LEARNING UNIT 4: TRANSMISSION LINES

Contents

4.0 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 3

4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Transmission line design considerations.......................................................................................... 4
4.3 Resistance ........................................................................................................................................ 7
4.3.1 DC resistance ............................................................................................................................ 7
4.3.2 AC resistance ............................................................................................................................ 9
4.4 Conductance .................................................................................................................................. 10
4.5 Inductance ...................................................................................................................................... 10
4.5.1 Inductance of a long round conductor ..................................................................................... 10
4.5.2 Flux linkage with a conductor in an array of conductors ........................................................ 12
4.5.3 Inductance of single-phase two-wire line and three-phase three-wire line with equal phase
spacing ............................................................................................................................................. 13
4.6 Inductance: composite conductors, unequal spacing, bundled conductors .................................... 15
4.6.1 Inductance of three-phase line ................................................................................................ 18
4.7 Electric field and voltage around a solid cylindrical conductor ..................................................... 21
4.8 Capacitance of transmission lines .................................................................................................. 22
4.8.1 Capacitance of a single-phase two-wire line ........................................................................... 22
4.8.2 Capacitance of a three-phase line with equal phase spacing ................................................... 23
4.8.3 Capacitance of stranded conductors, lines with unequal-phase spacing and with bundled
conductors ........................................................................................................................................ 23
4.9 Effect of the earth on the capacitance of lines ............................................................................... 24
4.9.1 Single-phase line ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.9.2 Three-phase lines .................................................................................................................... 26
4.10 Transmission line modelling and steady-state operation ............................................................. 26
4.11 ABCD parameters for a line ........................................................................................................ 27
4.12 Short transmission line................................................................................................................. 29
4.13 Medium-length transmission line................................................................................................. 29
4.14 Long transmission line ................................................................................................................. 33
4.14.1 Equivalent p circuit of the long transmission line ................................................................. 36
4.15 Lossless lines ............................................................................................................................... 37
4.15.1 Equivalent p circuit of the lossless long transmission line.................................................... 38
1
 4.15.2 Wavelength of transmitted voltage and current .................................................................... 38
4.15.3 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) ........................................................................................... 39
4.16 Voltage profiles............................................................................................................................ 40
4.17 Steady-state stability limit............................................................................................................ 41
4.18 Line loadability ............................................................................................................................ 42
4.19 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 43
Problems .............................................................................................................................................. 44

2
4.0 Learning outcomes

At the end of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:

• Evaluate the transmission line parameters for different line configurations.

• Assess the effect of the earth on the capacitance of transmission lines.

• Construct circuit models for transmission lines of different lengths and derive the corresponding
ABCD parameters.

• Predict the performance of the transmission lines using the circuit models.

• Modify the circuit models for the analysis of lossless lines.

• Evaluate the surge impedance loading, steady-state stability limit and loadability of transmission
lines.

3
4.1 Introduction

Transmission lines have the important function of conveying power from the point of generation to
the places where it is required for industrial and domestic use. The power transfer capability, line
losses and voltage regulation are some of the important considerations that define the performance of
the transmission line. The design and performance of the transmission line are affected by the
following four parameters: resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance.

The resistance accounts for the ohmic I2R line losses. Series impedance that includes resistance and
inductive reactance, gives rise to voltage drops along the line. Shunt capacitance gives rise to line-
charging currents. Shunt conductance exists between conductors or between conductors and the
ground. Conductance accounts for the leakage current at the insulators of overhead lines and through
the insulation of cables, leading to V2G line losses. The conductance depends on the presence of
pollution on the insulator surfaces and is considerably modified by rain and mist. However, leakage of
insulators of overhead lines is usually negligible, and conductance is neglected in most circuit analysis
calculations.

This learning unit discusses the basis of the various line parameters, including the derivation of
formulae for the calculation of these quantities. The discussion will include the construction of line
models that can be used to predict the behaviour of the transmission lines under different operating
conditions.

Although the ideas presented in this learning unit can be applied to underground transmission and
distribution cables, the primary focus is on overhead lines.

Additional reading of the material discussed in this learning unit, and detailed derivation of the
various formulae, can be found in the prescribed textbook: Glover, JD, Overbye, TJ & Sarma, MS.
2017. Power System Analysis and Design (6th edition). Cengage (chapters 4 and 5). We also
recommend the following book: Weedy, BM, Cory, BJ, Jenkins, N, Ekanayake, JB & Strbac, G. 2012.
Electric Power Systems (5th edition). Wiley (chapter 3).

4.2 Transmission line design considerations

An overhead transmission line consists of conductors, insulators, support structures, and, in most
cases, ground or shield wires. The conductors are suspended from insulators that are themselves
supported by towers or poles, as illustrated in figure 4.1(a).

4
 (b)

(a)

Figure 4.1: Transmission line towers

There are two main types of towers:

• Those for straight runs, called straight towers, in which the stress due to the weight of the line
alone has to be withstood.
• Those for changes in route, called deviation towers, which withstand the resultant forces set
up when the line changes direction.

For lower voltages and distribution circuits, wood or reinforced concrete poles are used with
structures as shown in figure 4.1(b).

The live conductors are insulated from the towers by insulators that take two basic forms, namely the
pin type and the suspension type. The pin-type insulator is shown in figure 4.2(a) and it is seen that
the conductor is supported on the top of the insulator. This type is used for distribution lines. The two
or three porcelain 'sheds' provide an adequate leakage path from the conductor to the earth and are
shaped to follow the equipotentials of the electric field set up by the conductor-tower system.
Suspension insulators shown in figure 4.2(b) consist of a string of interlinking separate discs made of
glass or porcelain. A string may consist of many discs depending on the line voltage. The conductor is
held at the bottom of the string, which is suspended from the tower. For high pollution areas, synthetic
insulation materials be considered in place of glass or porcelain.

Owing to the capacitances existing between the discs, conductor and tower, the distribution of voltage
along the insulator string is not uniform, the discs nearer the conductor are more highly stressed.

5
 (a) (b)

Figure 4.2: (a) Pin-type and (b) suspension-type insulators

Overhead line conductors usually comprise a stranded steel core (for mechanical strength) surrounded
by aluminium wires that form the Aluminium Conductor Steel-Reinforced (ACSR) conductor. Other
conductor types include the all-aluminium conductor (AAC), all-aluminium-alloy conductor (AAAC),
and aluminium conductor alloy-reinforced (ACAR), and so forth. Several conductors may be bundled
together on each phase, as shown in figure 4.1(a), to increase the current-carrying capacity. Bundled
conductors also reduce the reactance of the transmission line, voltage gradient, corona loss, radio
interference, and surge impedance of the transmission lines.

Figure 4.3: Typical ACSR conductor

Shield or ground wires located above the phase conductors, as shown in figure 4.1, protect the phase
conductors against lightning. The number and location of the shield wires are selected so that almost
all lightning strokes terminate on the shield wires rather than on the phase conductors. Shield wires
are grounded to the tower. As such, when lightning strikes a shield wire, the surge current flows
harmlessly to the ground but requires that the tower impedance and tower footing resistance be small.

6
 Activity 1

Study section 4.1 of the textbook and read through the case study at the beginning of chapter 4 to
become familiar with power line design, understand the functions of the different line components,
become familiar with the terminology and understand the practical requirements, constraints and
practices associated with line configurations.

Observe the different physical line constructions and configurations that one passes whenever
travelling through the country and establish the pros and cons of each design. If possible, read
about it from other literature than the textbook.

4.3 Resistance

The resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause of power loss in a
transmission line. DC and AC, or effective, resistance can be defined as described in the following
sections.

4.3.1 DC resistance

The DC resistance of a conductor of a uniform cross-section, at a given temperature, is given by

%! &
𝑅!",$ = '
W (4.1)

where, 𝜌$ = resistivity of the conductor at temperature T [W-m],

l = length of the conductor [m],
A = cross-sectional area of the conductor [m2].

The international standard of conductivity (100%) is that of annealed copper, as shown in table 4.1.
Hard-drawn copper wire has 97.3% and aluminium has 61% of the conductivity of annealed copper.
Other conductor materials' conductivity are similarly defined.

For stranded conductors, alternate layers of strands are spiralled in opposite directions, as illustrated
in figure 4.3, to hold the strands together. Spiralling makes the strands 1% or 2% longer than the
actual conductor length. As a result, the dc resistance of a stranded conductor is 1% or 2% larger than
that calculated from equation (4.1) for a specified conductor length.

The resistivity of the conductor varies linearly over normal operating temperatures according to the
relationship

7
 $" *$
𝜌$( = 𝜌$) (4.2)
$# *$

where, rT2 and rT1 are the resistivities at temperatures T2 and T1 oC, respectively. T is a temperature
constant that depends on the conductor material and is listed in table 4.1 for a few examples.

Table 4.1: Conductivity, resistivity and temperature constant of some conductor metals

Example 4.1: Stranded conductor: dc resistance

A hard-drawn copper conductor has 12 strands, with each strand having a diameter of 0.3373 cm.
Calculate the DC resistance of a 1 km length of the conductor at 50oC. Assume a 2% increase in
resistance due to spiralling.

Note that any consistent set of units may be used to calculate the resistance. In this module, SI units
will be used. Refer to activity 2 for an alternative set of units that can be used to calculate the
resistance.

Solution:

The conductor area is

+! "
𝐴 = 12 × 𝜋𝑟 ( = 12 × ,
= 3𝜋(3.373)( = 107.2 mm2.

Use the data for hard-drawn copper from table 4.1:

-.*(,).-
𝜌-.$ / = 1.77 × 1001 1(.*(,).-2 = 1.973 × 1001 W-m

From equation (4.1), the DC resistance at 50 oC for a conductor length of 1 km is

3).456×).%& 83).' ×)..(8

𝑅!",-.$ / = = 0.1877 W/km.
).5.(×).%(

8
 Activity 2

Normally only SI units are used nowadays. The textbook furnishes a second set of units, typical to
the American Engineering Environment, namely that of inches, mills, square mills and circular
mills. Although not in common use, the tables in the textbook and in other literature often also use
these units because they have been introduced so widely and they are well worth taking note of and
becoming familiar with.

Study section 4.2 of the textbook to learn how to interpret American manufacturers’ data and how
to use English units in resistance calculations.

4.3.2 AC resistance

The AC resistance of a conductor is different from the DC value due to the skin effect. For DC, the
current distribution is uniform throughout the conductor cross-section, and equation (4.1) is valid.
However, for AC, the current distribution is non-uniform. As frequency increases, the current in a
solid cylindrical conductor tends to crowd toward the conductor surface, with a smaller current
density at the conductor centre. This phenomenon is called the skin effect and can be explained using
equation (4.3),

9
𝐿=:, (4.3)

which defines inductance as the ratio of the flux linkage 𝜆 (= 𝑁Φ) to the current I flowing through
the conductor. N is the number of conductors and Φ is the flux generated by the current. It can be seen
from equation (4.3) that the inductance is proportional to flux linkage. Now, when a current flows
through a conductor, the flux linkage is greatest at or towards the centre of the conductor. That is, the
inductance is higher towards the centre, which causes the current to flow along the outer edges of the
conductor.

The AC resistance or effective resistance of a conductor is therefore measured in terms of the power
loss in the conductor, thus

<)$**
𝑅;" = |:|"
(4.4)

where Ploss = conductor real power loss in Watts and

I = r.m.s. conductor current.

9
4.4 Conductance

Overhead lines will be subject to real power loss (dissipative power loss) between lines because of
leakage current over the insulators and even between conductors. Mostly, this leakage current will be
brought about by dirt, salt and other contaminants on the insulators. Corona also accounts for real
power loss. Corona is brought about by the ionisation of the air in the high electric fields caused by
the high voltages and the corona loss increases with increasing voltage. It is a well-known fact that
pointed objects bring about higher field strengths in the air and therefore higher dissipative power
loss. A number of techniques have been developed to reduce corona.

4.5 Inductance

Different conductor configurations can be considered when formulating the inductance of a

transmission line. The first step is to consider a single conductor then formulate the inductance due to
the flux inside the conductor as well as that external to the conductor. Following which we can
formulate the inductance of a simple two-wire line composed of solid round conductors. We can then
proceed to a more general problem where we have one conductor being part of a group of conductors
or bundled conductors. We may also need to formulate the inductance of composite conductors,
where the conductors are composed of two or more elements or strands that are electrically in parallel.

4.5.1 Inductance of a long round conductor

Inductance in a conductor is essentially governed by the ratio of the flux that links the conductor with
the current flowing through it. By definition, inductance is the property of a circuit by which it
opposes any change of current through it. The effect of self-inductance in a circuit is fully expressed
by Faraday's Law that

!>
𝑒(𝑡) = . (4.5)
!?

Equation (4.5) may be re-written as

!> !A
𝑒(𝑡) = !@ !?
. (4.6)

Now, the rate of change of flux-linkage with a current is defined as the inductance

!>
𝐿= !@
. (4.7)

Hence, equation (4.6) may be written as

!A
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐿 !? , (4.8)

10
where e(t) is the time-dependent voltage across the inductance (in this case a conductor), L is the
di
inductance and is the rate of change of current at moment t.
dt

In the case of constant permeability, the flux-linkage will be linearly related to the current and follows
that

>
𝐿=:, (4.9)

in which case λ and I could represent DC-values or phasor magnitudes.

Inductance plays a major part in overhead line transmission because it is the primary cause of line
regulation (the voltage-drop over distance) and determines transient responses in lines and it is
therefore important to accurately calculate the inductance of a line.

It can be shown, through the application of Ampere's Circuital Law and other electromagnetic
principles related to μo and μr, that the total flux linkages (in Webber turns per meter) inside a
conductor of unit (1 m) length of conductor is given by

)
λ@B? = × 1005 𝐼 Wb-t/m. (4.10)
(

The internal inductance (the inductance that is set up by the flux linkages that resides inside a single
round non-magnetic conductor), in which an even current distribution I is assumed, is obtained as the
quotient of the flux linkages and the current that produces it and is shown to be

)
L@B? = ( × 1005 H/m. (4.11)

The internal inductance L@B? , as seen from equation (4.11), is fixed and independent of the conductor
diameter.

The external flux linkage, or the total flux outside the conductor but between radii D1 and D2 (figure
4.4), that links with a long, round conductor carrying current I, can similarly be shown as

C
λ)( = 2 × 1005 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 1 D" 2 Wb-t/m. (4.12)
#

11
 Figure 4.4: External magnetic field of a solid cylindrical conductor

The external inductance, set up by the concentric lines of flux between external radii D1 and D2, is
given by

C
L)( = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 1 "2 H/m. (4.13)
D#

The total flux that links the conductor out to an external point P located at a distance D away from the
centre of the conductor, is shown to be given by

C
λ< = 2 × 1005 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 1 2 Wb-t/m, (4.14)
EF

where

#
𝑟 F = 𝑒 0+ 𝑟 = 0.7788 𝑟. (4.15)

In equations (4.14) and (4.15), 𝑟 F is the equivalent radius of a fictitious round conductor that is
assumed to have no internal flux, but has the same inductance as that of the conductor of radius r.

By applying the definition of inductance in equation (4.14), the total inductance of the long round
conductor, out to distance D, is

C
L< = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 1 2 H/m. (4.16)
EF

4.5.2 Flux linkage with a conductor in an array of conductors

The flux linking a conductor k, which is one in a bundle of M conductors (figure 4.5) that carry
current, but in which the sum of the currents I1, I2, ….. IM is zero, is given by

)
λG = 2 × 1005 ∑I
HJ) 1𝐼H 𝑙𝑛 D 2 Wb-t/m. (4.17)
,-

12
 Figure 4.5: Array of M solid cylindrical conductors

Equation (4.17) is valid for DC or AC currents. When the current is DC, 𝜆k is a dc flux linkage. When
the current is sinusoidal AC, 𝝀k is a phasor flux linkage that has both magnitude and phase. Point P is
already defined in equation (4.14).

4.5.3 Inductance of single-phase two-wire line and three-phase three-wire line with equal phase
spacing

Figure 4.6 shows a single-phase two-wire line consisting of two solid cylindrical conductors x and y.
Conductor x with radius rx carries phasor current Ix = I in the direction shown. Conductor y with
radius ry carries return current Iy = - I. Since the sum of the two currents is zero, equation (4.17) is
valid, from which the total flux linking conductor x is

) )
λK = 2 × 1005 B𝐼K 𝑙𝑛 D + 𝐼L 𝑙𝑛 D D Wb-t/m. (4.18)
.. ./

Now, Iy = - Ix = - I. Also, Dxx = 𝑟′K and Dxy = D.

Therefore,

) )
λK = 2 × 1005 1𝐼 𝑙𝑛 EF − 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 D2 Wb-t/m. (4.19)
.

Equation (4.19) can be reduced to

C
λK = 2 × 1005 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 EF Wb-t/m. (4.20)
.

#
Noting that 𝑟′K = 𝑒 0+ 𝑟K = 0.7788 𝑟K , the inductance of conductor x can then be written as

C
LK = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 EF H/m. (4.21)
.

13
The flux linkage of conductor y can be derived similarly as

C
λL = 2 × 1005 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 EF Wb-t/m, (4.22)
/

and the inductance as

C
LL = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 EF H/m. (4.23)
/

The total inductance of the single-phase circuit, also called loop inductance, is

C C
L = LK + LL = 2 × 1005 B 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛 D H/m. (4.24)
EF. EF/

Adding the two natural logarithms gives

C
𝐿 = 4 × 1005 B 𝑙𝑛 D H/m. (4.25)
MEF. EF/

If 𝑟′K = 𝑟′L = 𝑟′, the total circuit inductance is

C
𝐿 = 4 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 H/m. (4.26)
EF

The inductances of the single-phase two-wire line are shown in figure 4.6(b).

(a) (b)

Figure 4.6: Single-phase two-wire line

Figure 4.7(a) shows a three-phase three-wire line consisting of three solid cylindrical conductors a, b,
c, each with radius r, and with equal phase spacing D between any two conductors. To determine
inductance, assume balanced positive-sequence currents Ia, Ib, Ic that satisfy (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0. Then
equation (4.17) is valid and the inductance of each phase can be derived using the same procedure as
for the single-phase, two-wire line above. The inductance is found to be

14
 C
𝐿 = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 H/m per phase. (4.27)
EF

The phase inductance is shown in figure 4.7(b).

(a) (b)

Figure 4.7: Three-phase three-wire line: (a) geometry and (b) phase inductance

4.6 Inductance: composite conductors, unequal spacing, bundled conductors

The results of section 4.4, especially equation (4.17), are extended to determine the inductance of
composite conductors, which consist of two or more solid cylindrical sub-conductors in parallel. A
stranded conductor is one example of a composite conductor. It is assumed that for each conductor,
the sub-conductors are identical and share the conductor current equally.

Assume now that the single-phase two-conductor line in figure 4.6 consists of two composite
conductors x and y. Conductor x has N identical sub-conductors, each with radius rx and with current
(𝐼H𝑁). Similarly, conductor y consists of M identical sub-conductors, each with radius ry and with

return current (𝐼H𝑀). Since the sum of all the currents is zero, equation (4.17) is valid and the
inductance of the composite conductor x can be shown as (the sum of the 𝑙𝑛 distances became the 𝑙𝑛
product (Π) of the distances)

C
𝐿K = 2 × 1005 1 𝑙𝑛 D./2 H/m, (4.28)
..

where

01
𝐷KL = K∏N I
GJ) ∏HJ) 𝐷GH (4.29)

and

1"
𝐷KK = K∏N N
GJ) ∏HJ) 𝐷GH . (4.30)

15
Dxy, given by equation (4.29), is the MNth root of the product of the MN distances from the sub-
conductors of conductor x to the sub-conductors of conductor y. Associated with each sub-conductor k
of conductor x are the M distances Dk1′; Dk2′; ...; DkM to the sub-conductors of conductor y. For N
sub-conductors in conductor x, there are therefore MN of these distances.

Dxy is called the geometric mean distance or GMD between the composite conductors x and y. and Dxx
is called the geometric mean radius or GMR of conductor x.

Also, Dxx, given by (4.30), is the N2 root of the product of the N2 distances between the sub-
conductors of conductor x. Associated with each sub-conductor k are the N distances Dk1; Dk2; ...; Dkk
= 𝑟′; ...; DkN . For N sub-conductors in conductor x, there are therefore N2 of these distances.

Dxx is called the geometric mean radius or GMR of conductor x.

The same principles apply to conductor y so that the inductance per unit length is

C./
𝐿L = 2 × 1005 B 𝑙𝑛 D D H/m (4.31)
//

and the GMR of conductor y is

0"
𝐷LL = K∏N N
GJ)F ∏HJ)F 𝐷GH . (4.32)

The total inductance L of the single-phase circuit is

L = LK + LL H/m. (4.33)

It should be noted that when the spacing between the two conductors is relatively large when
compared with the spacing between the sub-conductors in a line, the GMD becomes very close to the
distance between the centres of the two lines.

Example 4.2: GMR, GMD and inductance: single-phase two-conductor line

A single-phase two-conductor line shown in figure 4.8 consists of two composite conductors x and y.
Conductor x has three identical sub-conductors, each with radius rx shown in the figure. Similarly,
conductor y consists of two identical sub-conductors, each with radius ry also indicated in the figure.
Evaluate the inductance of the composite conductors x and y, and the total inductance of the single-
phase circuit.

16
 Figure 4.8: Single-phase two-conductor line for example 4.2

Solution:

For N = 3 and M = 2', the GMD given by equation (4.29) becomes

( ( (
𝐷KL = K∏6GJ) ∏(HJ)F 𝐷GH = K∏6GJ) 𝐷G)F 𝐷G(F = M(𝐷))F 𝐷)(F )(𝐷()F 𝐷((F )(𝐷6)F 𝐷6(F ).

Similarly, the GMR of conductor x given by equation (4.30) becomes

2 2
𝐷KK = K∏6GJ) ∏6HJ) 𝐷GH = M(𝐷)) 𝐷)( 𝐷)6 )(𝐷() 𝐷(( 𝐷(6 )(𝐷6) 𝐷6( 𝐷66 ).

The GMR of conductor y given by equation (4.32) becomes

0" +
𝐷LL = K∏N N
GJ)F ∏HJ)F 𝐷GH = M(𝐷)F)F 𝐷)F(F )(𝐷(F)F 𝐷(F(F ).

Evaluating Dxy, Dxx and Dyy for the single-phase two-conductor line shown in figure 4.8,

D11' = 4 m; D12' = 4.3 m; D21' = 3.5 m

D22' = 3.8 m; D31' = 2 m; D32' = 2.3 m

Dxy = 3.189 m

D11 = D22 = D33 = 𝑟KF = 𝑒 0)⁄, 𝑟K = (𝑜. 7788)(0.03) = 0.02336 m

D21 = D12 = 0.5 m; D23 = D32 = 1.5 m; D31 = D13 = 2.0 m

Dxx = 0.3128 m

D1'1' = D2'2' = 𝑟LF = 𝑒 0)⁄, 𝑟L = (𝑜. 7788)(0.04) = 0.03115 m

D2'1' = D1'2' = 0.3 m

Dyy = 0.09667 m

17
Then, from equations (4.28), (4.31) and (4.33),

𝐿K = 4.644 × 1005 H/m per conductor

𝐿L = 6.992 × 1005 H/m per conductor

L = LK + LL = 1.164 × 100P H/m per circuit

4.6.1 Inductance of three-phase line

In line with conductors at unequal spacing, the inductance of the different phases will not be the same.
This problem is overcome in practical lines by transposing the lines so that each conductor will share
each position in the line over equal distances, as illustrated in figure 4.9. The line is transposed at two
locations such that each phase occupies each position for one-third of the line length. Conductor
positions are denoted 1, 2, 3 with distances D12, D23, D31 between positions. The conductors are
identical, each with GMR denoted DS because they are stranded.

Figure 4.9: Transposed three-phase line

It can be shown that the average inductance per phase is

'
MC#" C"' C'#
𝐿 = 2 × 1005 𝑙𝑛 H/m per phase, (4.34)
D3

defining

𝐷QR = 'MD)( D(6 D6) . (4.35)

The inductance can then be written as

C45
𝐿 = 2 × 1005 ln D3
H/m. (4.36)

DS is the conductor GMR for stranded conductors or 𝑟′ for solid cylindrical conductors.

Figure 4.10 shows three bundle configurations, namely two-conductor, three-conductor and four-
conductor bundled conductors, respectively.

18
 Figure 4.10: Bundle-conductor configuration

The GMR of the stranded two-conductor bundle with distance d between conductors in the bundle can
be deduced from equation (4.30) as

1" + +
𝐷ST = K∏N N
GJ) ∏HJ) 𝐷GH = M(𝐷)) 𝐷)( )(𝐷)) 𝐷)( ) = M(𝐷S 𝑑)(𝐷S 𝑑). (4.37)

That is

𝐷ST = M(𝐷S 𝑑), (4.38)

for the three-conductor bundle

'
𝐷ST = M𝐷S 𝑑( (4.39)

and for the four-conductor bundle

+
𝐷ST = 1.091 M𝐷S 𝑑6 . (4.40)

Example 4.3: GMR, GMD and inductance: single-phase two-conductor line

A single-phase line operating at 50 Hz consists of two 12-strand copper conductors with 1.5 m
spacing between conductor centres. The line length is 32 km. Calculate the total inductance in henrys
and the total inductive reactance in ohms of the line, given that the GMR of the 12-strand conductor is
0.5334 cm.

Solution:

The GMD between conductor centres is Dxy = 1.5 m and

GMR = Dxx = Dyy = 0.5334 cm.

Then, from equations (4.28), (4.31) and (4.33),

)-.
𝐿K = 𝐿L = 2 × 1005 1 ln 2 × 32 × 106 = 0.03609 H per conductor and
..-66,

L = LK + LL = 0.07218 H for the circuit.

19
The total inductive reactance is

XL = 2pf L = (2p)(50)(0.07218) = 22.67 W for the circuit.

Example 4.4: Inductance and inductive reactance: three-phase line

A completely transposed 50-Hz three-phase line has flat horizontal phase spacing with 10 m between
adjacent conductors. The conductors are 806 mm2 ACSR with 54/3 stranding. The line length is 200
km. Determine the inductance in H and the inductive reactance W, given that the GMR of the 806
mm2 54/3 ACSR conductor is 0.0159 m.

Solution:

DS = 0.0159 m

From equation (4.35),

'
𝐷QR = M(10)(10)(20) = 12.6 m

and from equation (4.36)

)(.P
𝐿; = 2 × 1005 ln ...)-4 × 200 × 106 = 0.267 H.

The inductive reactance of phase a is

Xa = 2pf La = (2p)(50)(0.267) = 83.88 W.

Example 4.5: Inductive reactance: three-phase line with bundled conductors

Each conductor of the bundled-conductor line shown in figure 4.11 is ACSR with GMR = 0.0142 m.
Calculate the inductive reactance in ohms per kilometre per phase for d = 45 cm.

Figure 4.11: Spacing of conductors of a bundled-conductor line for example 4.5

Solution:

DS = 0.0142 m

From equation (4.38),

20
𝐷ST = M(0.0142 × 0.45) = 0.080 m

and from equation (4.35),

𝐷QR = 'M(8)(8)(16) = 10.08 m.

From XL = 2pf L and equation (4.34),

)...1
𝑋T = 2𝜋50 × 2 × 1005 ln × 106 = 0.365 W/km per phase.
...1

4.7 Electric field and voltage around a solid cylindrical conductor

The capacitance between conductors in a medium with constant permittivity e can be obtained by
determining the following:

i. Electric field strength E

ii. Voltage between conductors
iii. Capacitance from the charge per unit volt (C =q/V)

Consider the array of M, long, equally spaced cylindrical overhead conductors with zero resistivity as
shown in figure 4.12, in which each conductor carries a uniform charge qm Coulombs per unit length.
It can be shown that the voltage of conductor k with respect to i is given by

) C
VG@ = (+U ∑I 6-
HJ) 𝑞H 1𝑙𝑛 D 2 V, (4.41)
,-

where Dkm and Dim are the distances of the conductors k and i from conductor m. e is the permittivity
for free space given by e = e0 = 8.854 x 10–12 F/m.

In expanded form, equation (4.41) can be written as

) C C C
VG@ = (+U 1𝑞) 𝑙𝑛 D 6# + 𝑞( 𝑙𝑛 D 6" + ⋯ + 𝑞I 𝑙𝑛 D 60 2 V. (4.42)
,# ," ,0

It can be seen from equation (4.42) that the voltage of conductor k, with respect to conductor i, is a
function of the voltages between conductors k and i in the presence of all the other conductors.

21
 Figure 4.12: Array of M solid cylindrical conductors

4.8 Capacitance of transmission lines

The results of section 4.7 are used to determine the capacitances of the two relatively simple
transmission lines: a single-phase two-wire line and a three-phase three-wire line with equal phase
spacing.

4.8.1 Capacitance of a single-phase two-wire line

Consider the simple single-phase two-wire line, consisting of conductors x and y as depicted in figure
4.13.

Figure 4.13: Single-phase line

Assume that the conductors are energised by a voltage source such that conductor x has a uniform
charge q C/m and, assuming conservation of charge, conductor y has an equal quantity of negative
charge -q. Using equation (4.41) with k = x, i = y and m = x, y,

) C/. C//
VKL = B𝑞 ln D − 𝑞 ln D V. (4.43)
(+U .. D./

Substituting Dxy = Dyx = D, Dxx = rx and Dyy = ry gives

R C
VKL = +U ln V. (4.44)
ME. E/

For a 1-meter line length, the capacitance between conductors is

R +U
𝐶KL = V = 7
F/m (line-to-line). (4.45)
./ WXY Z
8 9. 9/

22
If, as in practice the two lines have equal radii, then

+U
𝐶KL = 7 F/m (line-to-line). (4.46)
WX[ \
9

If the two lines are supplied by a transformer with a grounded centre-tap, then the voltage between the
line and ground will be half of that given by equation (4.44). That is

]./
VKB = VLB = (4.47)
(

and the capacitance from either line to the grounded neutral is

R (+U
𝐶B = CKB = CLB = V = 2𝐶KL = 7 F/m (line-to-line). (4.48)
.: &B[ \
9

That is, the capacitance between each line and ground is twice that between the two lines.

4.8.2 Capacitance of a three-phase line with equal phase spacing

Consider the three-phase line with equal phase spacing shown in figure 4.7(a). It can be shown that
the positive- and negative-phase sequence capacitances for the three-phase solid-conductor line with
identical-phase spacing D, is

(+U
𝐶) = C( = 7 F/m (per phase). (4.49)
&B[ \
9

It is again assumed that the radii r of the three cylindrical phase-conductors are identical. The result is
the same as for the single-phase two-wire line.

4.8.3 Capacitance of stranded conductors, lines with unequal-phase spacing and with bundled
conductors

It can also be shown that the positive- and negative-phase sequence capacitances for a transposed line
with unequal phase spacing is given by

(+U
𝐶) = C( = 745 F/m, (4.50)
WXY Z
;3<

where

𝐷QR = 'MD;^ D^" D"; (4.51)

and D;^ , D^" and D"; are the respective GMDs between lines a and b, b and c, c and a.

23
DSC is the GMR for the phase conductor bundle and is calculated similarly to DSL for the case of
inductance, as discussed in section 4.6.1. That is

1"
𝐷S/ = K∏N N
GJ) ∏HJ) 𝐷GH . (4.52)

In this case, however, the GMR of each single round solid cylindrical conductor is equal to the actual
radius of the conductor for the N cases where k = m, Dkk = rk. As in the case of inductance, the GMRs
of composite conductors are usually given in tabular form by the manufacturers.

Example 4.6: Capacitance and admittance: single-phase line

A single-phase line operating at 50 Hz consists of two 12-strand copper conductors with 1.5 m
spacing between conductor centres. The line length is 32 km. Calculate the line-to-line capacitance in
Farads and the line-to-line admittance in Siemens, given that the outside radius of the 12-strand
conductor is 0.7 cm.

Solution:

r = 0.7 cm

From equation (4.46),

+31.1-,×).%#" 8
𝐶KL = #=> = 5.182 × 100)( F/m (line-to-line)
&B[ \
>.@

or

𝐶KL = 5.182 × 100)( × 32 × 106 = 1.66 × 1005 F (line-to-line)

and the shunt admittance is

𝑌KL = 𝑗𝜔𝐶KL = 𝑗6.27 × 100- S (line-to-line).

4.9 Effect of the earth on the capacitance of lines

Where the height of overhead lines is comparable with the phase spacing between the lines, the line
capacitance is also affected by the presence of the ground. The earth surface is assumed to be a
perfectly conducting horizontal plane and its effect can be represented as the images of the conductors
themselves, as illustrated in figure 4.14. Figure 4.14(a) shows a single conductor with uniform charge
distribution and with height H above a perfectly conducting earth plane. When the conductor has a
positive charge, an equal quantity of negative charge is induced on the earth. The electric field lines

24
will originate from the positive charges on the conductor and terminate at the negative charges on the
earth. Also, the electric field lines are perpendicular to the surfaces of the conductor and earth.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4.14: Method of images: (a) single-conductor and earth plane, and (b) earth plane
replaced by image conductor

The image conductor can then replace the earth as illustrated in figure 4.14(b), which has the same
radius as the original conductor, lies directly below the original conductor with conductor separation
H11 = 2H, and has an equal quantity of negative charge. The electric field above the dashed line
representing the location of the removed earth plane in figure 4.14(b) is identical to the electric field
above the earth plane in figure 4.14(a). Therefore, the voltage between any two points above the earth
is the same in both figures.

4.9.1 Single-phase line

A single-phase two-wire line with flat horizontal spacing is shown in figure 4.15. The effect of the
earth on capacitance is determined by using the method of images. A perfectly conducting earth plane
is also assumed. As shown in figure 4.15, the earth plane is replaced by a separate image conductor
for each overhead conductor, and the conductors are charged as shown. From equation (4.41), the
voltage between conductors x and y can be shown as

R C _
VKL = +U a𝑙𝑛 E − ln `./ b Volts, (4.53)
..

from which the line-to-line capacitance can be deduced to be

R +U
CKL = ] = 7 A./ F/m. (4.54)
./ WX 0&B
9 B..

25
 Figure 4.15: Single-phase line and its image conductors

The terms Hxy and Hxx can be shown to be, respectively, the distances between conductor x and image
conductor y' and between conductor x and its own image x'. When the height of the line above the
ground plane is large compared with the distance between the conductors x and y, then Hxy ® Hxx.
_./
The term ln will then approach zero, showing that the capacitance between the two lines then
`..

becomes independent of the effect of the earth plane. Under such conditions, the effect of the earth
plane may be practically ignored.

4.9.2 Three-phase lines

It can be shown that the per-phase capacitance (which will also be equal to the positive-phase
sequence impedance under balanced conditions) of a fully transposed three-phase line with unequal-
phase spacing and uniform charge distribution is given by

+U
C) = C( = 745 '
8A A A
F/m, (4.55)
&B; 0&B ' #" "' '#
3< 8A# A" A'

which also assume that the charges on the different phases sum to zero. In this case, as in the single-
phase case illustrated in figure 4.13, H12, H23 and H31 refers to the distances between a conductor and
the image conductors of the other two phases and H1, H2 and H3 depict the vertical distances between
each conductor and its own image.

Equation (4.55) also shows that in high lines in which the phase spacing is small compared to the
height above ground, the effect of ground on the capacitance of the lines can be ignored.

4.10 Transmission line modelling and steady-state operation

The previous sections have discussed the basis of the various line parameters, including the derivation
of formulae for the calculation of these quantities. The design and performance of the transmission
line are affected by these parameters, which are resistance, inductance, capacitance and conductance.
26
This section deals with the development of models that can be used to predict the behaviour of
transmission lines under different conditions. The lines are part of a much larger transmission system
in which generators and loads are also present and the line characteristics influence the behaviour of
the whole system. The important considerations for steady-state behaviour are those of transmission
capacity, line losses and voltage regulation.

A transmission line is equivalent to a large number of shunt capacitors interconnected with series
inductors and resistors, as illustrated in figure 4.16. That is, the line model consists of several or many
RLC elements connected in series, including conductance; however, this is usually neglected for
analysis purposes.

Figure 4.16: Transmission line model

The line model represented by figure 4.16 is too complex to work with. Simplified line models can
also be used in which the various parameters are lumped into a single element rather than distributed
as shown in figure 4.16. How lines and cables are represented depends on their length and the
accuracy required. There are three broad classifications of length: short, medium and long, defined as
follows:

i. Short line (< 80 km)

ii. Medium line (> 80 km)
iii. Long line (> 250 km)

This is only a guide since different sources or references may give different lengths for the various
lines.

If only the sending-end and receiving-end conditions of the line are of interest, the transmission line
can be treated as a two-port network and modelled using the ABCD parameters, as discussed in the
following section. The ABCD parameters can then be used to predict the performance of the line.

4.11 ABCD parameters for a line

Figure 4.17 shows a general two-port network, representing a transmission line, with VS, IS and VR, IR
respectively, representing the sending-end and receiving-end complex phasor voltages and currents.

27
 Figure 4.17: Two-port network

The relation between the sending-end and receiving-end quantities can be written as

VS = AVR + BIR V (4.56)

IS = CVR + DIR A (4.57)

or in matrix format as

é VS ù é A B ù é VR ù
ê ú=ê úê ú (4.58)
ë IS û ë C D û ë IR û

The parameters A, B, C and D are generally complex and depend on the series-line transmission
parameters R, L, C and G.

It follows from equations (4.56) and (4.57) that

VS ï
A= (4.59)
VRï IR = 0

VSï
B= (4.60)
IR ï VR = 0

IS ï
C= (4.61)
VRï IR = 0

IS ï
D= (4.62)
IRï VR = 0

It can be deduced from equations (4.59) to (4.62) that

• A is dimensionless and is an open-circuit parameter [per unit];

• B has the dimension of ohm and is a short-circuit parameter [Ω];
• C has the dimension of siemens and is an open-circuit parameter [S]; and
• D is dimensionless and is a short-circuit parameter [per unit].

28
4.12 Short transmission line

For short transmission lines, shunt capacitance effects can generally be neglected and assume lumped
resistance and inductance. The two-port network representing the short line can be modelled as shown
in figure 4.18. R is the series resistance in ohm per unit length of line and 𝑋 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 is the series
inductive reactance in ohm per-unit length of the line. l is the length of the line.

Figure 4.18: Two-port model of a short transmission line

From figure 4.16, the following equations can be written:

VS = VR + Z IR (4.63)
and
IS = IR. (4.64)

Equations (4.63) and (4.64) can be written in matric form, thus

é VS ù é 1 Z ù é VR ù
ê ú=ê úê ú (4.65)
ë IS û ë 0 1 û ë IR û

The values of A, B, C and D for the short line can then be read from equation (4.65).

4.13 Medium-length transmission line

Owing to the increased length, the shunt capacitance is now included in the model. Although corona
will be present on high voltage lines, the conductance representing the corresponding shunt
dissipation can generally be ignored on medium-length lines and only shunt capacitance need to be
incorporated in the modelling.

The medium-length transmission line, containing both series impedance and shunt admittance may be
modelled alternatively as a nominal p circuit or as a nominal T circuit.

In the nominal p-model, the shunt admittance is split into two and represented as two separate
admittances, at the sending end and the receiving end as shown in figure 4.19.

29
 Figure 4.19: Two-port model of a medium-length transmission line

From figure 4.17, the following equations can be written:

𝒀
𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑹 + 1𝑽𝑹 ∙ 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹 2 𝒁 (4.66)

and

𝒀 𝒀
𝑰𝒔 = 𝑽𝑺 ∙ 𝟐 + 𝑽𝑹 ∙ 𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹. (4.67)

Equations (4.66) and (4.67) can be re-arranged and written in matric form as

VS VR
é ù é æ1 + YZö Z ù éê ù
ê ú=ê è 2ø
ú ú (4.68)
ê ú ë YZ
Y æ1 + 4 ö æ1 +YZö ê ú
ë IS û è ø è 2ø ûë IR û
The values of A, B, C and D for the medium length line can then be read from equation (4.68).

The nominal T-network for the medium-length transmission line is shown in figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20: Two-port model of a medium length transmission line

30
 Activity 3

Similar to the work done above, show that the A, B, C and D parameters for the equivalent T-
network of the medium-length transmission line are as given in the following matrix equation.
Note that in this model, the series impedance is divided by two and inserted as two separate
impedances on either side of the single shunt admittance.

VS YZ YZ VR
1+ Z 1+
2 4
=
YZ
Y 1+
IS 2 IR

Example 4.7: ABCD parameters and the nominal p circuit: medium-length line

A three-phase, 50-Hz, completely transposed 345-kV, 200-km line has two 403-mm2 26/2 ACSR
conductors per bundle and the following positive-sequence line constants:

z = 0.032 + j0.35 W/km

y = j4.2 x 10-6 S/km

The full load at the receiving end of the line is 700 MW at 0.99 pf (leading) and 95% of rated voltage.
Assuming a medium-length line, calculate the following:

a. ABCD parameters of the nominal p circuit

b. Sending-end voltage VS, current IS, and real power PS
c. Per cent voltage regulation
d. Transmission-line efficiency at full load

Solution:

a. The total series impedance and shunt admittance values are

Z = zl = 6.4 + j70 = 70.29∠84.78f W

Y = yl = 8.4× 100, ∠90f S

From equation (4.68),

𝐴 = 𝐷 = 0.9706 + 𝑗0.00269 = 0.9706∠0.159f per unit

31
 𝐵 = 𝑍 = 70.29∠84.78f W

𝐶 = 8.277 × 100, ∠90.08f S

b. The receiving-end voltage and current quantities are

VR = 0.95 x 345 = 327.8 kVLL

VR = 189.2∠0f kVLN

S
𝐼g = = 1.246∠−8.11f kA
√6VCC "fij

From equations (4.56) and (4.57),

𝑉S = 𝐴𝑉g + 𝐵𝐼g = 179.2 + 𝑗87.95 = 199.6∠26.14f kVLN

𝑉S = 345.8 kVLL

𝐼S = 𝐶𝑉g + 𝐷𝐼g = 1.196 + 𝑗0.331 = 1.241∠15.5f kA

The real power delivered to the sending end is

𝑃S = √3𝑉S(TT) 𝐼S cos (26.14 − 15.5) = 730.5 MW.

c. Voltage regulation is the change in voltage at the receiving end of the line when the load varies
from no-load to a specified full load at a specified power factor, while the sending-end voltage is
held constant. Expressed in percentage of full-load voltage

|VD1C |0|VDEC |
per cent 𝑉𝑅 = |VDEC |
× 100.

From equation (4.59)

V3
𝑉gNT = '
= 356.3 kVLL.

Hence,

|VD1C |0|VDEC |
per cent 𝑉𝑅 = |VDEC |
× 100 = 8.7 %.

d. The full-load line losses are (PS - PR) = (730.5 – 700) = 30.5 MW and the full-load transmission
efficiency is

<D
per cent 𝐸𝐹𝐹 = <3
× 100 = 95.8 %.

32
4.14 Long transmission line

In the short- and medium-length transmission line models, reasonable accuracy is achieved by
considering the series impedance and shunt admittance to be lumped. When the line length increases
beyond 250 km, however, this approximation is not very accurate, because in a physical line these
parameters are distributed as illustrated in figure 4.16.

Consider the circuit shown in figure 4.21, in which a section of the line of length Dx is shown. The
short section of the line is modelled here as an L-section in a two-port network. As shown, the section
has length Dx, which increases from the right to the left direction. The voltage on the right-hand side
is V(x) and at the left, it is V(x + Dx). Current flows into the port at the left-end and out at the right-
end. The series impedance of the section of line is z Dx W and the shunt admittance is y Dx. Note that z
and y are the per unit length (1 m) values of series impedance and shunt admittance, respectively,
where

𝑧 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿 W/m (4.69)

and

𝑦 = 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 S/m. (4.70)

Figure 4.21: Section of a distributed model transmission line

By setting up and solving the differential equations for this circuit, it can be shown that

𝑉(𝑥) = cosh(𝛾𝑥) 𝑉g + 𝑍/ sinh (𝛾𝑥)𝐼g (4.71)

and

)
𝐼(𝑥) = m sinh(𝛾𝑥) 𝑉g + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ(𝛾𝑥) 𝐼g , (4.72)
<

in which the propagation constant g, with dimension m-1 is defined as

𝛾 = M𝑧𝑦 = (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽) (4.73)

33
and the characteristic impedance Zc is defined as

n
𝑍/ = K . (4.74)
L

Note also that

n
𝑍/ = o . (4.75)

Equations (4.71) and (4.72) give the ABCD parameters for the distributed parameter line model. In
matrix form,

𝑽(𝒙) cosh(𝛾𝑥 ) 𝒁𝑪 sinh (𝛾𝑥) 𝑽

ƒ …= †) ‡ ƒ 𝑹… (4.76)
𝑰(𝒙) 𝒁
sinh(𝛾𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (𝛾𝑥) 𝑰𝑹
𝑪

Equation (4.76) gives the current and voltage at any point x along the line in terms of the receiving-
end voltage and current. At the sending end, x = l, the length of the line, and this equation becomes

𝑽𝑺 cosh(𝛾𝑙) 𝒁𝑪 sinh (𝛾𝑙) 𝑽

ƒ …=†) ‡ ƒ 𝑹… (4.77)
𝑰𝑺 𝒁
sinh(𝛾𝑙) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (𝛾𝑙) 𝑰𝑹
𝑪

ZC is the input impedance of an infinite length of the line; hence if any line is terminated in ZC its
input impedance is also ZC.

The propagation constant g represents the changes occurring in the transmitted wave as it progresses
along the line; a measures the attenuation, and b the angular phase shift.

Example 4.8: Exact ABCD parameters: long line

A three-phase 765-kV, 60-Hz, 300-km, completely transposed line has the following positive-
sequence impedance and admittance:

z = 0.0165 + j0.3306 = 0.3310∠87.14f W/km

y = j4.674 x 10-6 S/km

Assuming positive-sequence operation, calculate the exact ABCD parameters of the line. Compare the
exact B parameter with that of the nominal p circuit.

Solution:

From equations (4.73) and (4.74),

34
 n
𝑍/ = K = 266.1∠−1.43f W
L

𝛾𝑙 = M𝑧𝑦 𝑙 = 0.00931 + 𝑗0.3730 per unit

Now,

𝛾 = M𝑧𝑦 = (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽)

and

𝑒 o& = 𝑒 (r*st) = 𝑒 r& 𝑒 st& = 𝑒 r& ∠(𝛽𝑙).

The hyperbolic functions cosh and sinh can be evaluated as follows:

Q G) *Q %G) )
cosh(𝛾𝑙) = (
= ( (𝑒 r& ∠(𝛽𝑙) + (𝑒 0r& ∠(−𝛽𝑙), and

Q G) 0Q %G) )
sinh(𝛾𝑙) = (
= ( (𝑒 r& ∠(𝛽𝑙) − (𝑒 0r& ∠(−𝛽𝑙)

Then,

𝑒 o& = 1.0094∠0.3730 radians = 0.9400 + 𝑗0.3678

𝑒 0o& = 0.9907∠ − 0.3730 radians = 0.9226 + 𝑗0.3610

and

Q G) *Q %G)
cosh(𝛾𝑙) = (
= 0.9313 + 𝑗0.0034 = 0.9313∠0.209f

Q G) 0Q %G)
sinh(𝛾𝑙) = (
= 0.0087 + 𝑗0.3644 = 0.3645∠88.63f

Then, from equation (4.77),

𝐴 = 𝐷 = 0.9313∠0.209f per unit

𝐵 = 97.0∠87.2f W

𝐶 = 1.37 × 1006 ∠90.06f S

Using equation (4.68), the B parameter for the nominal p circuit is

𝐵BfH@B;& + = 𝑍 = 99.3∠87.14f W,

which is 2% larger than the exact value.

35
4.14.1 Equivalent p circuit of the long transmission line

An exact equivalent circuit for the long line can be expressed in the form of the p section shown in
figure 4.22. It is identical in structure to the nominal p circuit of figure 4.19, except that Z' and Y' are
used instead of Z and Y. The objective is to determine Z' and Y' such that the equivalent p circuit has
the same ABCD parameters as those of the distributed line, given by equation (4.77).

Figure 4.22: Equivalent p-circuit for a distributed transmission line

The Z' and Y' elements of the equivalent p circuit, which has the same structure as the nominal p, are
shown to be

vAXw (o&)
𝑍F = 𝑍 o&
(4.78)

and

G)
xH x yzXw ( " )
= G) . (4.79)
( (
"

By defining

vAXw (G)
sinhc(𝑘) = (4.80)
G

and

yzXw(G)
tanhc(𝑘) = G
, (4.81)

equations (4.75) and (4.76) may then be written as

𝑍 F = 𝑍 sinhc (𝛾𝑙) (4.82)

and

xH x o&
(
= ( tanhc 1 ( 2. (4.83)

36
It can be deduced from equations (4.82) and (4.83) that the nominal equivalent p-circuit component
parameters may be converted to the more accurate equivalent p-circuit distributed parameters by
o&
multiplying Z and Y by sinhc(gl) and tanhc( ( ), respectively.

4.15 Lossless lines

The line parameters are simplified if shunt and series losses are neglected. This is achieved by
omitting the real components in the line admittances.

The characteristic impedance ZC (equation 4.74) is known as the surge impedance if the line is
considered to be lossless and all resistances are neglected. If only the imaginary components are
inserted in equation (4.74), then the surge impedance is given as

n s{T T
𝑍/ = KL = Ks{/ = K/ W. (4.84)

When the real parts of z and y are neglected in the calculation of g, then equation (4.73) becomes

𝛾 = M𝑧𝑦 = M(𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑗𝜔𝐶) = 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶 = 𝑗𝛽 m-1. (4.85)

When the real components of the distributed line model are neglected, the ABCD parameters are
obtained as

𝐴(𝑥) = 𝐷(𝑥) = cosh(𝛾𝑥) = cosh (𝑗𝛽𝑥) (4.86)

and

)
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝐷(𝑥) = ( ‰𝑒 stK + 𝑒 0stK Š = cos(𝛽𝑥). (4.87)

The hyperbolic sine for an imaginary argument is, by definition, the product of the complex operator j
and the natural sine of the argument:

)
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛾𝑥) = sinh(𝑗𝛽𝑥) = ( ‰𝑒 stK + 𝑒 0stK Š = sin(𝛽𝑥). (4.88)

By using this identity, the parameter B from equation 4.77 can be written as

T
𝐵(𝑥) = 𝑍/ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝛾𝑥) = 𝑗𝑍/ sin(𝑗𝛽𝑥) = 𝑗K sin(𝑗𝛽𝑥) W (4.89)
/

and

i@B|(oK) vAX(stK)
𝐶(𝑥) = =𝑗 S. (4.90)
m< C
}
<

37
4.15.1 Equivalent p circuit of the lossless long transmission line

The equivalent series impedance for the equivalent p-circuit for the distributed line model has been
shown in equation (4.82) to be 𝒁F = 𝒁 sinhc (𝛾𝑙). It therefore follows that, for the lossless line with
the real component of Z neglected,

𝒁F = 𝑗𝒁 sinc(𝛽𝑙) = 𝑗𝑋 F = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑙 sinc(𝛽𝑙) W. (4.91)

Also, from the expression of shunt admittance for the equivalent p circuit, as given in equation (4.83),
for the lossless distributed line this expression now becomes

jblö æjblö bl bl
tanh æ j sin æ ö tan æ ö
è 2 ø Y sinh è 2 ø w è 2 ø w è 2ø
=æ ö =æ ö
Y' Y j Cl j Cl
= = (4.92)
2 2 b
æ ö
j l 2 b
æ ö coshæ ö
j l jbl è 2 ø b
æ ö cosæ ö
j l b l è 2 ø b
æ öl
è2ø è2ø è2ø è 2 ø è2ø è2ø
This expression may be reduced to

𝒀F s{/& t& s{/ H &

𝟐
=1 (
2 tanc 1 ( 2 = 1 (
2 S, (4.93)

where

t&
𝑪′ = tanc 1 ( 2 . (4.94)

4.15.2 Wavelength of transmitted voltage and current

Wavelength is the distance over which the phase of the voltage or current is changed by 2p radians, or
by 360°. In the case of the lossless line, the expressions for voltage and current given in equations
(4.71) and (4.72) can be rewritten with the aid of equations (4.87) and (4.88) as

V(x) = cos(bx)VR + jZc sin(bx) IR (4.95)

and

1
I(x) = cos(bx) IR + j sin(bx)VR . (4.96)
Zc

2p
In equations (4.95) and (4.96), V(x) and I(x) change phase by 2p when x = . Therefore the
b
wavelength l is

2p 2p
l= = m (4.97)
b w LC

38
or

)
𝜆 = ~√T/ m. (4.98)

Now, the velocity of propagation of a wave is given by the product of the wavelength and the
frequency. Therefore,

)
𝜆𝑓 = m/s. (4.99)
√T/

For overhead lines, the velocity of propagation is roughly the velocity of light (3 × 101 m/s) so that
for a 50 Hz line, the wavelength is approximately 6000 km. Thus, lines are much shorter than the
wavelength of the transmitted energy.

4.15.3 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)

Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the power delivered by a lossless line to a load resistance equal to
T
the surge impedance 𝑍/ = K/ . Figure 5.9 shows a lossless line terminated by a resistance equal to its

surge impedance. This line represents either a single-phase line or one phase-to-neutral of a balanced
three-phase line. At SIL, from equation (4.95),

V
𝑉(𝑥) = cos(𝛽𝑥) 𝑉g + 𝑍/ sin(𝛽𝑥) 𝐼g = cos(𝛽𝑥) 𝑉g + 𝑍/ sin(𝛽𝑥) mD
<

𝑉(𝑥) = [cos(𝛽𝑥) + sin(𝛽𝑥)]𝑉g = 𝑒 stK 𝑉g volts (4.100)

That is |𝑉(𝑥)| = |𝑉g |.

Thus, at SIL, the voltage profile is flat. That is, the voltage magnitude at any point x along a lossless
line at SIL is constant.

Similarly, from equation (4.96),

) V
𝐼(𝑥) = m sin(𝛽𝑥) 𝑉g + 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(𝛽𝑥) 𝐼g = 𝑒 stK mD Amperes. (4.101)
< <

Using equations (4.100) and (4.101), the complex power flowing at any point x along the line is

V ∗ |VD |"
𝑆(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑗𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥)𝐼 ∗ (𝑥) = ‰𝑒 stK 𝑉g Š 1𝑒 stK mD2 = m<
. (4.102)
<

Thus, the real power flow along a lossless line at SIL remains constant from the sending end to the
receiving end. The reactive power flow is zero.

At rated line voltage, the real power delivered, or SIL, is, from (4.102),
39
 "
V9IJ4K
𝑆𝐼𝐿 = , (4.103)
m<

where rated voltage is used for a single-phase line and rated line-to-line voltage is used for the total
real power delivered by a three-phase line.

4.16 Voltage profiles

In practice, power lines are not terminated by their surge impedance. Instead, loadings can vary from
a small fraction of SIL during light load conditions up to multiples of SIL during heavy load
conditions. If a line is not terminated by its surge impedance, then the voltage profile is not flat. Figure
4.23 shows voltage profiles of lines with a fixed sending-end voltage magnitude VS for line lengths l
up to a quarter wavelength.

Figure 4.23: Voltage profiles of an uncompensated lossless line with fixed sending-end voltage
for line lengths up to a quarter wavelength

Figure 4.23 shows four loading conditions, namely no-load, SIL, short circuit and full load, which are
described as follows:

• At no-load, IRNL = 0 and equation (4.92) yields,

𝑉NT (𝑥) = cos(𝛽𝑥) 𝑉gNT and 𝑉S = cos(𝛽𝑙) 𝑉gNT

That is, the no-load voltage increases from 𝑉S = cos(𝛽𝑙) 𝑉gNT at the sending end to VRNL at the
receiving end (where x = 0).

• From equation (4.97)), the voltage profile at SIL is flat.

• For a short circuit at the load, VRSC = 0 and equation (4.92) yields

𝑉S/ (𝑥) = 𝑍/ sin(𝛽𝑥) 𝐼gS/ .

40
 That is, the voltage decreases from 𝑉S = sin(𝛽𝑥) (𝑍/ 𝐼gS/ ) at the sending end to VRSC = 0 at the
receiving end.

• The full-load voltage profile, which depends on the specification of full-load current, lies
above the short-circuit voltage profile.

4.17 Steady-state stability limit

Consider the equivalent p circuit of a lossless line shown in figure 4.24. Assume that the voltage
magnitudes VS and VR at the ends of the line are held constant. Also, d denotes the voltage-phase
angle at the sending end with respect to the receiving end.

Figure 4.24: Equivalent p-circuit for a lossless distributed transmission line

The receiving-end current

V3 0VD xH V3 Q LM 0VD s{/ H &

𝐼g = − 𝑉g = − 𝑉g (4.104)
mH ( s€ H (

and the complex power delivered to the received end is

∗
𝑉S 𝑒 s• − 𝑉g 𝑗𝜔𝐶 F 𝑙 ( 𝑗𝑉g 𝑉S 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑉g 𝑉S 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 − 𝑗𝑉g( 𝑗𝜔𝐶 F 𝑙 (
𝑆g = 𝑉g 𝐼g∗ = 𝑉g • – + 𝑉g = + 𝑉g .
𝑗𝑋 F 2 𝑋F 2

(4.105)

The real power delivered (with no line losses) is

VD V3 i@B•
𝑃 = 𝑃S = 𝑃g = 𝑅𝑒(𝑆g ) = €H
W. (4.106)

It follows from equation (4.106) that the maximum real power that can be delivered by a lossless line
will be maximum when d = 90° and will be equal to

VD V3
𝑃H;K = €H
W. (4.107)

41
Pmax represents the steady-state stability limit of a lossless line. If it were attempted to transmit more
real power than Pmax, the synchronous machines at the receiving end would lose synchronism with
those at the sending end.

The maximum power that can be delivered by a lossy line can be shown as

VD V3 'VD"
𝑃gH;K = − cos (𝜃m − 𝜃' ) W (4.108)
mH mH

in which VR and VS are respectively the receiving-end and sending-end scalar voltage values, Z' is the
equivalent series impedance magnitude and A is the magnitude of the complex transmission parameter
A for the line. qZ and qA are the angles of Z' and A.

It may be convenient to express the steady-state stability limit in terms of the SIL. Using equations
(4.91) and (4.106), it can be shown that the theoretical steady-state limit can be expressed as

V3,O.P. VD,O.P. (S:T)

𝑃H;K = "Q) W (4.109)
i@B[ \
R

where, VS,p.u. = sending-end voltage in per unit,

VR,p.u. = receiving-end voltage in per unit,
l = total line length, and
l = wavelength of transmitted voltage and current.

4.18 Line loadability

Different design considerations determine the maximum power that lines are permitted to transmit. In
the case of short lines (below 80 km), the thermal limit of the conductors is usually the criterion.
Then, when line length increases, the voltage-drop (line regulation) limitation begins to come in, until
with longer line lengths transient stability considerations begin to constrain the real power capacity.
Although the theoretical maximum angle d is in the order of 90° for lossy lines under steady-state
operation, practical situations involving the dynamic behaviour of synchronous machines due to
transient loading conditions, this angle is reduced to the order of 30° or 35°.

Example 4.9: Selection of transmission line voltage and number of lines for transfer of power

9000 MW are to be transmitted from a hydroelectric plant to a load centre 500 km apart. Based on
practical line loadability criteria, determine the number of three-phase, 60 Hz lines required to
transmit this power, with one line out of service, for the following cases:

a. 345 kV lines; Zc = 297 W

b. 500 kV lines; Zc = 277 W
42
c. 765 kV lines; Zc = 266 W

Assume Vs = 1 p.u., VR = 0.95 p.u., d = 35o and negligible mutual coupling between the lines.

Solution:

a. For the 345 kV line:

SIL = 401 MW

Neglecting losses and using equation (4.109) with l = 500 km and d = 35o,

P = 372 MW/line.

To transmit 9000 MW with one line out of service, the number of 345 kV lines should be

4...
+ 1 ≈ 26 lines.
65(

b. For the 500 kV line:

SIL = 903 MW

P = 837 MW/line

4...
The number of 345 kV lines = 165
+ 1 ≈ 12 lines.

c. For the 765 kV line:

SIL = 2200 MW

P = 2039 MW/line

4...
The number of 345 kV lines = (.64 + 1 ≈ 6 lines.

4.19 Conclusion

In this learning unit, we introduced the various line parameters that influence the design and
performance of transmission lines, including the derivation of formulae for the calculation of the
parameters. The basis of these parameters and the impact of line configuration and ground effects on
the magnitudes of the parameters were also discussed. Models that can be used to predict the
behaviour of the transmission lines under different operating conditions were constructed, and worked
examples were used to evaluate the accuracy of these models for lines of different lengths. The
concept of lossless lines was introduced and the line models modified for analysis of these lossless

43
lines. Various characteristics of transmission lines such as surge impedance loading and steady-state
stability line were established.

Problems

P4.1 An AAC is composed of 37 strands, each having a diameter of 0.333 cm. Calculate the dc
resistance in ohms per kilometre at 75°C. Assume that the increase in resistance due to
spiralling is 2%.

(Answer: 0.1094 W/km)

P4.2 The conductor of a single-phase 60-Hz line is a solid round aluminium wire having a diameter
of 0.412 cm. The conductor spacing is 3 m. Determine the inductance of the line in milli-
henrys per kilometre. How much of the inductance is due to internal flux linkages? Assume
skin effect is negligible.

(Answer: 3.01 mH/km; 0.10 mH/km due to internal flux)

P4.3 A three-phase 60-Hz line m has flat horizontal spacing. The conductors have a GMR of
0.0133 m with 10 m spacing between adjacent conductors. Determine the inductive reactance
per phase in ohms per kilometre.

(Answer: 5.17 W/km)

P4.4 A three-phase line is designed with an equilateral spacing of 4.8768 m. It is decided to build
the line with horizontal spacing (D13 = 2Dl2 = 2D23). The conductors are transposed. What
should be the spacing between adjacent conductors to obtain the same inductance as in the
original design?

(Answer: D = 3.8710 m)

P4.5 A three-phase 60-Hz line has flat horizontal spacing. The conductors have an outside
diameter of 3.28 cm with 12 m between conductors. Determine the capacitive reactance of the
line in ohms if its length is 200 km.

(Answer: 1.615 kW)

P4.6 Solve problem 4.5 while taking account of the effect of the ground. Assume that the
conductors are horizontally placed 20 m above ground.

(Answer: 1.58 kW)

44
P4.7 A 275 kV three-phase transmission line of length 96 km is rated at 800 A. The values of
resistance, inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometre are 0.078 W, 1.056 mH and
0.029 µF, respectively. The receiving-end voltage is 275 kV when full load is transmitted at
0.9 power factor lagging. Calculate the sending-end voltage and current, and the transmission
efficiency, and compare with the answer obtained by the short-line representation. Use the
nominal p and T methods of solution. The frequency is 60 Hz.

(Answers: Short line representation: Vs = 179 kV per phase. Medium line p representation Vs
= 176.17 kV, T-representation: Vs = 175.90 kV)

P4.8 A 220 kV, 60 Hz three-phase transmission line is 320 km long and has the following
constants per phase per km: inductance 0.81 mH, capacitance 12.8 µF, resistance 0.038
W. Leakage conductance can be neglected. If the line delivers a load of 300 A, 0.8 power
factor lagging, at a voltage of 220 kV, calculate the sending-end voltage. Determine the p
circuit that will represent the line.

(Answer: Vs = 241 kV; Equivalent p circuit: A = D = 0.9255 + j0.0092; B = 11.5553 +

j95.3144; C = (-0.0048 + j1.5056) x 10-3).

P4.9 Calculate the ABCD constants for a 275 kV overhead line of length 83 km. The parameters
per kilometre are as follows: resistance 0.078 W, reactance 0.33 W, admittance (shunt
capacitance) 9.53 x 10-6 S. The shunt conductance is zero.

(Answer: A = 0.98917 + j0.00256; B = 6.474 + j27.39; C = (-1.0126 x 10-6 + j7.8671 x 10-4)

P4.10 A 132 kV, 60 Hz transmission line has the following generalised constants:

𝐴 = 0.9696∠0.49f , 𝐵 = 52.88∠74.79f Ω, 𝐶 = 0.001177∠90.15f 𝑆

If the receiving-end voltage is to be 132 kV when supplying a load of 125 MVA 0.9 p.f.
lagging, calculate the sending-end voltage and current.

(Answer: 165 kV, 498 A)

45