UK Flexible Pavement

Design Method
Postgraduate Studies
Highways Engineering
Prepared By:
Dr Taher M. Ahmed
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Anbar
 Syllabus of:
Advanced Pavement Design

5. UK Flexible Pavement Design Method ........ (2.5 weeks)

5.1. Preface
5.2. The design Criteria
5.3. Determination of design traffic
5.4. Subgrade design CBR and surface stiffness modulus
5.5. Foundation classes
5.5.1. Modulus definitions
5.5.2. Foundation design
5.5.3. Flexible pavement design
5.5.4. Determination of flexible pavement thickness
5. UK flexible pavement design method
5.1. Preface
• The UK pavement design methodology is a semi-analytical
methodology based on the methodology suggested in 1970 (RRL
1970).
• Then reviewed two times:, one in 1987 based on the 20-year research work by TRRL
and the second one in 2006 based on a TRL research study .
5.2. The design Criteria
1. Foundation design: the deflection of the foundation surface and the minimum
thickness of the upper foundation layer. Where, the foundation is distinguished into
four different classes of materials, known as foundation classes. The thickness of the
foundation depends on the subgrade CBR or subgrade stiffness modulus.

2. Pavement design: the strain of the asphalt layer and the stress of the hydraulically
bound layer. The pavement structure consists of upper and lower layers. The upper
layers are asphalt layers and the lower (base) layers are either asphalt layers or
hydraulic bound layers. The thickness of the pavement structure depends on the
foundation classes and the traffic volume
5.3. Determination of design traffic
• The design traffic is the commercial
vehicle loading over the design period
expressed as the number of equivalent
standard (80 kN) axles (ESA80-kN).
• The design traffic is calculated using the
commercial vehicle flow, vehicle wear
factors (Load Equivalency Factor (LEF))
and traffic growth.
• A commercial vehicle (cv) is defined as
that having a gross weight of more than
3.5 tones. Lighter vehicles are not taken
into consideration since the structural
wear caused is considered negligible.
• Commercial vehicles are classified into
eight classes and three categories, as
shown in Table 5.1.
5.3. Determination of design traffic
•The pavement structural wear caused by a class of commercial vehicle is expressed by its
wear factor (W) Table 5.1 (Fourth power law).
•The traffic growth is expressed by the growth factor (G), which is a function of the design
period and the annual traffic percentage increase. The design traffic (T) is the sum of the
future cumulative flow, in terms of million standard axles (msa), of each commercial
vehicle class, Ti, that is, 𝑻 = 𝑻𝒊 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓 × 𝑭 × 𝒀 × 𝑮 × 𝑾 × 𝑷 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 … … 𝟓. 𝟏
Where: Ti in million standard axles.
Ti is the cumulative flow, in terms of
million standard axles for commercial
vehicle class i; F is the average annual Figure 5.1
daily flow of traffic for each traffic
class at opening; Y is the design
period (in years); G is the growth
factor; W is the wear factor for each
traffic class (WN for new pavement
design and WM for maintenance
design case), from Table 5.1; and P is
the percentage of vehicles in the
heaviest loaded lane, from Figure 5.1.
Note: The design period (life) is recommended to be taken as 40 years for heavy traffic; for
less heavily trafficked sections or major maintenance schemes a 20 years.

5.4. Subgrade design CBR and surface stiffness modulus

• The design CBR of the subgrade is determined by executing CBR tests in the
laboratory, over a range of conditions.
• It is not possible to collect material samples for laboratory assessment of CBR, the
design CBR may be estimated from Table 5.2.
• The design CBR, for performance design, must be converted to subgrade surface
modulus, E. 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 × 𝑪𝑩𝑹𝟎.𝟔𝟒 ………….. 5.2 Note: In AASHTO M = Er

• where E is the subgrade surface stiffness modulus (MPa) and CBR is the California
bearing ratio (% value) for fine soil material with laboratory CBR values ranging from
2% to 12%. For coarser materials, the plate bearing test may also be appropriate.
5.5. Foundation classes
The foundation consists of the sub-base layer and the capping layer (if used (Figure 5.2)
and is constructed with unbound or hydraulically bound materials. Depending on the
type of materials used, the methodology distinguished four foundation classes, on the
basis of foundation surface modulus (Table 5.3).
Table 5.2
Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.4a and 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.6

Table 5.6

Figure 5.2.
Table 5.4
Table 5.5
Table 5.6
5.5.2. Foundation design
The thickness determination of the foundation, per foundation class, is carried out by two
alternative design approaches:

5.5.2.1. The restricted foundation design.

• The designers are conservative, making allowances for uncertainty in material
performance and in layer thickness. Hence, restricted foundation design is intended for
use on schemes of limited extent. The test required to be carried out for achieving
required specifications are limited to the following:

1. CBR value at the top of the exposed subgrade, immediately prior to placement of
the overlying foundation layers,
2. material density and the actual thickness for each stage of foundation construction.
3. compliance with the relevant material specification

• The determination of the foundation thickness in the case of restricted design is

carried out with the use of design charts shown on Figures 5.4. to 5.5 where the
total foundation layer thickness is determined.
 Figure 5.5.
Note: MCHW1 is the Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works
 Note:
1.Table 5.7 gives the unadjusted mean foundation surface modulus and the minimum
foundation surface modulus values, for each foundation class and for different
categories of material
2.The methodology also imposes maximum permissible layer stiffness values for each
foundation class, regardless of the foundation design method employed. This is to
minimise the risk of selecting very thin or very stiff foundation layers at lower subgrade
CBR values. The maximum permissible layer stiffnesses to be used are as follows: 100
MPa for class 1, 350 MPa for class 2, 1000 MPa for class 3 and 3500 MPa for class 4.

Fast-setting: bound
mixtures that achieve
more than 50 per cent
of their specified
compressive strength
class after 28 days
curing at 20 degrees C.

Slow-setting: bound
mixtures that achieve
50 per cent or less of
their
specified strength
class after 28 days
curing at 20 degrees C.
 5.5.2.2. The performance foundation design approach
• This method offers greater flexibility to the designer, since a wide range of
resources, incorporating natural, secondary and recycled materials, may be utilized.
Additionally, the mechanical properties of the materials used are utilized more
efficiently and the performance foundation design provides some assurance that the
material performance assumptions made at the design stage are being, or are likely
to be, achieved.
• It is required to carry out an in situ test for subgrade and foundation acceptance to
achieve that the obtained CBR value must be equal to, or greater than, the design
CBR which is performed using a dynamic cone penetrometer or the plate bearing
test.
• Design charts to determine the foundation thickness in case a performance
foundation design are developed based on the characteristics of materials (physical
and mechanical properties).
 5.5.2.3. Cases where subgrade CBR is low (CBR < 2.5%)
• When the subgrade has a CBR value less than 2.5%, its bearing capacity is considered
unsuitable to support a pavement foundation. In these cases, the subgrade must be
permanently improved. This can be done by removing 0.5 to 1.0 m by a suitable
materials or using lime or similar for cohesive soil or using Geosynthetic material.
• In all cases the new design subgrade CBR is assumed to be equal to 2.5%.

5.5.3. Flexible pavement design

• Flexible pavement structure consists of all layers above foundation.
 The upper layers of the flexible pavement are bound in bitumen. In this case, the
pavement is called flexible pavement with asphalt base.

 lower (base) layers are bound in either bitumen or hydraulic binder. it is called
flexible pavement with HBM (hydraulically bound mixture) base.

 The designer may choose from a range of asphalt mixtures for asphalt base and
binder course, all with graded bitumen, and a range of HBMs, having a 28-day
compressive cube strength ranging from 10 to 20 MPa.
 5.5.3.1. Asphalt base and binder course material
There are four different types of dense asphalts mixtures (HMA):
(a) dense bitumen macadam (DBM125),
(b) hot rolled asphalt (HRA50),
(c) heavy duty macadam (HDM50) or dense bitumen macadam (DBM50)
(d) enrobe a module eleve (EME2) (high stiffness modulus) (French mix).
5.5.3.2. HBMs for base layer
The types of HBM permitted to be used are distinguished into four categories, from A to
D, on the basis of their strength

Note:
C8/10 = (cylinder
compressive
strength 8 MPa /
cube compressive
strength 10 MPa)

cement-bound granular mixtures (CBGMs), Slag bound mixtures SBM, fly ash bound mixtures (FABM)
5.5.3.3. Surface course material
 In all new construction or major maintenance works, the Highways Agency proposes
the use of thin surface course system or thin surfacing.
 The typical thickness of the thin surfacing is 25 to 50 mm and is made of asphalt
concrete for very thin layer, almost the asphalt must be modified with polymer or
fibre additive.
 Hot Rolled Asphalt HRA, Pores Asphalt PA, Dense Bitumen Macadam DBM

5.5.4. Determination of flexible pavement thickness

UK highway agency developed a nomograph that can be to determine the thickness of
pavement structure as shown in Figure 5.6.
5.5.4.1. Determination of flexible pavement with asphalt base
• The total thickness of the flexible pavement structure, comprising the surface
course, binder course and base, is obtained from the right-hand portion of the
nomograph shown in Figure 5.6. It depends on the type of base material.
• Thus, by knowing the cumulative number of ESAL, the foundation class and the
type of asphalt to be used in the base and binder course, the total asphalt
thickness is determined (see Figure 5.6., right-hand portion).
Figure 5.6. Nomograph for determining the
design thickness for flexible pavements
5.5.4.2. Determination of flexible pavement with HBM base
• In a composite pavement structure, the upper layer part is from asphalt and the
lower part is from HBMs. The thickness of the HBM layer, also called hydraulically
bound base layer, depends on the type and strength of the mixture and is
determined using the left portion of the nomograph shown in Figure 5.6.
• The thickness of the overlying asphalt layer is determined by the bottom axis in the
central portion of the same nomograph, knowing the cumulative traffic over the
design period expressed in million standard axles.

Note:
UK highway agency developed a new nomograph in the last version of
pavement design 2021. The nomograph has been simplified more to
reduced the number of asphalt mixes from four to two mixes only as shown
in Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7. Nomograph for determining the
design thickness for flexible pavements
Example (A): flexible pavement with an HBGM base.
Design factors:
1) design traffic = 60 msa;
2) foundation stiffness class 2.
Using Figure 5.8. and with HBGM category C base material:
Total asphalt thickness of 180 mm asphalt (surface course, binder course and
base), over 180 mm HBGM Category C (rounded up to the nearest 5 mm).

Example (B): flexible pavement with an asphalt base.

Design factors:
1) design traffic >80 msa (that is, 'long life' pavement);
2) foundation stiffness class 3.
Using Figure 5.8. and with AC 40/60 selected as the binder and base material:
Total asphalt thickness of 320 mm (surface course, AC 40/60 binder course
and AC 40/60 base).
Figure 5.8. Nomograph for determining the
design thickness for flexible pavements
End of Ch5.