CHAPTER TWO

Alternating Current and Voltage

 Alternating current and Voltage
“AC” stands for Alternating Current.
Many of the principles, characteristics, and
effects of AC are similar to those of direct
current.
Similarly, there are a number of differences,
which will be explained.
Direct current flows constantly in only one
direction with a constant polarity.
DC changes magnitude only when the circuit is
opened or closed,
 Alternating current and Voltage
AC changes direction at regular intervals, increases in
value at a definite rate from zero to a maximum positive
strength, and
Decreases back to zero; then it flows in the opposite
direction, similarly increasing to a maximum negative
value, and again decreasing to zero.
Since alternating current constantly changes direction
and intensity, the following two effects (to be discussed
later) take place in AC circuits that do not occur in
DC circuits:
1. Inductive reactance.
2. Capacitive reactance.
Alternating current and Voltage
 Capacitance
Another important property in AC circuits,
besides resistance and inductance, is capacitance

While inductance is represented in a circuit by a

coil, capacitance is represented by a capacitor.

In its most basic form the capacitor is

constructed of two parallel plates separated by a
nonconductor, called a dielectric.
In an electrical circuit, a capacitor serves as a
reservoir or storehouse for electricity.
Capacitors in Direct Current
 Capacitors in Direct Current
When a capacitor charges or discharges through a
resistance, a certain amount of time is required for a
full charge or discharge.
The voltage across the capacitor will not change
instantaneously.
The rate of charging or discharging is determined by
the time constant of the circuit.
The time constant of a series RC (resistor/ capacitor)
circuit is a time interval that equals the product of the
resistance in ohms and the capacitance in farad and
is symbolized by the greek letter tau (τ).
 Capacitors in Direct Current
Electrical charge, which is symbolized by the
letter Q, is measured in units of coulombs.
The coulomb is given by the letter C, as with
capacitance. Unfortunately this can be
confusing.
One coulomb of charge is defined as a charge
having 6.28 × 1018 electrons.
The basic unit of capacitance is the farad and is
given by the letter f. By definition, one farad is
one coulomb of charge stored with one volt
across the plates of the capacitor.
 Capacitive Reactance Xc
The effectiveness of a capacitor in allowing an
AC flow to pass depends upon the capacitance
of the circuit and the applied frequency.
To what degree a capacitor allows an AC flow to
pass depends largely upon the capacitive value
of the capacitor given in farads (f ).
The greater the capacitance of the capacitor,
the greater the number of electrons, measured
in Coulombs, necessary to bring the capacitor to
a fully charged state.
 Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance Xc is determined by the
following:
 Capacitive Reactance Xc
E.g:- A series circuit is assumed in which Impressed
voltage is 110 volts at 60 cps, and the capacitance of a
condenser is 80 Mf. Find the capacitive reactance and
the current flow.
Capacitive Reactance Xc
 Inductance
Characteristics of Inductance
Michael Faraday discovered that by moving a magnet
through a coil of wire, a voltage was induced across
the coil.
If a complete circuit was provided, then a current
was also induced.
The amount of induced voltag is directly proportional
to the rate of change of the magnetic field with
respect to the coil.
The simplest
 Inductance
The simplest of experiments can prove that when a
bar magnet is moved through a coil of wire, a voltage
is induced and can be measured on a voltmeter.
This is commonly known as Faraday’s Law or the law
of electromagnetic induction, which states:
The induced emf or electromagnetic force in a closed
loop of wire is proportional to the rate of change of
the magnetic flux through a coil of wire.
Conversely, current flowing through a coil of wire
produces a magnetic field.
When this wire is formed into a coil, it then becomes
a basic inductor.
Inductance
 Inductance
The primary aspect of the operation of a coil is its
property to oppose any change in current through it.
This property is called inductance.
When current flows through any conductor, a
magnetic field starts to expand from the center of the
wire.
As the lines of magnetic force grow outward through
the conductor, they induce an emf in the conductor
itself. The induced voltage is always in the direction
opposite to the direction of the current flow.
The effects of this countering emf are to oppose the
immediate establishment of the maximum current.
 Inductance
This effect is only a temporary condition. Once the
current reaches a steady value in the conductor, the
lines of magnetic force will no longer be expanding
and the countering emf will no longer be present.
 Inductive Reactance
Alternating current is in a constant state of change;
the effects of the magnetic fields are a continuously
inducted voltage opposition to the current in the
circuit.
This opposition is called inductive reactance,
symbolized by XL, and is measured in ohms just as
resistance is measured.
Inductance is the property of a circuit to oppose any
change in current and is measured in henries.
Inductive reactance is a measure of how much
the countering emf in the circuit will oppose current
variations.
 Inductive Reactance
Alternating current is in a constant state of change;
the effects of the magnetic fields are a continuously
inducted voltage opposition to the current in the
circuit.
 Inductive Reactance
E.g:- An AC series circuit given by the inductance of
0.146 henry and the voltage is 110 volts at frequency
of 60 cycles per second. Inductive reactance is
determined by
 Inductive Reactance in AC circuit
In AC series circuits, inductive reactances are added
like resistances in series in a DC circuit.
The total reactance of inductors connected in parallel
is found the same way as the total resistance in a
parallel circuit.