Module (5-6)

Module 5: Number Systems

➢ 5.1 Binary Number System
• Binary numbering system consists of 1s and 0s, called bits
• Decimal numbering system consists of digits 0 through 9
• Hosts, servers, and network equipment using binary addressing to identify each other.
• Each address is made up of a string of 32 bits, divided into four sections called octets.
• Each octet contains 8 bits (or 1 byte) separated by a dot.
• For ease of use by people, this dotted notation is converted to dotted decimal.

IPv4 Addresses
• Routers and computers only understand binary, while humans work in decimal. It is important
for you to gain a thorough understanding of these two numbering systems and how they are used
in networking.

➢ 5.2 Hexadecimal Number System

• To understand IPv6 addresses, you must be able to convert hexadecimal to decimal and vice
versa.
• Hexadecimal is a base sixteen numbering system, using the digits 0 through 9 and letters A to F.
• It is easier to express a value as a single hexadecimal digit than as four binary bit.
• Hexadecimal is used to represent IPv6 addresses and MAC addresses.

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 • IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length. Every
4 bits is represented by a single hexadecimal
digit. That makes the IPv6 address a total of
32 hexadecimal values.
• The figure shows the preferred method of
writing out an IPv6 address, with each X
representing four hexadecimal values.
• Each four hexadecimal character group is referred to as a hextet.

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversions

Steps to convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal values:
• Convert the decimal number to 8-bit binary strings.
• Divide the binary strings in groups of four starting from the rightmost position.
• Convert each four binary numbers into their equivalent hexadecimal digit.
For example, (168) converted into hex using the three-step process.
• 168 in binary is 10101000.
• 10101000 in two groups of four binary digits is 1010 and 1000.
• 1010 is hex (A) and 1000 is hex (8), so (168) is (A8) in hexadecimal.
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversions
Steps to convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal values:
• Convert the hexadecimal number to 4-bit binary strings.
• Create 8-bit binary grouping starting from the rightmost position.
• Convert each 8-bit binary grouping into their equivalent decimal digit.
For example, D2 converted into decimal using the three-step process:
• D2 in 4-bit binary strings is 1101 and 0010.
• 1101 and 0010 is 11010010 in an 8-bit grouping.
• 11010010 in binary is equivalent to 210 in decimal, so D2 is 210 is decimal

What did I learn in this module? (Summery)

• Binary is a base two numbering system that consists of the numbers 0 and 1, called bits.
• Decimal is a base ten numbering system that consists of the numbers 0 through 9.
• Binary is what hosts, servers, and networking equipment uses to identify each other.
• Hexadecimal is a base sixteen numbering system that consists of the numbers 0 through 9 and
the letters A to F.
• Hexadecimal is used to represent IPv6 addresses and MAC addresses.
• IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, and every 4 bits is represented by a hexadecimal digit for a
total of 32 hexadecimal digits.
• To convert hexadecimal to decimal, you must first convert the hexadecimal to binary, then convert
the binary to decimal.
• To convert decimal to hexadecimal, you must first convert the decimal to binary and then the
binary to hexadecimal.

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 Module (6) Data Link Layer
➢ 6.1 Purpose of the Data Link Layer
• The Data Link layer is responsible for communications
between end-device network interface cards.
• It allows upper layer protocols to access the physical
layer media and encapsulates Layer 3 packets (IPv4 and
IPv6) into Layer 2 Frames.
• It also performs error detection and rejects corrupts
frames.

❖ IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Data Link Sublayers

IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards are specific to
the type of network (Ethernet, WLAN, WPAN,
etc).
The Data Link Layer consists of two
sublayers. Logical Link Control (LLC) and
Media Access Control (MAC).
• The LLC sublayer communicates between
the networking software at the upper layers
and the device hardware at the lower layers.
• The MAC sublayer is responsible for data
encapsulation and media access control.

❖ Providing Access to Media

Packets exchanged between nodes may experience numerous data link layers and media transitions.
At each hop along the path, a router performs four basic Layer 2 functions:
• Accepts a frame from the network medium.
• De-encapsulates the frame to expose the encapsulated packet.
• Re-encapsulates the packet into a new frame.
• Forwards the new frame on the medium of the next network segment.
❖ Data Link Layer Standards
Data link layer protocols are defined by engineering organizations:
• Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE).
• International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
• International Organizations for Standardization (ISO).
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

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 ➢ 6.2 Topologies
❖ Physical and Logical Topologies
The topology of a network is the arrangement and relationship of the network devices and the
interconnections between them.
There are two types of topologies used when describing networks:
• Physical topology – shows physical connections and how devices are interconnected.
• Logical topology – identifies the virtual connections between devices using device interfaces
and IP addressing schemes.

❖ WAN Topologies
There are three common physical WAN topologies:
• Point-to-point – the simplest and most common WAN topology. Consists of a permanent link
between two endpoints.
• Hub and spoke – similar to a star topology where a central site interconnects branch sites
through point-to-point links.
• Mesh – provides high availability but requires every end system to be connected to every other
end system.
❖ Point-to-Point WAN Topology
• Physical point-to-point topologies directly connect two nodes.
• The nodes may not share the media with other hosts.
• Because all frames on the media can only travel to or from the two nodes, Point-to-Point WAN
protocols can be very simple.

❖ LAN Topologies
• End devices on LANs are typically interconnected using a star or extended star topology. Star
and extended star topologies are easy to install, very scalable and easy to troubleshoot.
Early Ethernet and Legacy Token Ring technologies provide two additional topologies:
• Bus – All end systems chained together and terminated on each end.
• Ring – Each end system is connected to its respective neighbors to form a ring.

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 ❖ Half and Full Duplex Communication
Half-duplex communication
• Only allows one device to send or receive at a time on a shared medium.
• Used on WLANs and legacy bus topologies with Ethernet hubs.
Full-duplex communication
• Allows both devices to simultaneously transmit and receive on a shared medium.
• Ethernet switches operate in full-duplex mode.
❖ Access Control Methods
Contention-based access
All nodes operating in half-duplex, competing for use of the medium. Examples are:
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) as used on legacy bus-
topology Ethernet.
• Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) as used on Wireless LANs.
Controlled access
• Deterministic access where each node has its own time on the medium.
• Used on legacy networks such as Token Ring and ARCNET.

Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD
• Used by legacy Ethernet LANs.
• Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time.
• Uses a collision detection process to govern when a device can send and what happens if
multiple devices send at the same time.
CSMA/CD collision detection process:
• Devices transmitting simultaneously will result in a signal collision on the shared media.
• Devices detect the collision.
• Devices wait a random period of time and retransmit data.

Contention-Based Access – CSMA/CA

CSMA/CA
• Used by IEEE 802.11 WLANs.
• Operates in half-duplex mode where only one device sends or receives at a time.
• Uses a collision avoidance process to govern when a device can send and what happens if
multiple devices send at the same time.
CSMA/CA collision avoidance process:
• When transmitting, devices also include the time duration needed for the transmission.
• Other devices on the shared medium receive the time duration information and know how long
the medium will be unavailable.

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 ➢6.3 Data Link Frame
The Frame
Data is encapsulated by the data link layer with a header and a trailer to form a frame.
A data link frame has three parts:
• Header
• Data
• Trailer
The fields of the header and trailer vary according to data link layer protocol.
The amount of control information carried with in the frame varies according to access control
information and logical topology.

Layer 2 Addresses
• Also referred to as a physical address.
• Contained in the frame header.
• Used only for local delivery of a frame on the link.
• Updated by each device that forwards the frame.

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 LAN and WAN Frames
The logical topology and physical media determine the data link protocol used:
• Ethernet
• 802.11 Wireless
• Point-to-Point (PPP)
• High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
• Frame-Relay
Each protocol performs media access control for specified logical topologies.

• What did I learn in this module? (Summery)

• The data link layer of the OSI model (Layer 2) prepares network data for the physical network.
• The data link layer is responsible for network interface card (NIC) to network interface card
communications.
• The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN data link layer consists of the following two sublayers: LLC and
MAC.
• The two types of topologies used in LAN and WAN networks are physical and logical.
• Three common types of physical WAN topologies are: point-to-point, hub and spoke, and mesh.
• Half-duplex communications exchange data in one direction at a time. Full-duplex sends and
receives data simultaneously.
• In contention-based multi-access networks, all nodes are operating in half-duplex.
• Examples of contention-based access methods include:
CSMA/CD for bus-topology Ethernet LANs and CSMA/CA for WLANs.
• The data link frame has three basic parts: header, data, and trailer.
• Frame fields include: frame start and stop indicator flags, addressing, type, control, data, and
error detection.
• Data link addresses are also known as physical addresses.
• Data link addresses are only used for link local delivery of frames.