LEARNING UNIT 2: SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS

Contents

1.0 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 2

2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Principle of electricity generation .................................................................................................... 3
2.3 Relationship between f, N, and p...................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Construction features ....................................................................................................................... 5
2.5 Circuit Model ................................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Salient pole synchronous machine ................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Power relations in salient pole synchronous generator .................................................................. 11
2.8 Determination of parameters of the synchronous generator model................................................ 12
2.9 Equivalent circuit under short-circuit conditions ........................................................................... 14
2.10 The infinite bus ............................................................................................................................ 16
2.11 Synchronising power/torque ........................................................................................................ 16
2.12 The operation of generator on infinite bus ................................................................................... 17
2.13 The stability limit ......................................................................................................................... 18
2.14 Reactive power delivered:............................................................................................................ 19
2.15 The performance chart of a synchronous generator (capability curves) ...................................... 21
2.16 Generator control ......................................................................................................................... 24
2.16.1 Turbine governor .................................................................................................................. 25
2.16.2 Effect of increase of turbine input power .............................................................................. 26
2.16.3 Excitation system and Automatic Voltage Regulator ........................................................... 26
2.16.4 Effect of synchronous machine excitation ............................................................................ 27
2.16.5 Summary - Effect of changing machine excitation and steam flow ...................................... 28
2.17 Effect of armature reaction .......................................................................................................... 29
2.18 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 30
Problems .............................................................................................................................................. 30

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1.0 Learning outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Analyse the performance of the synchronous generator using the equivalent circuit model.

• Calculate the real and reactive power delivered by the synchronous generator.

• Evaluate the effect of varying machine excitation and power input on generator-operating
conditions.

• Evaluate the impact of armature reaction on generator-operating conditions.

• Draw the phasor diagrams for the generator under different operating conditions.

• Construct the performance chart of a synchronous generator.

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2.1 Introduction

A synchronous generator is an alternating current (a.c.) rotating machine driven by a turbine to

convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The speed of the synchronous generator under a
steady-state condition is proportional to the frequency of the current in its armature. The magnetic
field created by the armature currents rotates at the same speed as that created by the field current on
the rotor, which is rotating at the synchronous speed. That is the rotor, rotor field and stator (armature)
field rotate synchronously (with the same speed); hence, the name synchronous machine.

In this learning unit, emphasis is on the characteristics and external behaviour of the synchronous
generator in the interconnected power system. A detailed discussion of synchronous machines is
covered in a related course. There are many books about a.c. machinery that provides adequate
analysis of generators.

Additional reading of the material discussed in this learning unit can be found in the prescribed
textbook: Glover, JD, Overbye, TJ & Sarma, MS. 2017. Power System Analysis and Design (6th
edition). Cengage (chapter 12). We also recommend the following book: Weedy, BM, Cory, BJ,
Jenkins, N, Ekanayake, JB & Strbac, G. 2012. Electric Power Systems (5th edition). Wiley (chapter 3).

2.2 Principle of electricity generation

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical or other forms of energy into electricity.
Most designs of the electric generators used today are based on Faraday's discovery that a magnet
moving inside a coil of wire induces an electric current in the wire, a phenomenon referred to as
electromagnetic induction. These electromagnetic generators use an electromagnet, which is a magnet
produced by electricity. A basic electromagnetic generator has a series of insulated coils of wire that
form a stationary cylinder, called a stator, surrounding an electromagnetic shaft called a rotor. Turning
the rotor makes an electric current flow in each section of the wire coil, which becomes a separate
electric conductor. The currents in the individual sections combine to form one large current. This
current is the electricity that moves from generators through power lines to consumers.

Most electricity generation is from electric power plants that use a turbine to drive electric generators.
In a turbine generator, a moving fluid – water, steam, combustion gases or air – pushes a series of
blades mounted on a rotor shaft. The force of the fluid on the blades spins or rotates the rotor shaft of
a generator. The generator, in turn, converts the mechanical (kinetic) energy of the rotor to electrical
energy, as illustrated in figure 2.1. The different types of turbines include steam turbines, combustion
(gas) turbines, hydroelectric turbines and wind turbines.

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 Figure 2.1: Electricity generation from an electric turbine

Steam turbines are used to generate most of the world's electricity. Most steam turbines have a boiler
in which fuel is burned to produce hot water and steam in a heat exchanger, and the steam powers a
turbine that drives a generator. Nuclear power reactors use nuclear fuel to produce steam.
Concentrated solar plants (CSP) use solar energy to heat salt, which, in molten form, is used to
produce steam.

Hydroelectric turbines use the force of moving water to spin turbine blades to power a generator.
Most hydroelectric power plants use water stored in a reservoir or diverted from a river or stream.
Pumped-storage hydropower plants use the same types of hydro turbines that conventional
hydropower plants use, but they are considered electricity storage systems used for peaking load.
Other types of hydroelectric turbines called hydrokinetic turbines are used in tidal power and wave
power systems.

Wind turbines use the power in wind to move the blades of a rotor to power a generator.

Other types of electricity generators do not use turbines to generate electricity. The most common in
use today are solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. Solar photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into
electricity. PV power plants are now one of the fastest-growing sources of electricity generation
around the world.

This learning unit emphasises synchronous generators because the operating characteristics of the
synchronous generators influence the behaviour and operation of the interconnected power system.
The newer generation systems, such as wind and solar, serve to reduce the frequency stability of the
power system, which is otherwise inherently provided by the synchronous generator. Research is thus
ongoing in developing techniques and strategies that may help wind and solar systems contribute
positively to power system stability.

2.3 Relationship between f, N, and p

The armature winding of a synchronous machine is on the stator, and the field winding is on the rotor
as shown in figure 2.2(a). One coil is shown in figure 2.2(a) and has two coil sides (a and –a) placed

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in diametrically opposite slots on the inner periphery of the stator with conductors parallel to the shaft
of the machine. When the rotor is turned, the flux cuts the coil sides a and –a, inducing a sinusoidal
voltage in the coil as shown in figure 2.2(b). For each revolution of the two poles, the coil voltage
passes through a complete cycle (2p radians).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: Relationship between f, N, and p

If the generator has p-pole pairs, p cycles of the e.m.f. are generated per single revolution of the rotor.
If the speed of the rotor is n revolutions per second (rev/sec), the frequency of the generated e.m.f. is

f = pn (2.1)

or f = (pN)/60 (2.2)

where N is the speed in revolutions per minute (rev/min).

For example, if a two-pole machine is to generate e.m.f. at 50 Hz, then

50 = 1 × 𝑛

or n = 50 rev/sec (or 3000 rev/min).

Equation (2.1) represents a rigid relationship between speed n, frequency f, and the number of pole-
pairs p. This is characteristic of all synchronous machines irrespective of type.

2.4 Construction features

Synchronous generators are characterised by a uniformly slotted stator laminated core that carries a
three-phase alternating current (AC) armature winding, and a rotor that carries the field winding. Two
rotor construction designs that are commonly used are (a) cylindrical (round) rotor design illustrated
in figure 2.3(a), and (b) salient pole concentrated-excitation rotor design illustrated in figure 2.3(b).

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 (a) (b)

Figure 2.3: Synchronous generator construction, (a) cylindrical or round rotor and (b) salient
pole rotor

In the cylindrical (round) rotor, the field winding is placed in slots cut axially along the rotor length as
illustrated in figure 2.3(a). Because of the difficulty in the placement of the field winding to generate
multiple pole pairs, only one or two pole pairs can be created using this rotor design. As can be seen
from equation (2.1), to generate a 50 Hz supply, the machine needs to be operated at high speeds of,
for example, 3000 rev/min, which can be achieved when the machine is driven by steam or gas
turbines and is known as a turbogenerator.

In a salient pole rotor, the poles project, as shown in figure 2.3(b). DC current is supplied to field coils
mounted on the (projected) pole pieces to set up flux. Due to the large centrifugal forces acting on the
projected pole pieces, the salient pole rotor machine is driven at low rotational speeds. A machine
rotating at, for example, 150 rev/min needs 20 pole pairs to generate at 50 Hz, which requires a large
diameter rotor to accommodate this large number of poles. The salient pole rotor generator is
therefore suitable for a hydro turbine-driven generation.

In the salient pole rotor machine, the pole faces or shoes are tapered; that is, shaped to make the
resultant flux density in the air-gap sinusoidal (in distribution). Similarly, the windings in a cylindrical
rotor machine are distributed such that a sinusoidal flux distribution is obtained in the airgap. These
design considerations ensure that the generated voltage is fundamentally sinusoidal, minimising any
induced harmonic voltages.

The three-phase currents in the stator winding or armature generate a magnetic field that rotates with
the synchronously rotating rotor to which the d.c. field is fixed. The stator flux affects the rotor field
thereby modifying the flux in the air-gap. This effect of the stator winding field on the rotor field is
referred to as 'armature reaction' and will be discussed further later in this learning unit.

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2.5 Circuit model

The action of a synchronous machine when generating power can be explained in terms of the
primitive representation shown in figure 2.4(a). The rotor current If produces a magneto-motive force
(m.m.f.) Ff rotating with the rotor and induces a sinusoidal voltage in the stator winding.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.4: (a) Primitive machine representation, (b) vector m.m.f.s with resultant F. (c)
Terminal phasor diagram

Stator current, when it flows, produces an m.m.f., shown in figure 2.4(a) for phase A as Fa, which
interacts with the rotor m.m.f. Ff, thereby producing a retarding force on the rotor that requires torque
(and hence power) to be provided from the prime mover. The vectors of the m.m.f.s are shown in
figure 2.4(b) for the instant when the current in phase A winding is a maximum and the voltage is at
an angle f as shown in figure 2.4(c). The resultant air-gap m.m.f. is shown as F = Fa + Ff, and this
gives rise to a displaced air-gap flux such that the phase of the stator-induced e.m.f. Va is delayed from
that produced on no-load, E, for the same rotor position by the torque angle shown as d in figure
2.5(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5: (a) Phasor diagram with m.m.f. vectors and the corresponding voltage phasors, (b)
equivalent circuit for a round-rotor machine

Now, we know that the e.m.f. always lags the m.m.f. producing it by 90°, as shown in figure 2.5(a).
This means that the rotor field m.m.f., Ff produces the no-load stator voltage E, the resultant m.m.f., F,

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produces the stator voltage Va under load conditions, and Fa corresponds to IXm where Xm is an
equivalent reactance representing the effect of the magnetic conditions within the machine. That is, Xm
represents the demagnetising effect of armature reaction.

The machine terminal voltage Vt is obtained from Va by recognising that the stator-phase windings
have a small resistance RL and a leakage reactance XL resulting from flux produced by the stator but
not crossing the air gap. The reactances XL and Xm are usually considered together as the synchronous
reactance XS, shown in the equivalent circuit of figure 2.5(b). The machine phasor equation is then

𝑬 = 𝑽𝒕 + 𝑰(𝑅" + 𝑗𝑋# ), phasor sum. (2.3)

In most power system calculations, RL is usually neglected and a simple phasor diagram in figure 2.6
results.

𝑬 = 𝑽𝒕 + 𝑰(𝑗𝑋# ) (2.4)

or 𝐸∠𝛿 = 𝑉$ ∠0% + 𝐼∠𝜙 × 𝑋# ∠90% with Vt as reference.

Figure 2.6: Simplified equivalent circuit for a round-rotor machine

Example 2.1: Induced voltage and load angle

Consider a generator with the following nameplate data: 500MVA, 20kV, 0.8 p.f., Xs = 1.5 p.u.
Calculate the internal voltage and power angle of the generator operating at 400 MW with cos f = 0.8
(lagging) with a 1 p.u. terminal voltage.

Solution:

Using equation (2.4)

E = Vt + IXs (phasor sum) or

𝐸∠𝛿 = 𝑉$ ∠0% + 𝐼∠𝜙 × 𝑋# ∠90% with Vt as reference.

Sbase = 500 MVA, Vbase = 20 kV:

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Ibase = 14.43 kA, P = 0.8 p.u., V = 1.0 p.u.

Hence, from 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅, and

I = 1 ∠36.9% p.u.

Substituting into equation (2.4), E = 2.25 p.u., and load angle, d = 32.28o.

2.6 Salient pole synchronous machine

The main field (d-) axis and the cross-field (q-) axis have different reluctances as can be deduced from
figure 2.7(a). Hence, less flux and e.m.f. are produced on the q-axis. The effect of armature reaction is
composed of two components as illustrated in figure 2.7(c):

• Fd acting along the direct axis (coinciding with the main field pole axis)
• Fq acting along the quadrature axis (inter-polar region or magnetic neutral axis)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2.7: Two-axis theory of salient-pole rotor machine

This effect is represented by two different (armature reaction) reactances (Xad and Xaq), and two
components of stator current Id and Iq, as shown in figure 2.7(d). Id causing voltage drop IdXad and Id
causing voltage drop IdXad. The corresponding phasor diagram, neglecting armature resistance, Ra, is
shown in figure 2.8.

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 E
jIqXq

Iq
jIdXd
d
f Vt
Ia

Id

Figure 2.8: Phasor diagram of salient-pole rotor machine

In the phasor diagram, Xd = Xad + Xl and Xq = Xaq + Xl, where Xl is the winding reactance. From the
phasor diagram, the excitation voltage is given by

E = Vt + jIdXd + jIqXq. (2.5)

The complete phasor diagram for the salient pole generator is shown in figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Complete phasor diagram of a salient pole rotor machine

For the cylindrical rotor, Xq = Xd = XS, and the E phasor would be drawn to the end of the jIdIa = jXSIa
phasor. The reduction of Xq due to saliency means that the closing phasor E is at a smaller load angle
d to V. The smaller load angle indicates that the salient pole machine develops its electromagnetic
resisting torque more readily than the unsaturated cylindrical-rotor machine. It is stiffer and more
difficult to pull out of synchronism.

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2.7 Power relations in salient pole synchronous generator

From the phasor diagram given in figure 2.8 and neglecting armature resistance Ra:

|(|)|*|+%,-
|𝐼& | = (2.6)
.!

|*|,01-
@𝐼/ @ = ."
(2.7)

also S = VtIa* (2.8)

and Ia = Id + Iq (phasor sum) = Iq - jId.

Taking E as the reference phasor

𝑉$ = |𝑉$ |∠(−𝛿) (2.9)

and 𝐼2 = 𝐼/ − 𝑗𝐼& . (2.10)

Substituting (2.9) and (2.10) into (2.8) gives

|*#||(| |*# |$ 3.! )."4

𝑃= .!
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 5.! ."
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿 = 𝑃6 + 𝑃7 (2.11)

|*# ||(| ,01$ - +%, $ -

and 𝑄= .!
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − |𝑉$ |5 E ."
+ .!
E. (2.12)

The second term of equation (2.11) shows that torque and power can be developed (PR) with no field
current (due to the saliency). PF in equation (2.11) is the power due to field excitation.

The power-angle characteristic of a salient pole synchronous machine is shown in figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: The power-angle characteristic of a salient pole synchronous machine

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It can be seen from figure 2.10 that the steady-state stability limit occurs at an angle less than 900 for
the salient pole generator.

Example 2.2: Salient pole synchronous generator operation

On a certain synchronous generator, Xd = 0.9 p.u. and Xq = 0.6 p.u. The machine is operating at full
load, 0.8 p.f. lagging. Calculate the value of excitation in terms of the terminal voltage and the load
angle and the values of direct- and quadrature-axis currents. Neglect resistance and saturation.

Solution:

Taking V as 1 p.u., full-load current as 1 p.u., and referring to the figure below,

𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑋/ 𝐼/ = 0.6 × 𝐼2 cos (𝜑 + 𝛿), where 𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )8 0.8.

From which

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 0.6(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿), since V = 1 and Ia = 1 p.u.

Substituting the power factor angle and simplifying gives

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 = 0.353, from which d = 19.4o

𝐸9 − 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 = 𝑋& 𝐼& = 0.9 × 𝐼2 sin (𝜑 + 𝛿), where 𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )8 0.8

Substituting the known quantities and simplifying gives

Ef = 1.69 p.u.
Iq = 0.55 p.u.
Id = 0.833 p.u.

2.8 Determination of parameters of the synchronous generator model

The three quantities that must be determined to describe the generator model are the following:

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 i. The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between the field current and
the internally generated voltage)
ii. The synchronous reactance
iii. The armature resistance

These quantities can be determined from the open-circuit and short-circuit tests. The open-circuit
characteristic (OCC) is the graph of generated voltage against the field current with the machine on
open circuit and running at synchronous speed, as shown in figure 2.11. The short-circuit
characteristic (SCC), also shown in figure 2.11, is the graph of stator current against the field current
with the terminals short-circuited.

Figure 2.11: Open- and short-circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine.

The synchronous reactance, XS, is equal to the open-circuit voltage produced by the same field current
that produces rated current on a short circuit, divided by this rated stator current. XS is constant only
over the linear part of the OCC (the air-gap line) when saturation is ignored.

The short-circuit ratio (SCR) of a generator is defined as the ratio between the field current required to
give nominal open-circuit voltage and that required to circulate full-load current in the armature when
short-circuited. The short-circuit ratio in figure 2.11 is AH/AK, that is, 0.63. The SCR is also
commonly calculated in terms of the air-gap line and the short-circuit curve, giving an unsaturated
value. To allow for saturation, it is common practice to assume that the synchronous reactance is
1/SCR, which for this machine is 1.58 p.u.

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2.9 Equivalent circuit under short-circuit conditions

Figure 2.12 shows the oscillogram of the current at the terminals of a synchronous generator when a
short circuit is suddenly applied, with the direct-current component removed.

c
O

Figure 2.12: Oscillogram of the current at the terminals of a generator when a sudden short
circuit is applied

As can be seen from the oscillogram, the short-circuit current varies considerably with time, implying
a varying machine reactance. The short-circuit current can be divided into three periods, namely the
initial sub-transient period when the current is large, the middle-transient period where the machine
offers increased reactance, and finally the steady-state period when the machine offers synchronous
reactance.

This phenomenon can be explained as follows. In the event of a short circuit at the generator
terminals, the symmetrical short-circuit current is limited initially only by the leakage reactance of the
machine. Since the air-gap flux cannot change instantaneously to counter the demagnetisation of the
armature short-circuit current, currents appear in the field winding as well as in the damper winding in
a direction to help the main flux. These currents decay according to the winding time constants.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.13: Approximate circuit model during a sub-transient period of short circuit

The time constant of the damper winding, which has a low X/R-ratio, is much less than the one of the
field winding, which has high leakage inductance with low resistance. Thus, during the initial part of
the short circuit, the damper and field windings have transformer currents induced in them. In the

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circuit model, their reactances – Xf of field winding and Xdw of damper winding – appear in parallel
with Xm as shown in figure 2.13(a).

As the damper winding currents are first to die out, Xdw effectively becomes open circuited and at a
later stage, Xf becomes open circuited. The machine reactance thus changes from the parallel
combination of Xm, Xf, and Xdw during the initial period of the short circuit to Xm and Xf in parallel as
shown in figure 2.13(b) during the middle period. The machine reactance finally becomes Xm in a
steady state.

The reactance presented by the machine in the initial period of the short circuit, i.e.

8
𝑋&" = 𝑋" + 8 (2.13)
;. <8=
% .& <8;.
!'

is called the sub-transient reactance of the machine; while the reactance is effective after the damper
winding currents have died out, i.e.

8
𝑋&> = 𝑋" + 8 (2.14)
;. <8;.
% &

is called the transient reactance. Finally, the reactance under steady-state conditions is the
synchronous reactance, 𝑋# = 𝑋& . Obviously, 𝑋&" < 𝑋&> < 𝑋& (or 𝑋# ). The machine thus offers a time-
varying reactance.

The three reactances can be calculated from the oscillogram. If the no-load phase voltage of the
generator be E volt (r.m.s.), then, from figure 2.12, the sub-transient reactance

8
𝑋&" = ?@ (2.15)
;
√5

where 𝑂𝑏W is the r.m.s. value of the peak value of the sub-transient current.
√2

The transient reactance

8
𝑋&> = ?2 (2.16)
;
√5

where 𝑂𝑎W is the r.m.s. value of the peak value of the transient current.
√2

Finally, the synchronous reactance

8
𝑋# = ?+ (2.17)
;
√5

15
where 𝑂𝑐W is the r.m.s. value of the peak value of the steady-state current.
√2

2.10 The infinite bus

Many generators are connected to the power system such that if one of the machines is removed, the
voltage and frequency of the system will hardly change. Such a system is called an infinite busbar
system (i.e. an infinite system of generation).

In figure 2.14(a), generator A represents an infinite busbar system and B is an incoming generator.
Figure 2.14(b) shows the voltage phasors of the infinite bus system and the incoming generator with
phase sequence R-Y-B (or A-B-C). For generator B to be connected onto the infinite bus, it needs to
be in synchronism with the bus; meaning that the incoming machine and the bus must have the same

i. voltage magnitude;
ii. frequency;
iii. phase; and
iv. phase sequence.

If these conditions are not met, circulating currents may be generated that may damage the incoming
generator.

Figure 2.14: Synchronisation of the generator

2.11 Synchronising power/torque

Any tendency on the part of one machine to drop out of synchronism is immediately counteracted by
the production of a synchronising torque, which brings it back into synchronism. Consider two
generators (A and B) in parallel (with no external load connected), as illustrated in figure 2.15(a).

The machines are connected and operating in parallel, hence EA = EB in magnitude and phase
opposition. Hence, there are no circulating currents.

If generator B tries to reduce speed, the phasor diagram in figure 2.15(b) is obtained, generating a
resultant voltage, ER.

16
A current 𝐼 = 𝐸7 ⁄(𝑋B + 𝑋C ) then circulates.

The current I lags ER by angle θ (= tan-1(X/R), which is approximately 90O.

The current I is generating current with respect to A; machine A is thus retarded.

The current I is motoring current with respect to B: machine B is therefore accelerated.

The retarding and accelerating actions ensure that synchronism between the two machines is
maintained.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.15: Synchronising torque

2.12 The operation of a generator on an infinite bus

Figure 2.16(a) shows a machine connected to an infinite busbar. The corresponding phasor diagram is
shown in figure 2.16(b). To simplify the ideas and calculations as much as possible, the resistance of
the generator is neglected; in practice, this assumption is usually reasonable. The load angle d
between the E and V phasors depends on the power input from the turbine shaft.

Figure 2.16: Synchronous machine connected to an infinite busbar

Power delivered to the infinite bus

P = VI cos f.

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From phasor diagram in figure 2.16(b)

E sin δ = IXs cos f

or I cos f = (E/Xs) sin δ,

therefore,

P = (VE/Xs) sin δ. (2.18)

That is, by changing the turbine output, and hence δ, the generator can be made to take on any load.

2.13 The stability limit

As can be deduced from equation (2.18), maximum power is obtained at load angle δ = 90O and is
known as the steady-state stability limit. Any attempt to obtain more power (> Pmax) will increase δ,
resulting in less power output as illustrated by the power-angle curve in figure 2.17. The machine
becomes unstable and loses synchronism.

Figure 2.17: Power-angle curve of a synchronous generator

If the stability limit is exceeded, the turbine output power becomes larger than the electrical output.
The net power then acts to accelerate the rotor. The retarding or counter-torque developed by the flow
of the stator currents starts to decrease, not increase, following which the magnetic coupling between
the rotor (and hence turbine) and stator fails. The rotor is now no longer held in synchronism and
rotates relative to the stator field, a condition referred to as 'pole slipping'.

To avoid instability, additional power may be obtained by increasing the excitation, E, as can be seen
from equation (2.18). However, a limit is imposed on the excitation in addition to other operating
limits that need to be adhered to, to protect the machine from damage.

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2.14 Reactive power delivered

Regarding figure 2.16(a), the reactive power delivered to the receiving bus

Q = VI sinΦ.

From the phasor diagram in figure 2.18,

Figure 2.18

E cos d - V = I . X S sin f
or
( E cos d - V )
I sin f =
XS

Therefore,
( E cos d - V )V
Q= (2.19)
XS
Example 2.3: Synchronous generator operation

A round rotor synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus whose voltage is kept constant at
1.0 p.u. The synchronous reactance of the machine is 0.4 p.u. Table 2.1 relates to three operating
conditions of the machine. Q2 is the reactive power at the machine terminals. Evaluate the missing
parameters for each operating condition.

Table 2.1:

P Q2 E d
Condition A 2.1 0.0 ? ?
Condition B ? ? 1.1 400
Condition C ? 0.0 1.18 ?

Solution:

Condition A:

From P = VI cos f, find = 2.1∠0D since cos f = 1 and V = 1.0 p.u.

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 Substitute into equation (2.4) and obtain 𝐸∠𝛿:

EÐd = V + jIX S = 1.0Ð0o + 2.1Ð0o ´ 0.4Ð90o = 1.31Ð40.03o p.u.

Condition B:

Substitute the given excitation voltage E and load angle d into the equations (2.11)
and (2.12):

(*
𝑃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 1.77 𝑝. 𝑢.
.

(( FGH -)*)*
𝑄= = −0.39 𝑝. 𝑢.
.

Condition C:

Use equation (2.12) to find the load angle d:

(( FGH -)*)*
𝑄= from which d = 32.060.
.

Then substitute into equation (2.11) to determine active power P:

(*
𝑃= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 1.57 𝑝. 𝑢.
.

Example 2.4: Generator operation

(a) The generator parameters are S = 150 MVA, P = 130 MW, V = 11.5kV and Xs = 1.3 p.u. on
rating, E = 2.2 p.u. (maximum). If the generator operates at 100 MW, calculate the value of
internal voltage at which the generator delivers no reactive power to the system.

(b) Calculate the maximum reactive power that the generator can deliver to the system while
exporting 100MW.

Solution:

(a): Taking 150MVA as base:

(( FGH -)*)* (*
𝑄= .
= 0 and 𝑃 = .
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 0.667

i.e., E = 1/cos d and, E = 0.867/ sin d

Tan d = 0.867 from which d = 40.910

and E = 1/cos d = 1.32 p.u.

(*
(b): 𝑃= .
sin 𝛿

20
 Export limited by excitation limit:

sin d = (0.667 x 1.3)/(2.2 x 1) = 0.394, and d = 23.200.

(( FGH -)*)*
𝑄= = 0.786 𝑝. 𝑢.
.

Export limited by MVA limit:

𝑠 5 = 𝑃5 + 𝑄5 ⇒ 𝑄 = 0.745 𝑝. 𝑢.

The maximum power that can be delivered is 0.745 p.u. or 112 MVAr.

2.15 The performance chart of a synchronous generator (capability curves)

The synchronous generator needs to be operated without exceeding any of its ratings. The region of
operation is restricted by the following considerations:

• Armature heating, determined by the armature current (rated MVA)

• Field heating, determined by field current (rated E)
• Steady-state stability limit (δ = 90o)

The region of operation is referred to as the performance chart. The chart is determined by drawing
capability curves that are derived from the synchronous generator phasor diagram, as described below
by way of an example.

Example 2.5: Construction of the performance chart

Construct the performance chart of a synchronous generator with the following nameplate data:

60MW, 0.8 p.f., 75MVA, 11.8kV, rated E = 2.5 p.u., 3000 rev/min, Xs = 2.94 Ω/phase.

Solution:

Start by identifying the capability curves from the phasor diagram.

Figure 2.19: Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

21
(a) The stator current I is proportional to the MVA loading. Hence, the limiting curve for MVA
loading is given by the locus of constant IXs (at rated I). From the phasor diagram in figure
2.19, it can be seen that

Os is proportional to VI or MVA for constant V.

(b) E is proportional to the field current If. Hence, the limiting curve for field heating is given by
the locus of (rated) E.

(c) δ = 90o is the steady-state stability limit.

(d) Additionally from the phasor diagram:

ps is proportional to VIsin f or MVAr; i.e. MVAr can be plotted along Oq

(horizontal) axis, and
sq is proportional to VIcos f or MW; i.e. MW plotted along with Op (vertical axis).

The scaling factor for MVA, MVAr and MW is obtained as follows: The phasor diagram at low
excitation is shown in figure 2.20(a). Then at zero excitation, the phasor diagram at low excitation is
represented by figure 2.20(b).

Figure 2.20: Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

It can be seen from figure 2.20(b) that at zero excitation,

E = 0 and IXS = V,

from which the current

I = V/Xs at 90o leading.

The product VI sin f corresponds to VAr/phase (leading), with f = 90o.

Hence, leading vars corresponding to this given by

))*++ $
J* $ K L
√-
=3× = 47.4 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟.
.( 5.NO

The horizontal axis is then scaled thus:

22
 O'O corresponds to 47.4 (MVAr)
O'O corresponds to 1 p.u. (system voltage, V)

With centre O, several semicircles are drawn of radii equal to various MVA loadings; the 75 MVA
arc being the important one for this example. Arcs with O' as a centre are also drawn with various
multiples of OO' (or V) as radii. The important arc here is the one corresponding to the maximum
excitation of 2.5 p.u. Lines may also be drawn from O at angles corresponding to various p.f.'s, e.g.
0.8 (lagging). A line corresponding to the turbine limit of 60 MW is also added.

Figure 2.21: Performance chart of a synchronous generator

The operational limits may then be established as shown in figure 2.21.

• Turbine limit governs output over portion fg.

• MVA arc governs thermal loading over portion gh.
• Rotor heating governs loading over portion hj.
• O'a is the steady-state stability limit.

Regarding the stability limit, the theoretical limit is the line perpendicular to OO' at O' (i.e. d = 90o)
but, in practice, a safety margin is introduced to allow a further small increase in the load before
instability, as represented by ecd. However, for simple solutions, the safety margin may be ignored
and the operating area becomes bound by the steady-state stability limit line. The permissible
generator-operating area is shown shaded.

23
Example 2.6: Construction of the performance chart

(a) A three-phase synchronous generator has a reactance of 1.5 p.u. and negligible resistance. It
supplies a rated current of 1.0 p.u. at 1.0 p.u. terminal voltage to a lagging load of 0.9 power
factor. Determine the rated excitation voltage in p.u. and the internal load angle.

(b) Construct the performance chart of the generator in 2.1 (above) assuming its rating is 450
MVA.

Solution:

(a) From P = VI cos f, we find 𝐼 = 1.0 ∠-25.84⁰ p.u

EÐd = V + jIX S = 1.0Ð0o + 1.0Ð - 25.84o ´ 1.5Ð90o = 2.13Ð39.2o p.u.

(b) Limits:

Emax = 2.13 p.u.

Pmax = 450 x 0.9 = 405 MW
Max. load angle, d = 90O

Scaling: find leading vars for condition when E = 0 (and V = 1 p.u.):

Reactive vars (leading) = V2/XS = 0.67 p.u. = 300 MVAr

Performance chart:

2.16 Generator control

In equations (2.18) and (2.19),

24
 ((+%,-)*)*
P = (VE/Xs) sin δ and = ,
.(

the terminal voltage, V, is set by the system (infinite bus). The power delivered can therefore be
controlled by varying the turbine power (or angle d) and the excitation voltage, E). These control
actions are discussed in the following sections.

2.16.1 Turbine governor

The speed of the turbine during run-up and while under load is controlled by the speed or load control
mechanism or speed governor, illustrated in figure 2.22(a). The governor is a proportional controller
(output = K x error) that compares the actual turbine speed with the no-load set-point and the
generator speed droop setting. The term 'droop' refers to the decrease of generator shaft speed as the
load increases, as shown in figure 2.22(b). The governor allows the speed of the machine to decrease
as the load increases, according to the droop setting.

The typical frequency response of a generating unit to sudden load increase is illustrated in figure
2.22(c). The initial drop in speed or frequency is due to the loss of kinetic energy (being converted to
electrical energy). The governor then acts to increase mechanical power. Oscillations may occur due
to turbine-generator control loop dynamics. The frequency then stabilises at a value that is less than
the original frequency. This is a consequence of governor droop characteristics (valve position
proportional to error). The integral control action is then required to remove the error.

(b)
(a)

(c)

25
 Figure 2.22: Turbine governor

2.16.2 Effect of increased turbine input power

The effect of increasing the turbine input power is shown in figure 2.23. It is assumed that the
machine excitation remains constant. With constant excitation, the output power of the generator
increases proportionately with the input power. This is to be expected as the output power is derived
from the energy input to the generator. Hence, the load angle d will increase. This means that the
excitation voltage E will advance in phase for the terminal voltage Vt.

Figure 2.23: Effect of increased steam flow

The power factor angle f is affected by the change in the real power component and by the phase shift
increase between E and Vt. That is, the power factor angle becomes less lagging. The reduced power
factor means that the reactive power output of the machine decreases towards zero. Further increase in
turbine power input causes the power factor to increase again but in the leading direction (leading
power factor angle).

2.16.3 Excitation system and Automatic Voltage Regulator

The purpose of the excitation system is to provide the power required by the field winding of the
generator and vary the field voltage quickly in response to network disturbances. There are two main
categories of excitation systems. In the first category, the excitation power is taken from a DC
generator (or AC generator with rectifier) is mounted on the same shaft as the turbine and main
generator, as illustrated in figure 2.24. The second category is the static excitation system in which the
excitation power is taken from the power network through a transformer and rectifier.

The Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is required to maintain the generator in a stable state, by
measuring output current and voltage and adjusting the magnet field.

26
 Figure 2.24: Static excitation system

2.16.4 Effect of synchronous machine excitation

The effect of varying the machine excitation on the operation and running condition of an alternator is
shown in figure 2.25. It is assumed that the machine is supplying constant power, and the only
variable is the excitation voltage E.

Figure 2.25(a) is the phasor diagram that corresponds to the generator operating condition with
normal excitation, normal excitation being defined as the excitation, where

|E| cos δ = Vt.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the machine delivers power at the unity power factor.

Figure 2.25(b) is the phasor diagram that corresponds to the operating condition when the generator is
overexcited, overexcitation being defined as the excitation when

|E| >> Vt.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the machine delivers power at a lagging power factor.
That is, the machine supplies lagging current to the system. In other words, it supplies (positive)
reactive power to the system. Conversely, the machine can be considered as drawing leading current
from the system.

Figure 2.25(c) is the phasor diagram that corresponds to the operating condition when the generator is
underexcited generator, under excitation being defined as the excitation when

|E| < Vt.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the machine delivers power at a leading power factor.
That is the machine supplies leading current, or negative VArs, to the system. Conversely, the
machine can be considered as drawing lagging current or positive VArs, from the system.

27
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.25: Effect of synchronous machine excitation

2.16.5 Summary: Effect of changing machine excitation and steam flow

The effect of changing machine excitation and turbine power input can be summarised by the
following two statements:

• Changing turbine input power changes the real power output, the load angle and the power
factor (and hence reactive power output).

• Changing excitation changes the generated voltage, the load angle and the power factor angle
(and hence reactive power output); but does not affect the generated real power.

These operating characteristics can then predict the behaviour of the synchronous generator under
many conditions.

Example 2.7: Generator operation

A three-phase synchronous generator with negligible armature resistance has synchronous reactance
Xs = 1.65 p.u. and is connected to a very large system. The terminal voltage is 1.0 p.u. and the
generator is supplying to the system a current of 0.9 p.u. at 0.85 p.f. (lag). Determine the reactive
power delivered to the system, if the excitation of the generator is subsequently increased by 25% (but
with the real power output of the generator remaining constant).

Solution:

28
I = 0.9 p.u. at -31.790.

EÐd = V + jIX S = 1.0Ð0 o + 0.9Ð - 31.79 o ´ 1.65Ð90 o = 2.18Ð35.31o

S = VI * = 1.0 ´ 0.9Ð31.79 = 0.9Ð31.79o

Thus, P = 0.76 p.u.

New E = 1.26 x 2.18 = 2.75 p.u.

(*
From 𝑃 = sin 𝛿, d = 27.130
.

(( FGH -)*)*
and 𝑄 = .
= 0.88 𝑝. 𝑢. (i.e. delivers 0.88 p.u. VArs to the system).

2.17 Effect of armature reaction

The impact of armature reaction was first discussed in section 2.5 of this learning unit. Now, having
understood the effect of varying the machine excitation, as discussed in section 2.16.4, the issue of
armature reaction and the field current variation necessary to offset its effect will be discussed in this
section.

With a lagging power factor load, it can be seen in figure 2.26 that the lagging current is drawn from
the stator and the generator produces (positive) MVArs (and MW). The lagging stator current creates
a flux Fr that directly opposes the field flux Ff. As induced voltage is proportional to flux (V α Φ) the
generator output voltage drops. To maintain rated voltage, the rotor field must be increased and the
generator then becomes overexcited.

Figure 2.26: Effect of armature reaction

29
Now, with a leading power factor load, the generator supplies a leading current (indicated by the
dashed phasor in figure 2.26) and the generator is seen to be supplying negative MVArs. Conversely,
the generator absorbs MVArs. The stator current creates a resulting flux that directly assists the field
flux. As induced voltage is proportional to flux (V α Φ), the generator output voltage will increase. To
maintain rated voltage the rotor field must be decreased and the generator then becomes underexcited.

2.18 Conclusion

In this learning unit, we introduced the fundamental relationship between the frequency, rotational
speed and the number of poles of a synchronous generator. This is a rigid relationship that influences
the behaviour of the interconnected power system. The construction features of the synchronous
generator were discussed and the corresponding circuit model was developed that can be used to
evaluate the performance of the generator. The sub-transient and transient reactances under fault
conditions were also identified. The performance chart of the synchronous generator that determines
its operating limits was introduced. The effects of varying the turbine input power and machine
excitation on the operating condition of the generator were discussed with the aid of phasor diagrams.
The impact of armature reaction, and the excitation control required to offset its effect, were also
discussed.

Problems

P2.1 A synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 2 p.u. It is connected to an infinite

busbar of voltage 1 p.u. through a transformer of reactance j0.1 p.u. If the generated (no-load)
e.m.f. is 1.1 p.u. calculate the current and power factor for maximum output.

(Answer: 0.708 p.u.; 0.74 leading)

P2.2 A 6.6 kV synchronous generator has negligible resistance and synchronous reactance of 4
ohms/phase. It is connected to an infinite busbar and gives 2000 A at unity power factor. If
the excitation is increased by 25% find the maximum power output and the corresponding
power factor. State any assumptions made.

(Answer: 31.6 MW; 0.95 leading)

P2.3 A salient-pole, 75 MVA, 11 kV synchronous generator is connected to an infinite busbar

through a link of reactance 0.3 p.u. and has Xd = 1.5 p.u. and Xq = 1 p.u., and negligible
resistance. Determine the power output for a load angle 30o if the excitation e.m.f. is 1.4 times
the rated terminal voltage. All p.u. values are on a 75 MVA base.

(Answer: P = 0.48 p.u.)

30
P2.4 A synchronous generator of open-circuit terminal voltage 1 p.u. is on no-load and then
suddenly short-circuited; the trace of current against time is shown in figure 2.27. In the
figure the current 0c = 1.8 p.u., 0a = 5.7 p.u., and 0b = 8 p.u. Calculate the values of Xs, 𝑋 >
and 𝑋 >> . Resistance may be neglected.

(Answer: Xs = 0.8 p.u.; 𝑋 > = 0.25 p.u.; 𝑋 >> = 0.18 p.u.)

Figure 2.27: Trace of a short-circuit current when direct-current component is removed

P2.5 Construct a performance chart for a 22 kV, 500 MVA, 0.9 p.f. generator having a short-circuit
ratio of 0.55.

31
P2.6 Consider a generator with the following nameplate data: 500 MVA, 20 kV, 0.8 p.f. (power
factor), Xs = 1.5 p.u.

a. Calculate the internal voltage and power angle of the generator operating at 400 MW
with cosf = 0.8 (lagging) with a 1 p.u. terminal voltage.

b. What is the maximum reactive power this generator can absorb from the system?

c. What is the maximum reactive power this generator can deliver to the system,
assuming a maximum internal voltage of 2.25 p.u.

(Answer: (a) 2.25 p.u., 32o; (b) 333 MVAr; (c) 417 MVAr)

32