LEARNING UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ELECTRIC

POWER SYSTEMS

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Contents

1.0 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Phasors ............................................................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Power in single-phase circuits ......................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Complex power .............................................................................................................................. 14
1.5 Three-phase systems ...................................................................................................................... 17
1.6 The per-phase equivalent circuit .................................................................................................... 23
1.7 Power in balanced three-phase circuits .......................................................................................... 24
1.8 The per-unit system ....................................................................................................................... 27
1.9 Concept of symmetrical components ............................................................................................. 30
1.9.1 Sequence networks of a Y-connected load ............................................................................. 32
1.9.2 Representation of plant in phase sequence networks .............................................................. 36
1.11 Power in sequence networks ........................................................................................................ 42
1.12 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 45
Problems .............................................................................................................................................. 45

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1.0 Learning outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Analyse single-phase circuits with resistive, inductive and capacitive loads.

• Analyse balanced three-phase systems under steady-state conditions.

• Solve power network problems using the per-unit system.

• Apply the concepts of symmetrical components in electric power systems.

• Transform a given power network into three sequence networks.

• Analyse unbalanced three-phase networks using the method of symmetrical components.

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1.1 Introduction

The electric power system is a tool for converting and transporting electrical energy. Various
characteristics of the electric power system influence how it is engineered and operated. To begin
with, the generating stations may not necessarily be located near the load centres. Therefore, the
power must be transmitted over long distances using high voltage transmission lines and the voltage
needs to be stepped down using transformers to levels that can safely be used for the distribution of
the power to consumers. The electric power system consists of four principal divisions, namely
generating stations, transmission lines, distribution systems and consumer loads, all interconnected
through transformer stations or substations.

The electric power system comprises many diverse items of equipment (generation,
transmission/distribution and consumer loads) that are very expensive. Hence, the complete power
system represents a large capital investment that needs to be protected and operated efficiently and
economically to achieve a good return on investment. The provision of a reliable, quality, safe and
affordable electricity supply is the fundamental requirement of power system design, control and
operation.

The system frequency depends on the interaction between generators and load. Balance must be
maintained between generation and load to maintain the frequency at the nominal value, which is 50
Hz in our region. However, electricity is generally not stored and the power producers have minimal
control over the load at any time. Hence, maintaining the frequency at 50 Hz is a difficult but
necessary task to maintain the integrity of the power system.

The power networks also experience voltage drops proportionally to the loading, which is
continuously varying. National and international regulations and standards, such as the NRS 048,
have been put in place to which system operators must adhere to assure the quality of voltage supplied
to consumers. For example, the domestic supply voltage must fall within a specified range of nominal,
such as 230 V +/- 6%.

Economic developments and population increases are accompanied by an increasing demand for
electricity. Thus, a continuous process exists of adding new power stations, substations and
transmission lines to the power system. In developing countries such as South Africa, coal plants still
form a significant proportion of the power sources. However, significant integration of renewable
energy sources is being promoted due to increased awareness of climate and environmental issues.
Hence, power system engineers are now faced with an evolving power system operating environment
whose dynamics and performance are being complicated by integration of the renewable sources.

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Due to the challenges of finding rights-of-way for new overhead lines, the new renewable sources are
usually connecting to load centres through existing transmission lines that may already be operating
close to their power transfer limits. Hence, new technologies, such as Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) devices, are finding their way into the power system to provide low-cost solutions
that improve the power transfer capability of the transmission lines.

The United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 aims to ensure access to
affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy to all. That is, "everyone must have access to
(affordable) electricity". Therefore, in power system design, the lowest-cost option that meets the
technical requirements is usually adopted. The promotion of renewable energy sources, such as solar,
now ensures that rural communities (for example, those far away from utility power supplies) can
now access energy for lighting, heating, and so forth, to improve their way of life.

This course aims to introduce the fundamental principles and practices in the design, control and
operational management of the modern electric power system that ensure a safe, reliable and
economic power supply. This is achieved through a study of the following:

• The characteristics and behaviour of the system plant and components in the interconnected
power system
• The principles and techniques applied for the control of voltage and frequency
• The principles and techniques applied to ensure power system stability
• The modern power system control and operation techniques

Before the above issues are discussed in detail, some fundamental concepts of power system circuit
analysis will be given in this learning unit. These include phasors, balanced three-phase circuits, the
concept of symmetrical components, unbalanced three-phase circuits, complex power, and the per-
unit system.

A thorough discussion of the material discussed in this learning unit can be found in the prescribed
textbook: Glover, JD, Overbye, TJ & Sarma, MS. 2017. Power System Analysis and Design (6th
edition). Cengage (chapters 2 and 8). We also recommend the following book: Weedy, BM, Cory, BJ,
Jenkins, N, Ekanayake, JB & Strbac, G. 2012. Electric Power Systems (5th edition). Wiley (chapters 3
and 7.3).

1.2 Phasors

Power system voltages and currents can be assumed to be purely sinusoidal and of constant
frequency, and can be represented using waveforms, equations or phasors. Phasor representation of
these sinusoidal quantities is a useful tool in power system analysis. The time-varying voltages are
expressed as

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 𝑣 = 𝑉! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿),

where 𝑉! is the maximum or peak values of the voltage, and 𝛿 is the phase angle of the voltage when
referenced to cos (𝜔𝑡).

The voltage can be expressed as a phasor using Euler's identity, 𝑒 "# = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, which gives

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑅𝑒8𝑒 "# 9 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), (1.1)

where Re means the "real part of".

The time-varying equation for voltage can then be rewritten in terms of the Euler identity

𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒:𝑉! 𝑒 "(%&'( ;. (1.2)

The exponential expression (1.2) depicts a rotating vector of length 𝑉! , rotating in an anticlockwise
direction at an angular velocity w about the origin of the complex plane. At time t = 0, this vector
makes an angle d radians with the real-positive axis, as illustrated in figure 1.1.

w rad/sec

Vm

d
O

Figure 1.1: Voltage phasor

Equation (1.2) can be rewritten as

𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒:√28𝑉𝑒 "( 9𝑒 "%& ;, (1.3)

where V is the rms value of the voltage.

The complex phasor quality, V, is then given as

𝑽 = 𝑉𝑒 "( = 𝑉∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑗𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿. (1.4)

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Bold letters are usually used to denote phasors. Equation (1.4) shows that the voltage phasor may be
represented in three forms – exponential, polar and rectangular.

Example 1: Phasor quantities

A voltage is expressed as a function of time as

𝑣 = 141.4 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 30) ).

Express this voltage as a phasor in the exponential, polar and rectangular forms.

Solution:

Determine the RMS value of the voltage,

𝑉!
𝑉= E = 141.4F = 100 𝑉.
√2 √2
Use equation (1.4) to express the voltage as a phasor in the three forms.

!
𝑽 = 100𝑒 "*+ = 100∠30) = 86.6 + 𝑗50 𝑉

1.3 Power in single-phase circuits

In this section, the work on single-phase circuits covered in a previous module will be reviewed. You
may be familiar with most of this information, but you may need to revise it, especially if you have
not worked with it for some time.

1.3.1 Single-phase circuit with purely resistive load

If the voltage in a single-phase circuit is

𝑣 = 𝑉! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿),

and the load in the circuit is purely resistive, then the current flowing into the resistive load is given
by

𝑖 = 𝐼! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿).

The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistance is

-" ."
𝑝 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos , (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = ,
{1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]} = 𝑉𝐼{1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]}. (1.5)

Equation (1.5) shows that the instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called the
constant power term and the second term is a sinusoid of twice the fundamental frequency called the

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fluctuating power term. This relationship is illustrated in figure 1.2, which shows a sinusoid of twice
the fundamental frequency that has only positive magnitude.

The average power absorbed by the resistor can be obtained by integrating equation (1.5) over a full
period

/ ,0
𝑃 = ,0 ∫+ 𝑉𝐼{1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]}. (1.6)

Equation (1.6) yields

𝑃 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼.

Now, for resistive load

𝐼 = 𝑉F𝑅.

Therefore,

-#
𝑃 =𝑉∙𝐼 = 1
= 𝐼 , 𝑅.

That is, the average power is the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.

Figure 1.2: Instantaneous power with v(t) in phase with i(t)

1.3.2 Single-phase circuit with purely inductive load

If the voltage in a single-phase circuit is

𝑣 = 𝑉! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

and the load in the circuit is purely inductive, then the current in the circuit lags the voltage by 90o

𝑖 = 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 − 90) ).

The instantaneous reactive power absorbed by the inductor is

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 -" ."
𝑝 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 − 90) ) = {𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 − 90) )]}. (1.7)
,

That is

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼{𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]}. (1.8)

The average power absorbed by the inductor can be obtained by integrating equation (1.7) over a full
period, which yields a value of zero. This can also be deduced from equation (1.8), which shows that
the instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is a double-frequency sinusoid with zero average
value. It can also be seen in the illustration in figure 1.3 that the instantaneous power oscillates about
the zero-line, generating an average of zero.

Figure 1.3: Instantaneous power with v(t) leading i(t) by 90o

1.3.3 Single-phase circuit with purely capacitive load

If the voltage in a single-phase circuit is

𝑣 = 𝑉! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿),

and the load in the circuit is purely capacitive, then the current in the circuit leads the voltage by 90o

𝑖 = 𝐼! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 + 90) ).

The instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor is

-" ."
𝑝 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 + 90) ) = {𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 + 90) )]}, (1.9)
,

that is

𝑝 = −𝑉𝐼{𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]}. (1.10)

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Equation (1.10) shows that the instantaneous reactive power absorbed by the capacitor is also a
double-frequency sinusoid with zero average value. It can also be seen in the illustration in figure 1.4
that the instantaneous power oscillates about the zero-line, generating an average of zero.

Figure 1.4: Instantaneous power with v(t) lagging i(t) by 90o

1.3.4 Single-phase circuit with general RLC load

If the voltage in a single-phase circuit is

𝑣 = 𝑉! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

and the load in the circuit is a general RLC load, then the current in the circuit can be expressed as

𝑖 = 𝐼! cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽).

The instantaneous power absorbed by the RLC load is

-" ."
𝑝 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑉! 𝐼! cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛽) = {cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) − (𝛿 − 𝛽)]}.
,

That is

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) + 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)] + 𝑉𝐼 sin(𝛿 − 𝛽) 𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)],

from which

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(𝛿 − 𝛽){1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]} + 𝑉𝐼 sin(𝛿 − 𝛽) 𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)], (1.11)

letting

𝐼1 = 𝐼 cos(𝛿 − 𝛽) and 𝐼2 = 𝐼 sin(𝛿 − 𝛽), gives

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼1 {1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]} + 𝑉𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]. (1.12)

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Equation (1.12) shows that the instantaneous power absorbed by the RLC load has two components.
The first component represents the instantaneous power, 𝑝1 , absorbed by the resistive component of
the load. The second component represents that instantaneous power, 𝑝2 , absorbed by the reactive
(inductive or capacitive) component of the load.

Figure 1.5 illustrates the instantaneous power for an RLC load when the voltage leads the current by
60o. It can be seen that the power is propagated towards the load only part of the time, while the signs
of v(t) and i(t) are equal, but that power is propagated away from the load when these signs differ.

Figure 1.5: Instantaneous power with v(t) leading i(t) by 60o

1.3.5 Real power

The average power transferred to the resistive component of the load is obtained by integrating the
first component of equation (1.12) over a full period. That is

/ ,0
𝑃= ∫ 𝑉𝐼1 {1
,0 +
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]}, (1.13)

yielding

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽). (1.14)

The average power is called the real power or active power. The product of voltage V and current I is
called the apparent power.

The angle between the voltage and current, (𝛿 − 𝛽), is called the power factor angle. The term
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) in equation (1.14) is called the power factor. This power factor expresses the relationship
or ratio between the active power P and the apparent power VI as

3
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = -. .

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For resistive load, the current is in phase with the voltage, hence the power factor angle, (𝛿 − 𝛽), is
zero and the power factor equals 1 or unity. For inductive load, the current lags the voltage, hence the
power factor angle, (𝛿 − 𝛽), is positive and the power factor is said to be lagging. For capacitive load,
the current leads the voltage, hence the power factor angle, (𝛿 − 𝛽), is negative and the power factor
is said to be leading.

1.3.6 Reactive power

The second term of equation (1.12)

𝑝2 = 𝑉𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]

is alternately positive and negative and has an average value of zero. This component of the
instantaneous power p is called the instantaneous reactive power and expresses the flow of energy
alternately toward the load and away from the load. The maximum value of this pulsating power,
designated Q, is called reactive power and is useful in describing the operation of a power system.
The reactive power is

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽). (1.15)

This can be deduced from equation (1.11); the maximum value of the second component of p is
𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽).

The square root of the sum of the squares of real power P and reactive power Q is equal to the product
of voltage V and current I. That is

Y𝑃, + 𝑄, = Y{𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽)}, + {𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽)}, = 𝑉 ∙ 𝐼. (1.16)

Active power and reactive power have the same dimensional units of volt-amperes, but the usual
practice is to define the unit of active power as the watt (W) and that for reactive power as volt-
ampere reactive or VAr. The product VI is referred to as the apparent power and has units of volt-
amperes.

Equations (1.14) and (1 .15) provide another method of computing the power factor since
𝑄⁄𝑃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽). The power factor is, therefore,

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𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 \𝑡𝑎𝑛4/ ]
3

or from equations (1.14) and (1.16),

3
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = .
63 # '5 #

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1.3.7 Physical significance of real and reactive power

Real or active power reflects the average rate of useful energy transmitted to the load, whilst reactive
power is a measure of the magnitude of that component of instantaneous power that merely oscillates
and causes the energy to flow back and forth between the source and the load. Now, Q refers to the
maximum value of instantaneous power absorbed by the reactive component of the load. As can be
seen from equation (1.15), Q may be positive or negative depending on the sign of (𝛿 − 𝛽). For
inductive load, the current lags the voltage, hence the power factor angle (𝛿 − 𝛽) is positive, meaning
that the inductive load absorbs positive reactive power. For capacitive load, the current leads the
voltage, hence the power factor angle, (𝛿 − 𝛽), meaning that the capacitive load absorbs negative
reactive power.

Conversely, a capacitor may be thought of as a generator of positive reactive power rather than as a
load requiring negative reactive power. This concept is very logical, for a capacitor drawing negative
Q in parallel with an inductive load reduces the Q, which would otherwise have to be supplied by the
system to the inductive load. In other words, the capacitor supplies the Q required by the inductive
load. This is the same as considering a capacitor as a device that delivers a lagging current rather than
as a device that draws a leading current.

Example 1.2 Instantaneous, real and reactive power, power factor

The voltage 𝑣(𝑡) = 141.4𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) is applied to a load consisting of a 10 W resistor in parallel with an
inductive reactance 𝑋7 = 𝜔𝐿 = 3.77 Ω. Calculate the instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor
and by the inductor, the real and reactive power absorbed by the load, and the power factor.

Solution:

To determine the power, the rms values of the voltage and current values must be calculated.

Taking the voltage as the reference phasor (i.e. 𝛿 = 0), the load voltage,

-" /9/.9∠+!
𝑉= = = 100∠0) 𝑉
√, √,

The current through the resistor is

- /++∠+!
𝐼1 = = = 10∠0) 𝐴.
1 /+

The current through the inductor is

- /++∠+!
𝐼7 = "2 = *.<<∠=+! = 26.53∠−90) 𝐴.
$

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The total load current is

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼7 = 10 − 𝑗26.53 = 28.35∠−69.34) 𝐴.

Therefore, the instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is, from (1.6)

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼1 {1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]} = (100)(10)[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡)] = 1000[1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜔𝑡)] 𝑊.

The instantaneous reactive power absorbed by the inductor is, from (1.9)

𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼7 {𝑠𝑖𝑛[2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)]} = (100)(26.53) sin(2𝜔𝑡) = 2653 sin(2𝜔𝑡) 𝑉𝐴𝑟.

The real power absorbed by the load is, from (1.14),

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = (100)(28.35) cos(0) + 69.34) ) = 1000 𝑊.

The reactive power absorbed by the load is, from (1.15),

𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽) = (100)(28.35) sin(0) + 69.34) ) = 2653 𝑉𝐴𝑟.

The power factor is

𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = cos(0) + 69.34) ) = 0.3528 (𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔).

1.4 Complex power

The calculation of real and reactive power can be accomplished conveniently in complex form. If the
voltage across and the current into a circuit element of load are expressed by

𝑽 = 𝑉∠𝛿 and 𝑰 = 𝐼∠𝛽,

the product of the voltage and the conjugate of current in polar form is

𝑽𝑰∗ = 𝑉∠𝛿 × 𝐼∠(−𝛽) = 𝑉𝐼∠(𝛿 − 𝛽).

This quantity, called the complex power, is usually designated by S. In rectangular form

𝑺 = 𝑽𝑰∗ = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) + 𝑉𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽) (1.17a)

or 𝑺 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄. (1.17b)

Reactive power Q will be positive when the phase angle (𝛿 − 𝛽) between voltage and the current is
positive; that is, when (𝛿 > 𝛽), which means that the current is lagging the voltage. Conversely, Q
will be negative for (𝛿 < 𝛽), which indicates that the current is leading the voltage. This is consistent
with the selection of a positive sign for the reactive power of an inductive circuit and a negative sign

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for the reactive power of a capacitive circuit. That is, the results of product S = VI* are consistent
with the convention that:

§ Inductive load absorbs +ve Q

§ Capacitive load absorbs –ve Q

Note that the product S = VI will give the correct magnitudes for P and Q but with the wrong sign for
Q.

Equation (1.17) suggests a graphical method of obtaining P, Q and the phase angle. That is, complex
power can be summarised graphically by use of the power triangle shown in figure 1.6. As shown, the
apparent power S, real power P and reactive power Q form the three sides of the power triangle. The
power factor angle (𝛿 − 𝛽) is also shown and the following expressions can be obtained:

𝑆 = Y𝑃, + 𝑄,

(𝛿 − 𝛽) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛4/ \𝑄F𝑃]

𝑄 = 𝑃𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝛿 − 𝛽)

3 3
𝑝. 𝑓. = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿 − 𝛽) = =
? 63 # '5 #

Figure 1.6: Power triangle

Example 1.3: Complex power and direction of power flow

Two ideal voltage sources designated as machines 1 and 2 are connected as shown in figure 1.7.

If 𝑽𝟏 = 100∠0) , 𝑽𝟐 = 100∠30) and Z = (0 + j5) Ω, determine

(a) whether each machine is generating or consuming power and the amount thereof;
(b) whether each machine is receiving or supplying reactive power and the amount thereof; and
(c) the P and Q absorbed by the impedance.

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 I Z

+ +
V1 m/c 1 m/c 2 V2

_ _

Figure 1.7

Solution:

The initial assumption, as indicated by the assumed direction of current flow in figure 1.7, was that
machine 1 is generating power and machine 2 is absorbing power.

𝑽𝟏 4𝑽𝟐 /++∠+! 4/++∠*+!

The current, 𝑰 = = = 10.35∠−165)
𝒁 D∠=+!

(a) Calculate the complex power for the two machines using equation (1.17):

For machine 1, 𝑆/ = 𝑉/ 𝐼 ∗ = 1035∠165) = (−999.73 + 𝑗267.88) 𝑉𝐴.

The real power P1 = Re[S1] is negative. The assumption was that machine 1 is generating
power, but the answer comes out negative to this assumption. Therefore, machine 1 is
consuming 999.73 W.

For machine 2, 𝑆, = 𝑉, 𝐼 ∗ = 1035∠195) = (−999.73 − 𝑗267.88) 𝑉𝐴.

The real power P2 = Re[S2] is negative. The assumption was that machine 2 is consuming
power, but the answer comes out negative to this assumption. Therefore, machine 2 is
generating 999.73 W.

(b) Using the answers calculated in part (a) above,

𝑆/ = (−999.73 + 𝑗267.88) 𝑉𝐴

The reactive power Q1 = Im[S1] is positive. Therefore, machine 1 is supplying 267.88 MVAr,
which is consistent with the initial assumption made that machine 1 is supplying power.

𝑆, = (−999.73 − 𝑗267.88) 𝑉𝐴

The assumption was that machine 2 is consuming reactive power, but the answer comes out
negative to this assumption. Therefore, machine 2 is also supplying 267.88 MVAr

16
(c) Apparent power is absorbed by the impedance

𝑆7 = 𝐼 , 𝑍7 = 0 𝑀𝑊 + 535.61 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑟 = 535.61 𝑀𝑉𝐴.

Therefore, the line impedance is absorbing zero MW and 535.61 MVAr (or 267.88 x 2).

1.5 Three-phase systems

Electric power systems are supplied by three-phase generators. The three windings of figure 1.8 give
voltages displaced in time or phase by 120o, as indicated in figure 1.9. Because the voltage in the (a)
phase reaches its peak 120o before the (b) phase and 240o before the (c) phase, the order of phase
voltages reaching their maxima or phase sequence is a-b-c.

Figure 1.8: Generator star (or wye) connected winding, (a) without and (b) with neutral
connection

Figure 1.9: Generator star (or wye) connected winding (a) without, and (b) with neutral
connection

The three-phase voltages in figure 1.9 can be represented by a set of three equations as

𝑉EF = √2𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 0) )

𝑉GF = √2𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 − 120) )

17
 𝑉HF = √2𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 120) )

The phasor diagram corresponding to the waveforms in figure 1.9 is shown in figure 1.10. Note that
the phasor rotation is anti-clockwise. Therefore, the three voltages phasors may be expressed in polar
form as

𝑉EF = 𝑉∠0) 𝑉 𝑉GF = (𝑉∠−120) ) = 𝑉∠240) 𝑉 𝑉HF = 𝑉∠120) 𝑉. (1.18)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.10: Phasor diagram for wye connection

When the winding is connected in 'wye' or 'star', two sets of voltages exist. The first is the phase or
line-to-neutral voltages, Van, Vbn and Vcn. Then we have the line-to-line voltages, Vab, Vbc, Vca.

Vab (= Van – Vbn) means the voltage of line or terminal 'a' with respect to 'b' and Vba = -Vab. These line
voltages are also shown on the phasor diagram in figure 1.9. It can be shown mathematically using
equation (1.18), or graphically using figure 1.9(b), that the magnitude of the line voltages equals √3
times the magnitude of the phase voltages:

𝑉EG = 𝑉GH = 𝑉HE = √3 𝑉EF = √3 𝑉GF = √3 𝑉HF

It can also be seen from figure 1.9 that the line voltage phasors lead the phase voltage phasors by 30o.

A three-phase load is connected in the same way as the machine windings, as illustrated in figure
1.11(a). The load is balanced when each phase takes equal currents, that is, has equal impedance.
With the wye connection, the phase currents are equal to the current in the lines or line currents.

18
 (a) (b)

Figure 1.11: Wye connected load and delta connected load

Figure 1.11(b) shows the alternative method of connecting the balanced load in delta.

Note that henceforth, the star or wye connection will be abbreviated as Y-connection and delta
connection as D-connection.

Example 1.4: Balanced Y-connected load

In a balanced three-phase circuit the voltage 𝑉EG = 17.32∠0) 𝑉. Determine all the voltages and the
currents in a Y-connected load having 𝑍I = 2∠30) Ω. The phase sequence is a-b-c.

Solution:

𝑉EG = 17.32∠30) 𝑉; 𝑉GH = 17.32∠270) 𝑉; 𝑉HE = 17.32∠150) 𝑉

We now know that the magnitude of the line voltages equals √3 times the magnitude of the phase
voltages and that the line voltage phasors lead the phase voltage phasors by 30o for a balanced Y-
connected generator or load.
Therefore, the phase voltages are
𝑉EF = 10∠0) 𝑉; 𝑉GF = 10∠240) 𝑉; 𝑉HF = 10∠120) 𝑉.
Then, the line currents (which are equal to the phase currents) are:
-'( /+∠+!
Phase 'a' current, 𝐼E = J)
= ,∠*+! = 5∠−30) 𝐴

-*( /+∠,9+!
Phase 'b' current, 𝐼G = J)
= ,∠*+!
= 5∠210) 𝐴

19
 -+( /+∠/,+!
Phase 'c' current, 𝐼G = = = 5∠90) 𝐴
J) ,∠*+!

Activity 1

The solution to example 1.4 generated the phase voltage and current phasors in polar form. Do the
following:

(a) Determine the magnitude of the angle by which the line currents lag the corresponding phase
voltage.
(b) Draw the phasor diagram of the currents.
(c) Add the phase voltage phasors to the diagram in (b) above.

Figure 1.12 shows the current relationships for a delta-connected load. The individual phases are
connected to form a closed loop. This is known as the mesh or delta connection. In the D-connection,
the line-to-line voltages are identical to the phase voltages, that is:

𝑉7KFL = 𝑉3MENL

The line currents are as follows:

𝐼! = 𝐼!" − 𝐼#! 𝐼" = 𝐼"# − 𝐼!" 𝐼# = 𝐼#! − 𝐼"#

(a) (b)

Figure 1.12: Delta-connected load-current relationships

20
Activity 2
Figure 1.11 shows balanced loads connected in delta. Do the following:
(a) Draw the phasor diagram of the phase currents in figure 1.11(a). Use 𝐼EG as the reference
phasor. (Note, the three phase currents are displaced by 120o.)
(b) Add the line currents to the phasor diagram in (a) above.
(c) Use the phasor diagram to show that the magnitude of the line currents is √3 times the
magnitude of the phase currents.
(d) Use the phasor diagram to show that the line currents lag the phase currents by 30o.

Activity 3: D-Y and Y-D Transformations

The figure shows transformation of a D-connected load into a Y-connected load and vice-
versa. Do the following:

(a) Review your knowledge of D-Y and Y-D transformations from a previous module.
(b) Confirm the following equations for transformation from D toY connection.

(c) Confirm the following equations for transformation from Y to D connection.

21
Example 1.5: Balanced Y-connected load

A balanced, positive-sequence, Y-connected voltage source with 𝑉EG = 480∠0) volts applied to a
balanced-D load with 𝑍O = 30∠40) ohms. The line impedance between the source and load is 𝑍P =
1∠85) ohms per phase. Calculate the line currents, the D-load currents, and the voltages at the load
terminals.

Solution:

The solution is most easily obtained as follows. First, convert the D-load to an equivalent Y. Then
short circuit the source and Y-load neutrals. The connection of the neutral wire has no effect on the
circuit since the neutral current In = 0 in a balanced system.

The Y-transformed load is thus,

J,
𝑍I = *
= 3∠40) .

Please note that in three-phase problems, any given voltage quantity is assumed to be a line voltage
unless stated otherwise.

Hence, 𝑉EG = 480∠0) is assumed to be a line voltage.

The line current (for Y-connected load) is obtained by dividing the phase voltage by the loop
resistance comprising the line impedance plus the Y-equivalent load impedance.

-./∠12/!
-'(
Phase A line current 𝐼Q = J = √2
/∠RD! '*∠9+!
= 25.83∠−73.78)
$ 'J)

Similarly, for IB and IC,

Phase B line current, 𝐼S = 25.83∠166.22)

Phase C line current, 𝐼T = 25.83∠46.22)

22
We now know that the magnitude of the line currents equals √3 times the magnitude of the phase
currents and that the phase current phasors lead the line current phasors by 30o for a balanced D-
connected load.

Therefore, the D-load currents (or phase currents) are

.4 ,D.R*
𝐼QS = ∠+30) = ∠(−73.78 + 30)) = 14.91∠−43.78) .
√* √*

Similarly, for IBC and ICA,

𝐼ST = 14.91∠163.78)

𝐼TQ = 14.91∠76.22)

The voltages at the load terminals are

𝑉QS = 𝑍O ∙ 𝐼QS = (30∠40) )(14.91∠−43.78) ) = 447.3∠−3.78) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑉ST = 447.3∠−123.78) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

𝑉TQ = 447.3∠116.22) 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

1.6 The per-phase equivalent circuit

We can see from the solutions to examples 1.7 and 1.8 that the voltages and currents in a balanced
three-phase system are equal in magnitude but displaced by 120o. Therefore, when solving balanced
three-phase circuits, it is not necessary to work with the entire three-phase circuit diagram of figures
1.11 or 1.12. To solve the circuit, a neutral connection of zero impedance is assumed to be present and
to carry the sum of the three-phase currents, which is zero for balanced conditions. The circuit is
solved by applying Kirchhoff's voltage law around a closed path which includes one phase and
neutral. Such a closed path is shown in figure 1.13.

Ia

Za
ZR
Ea

Figure 1.13: Delta-connected load-current relationships

23
This circuit is the single-phase or per-phase equivalent of the circuit of figures 1.11 or 1.12.
Calculations made for this path are extended to the whole three-phase circuit by recalling that the
currents in the other two phases are equal in magnitude to the current of the phase calculated and are
displaced 120o and 240o in phase. It is immaterial whether the balanced load is D- or Y-connected
since the D can always be replaced for purposes of calculation by its equivalent Y.

Activity 4
Do the following:
(a) Show that the sum of the phase voltages calculated in example 1.4 is zero.
(b) Show that the sum of the phase currents calculated in example 1.4 is zero.
(c) Repeat (b) above for example 1.5.

1.7 Power in balanced three-phase circuits

The total power delivered by a three-phase generator or consumed by a three-phase load is found
simply by adding the power in each of the three phases. In a balanced circuit, this is the same as
multiplying the power in any one phase by 3 since the power is the same in all phases.

If the magnitude of the phase voltage for a Y-connected load is

𝑉UM = 𝑉EF = 𝑉GF = 𝑉HF ,

and if the magnitude of the phase current for the Y-connected load is

𝐼UM = 𝐼EF = 𝐼GF = 𝐼HF ,

then the total three-phase power

𝑃 = 3𝑉UM 𝐼UM 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, (1.19)

where a is the angle by which the current lags the voltage; that is, the power factor angle.

If VL and IL are the magnitudes of the line-to-line voltage and current, respectively, then

𝑃 = √3 𝑉7 𝐼7 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, (1.20)

𝑉7
since 𝑉UM = E and 𝐼UM = 𝐼7 .
√3

The total reactive power

𝑄 = 3𝑉UM 𝐼UM 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 (1.21)

24
or 𝑄 = √3 𝑉7 𝐼7 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 (1.22)

and the complex or apparent power

𝑆 = Y𝑃, + 𝑄, = √3 𝑉7 𝐼7. (1.23)

Equations (1.19)-(1.23) apply if the load is D-connected, noting that in this case

𝐼
𝐼UM = 7E and 𝑉UM = 𝑉7 .
√3

Example 1.6: Power in balanced three-phase circuits

Two balanced three-phase motors in parallel, an induction motor drawing 400 kW at 0.8 power factor
lagging and a synchronous motor drawing 150 kVA at 0.9 power factor leading, are supplied by a
balanced, three-phase 4160-volt source. Cable impedances between the source and load are negligible.

(a) Draw the power triangle for each motor and the combined-motor load.
(b) Determine the power factor of the combined-motor load.
(c) Determine the magnitude of the line current delivered by the source.
(d) A delta-connected capacitor bank is now installed in parallel with the combined-motor load.
What value of capacitive reactance is required in each leg of the capacitor bank to make the
source power factor unity?
(e) Determine the magnitude of the line current delivered by the source with the capacitor bank
installed.

Solution:

(a) For the induction motor, P = 400 kW and

S = P/cos a = 400/0.8 = 500 kVA

𝑄 = √𝑆 , − 𝑃, = 300 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟 absorbed (lagging power factor).

For the synchronous motor, S = 150 kVA and

P = S x cos a = 150 x 0.8 = 135 kW

𝑄 = √𝑆 , − 𝑃, = 65.4 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟 delivered (leading power factor).

For the combined motor load

P = 400 + 135 = 535 kW Q = 300 – 65.4 = 234.6 kVAr absorbed.

25
 𝑆 = Y𝑃, + 𝑄, = 584.2 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟.

The power triangle for each motor and the combined-motor load:

(b) The power factor of the combined-motor load is p.f. = P/S = 535/584.2 = 0.916 lagging.

(c) The line current delivered by the source is

?
𝐼= ,
√*-

where S is the three-phase apparent power of the combined-motor load and V is the
magnitude of the line-to-line load voltage, which is the same as the source voltage for this
example.

Therefore,

? DR9.,
𝐼= = = 81.1 𝐴 per phase.
√*- √*×9/W+

(d) For the unity power factor, the three-phase reactive power supplied by the capacitor bank
should equal the three-phase reactive power absorbed by the combined-motor load. That is,
Qc = 234.6 kvar. For a delta-connected capacitor bank, Qc = 3V2/XD where V is the line-to-
line voltage across the bank and XD the capacitive reactance of each leg of the bank. The
capacitive reactance of each leg is

-# 9/W+#
𝑋∆ = 3 5 = 3 ,*9.W×/+2 = 221.3 ohms.
5

(e) With the capacitor bank installed, the source power factor is unity and the apparent power S
delivered by the source is the same as the real power P delivered by the source. The line
current magnitude is

? 3 D*D
𝐼= = = = 74.3 𝐴 per phase.
√*- √*×- √*×9/W+

Note that the line current delivered by the source is reduced from 81.1 A without the capacitor bank to
74.3 A with the capacitor bank. Any I2R losses due to cable resistances and voltage drops due to cable
reactances between the source and loads would also be reduced.

26
1.8 The per-unit system

The per-unit system is used to simplify the analysis of power networks. A brief review of the per-unit
system is given in this section. The per-unit system does the following:

§ It eliminates the need to transfer circuit quantities from one side of the transformer to the
other; meaning that the per-unit transformer impedance is the same referred to either side
of the transformer.

§ It reduces the use of √3 in three-phase system calculations.

§ It simplifies computation and makes it possible to quickly check the correctness of the
computed values since the parameters and variables fall within a narrow numerical range
when expressed in the per-unit system.

In the per-unit system, the actual values of quantities are expressed as fractions of reference
quantities, such as rated or full-load values. The per-unit (p.u.) value is defined as

the actual value (in any unit)

per unit (p.u.) value= .
the base or reference value in the same unit

The p.u. value may also be expressed as a percentage of the reference value. The system parameters
of voltage (V), current (I), volt-amperes (VA) and impedance (Z) are all related. Hence, the selection
of the base values for any two of these parameters determines the base values of the remaining two.
Usually, base VA and base V are selected to specify the base values.

Using single-phase quantities, the base current is given by

VAbase
Ibase = Vbase
, (1.24)

whereVbase =Vphase .

Base impedance is given by

-*'67
𝑍GENL = .*'67
. (1.25)

Three-phase systems are solved using the equivalent per-phase circuits: Vph, R, X. However, three-
phase (nameplate) data is usually given and may be used directly in the calculations. For example,
base current may be expressed as

GENL -Q21∅
GENL -Q81∅ ` GENL -Q2∅
√*
𝐼GENL = GENL -81∅
= GENL-$ = , (1.26)
` √*×GENL -$
√*

27
 where 𝑉7 is the line voltage,
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝐴/4∅ is the VA base for single-phase system,
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝐴*4∅ is the VA base for three-phase system,

Similarly it can be shown that

(GENL -$ )#
𝑍GENL = GENL -Q2∅
. (1.27)

Use of the per-unit system requires that a single base VA be selected for a particular calculation.
However, the p.u. impedance of system components are usually given based on the VA rating of that
component and may thus need to be expressed on a base other than the rated. It can be seen from
(2.1), (2.3) and (2.5) that the per-unit impedance is proportional to the base VA and inversely
proportional to the square of the base voltage. Hence, the impedance referred to a new base is given
by

GENL -:;<7( , GENL -Q (7=

𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍FLc = 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍dKeLF \ ] v w. (1.28)
GENL -(7= GENL -Q :;<7(

Example 1.7: Power network analysis using the per-unit system

Figure 1.14 shows the schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. The ratings and reactances
of the various components are shown. A load of 50 MW at 0.8 p.f. lagging is taken from the 33 kV
substation, which is to be maintained at 30 kV. It is required to calculate the terminal voltage of the
synchronous machine. The line and transformers may be represented by series reactances. The system
is three-phase.

Figure 1.14: Line diagram of the system for example 1.7

Solution:

It will be noted that the line reactance is given in ohms; this is usual practice. The volt-age bases of
the various circuits are decided by the nominal transformer voltages, that is, 11, 132, and 33 kV. A
base of 100 MVA will be used for all circuits. The reactances (resistance is neglected) are expressed
on the appropriate voltage and MVA bases.

28
Base impedance (for the 132 kV line)

#
-# f/*,×/+2 g
𝑍S (132𝑘𝑉) = ?> = /++×/+?
= 174 Ω
>

Hence

p.u. reactance, XL = j100/174 = j0.575 p.u.

Using equation (1.28), per-unit reactance of the sending-end transformer

GENL -Q /++
𝑋h/ = 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍dKeLF vGENL -Q (7= w = 𝑗0.1 × = 𝑗0.2 𝑝. 𝑢.
:;<7( D+

Similarly, the per-unit reactance of the receiving-end transformer

𝑋h, = 𝑗0.24 𝑝. 𝑢.

Load current

3$!'@
𝐼7 = = 1203 𝐴
√*×-A ×U.i.

Base current for 33 kV, 100 MVA

GENL -Q2∅
𝐼S (33𝑘𝑉) = = 1750 𝐴
√*×GENL -$

Hence the p.u. load current

𝐼7 = 0.687 𝑝. 𝑢.

The voltage of the load busbar (in p.u.)

the actual value (in any unit)

𝑉1 = = 0.91 𝑝. 𝑢.
the base or reference value in the same unit

The equivalent circuit is shown in figure 1.15,

Figure 1.15: Equivalent circuit of system for example 1.7

29
 VS = 0.687 x (0:8 - j0.6)(0.2 + j0.575 + j0.24) + (0.91 + j0)
= 1.328 + j0.558 p.u.

VS = 1.44 p.u.
= 1.44 x 11 kV = 15.84 kV

1.9 Concept of symmetrical components

The concept of symmetrical components is used to facilitate the analysis of unbalanced three-phase
systems. It is a technique that resolves a system of three unbalanced phasors (of a three-phase system)
into three balanced systems of phasors. The advantage of this transformation is that the unbalanced
three-phase network can be resolved into three decoupled networks, called sequence networks. This
powerful mathematical tool greatly simplifies the analysis of unbalanced networks.

The concept of symmetrical components is illustrated in figure 1.16:

Figure 1.16: The concept of symmetrical components

Figure 1.16 shows three unbalanced phase voltages (Va, Vb and Vc). The three voltages differ in
magnitude and the phase angle has shifted from 120o. Applying the concept of symmetrical
components resolves the three unbalanced phasors into three systems of balanced phasors known as
the positive phase sequence system, negative phase sequence system and zero phase sequence system,
respectively. Subscript 1 is normally used to indicate a positive phase sequence component, while
subscript 2 indicates a negative phase and 0 (zero) indicates a zero-phase sequence component.

30
Adding the phase sequence components such as Va1, Va2 and Va0, for example, gives the original
unbalanced phasor Va as illustrated in figure 1.16.

Mathematically, the original phasors may be expressed in terms of their components as:

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 (1.29)

Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0 (1.30)

Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0 (1.31)

Looking at the positive phase sequence system in figure 1.16, it can be seen that if the A-phase
sequence component Va1is known, then the other two positive-sequence components Vb1 and Vc1 can
be found simply by shifting Va1 through 120o or 240o, respectively. Mathematically, this can be
affected by intruding the "a" operator. If a phasor is multiplied by the "a" operator, the phasor is
2
shifted through 120o. Multiplying by "a " rotates the phasor through 240 degrees. That is

,0j
𝑎 ≔ 1∠120) = 1. 𝑒 " * = −0.5 + 𝑗0.866;

in the three notations: polar, complex and rectangular. Also

𝑎, ≔ 1∠240) = −0.5 − 𝑗0.866

𝑎* ≔ 1∠360) = 1.

When expressing symmetrical components, it is only necessary to list the R-phase components. Thus:

Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 (1.32)

2
Vb = a Va1 + aVa2 + Va0 (1.33)

2
V = aV + a V + V (1.34)
c a1 a2 a0

or in matrix form:

𝑉E 1 1 1 𝑉E+
y𝑉G z = y1 𝑎, 𝑎 z y𝑉E/ z (1.35)
𝑉H 1 𝑎 𝑎, 𝑉E,

The same concept applies to currents, thus

31
 𝐼E 1 1 1 𝐼E+
y𝐼G z = y1 𝑎, 𝑎 z y𝐼E/ z (1.36)
𝐼H 1 𝑎 𝑎, 𝐼E,

Matrix inversion can be applied to find the symmetrical components from the unbalanced phasors:

𝐼E+ 1 1 1 𝐼E
/
y𝐼E/ z = * y1 𝑎 𝑎, z y𝐼G z (1.37)
𝐼E, 1 𝑎, 𝑎 𝐼H

Example 1.8

A three-phase unbalanced delta-connected load draws 100 A of the line current from a balanced three-
phase supply. Using the method of symmetrical components calculate the magnitude and phase angle
of the phase sequence components of the currents in phases 'b' and 'c' if the current in phase 'a' drops
down to zero due to an open-circuit fault. Assume a-b-c phase sequence.

Given

𝐼E+ 1 1 1 𝐼E
/
y𝐼E/ z = y1 𝑎 𝑎, z y𝐼G z
*
𝐼E, 1 𝑎, 𝑎 𝐼H

Solution:

Due to the open circuit on R-phase

Ia = 0, Ib = -Ic = 100 A
Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 = 0 A
𝐼E/ = 57.74∠90+ 𝐴
𝐼G/ = 57.74∠−30+ 𝐴
𝐼H/ = 57.74∠210+ 𝐴
𝐼E, = 57.74∠ − 90+ 𝐴
𝐼G, = 57.74∠−210+ 𝐴
𝐼H, = 57.74∠30+ 𝐴

1.9.1 Sequence networks of a Y-connected load

Figure 1.17 shows a balanced Y-connected impedance load. The impedance of each phase is
designated ZY and a neutral impedance Zn is connected between the load neutral and ground. The line-
to-ground (phase) volt-age Van is

𝑉EF = 𝑍I 𝐼E + 𝑍F 𝐼F = 𝑍I 𝐼E + 𝑍F (𝐼E + 𝐼G + 𝐼H ) = (𝑍I + 𝑍F )𝐼E + 𝑍F 𝐼G + 𝑍F 𝐼H .

32
 Figure 1.17: Balanced Y-connected load

Similar equations can be written for Vbn and Vcn.

The voltages Van, Vbn and Vcn can then be written in matric form as

𝑉EF (𝑍I + 𝑍F ) 𝑍F 𝑍F 𝐼E
y𝑉GF z = { 𝑍F (𝑍I + 𝑍F ) 𝑍F | y𝐼G z (1.38)
𝑉HF 𝑍F 𝑍F (𝑍I + 𝑍F ) 𝐼H

Equation (1,38) can be written in more compact form as

𝑉U = 𝑍U 𝐼U,

where Vp is the vector of line-to-ground voltages (or phase voltages), 𝐼U is the vector of line currents
(or phase currents), and 𝑍U is the 3 times three-phase impedance matrix shown in (1.38). Equations
(1.35) and (1.36) can now be used in (1.38) to determine the relationship between the sequence
voltages and currents as

𝐴𝑉N = 𝑍U 𝐴𝐼N, (1.39)

where Vs is the column vector of the A-components of the sequence voltages and Is is the column
vector of the A-components of the sequence currents, and

1 1 1
𝐴 = y1 𝑎 , 𝑎 z.
1 𝑎 𝑎,

By pre-multiplying both sides of equation (1.39) by A-1, the following equation is obtained

𝑉N = 𝑍N 𝐼N , (1.40)

in which

33
 𝑍N = 𝐴4/ 𝑍U 𝐴. (1.41)

Substituting A-1, Zp and A in equation (1.41), the sequence impedance matrix for the balanced Y-
connected load can be written as

(𝑍I + 3𝑍F ) 0 0
𝑍N = { 0 (𝑍I ) 0 |. (1.42)
0 0 (𝑍I )

By virtue of it being a diagonal matrix, ZS represents three separate, uncoupled equations, depicting
the three impedances of the three symmetrical components separately.

Equation (1.40) can then be written as

𝑉+ (𝑍I + 3𝑍F ) 0 0 𝐼+
y𝑉/ z = { 0 (𝑍I ) 0 | y𝐼/ z. (1.43)
𝑉, 0 0 (𝑍I ) 𝐼,

Equation (1.43) can be written out as three separate equations, namely

𝑉+ = (𝑍I + 3𝑍F )𝐼+ = 𝑍+ 𝐼+ (1.44)

𝑉/ = (𝑍I )𝐼/ = 𝑍/ 𝐼/ (1.45)

𝑉, = (𝑍I )𝐼, = 𝑍, 𝐼, (1.46)

As can be read from equations (1.44) to (1.46), the zero-sequence voltage V0 depends only on the
zero-sequence current I0 and the impedance (𝑍I + 3𝑍F ). This impedance is called the zero-sequence
impedance and is designated Z0. Also, the positive-sequence voltage V1 depends only on the positive-
sequence current I1 and an impedance Z1 = ZY called the positive-sequence impedance. Similarly, V2
depends only on I2 and the negative-sequence impedance Z2 = ZY.

Equations (1.44) to (1.46) can be represented by the three networks shown in figure 1.18. These
networks are called the zero-sequence, positive-sequence and negative-sequence networks. As shown,
each sequence network is separate, uncoupled from the other two. The separation of these sequence
networks is a consequence of the fact that Zs is a diagonal matrix for a balanced-Y load.

34
 Figure 1.18: Sequence networks for a balanced Y-connected load

Take note of the following:

§ The neutral impedance does not appear in the positive- and negative-sequence networks because
positive- and negative-sequence currents do not flow in neutral impedances.

§ When the neutral of the Y load has no return path, then the neutral impedance Zn is infinite and
the term 3Zn in the zero-sequence network becomes an open circuit. Under this condition of an
open neutral, no zero-sequence current exists.

§ When the neutral of the Y load is solidly grounded with a zero-ohm conductor, then the neutral
impedance is zero and the term 3Zn in the zero-sequence network becomes a short circuit.

§ The sequence networks of the equivalent Y load corresponding to a balanced-D load are shown in
figure 1.19. The equivalent Y impedance ZY = ZD/3 appears in each of the sequence networks.
The zero-sequence network has an open circuit since Zn = ∞ corresponds to an open neutral. No
zero-sequence current occurs in the equivalent Y load.

Figure 1.19: Sequence networks for a balanced D-connected load

Analysis of unbalanced networks using the concept of phase sequence components involves
decomposing the real system into three sequence networks and then coupling the networks only at the
point of the unbalance.

35
The positive-sequence network is the same as the real balanced equivalent network used for balanced
three-phase system analysis. The negative-sequence network is almost the same as the positive-
sequence network except that the sources are shorted out. That is, there are no generated negative-
sequence voltages from the generators.

1.9.2 Representation of plant in phase sequence networks

This section discusses the representation or modelling of the various power system components in
each of the sequence networks.

(a) Synchronous machine: Real generators produce positive-sequence voltages only, therefore only
the positive-sequence network has a voltage source.

(i) The positive-sequence network model of the synchronous machine is the same as the normal
equivalent circuit model as shown in figure 1.20(a).

(ii) The negative-sequence network model is almost the same as the positive-sequence network model
except that the voltage source is shorted out since no negative-sequence voltages are generated, as
shown in figure 1.20(b).

Figure 1.20: (a) Positive sequence network model of synchronous machine, (b) negative-
sequence network model of synchronous machine

(iii) The zero-sequence network model of the synchronous machine is derived with the aid of figure
1.21(a) that shows the three windings of the machine with the star point grounded through impedance
ZN. Referring to (1.36), it can be noted that:

/
𝐼E+ = * (𝐼E + 𝐼G + 𝐼H ). (1.47)

For a three-wire (or balanced) system, (Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0. Hence, no zero-sequence currents exist.

However, for a four-wire system, Ia0 = IN/3 or IN = 3 Ia0. That is, the neutral current is three times the

36
zero sequence (phase) current. Therefore, the current flowing through the earthing impedance ZN is I
N

= 3 Ia0.

Hence, the voltage drop between the terminal of the R-phase winding and earth in figure 1.21(a) is
given by

Volt drop = 𝐼l 𝑍l + 𝐼E+ 𝑍+ = 3𝐼E+ 𝑍l + 𝐼E+ 𝑍+ = 𝐼E+ (𝑍+ + 3𝑍l ). (1.48)

Z0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the winding. Equation (2.40) is consistent with the circuit in
figure 1.21(b) which represents the zero-sequence network model of the synchronous machine.

Figure 1.21: Zero-sequence network model of synchronous machine

(b) Lines and cables: The positive- and negative-sequence impedances of lines and cables are the
normal balanced values. The zero-sequence impedance depends on the nature of the return path,
which is influenced by the line construction type and existence or absence of return earth wire.

(c) Transformers: The positive- and negative-sequence impedances are the normal balanced values.
The zero-sequence impedance depends on the nature of the connection of the windings and how the
transformer is grounded. Figure 1.22 shows the zero-sequence representations of transformers for
various winding arrangements. These representations are based on the principle that zero-sequence
currents in the windings on one side of the transformer must produce the corresponding ampere turns
in the other winding. So, if the current cannot flow in one winding, then it cannot flow in the other.

37
Figure 1.22: Zero-sequence network models of transformers of various winding configurations

The inclusion of impedances in the star-point-to-earth connection in a transformer modifies the

sequence diagrams. The earthing impedance ZN in the earth path is represented by impedance 3ZN in
the zero-sequence network (connected in the shunt path to ground).

Example 1.9

Draw the sequence network diagrams of the system shown in the single-line diagram of figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23: Single-line diagram of two bus power network

38
Solution:

Figure 1.24: Phase sequence networks

Example 1.10: Currents in sequence networks

A balanced, positive-sequence, Y-connected voltage source with 𝐸EG = 480∠0) volts is applied to a
balanced D-connected load with 𝑍∆ = 30∠40) ohms. The line impedance between the source and
load is 𝑍7 = 1∠85) ohms for each phase. Calculate the sequence components of the line current.
Assume that the generator neutral is grounded through an impedance 𝑍F = 10∠90) ohms and that the
generator sequence impedances are 𝑍d+ = 1∠90) Ω, 𝑍d/ = 15∠90) Ω and 𝑍d, = 3∠90) Ω.

Solution:

The three-phase network diagram with the D-connected load transformed to Y-connected load is
shown in figure 1.25.

The sequence networks are shown in figure 1.26. The sequence networks are obtained by
interconnecting the sequence network models of the balanced D-connected load (but transformed to
equivalent Y-connected load), the series-line impedance and synchronous generator.

39
 Figure 1.25: Three-phase network with equivalent Y-connected load

From figure 1.26, we can see that I0 = I2 = 0 since there are no sources in the zero- and negative-
sequence networks. Also, the positive-sequence generator terminal voltage V1 equals the generator
line-to-neutral terminal voltage. Therefore, from the positive-sequence network

-8
𝐼/ = 8 = 25.83∠40) 𝐴 = 𝐼E .
mJ$8 ' J, n
2

Figure 1.26: Sequence networks

40
Example 1.11: Solving unbalanced three-phase networks using sequence components

A Y-connected voltage source with the following unbalanced voltage is applied to the balanced line
and load of example 1.10.

𝑉Ed 277∠0)
{𝑉Gd | = y260∠ − 120) z volts
𝑉Hd 295∠115)

The source neutral is solidly grounded. Using the method of symmetrical components, calculate the
source currents Ia, Ib, and Ic.

Given

𝑉E+ 1 1 1 𝑉Ed
/
y𝑉E/ z = y1 𝑎
*
𝑎, z {𝑉Gd |
𝑉E, 1 𝑎, 𝑎 𝑉Hd

Solution:

Substitute the unbalanced voltages into the above equation to obtain the sequence components of the
source voltages as

𝑉E+ = 15.912∠62.11)

𝑉E/ = 277.1∠−1.772)

𝑉E, = 19.218∠216.59)

These sequence voltages are applied to the sequence networks of the line and load, as shown in figure
1.27.

The sequence components of the source currents can then be calculated

𝐼+ = 0

-8
𝐼E/ = 8 = 25.82∠−45.55) 𝐴
mJ$8 ' J, n
2

-8
𝐼E, = 8 = 0.8591∠172.81) 𝐴
mJ$# ' J, n
2

𝐼E 1 1 1 𝐼E+
Using y𝐼G z = y1 𝑎, 𝑎 z y𝐼E/ z
𝐼H 1 𝑎 𝑎, 𝐼E,

𝐼E = 25.15∠−46.76) 𝐴

41
𝐼G = 25.71∠292.81) 𝐴

𝐼H = 26.62∠73.77) 𝐴

Figure 1.27: Sequence networks for example 1.11

1.11 Power in sequence networks

The complex power supplied to the general load in figure 1.28 is

𝑆3 = 𝑉Ed 𝐼E∗ + 𝑉Gd 𝐼G∗ + 𝑉Hd 𝐼H∗ , (1.49)

which can be written in matrix format as

𝐼E∗
𝑆3 = [𝑉Ed 𝑉Gd 𝑉Hd ] {𝐼G∗ | (1.50)
𝐼H∗

𝑆3 = 𝑉3h 𝐼3∗ (1.51)

42
 Figure 1.28: General three-phase load

But

𝑉3h = (𝐴𝑉? )h (1.52)

and

𝐼3∗ = (𝐴𝐼? )∗ (1.53)

so that

𝑆3 = (𝐴𝑉? )h (𝐴𝐼? )∗ (1.54)

or

𝑆3 = 𝑉?h [𝐴h 𝐴∗ ]𝐼?.∗ (1.55)

Noting that a2 and a are complex conjugates of each other, it can be shown that

3 0 0
𝐴h 𝐴∗ = y0 3 0z. (1.56)
0 0 3

If equation (1.56) is inserted into equation (1.55), the total complex power may be expressed in terms
of the symmetrical components, thus

𝑆3 = 3𝑉?h 𝐼?∗ (1.57)

or

𝐼+∗
𝑆3 = [𝑉+ 𝑉/ 𝑉, ] {𝐼/∗ | (1.58)
𝐼,∗

43
or

𝑆3 = 3(𝑉+ 𝐼+∗ + 𝑉/ 𝐼/∗ + 𝑉, 𝐼,∗ ) = 3𝑆?. (1.59)

Example 1.12: Power in sequence networks

Calculate SP and SS delivered by the three-phase source in example 1.11. Verify that 𝑆3 = 3𝑆? .

Solution:

Using equation (1.49)

𝑆3 = 𝑉Ed 𝐼E∗ + 𝑉Gd 𝐼G∗ + 𝑉Hd 𝐼H,∗

the source voltages were given (in example 1.14) as

𝑉Ed 277∠0)
{𝑉Gd | = y260∠ − 120) z volts
𝑉Hd 295∠115)

and the line currents were calculated to be

𝐼E = 25.15∠−46.76) 𝐴 ; 𝐼G = 25.71∠292.81) 𝐴 ; 𝐼H = 26.62∠73.77) 𝐴.

Substituting the voltage and current values into equation (1.49) gives

𝑆3 = 21.49∠43.78) 𝑘𝑉𝐴.

In the sequence domain, equation (1.59)

𝑆? = 3(𝑉+ 𝐼+∗ + 𝑉/ 𝐼/∗ + 𝑉, 𝐼,∗ ).

The sequence voltages were calculated (in example 1.14) to be

𝑉E+ = 15.912∠62.11) ; 𝑉E/ = 277.1∠−1.772) ; 𝑉E, = 19.218∠216.59)

and the sequence currents

𝐼+ = 0 ; 𝐼E/ = 25.82∠−45.55) 𝐴 ; 𝐼E, = 0.8591∠172.81) 𝐴.

Substituting the sequence voltage and current values into equation (1.59) gives

𝑆? = 7.163∠43.78) 𝑘𝑉𝐴

and

3𝑆? = 21.49∠43.78) = 𝑆3 .

44
1.12 Conclusion

In this learning unit, we introduced some fundamental concepts of power system circuit analysis
including single-phase theory and the phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities. Phasor
representation of sinusoidal quantities is a useful tool in power system analysis. The concepts of real
and reactive power, complex power and power factor were introduced, which are important for an
understanding of power flow analysis. Three-phase circuits were introduced covering the Y and D
connections and definition of line and phase currents and voltages. It was also determined that
balanced three-phase circuits can be reduced to a single-phase equivalent circuit for analysis purposes
and the results apply to all three phases of the balanced system. The concept of symmetrical
components, which is a powerful tool for the analysis of unbalanced three-phase networks, was
introduced. The application of this tool was illustrated through some worked examples. The per-unit
system, which is used to simplify the analysis of power networks, was also introduced in this learning
unit.

Problems

P1.1 Given the instantaneous voltage 𝑣 = 141.4 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 30) ) expressed in volts, and current
𝑖 = 11.31 cos (𝜔𝑡 − 30) ) in amps. Find for each (a) the maximum value, (b) the rms value,
and (c) the phasor expression in polar and rectangular form if voltage is the reference.

(Answer: (a) 141.4 V, 11.31 A (b) 100V; 8 A

(c) 𝑉 = 100∠0) = (100 + 𝑗0)𝑉; 𝐼 = ∠30) = (4 + 𝑗6.93) 𝐴 )

P1.2 In a single-phase circuit 𝑉E = 120∠45) V and 𝑉G = 100∠−15) V with respect to a reference

node o. Find Vba in polar form.

(Answer: 𝑉GE = 111.35∠−83.95) )

P1.3 A single-phase ac voltage of 240 V is applied to a series circuit whose impedance is 10∠60)
W. Find R, X, P, Q, and the power factor of the circuit.

(Answer: 5 W, 8.66 W, 2880 W, 4988 VAr)

P1.4 A voltage source 𝐸EF = −120∠210) V and the current through the source is given by 𝐼FE =
10∠60) A. Find the values of P and Q and state whether the source is delivering or receiving
each.

(Answer: 1039 W delivered, -600 VAr delivered)

45
P1.5 A single-phase inductive load draws 10 M W at 0.6 power factor lagging. Draw the power
triangle and determine the reactive power of a capacitor to be connected in parallel with the
load to raise the power factor to 0.85.

(Answer: -7.13 MVAr)

P1.6 A balanced D load consisting of pure resistances of 15 W per phase is in parallel with a
balanced Y load having phase impedances of 8 + j6 W. Identical impedances of 2 + j5 W are
in each of the three lines connecting the combined loads to a 110-V three-phase supply. Find
the current drawn from the supply and line voltage at the combined loads.

(Answer: 8.06 A, 48.72 V line-to-line)

P1.7 A generator (which may be represented by an emf in series with an inductive reactance) is
rated 500 MVA, 22 kV. Its Y connected windings have a reactance of 1.1 per unit. Find the
ohmic value of the reactance of the windings.

(Answer: 1.065 W)

P1.8 The generator of Problem P1.7 is in a circuit for which the bases are specified as 100 MVA,
20 kV. Starting with the per-unit value given in Problem P1.7, find the per unit value of
reactance of the generator windings on the specified base.

(Answer: 0.266 p.u.)

P1.9 Determine the symmetrical components of the three currents 𝐼E = 10∠0) , 𝐼G = 10∠230) ,
and 𝐼H = 10∠130) .

(Answer: 𝐼E/ = 9.899∠0) A; 𝐼E, = 1.053∠0) A; 𝐼E+ = 0.952∠180) A)

P1.10 A Y-connected synchronous generator has sequence reactances X0 = 0.09, X1 = 0.22, and X2
= 0.36, all in per unit. The neutral point of the machine is grounded through a reactance of
0.09 per unit. The machine is running on no load with rated terminal voltage when it suffers
an unbalanced fault. The fault currents out of the machine are 𝐼E = 0, 𝐼G = 3.75∠150) , and
𝐼H = 3.75∠30) , all in per unit with respect to phase a line-line voltage. Determine,

(a) The terminal voltages in each phase of the machine with respect to ground, and
(b) The voltage of the neutral point of the machine with respect to ground.

(Answer: (a) 𝑉E = 1.35∠0) p.u., Vb = Vc = 0 p.u. (b) 0.338 p.u.)

46