacent to the rivers and invariably their courses
show large tracts of broken ground indicating soft soil easily eroded by
water.

SOILS: Map symbols indicate desert conditions, a large part of the plain
area being sandy. Soils are soft as shown by excessive erosion causing
broken ground near water courses.

CLIM ATE: There are three climatic seasons:

Summer hot and dry March to June
Monsoon hot and wet July to September
Winter cool and dry October to February

Maximum temperatures in summer are extremely high rising to over 470 C,

while minimum temperatures in December/Jan often drops to almost 0
degree C. Because of its location in western India, it receives
comparatively less rainfall than other parts of the country. The rainfall
which is between 50 to 100 cm annually, falls during the monsoon season.
High temperatures cause excessive evaporation. This gives rise to scrub
and semi-desert vegetation.

NATURAL VEGETATION : Hill areas – dry deciduous forests of small trees

Plains – scrub and throny trees where there is no agriculture.

IRRIGATION: This region is dependent on the periodic rainfall (Monsoon),

tanks, wells for
agriculture. There is only one canal in the north-east starting from the
reservoir (2222)

OCCUPATIONS: Agriculture, rearing of cattle, sheep, camels and horses.

CROPS: Winter (Rabi) – Wheat, Barley, Cotton
Monsoons (Kharif) – Bajra, Jowar, Maize

COMMUNICATIONS: Except for the main line of the Western Railway and
the road that runs across the south-east corner of the map through
Chitrasani (8923), there are no other important communications. All other
settlements are linked by cart tracks.

SETTLEMENTS: Except for Chitrasani which is a rail/road centre, all the

settlements are small and widely scattered chiefly in the lowland area and
are either nucleated or dispersed in pattern.

PROFILE OF SURVEY MAP 45 D/10

DESCRIPTION of the Area covered by Survey Sheet No. 45 D/10 (Gujarat
and Rajasthan)

District : Banas Kantha and Sirohi

Location: Latitude 24 degree 30’ – 240 45’ North

Longitude 720 30’ - 720 45’ East

This region lies in western India on the borders of Rajasthan and Gujarat at
the southern end of the Aravalli Hills, immediately north-east of Sheet 45
D/7.

RELIEF : The sheet is divided into two distinct physical divisions:

1. The Aravalli Hills rising to a height of over 1400 meters and occupying
the south-east corner. The ranges are more or less parallel and run in a NE
to SW directon.
2. A large plain covers the remaining portion of the sheet. There are
frequent outcrops of rocky ground, some of it rising to over 400 m (i.e. 100
m above the surrounding country side.)

DRAINAGE: In the hill area, the drainage is radial. Abu being the highest
point of the area is the centre from which the rivers radiate. In the plains,
the upper courses of the rivers are dendritic or fan shaped. The main
stream Sipu Nadi rises in the hills north of Abu and flows in a south-west
direction. It is periodic and seldom exceeds ½ km in width.

TRIBUTARIES: Right bank : Sukli Nadi, Unda Wala, Dior Nadi,

Left bank: Sukli Nadi, unnamed river flowing past Dhavli, Devengan Nadi
and Godua Nadi

NOTE:
1. There are three Sukli Nadis in the survey sheet.
2. Because this regions lies close to the desert areas where the soils tend
to break up easily, the water courses are numerous and well defined for
they are able to cut channels in the soft sandy soils. They are however
periodic and rely on the rainy season for the water supply.

CLIM ATE: There are three climatic seasons:

Summer hot and dry March to June
Monsoon hot and wet July to September
Winter cool and dry October to February

Maximum temperatures in summer are extremely high rising to over 470 C,

while minimum temperatures in December/Jan often drops to almost 0
degree C. Because of its location in western India, it receives
comparatively less rainfall than other parts of the country. The rainfall
which is between 50 to 100 cm annually, falls during the monsoon season.
High temperatures cause excessive evaporation. This gives rise to scrub
and semi-desert vegetation.

NATURAL VEGETATION : Hill areas – dry deciduous forests of small trees

Plains – scrub and throny trees where there is no agriculture.
IRRIGATION: This region is dependent on the periodic rainfall (Monsoon),
tanks, wells for
agriculture. There is only one canal in the north-east starting from the
reservoir (2222)

OCCUPATIONS: Agriculture, rearing of cattle, sheep, camels and horses.

CROPS: Winter (Rabi) – Wheat, Barley, Cotton
Monsoons (Kharif) – Bajra, Jowar, Maize

COMMUNICATIONS: Abu, in the hill area, is linked eastwards by two main

roads, which run south-east to Abu Road and north-east to Oriya. In the
south of this region the east-west main road links up at Karaunti (0700)
with another main road which runs parallel to the foot-hills and connects a
number of settlemtns. Many of the smaller settlements are linked by cart
tracks.

SETTLEMENTS: Abu is a large hill resort, an administrative and an

educational centre. In the plains, there are numerous settlements of much
smaller size of which Sirori (2023) is the most important.

CONTOURS
•A contour is a line on a map joining two points of equal height, and is the
standard method of showing relief on a topographical map.
Contours are shown at regular vertical intervals.
 On a 1:50,000 map the interval is 10 m.
A contour is an imaginary line of constant height above the mean sea
level. The difference between the value of any two successive contours
is known as the contour interval, or the vertical interval (V.I.). The
horizontal distance between any two contours is called the horizontal
equivalent (H.E.). Its value depends upon the slope of the land. The
contours are drawn in brown colour on the topo sheet

INTERPRETATION OF CONTOURS

•The shape of the contours indicates the shape of the ground.

When contours are further apart, the slope is gentle and when contours are
close together the greater the drop.
When contours are equal distance apart the slope is uniform:
a.Contours are continuous. No matter how far they travel, they always
return to where they started. Except for a cliff.
b.When spacing of contours down a slope gets close together at the
bottom, the slope is convex.
c. When spacing is further apart, the slope is concave.

What is the purpose of a contour line?

Joins points of equal heights.

GRADIENT
It means the amount of steepness of the slope. Sometimes it is not enough to say steep or gentle slope.
For planning and development of the various means of transport, such as roads and railways, we need
to know the exact steepness of a slope. The gradient or slope is normally expressed by stating how much
one should travel to gain a given height.

PLOTTING GRID REFERENCES

•A grid is a rectangular square system of lines superimposed on a map,
within which any point can be located.
Maps are normally printed so that north is on top.
•North / South lines are called Eastings because the numbers increase as
they go East.
•East / West lines are called Northings because the numbers increase as
they go North.
What are the 3 points in determining height?
1.bench marks;
2. trig points; and
3.spot height.

What are Eastings and Northings?

1.Eastings run – move left to right; and
2.Northings run – bottom to top.
What are the two most important things to remember when giving a grid?
1.Easting value first; and
2.never round up.

What is a topo map?

A topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and
quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines in modern
mapping, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions
require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features .
•The Centre for Topographic Information provides this definition of a topographic
map:"A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation
of cultural and natural features on the ground."
•According to Cartographer's Kraak and Ormeling,"Traditionally, the main
division of maps is into topographic and thematic maps. Topographic
maps supply a general image of the earth's surface: roads, rivers,
buildings, often the nature of the vegetation, the relief and the names of the
various mapped objects."
•The study or discipline of topography, while interested in relief, is actually
a much broader field of study which takes into account all natural and man
made features of terrain.

Uses
•Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of
geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences and many
other geographic disciplines; mining and other earth-based endeavours;
and recreational uses such as hiking or, in particular, orienteering, which
uses highly detailed maps in its standard requirements.

Map conventions
•The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional
signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a
classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of
the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet]
•Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or topo maps.
In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a
strict 7.5 minute grid, they are often called topo quads or quadrangles.
•Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by
means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous
points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other words, every point on the
marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.

There are several rules to note when viewing topographic

maps:

•The rule of V's: sharp-pointed vees usually are in stream valleys, with the
drainage channel passing through the point of the vee, with the vee
pointing upstream. This is a consequence of erosion.

•The rule of O's: closed loops are normally uphill on the inside and
downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the highest area. If a
loop instead represents a depression, some maps note this by short lines
radiating from the inside of the loop, called "hachures".

•Spacing of contours: close contours indicate a steep slope; distant

contours a shallow slope. Two or more contour lines merging indicates a
cliff.

•Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two points, the

contour interval, or distance in altitude between two adjacent contour lines,
must be known, and this is given at the bottom of the map.

•These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant
streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built-up areas or individual
buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest.

•Today, topographic maps are prepared

using photogrammetricinterpretation of aerial photography. Older
topographic maps were prepared using traditional surveying instruments.

•In most cases, contour intervals are consistent throughout a map.

Sometimes dashed contour lines are present; these represent half the
noted contour interval.

Understanding Topographical Maps

Understanding of surface depends on the ability to interpret topo maps.
They-
•Are based on accurate surveys.
•Show a variety of landforms with carefully chosen symbols & signs.
•Shows natural features like hills, valleys, waterfalls,
•Also show man made features like roads, railways, buildings, bridges and
canals.

Toposheets are:-
•Are prepared on a number of sheets since they are large scale maps.
•Each sheet gives the details of a part of the whole area.
•When these joined together, they form a map of the whole area.

interpretation of topo maps and survey maps

IT involves ability to follow the symbols portrayed in the map.

•Understand the information given in pictorial and written form
•Visualize the topography of the original area by interpreting the contour
•Spot heights skillfully
•Map reading is a practical skill.
•Can be developed only by reading topo map very minutely and mentally
analyzing the details with the help of conventional signs & symbols given
in their conventional colours'
•As the conventional symbols cannot cover all the graphical details, each
topographical map sheet provides the necessary information in the margin
for the users.
1.Identification of topographical maps
2.Reading the Grid reference
3.Scale (R.F.)
4.Representation of Relief by contours
5.Directions
6.Measuring distances and calculating distances
7.Drainage
8.Man-made and natural features
9.Means of transport in relation to relief
10.Land use and irrigation
11.Settlements
12. Inferring occupations
13. Importance of colours and tints in topographical survey sheets
14. Legend
15. Glossary of conventional signs and symbols used in survey maps

Knowing the number of toposheet can give us a clue about the general
physical relief of the region and its climate which can be confirmed by
other information given in the map.

•Eg- since all toposheets are from India, it may be inferred that all the
reigons represented by those topo sheets would have a tropical monsoon
climate, with seasonal rainfall.
•Western Rajasthan – u may expect scanty rainfall- a fact which could be
verified by the presence of dry river beds and disappearing streams.

•45D/7 shows a region of northern Gujarat, closer to the border of

Rajasthan
•45D/10 lies in the southern part of Rajasthan close to the border of Gujarat
region
•45F/3 lies in the western Rajasthan, near Jodhpur
•53B/7 shows a region in Punjab, close to the border of Haryana.
•56D/11 shows a region in north-east Karnataka.
•64P/13 shows a region in north-east Orissa.
ii) Latitudinal and Longitudinal extent: These indicate in whichpart of the
Earth the area is located.
•On a 4 degree topographical map, at least 4 lines of latitude and longitude
can be seen. But as the scale of the topo map increases, the number of
latitudes seen on the map decreases.

grid reference
•A Grid is a set of lines used to find the exact location of places on a map.
•The National Grid Reference is a system of rectangular co-ordinate.
•The origin of the grid reference lies at a point in the south-west corner of
the map.
•Thus any place on the map can be located by starting its distance east or
north of the origin of the grid reference.
•Topo maps bear the national grid of squares drawn to the scale of 2
cm=1km with each square having a side measuring 1 km.
•These are sheets most commonly used for various purposes and are of
vital practical importance.
•Vertical lines=Eastings since they are numbered from west to East
•Horizontal lines = Northings - they are numbered from South to North
•Net work of horizontal and vertical lines or the Eastings and Northings , is
called the Grid.

i)Origin is the South –West (SW) corner of the map. The reading on the map
is always taken with reference to this origin.
ii)Eastings are always read to the East of the origin.
iii)Northings are always read to the North of the origin.
•It is also identified as the Grid Reference
i)The readings are always taken to the right of the Eastings and to the
North of the Northings.
ii)While giving a grid reference, Eastings are always stated first, followed
by Northings

Four Figure Grid Reference:-•In four-figure grid reference, the first two
figures are the eastings and the last two are the northings.
Six Figure Grid Reference:•For greater accuracy, a third figure may be
added to two-figure eastings and northings.
i) Obtain the four figure reference by using first two digits of eastings and
northings. ii)Then divide each kilometre into ten parts visually, both
vertically & horizontally.
iii) Mark the division of eastings and the division of the northing
corresponding to the location.
iv) The crossing point is the location of the reference point.
Grid Reference of this picture is 2676
SCALE

•Refer to Survey Map No. 45D/7

•In the map, 1:50,000 is the R.F. of the map, which means that one unit on
the map represents 50,000 units on the ground.
•For example, 1 cm on the map represents 50,000 cm on the ground.

(Scale of this toposheet is)

Scale-2cm:1 km or1:50,000

•R.F. or Representative Fraction is the ratio between the distance on the

map and the corresponding distance on the ground in the same
unit.•Therefore, R.F.
Distance on the map
____________________________
Distance on the ground

In the above map, R.F. = 1:50,000

This map is referred to as 1:50,000map and its scale is 2 cm=1km.

Representation of Relief on the Map and its Interpretation

•Earth’s surface – uneven – made up of hills, plains, plateaus, lowland
which are varying in their elevation or heights from sea level.
•The total terrain is also called physical landscape.
•It can be represented on the maps through different methods, such as
spot heights, contouring, etc.
•Surveying is considered a part of science of map making.
•Topographical maps are large-scale maps, they show a great deal of
details about the relief.

•In Topographical survey, actual survey is carried out and different

methods are used to represent relief on the map as follows.
i)Hachuring
ii)Hill shading
iii)Form lines
iv)Spot heights
v)Triangulation points
vi)Bench markscontours

i)Hachuring: are short lines representing directions of a slope.

- For steep slopes , they are drawn closer together than for the gentle
slopes.
- on flat grounds they can not be used at all.
DISADVANTAGE: it gives no indication of the actual height and that both
high plateau region and low plain are unshaded
The close hachuring of the high mountain regions tends to obscure other
details of the map.

II) HILL SHADING: A method of representing relief on a map by depicting

the shadows that would be cast by high ground if light were shining from a
certain direction.
It can be defined as the addition of shadows to give the optical illusion of a
third dimension, making hills stand out in relief. The shadows can be
regarded as those which would be cast on an imaginary relief model of the
ground when illuminated by parallel rays of light from a selected direction
or directions.
In this map, it is assumed to be from north west at an angle of 45 degree
with the horizon.
This method too gives a general idea of relief of the country by it does not
give the actual height and that it is difficult to know whether a piece of land
is sloping uphill or downhill.
THE DRAINAGE

•The term drainage basin describes an area drained collectively by the

network of a river along with its tributaries and sub-tributaries of various
dimensions.
•An area drained by a single river is called its Catchment Area.
•A drainage system as seen in the topographical sheets usually develops a
pattern which is related to the general structure of its basin.

3 distinct patterns can be recognized

1)Dendritic:
Dendritic drainage patterns are most common. They develop on a land
surface where the underlying rock is of u niform resistance to erosion.
•Dendritic drainage systems are the most common form of drainage
system. The term dendritic comes from the Greekword "dendron", meaning
tree, due to the resemblance of the system to a tree.
•In a dendritic system there is one main river (like the trunk of a tree), which
was joined and formed by many smallertributary rivers. They develop
where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain.
•Dendritic systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types
must be impervious and non-porous
2. TRELLIS
Rectangular drainage patterns develop where linear zones of weakness,
such as joints or faults cause the streams to cut down along the weak
areas in the rock.
Trellis systems form in areas of alternating geology, particularly chalk and
clay. The main river (the consequent) flows straight down hill.
•Subsequent streams develop perpendicular to the consequent along
softer rock and erode it away, forming vales.
•The consequent river then cuts through the escarpments of harder rock.
•Obsequent streams flow down thedip slope of the escarpments to join the
subsequent streams.
3. RADIAL
•Radial drainage patterns develop surrounding areas of high topography where
elevation drops from a central high area to surrounding low areas.

SIGNIFICANCE OF COLOURS IN TOPOSHEETS

On toposheets colours are used to show certain features. Each colour used
on a map has significance.
1. BLACK – All names, river banks, broken ground, dry streams, surveyed
trees, heights and their numbering, railway lines, telephone and telegraph
lines, lines of latitude and longitude.
2. BLUE – Water features or water bodies that contain water.
3. GREEN – All wooded and forested areas, orchards, scattered trees and
scrubs.
Note:- Prominent surveyed trees are shown in black. Surveyed trees have
numbers on their trunks. They serve as landmarks and are not allowed to
be cut.
4. YELLOW – All cultivated areas are shown with a yellow wash.
5. WHITE PATCHES – Uncultivable land
6. BROWN – Contour lines, their numbering, form lines, and sand features
such as sand hills and dunes.
7. RED – Grid lines (eastings and northings) and their numbering, roads,
cart tracks, settlements, huts and buildings.
SETTLEMENTS

1. On a topo map, all settlements are shown by symbols in RED colour.

2. The size of the symbol and size and style of letters used give an idea of
the size of the settlement.
3. In the case of large cities, major roads are marked and named.
4. Deserted village cities, temporarily occupied huts are also shown.
5. Places of worship, forts, water towers, burial grounds, police stations,
post office, dak bungalow, circuit houses, etc. are indicated by suitable
symbols.
NOTE – Site is the land on which the settlement (village or town) is built.
Dense settlements : Fertile plains and wide river valleys.
· Sparse Settlements : forests, deserts, mountain slopes, plateaus and hill
tops with poor vegetation·
Absence of Settlements: Swamps, marsh land, sandy deserts, thick
impenetrable forests, flood-prone areas, steep mountain slopes.

DISPERSED SETTLEMENT: It is a pattern of rural settlement in which

most of the population lives in farms, houses and cottages scattered
over a large area. This settlement is associated with regions of high
land, poor soils and an abundance of available sources of water. It is
also associated with large farms and sparse population.
 NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT: It is a form of rural settlement in which
farms and other buildings are clustered together, often around
some central feature like a church or police chowki etc. This pattern
is encouraged by the need for defence, the availability of water
supply at particular locations and the development of modern
means of transport.

OCCUPATION AND MAP FEATURES

AGRICULTURE – Level land with yellow wash; many wells

LUMBERING: Forests
CATTLE REARING – Pastures, meadows, grasslands, presence of road in
highland region (sheep)
FISHING – Plenty of rivers
MINING –Stony wastes, quaries, limestone beds
TRADE – Dense settlements near road
INDUSTRY – Large settlements near roads and railways, presence of raw
materials, (like making, cement industry near limestone beds)
TOURISM – hotels and inns
APPROXIMATE OR RELATIVE HEIGHT-is height is not taken from sea level
but with respect to the surrounding area. It may be the height of a dam,
bridge, sand dune or it can be the depth of a well, tank, hill or river canal,
for example , 3r, 5r, 8r, etc.
EXAMPLE:3r - the relative depth of perennial lined well in 3 metres
●5r – the relative height of dry tank is 5 metres
NOTE: CHECK THE SYMBOL – if it is tank, dam, bridge, embankment, etc
then write the answer this way - the relative height of ..............................
is ................meters.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
FROM TOPO MAPS

1. REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION (RF): It is the ratio between the distances

on the map to its corresponding distance on actual ground. The RF on this
map is 1:50,000.

2. SCALE : Scale is the ratio between the distance of any two points on the
map and the actual distance of the same points on the ground.
The scale of the given map extract is 2 cm: 1 km or 1:50,000.

3. CONTOUR: Contours are imaginary lines drawn on maps, joining all

places with the same height above sea level.

4. CONTOUR INTERVAL: The interval between two consecutive contours is

called contour interval (*it is a constant 20 mts in your toposheets.)

5. INDEX CONTOUR: Contour lines are thickened at regular intervals to

make it easier to read contours. For example at every 100 mts the contour
line is made darker. The darker lines are called Index Contours.

6. TRIANGULATED HEIGHT: It is the height of a place which has been

calculated using trigonometry, represented by a small triangle e.g. - 540

7. SPOT HEIGHT: The height of random places between contours shown

with a dot. Eg - .425

8. BENCH MARK - Height of a place actually marked on a stone pillar, rock

or shown on a building as a permanent reference. It is written as BM 200 m.

9. RELATIVE HEIGHT: Relative height is the height of a feature with

reference to the height of the surrounding land and NOT to sea level.
It is represented by the height with a small ‘r’ eg –12r.

10. ROCK OUTCROP: It is a portion of rock jutting above the surface of the
earth.
11. SHEET ROCK: Large areas of rock where the overlying soil layers have
been eroded and removed due to mechanical weathering.

9 STONY WASTE : A large area usually in arid/semi arid regions where the
finer sand/soil has blown away leaving a surface covered with boulders,
stones and pebbles.

10. BROKEN GROUND: A relief feature found mostly in dry regions around
rivers and streams. It is land around river, which is totally
weathered (exfoliated) due to alternate cooling and heating.

11. FIRELINE: A cleared pathway in a forest to prevent the spread of forest

fires.

12. MIXED FOREST: A forest with more than two varieties of trees growing
in close proximity to each other.

13. OPEN JUNGLE: A forest where trees are widely scattered.

14. DENSE JUNGLE. : A forest where trees grow very close to each other.

15. OPEN SCRUB: Scrub is a vegetation found in regions with less than
100 cms of rainfall. Therefore it indicates a dry region.

16. BRACKISH: It is a well, which has water with very high salt content –
generally unfit for drinking purposes.

17. CAUSEWAY: It is a raised road over a small water body. (Usually a road
used only in the non rainy months.}

18. CUTTING: A portion of land, which has been cut in order to make land
available for transport routes. (it is indicative of a rocky region)

19. EMBANKMENT: They are raised rock or soil filled constructions on

which roads/railway tracks are built. Also made near tanks and rivers to
prevent flooding.

20. FORM LINES: Form lines are contour lines, but show only approximate
heights above sea level as they are used to indicate the elevations of the
area which are not accessible for proper survey. Hence they are drawn as
broken lines and are called 'form lines'.

21. Q.C. Q.D., OC, OD,PQ, ETC / NATIONAL GRID REFERENCE/:

These are alphabetical codes used in the survey map as their subdivisions
which represent the biggest grid sq. of 10,000 square kms.
The Govt of India has adopted metric system for all measurements. All the
ordnance survey maps issued by the Survey of India were drawn to the
scale 2 cm = 1 km. In this system , the surveyed territory is divided into
100km X 100 km squares, and each square is denoted by English
alphabets. for example, OC, OD, PQ, PG, etc . This system of map drawing
is known as National Grid Reference.

NATIONAL GRID REFERENCE: The Govt of India has adopted metric

system for all measurements. All the ordnance survey maps issued by the
Survey of India are drawn to the scale 2 cm = 1 km. In this system , the
surveyed terrirory is divided into 100 km x 100 km squares, and each
square is denoted by Enlish letters

22. LAYER TINTING: (colouring)

While spot heights show the height of the land, they only do so at certain
points. To provide an overall image which conveyed height, a technique
called layer tinting was developed. Layer tinting uses different colours (or
shades) to represent different heights. It is a mapping convention for
darker colours to signify greater height. When using layer tinting, green is
often used for low land, yellow for higher land and brown for the highest
land.
Layer tinting is most commonly found on physical maps. While layer tinting
is useful, it does not show the detailed shape of the land.
23. DEPRESSION / DEP : It is a depression often found in sandy areas
where the wind, having blown away the sand, leaves a hollow or a
depression.

24. HACHURING: Early cartographers attempted to show surface features

on maps by using the technique of hachuring. Hachures use short lines of
varying thickness to show the shape and slope of the land. In accordance
with this technique, the steeper the slope is, the thicker the lines are which
represent it. While hachuring was initially innovative for its time, it
gradually began to be replaced since the actual height of the land was not
depicted.

25. LIME KILN OR BRICK KILN: These are open furnaces where limestone
is purified or bricks are baked for construction purpose.

26. HILL SHADING: Hill shading resembles a light and shadow effect.
Valleys and the sides of mountains appear as though they are cast in
shadow. This is a visually striking method, which is ideal for providing an
overall view of the relief of an area. Hill shading, however, does not show
height which means that it is no more accurate than hachuring.

28. CUTTING: A cutting is an open vertical cut in high ground so that a road
or a railway track can pass through.

29. MOUNDS: Mounds are small hills, just a few metres high. They are
usually rounded on the top and covered with green vegetations. Sand hills
in the desert and rock outcrops in stone areas can also be termed as
mounds.

30. SYMBOL OF TELEGRAPH LINE: A telegraph line is indicated by bold

and lite dots with the word telegraph or telephone written on it.

31. MEANDER : a sharp turn or bend in the course of a river.

32. CONFLUENCE : It is the meeting point of a tributary and the main river.
33. BROWN SPOTS : These are brown spots.
34 . RIDGE : Long and narrow raised ground with a number of summits.
The edge of the ridge may be gentle or steep . These are generally
elongated in shape.

35 . COL OR SADDLE : A depression which connects low hills or

mountains .
( LARGE DEPRESSION – SADDLE )
( SMALL DEPRESSION – COL)

SADDLE COL

36. VERTICAL INTERVAL : it is the vertical distance between two contour

lines
37. STEEPNESS OF A SLOPE : closely spaced contours – steep slope
Distantly spaced contours – gentle slope
 Contours absent – flat land or low land
38 . ESCARPMENT : A hill with one side as a gentle slope and another side
as a steep slope.

39. EMBANKMENT : a wall of stone or earth that is built to stop a river

from flooding or to carry a road or railway.
40. CANAL : an artificial waterway for navigation or for draining or
irrigating land.