LEARNING UNIT 3: POWER TRANSFORMERS

1
Contents

3.0 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Principle of transformer action ........................................................................................................ 4
3.3 Transformer construction ................................................................................................................. 5
3.4 Uses of transformers ........................................................................................................................ 6
3.5 The ideal transformer ....................................................................................................................... 7
3.6 Polarity............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.7 Referring loads................................................................................................................................. 9
3.8 Practical transformer ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.9 Referred equivalent circuit ............................................................................................................. 14
3.10 Determination of equivalent circuit parameters ........................................................................... 15
3.10.1 Open-circuit test .................................................................................................................... 15
3.10.2 Short-circuit test .................................................................................................................... 16
3.11 Transformer saturation and inrush current ................................................................................... 19
3.11.1 Saturation .............................................................................................................................. 19
3.11.2 Inrush current ........................................................................................................................ 19
3.12 Voltage regulation........................................................................................................................ 21
3.13 Efficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 23
3.14 Three-phase transformers............................................................................................................. 24
3.15 Three-phase transformer on a common magnetic structure ......................................................... 24
3.16 The star-delta connection ............................................................................................................. 25
3.17 Single-phase equivalent circuit .................................................................................................... 28
3.18 Open-delta (V-) connection ......................................................................................................... 29
3.19 Three-winding transformers......................................................................................................... 30
3.20 Autotransformer ........................................................................................................................... 33
3.21 Transformers with off-nominal turns ratio ................................................................................... 36
3.22 Transformer operating limits ....................................................................................................... 40
3.22.1 Operating temperature .......................................................................................................... 40
3.22.2 Current limits ........................................................................................................................ 40
3.22.2 Voltage and frequency limits ................................................................................................ 41
3.23 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 41
Problems .............................................................................................................................................. 41

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3.0 Learning outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Predict the operating characteristics of the transformer using its circuit model.

• Analyse the performance of the transformer using the equivalent circuit model.

• Calculate the real and reactive power transferred to the load by the transformer.

• Evaluate the circuit model parameters of the transformer using open-circuit and short-circuit tests.

• Solve power network problems incorporating transformers using the per-unit system.

• Draw the phasor diagrams that demonstrate the phase shift across the transformer windings.

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3.1 Introduction

Generators are usually built with a voltage rating in the range of 17.5-25 kV, with some at slightly
lower or higher values. The generating stations in most cases are located far from the load centres,
meaning that the generated power must be transmitted over long distances. To minimise transmission
losses, the voltage needs to be stepped up to as high as 765 kV for transmission over long distances,
following which the voltage needs to be stepped down to levels that can safely be used for the
distribution of the power to consumers. The transformation of the voltages between generation,
transmission and distribution is performed using the power transformer. That is, power transformers
are the link between the generators, the transmission lines, between lines of different voltage levels,
and between the lines and consumer loads.

In this learning unit, the principle of operation and basic construction features of the power
transformer are discussed. The discussion includes the modelling of the transformer and the use of the
models to evaluate the operating characteristics and performance of the transformer. Worked
examples are also included to demonstrate the great advantage of the per-unit system when solving
power networks that incorporate transformers. Application of transformers as regulating transformers
for voltage control and as phase shifters for controlling the flow of real and reactive power will be
discussed in learning units 4 and 7, respectively.

Additional reading of the material discussed in this learning unit can be found in the prescribed
textbook: Glover, JD, Overbye, TJ & Sarma, MS. 2017. Power System Analysis and Design (6th
edition). Cengage (chapter 3). We also recommend the following book: Weedy, BM, Cory, BJ,
Jenkins, N, Ekanayake, JB & Strbac, G. 2012. Electric Power Systems (5th edition). Wiley (chapter 3).

3.2 Principle of transformer action

The transformer action is based on the coupling of two or more windings by magnetic flux, as
illustrated in figure 3.1(a). An a.c. voltage applied to one of the windings sets up a time-varying
magnetic flux that cuts the other winding, thereby inducing an e.m.f. in the second winding.

Figure 3.1: Transformer action

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If the instantaneous value of the flux is

Φ(𝑡) = Φ!"# 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡, (3.1)

then the induced voltage, according to Faraday’s Law

$%(')
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑁 $'
. (3.2)

Substituting for F(t) in (3.2),

)
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑁Φ!"# 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑁Φ!"# 𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑁Φ!"# 𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜔𝑡 + * 4. (3.3)

Equation (3.3) may then be written as

𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸!"# 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜋/2),

where 𝐸!"# = 𝑁𝜔Φ!"# .

It can be seen that the induced voltage leads the flux that produces it by 90o, as illustrated in figure
3.2(b).

The r.m.s. value of the induced voltage

-!"# /0%!"#
𝐸+!, = = = 4.44𝑁𝑓Φ!"# . (3.4)
√* √*

3.3 Transformer construction

The windings are mounted on a ferromagnetic core so that high magnetic flux linkages are obtained.
This means that only a small current is required to set up the flux of a given density. In addition, large
powers may be transferred from one side of the transformer to the other, hence the reference as power
transformers. Two types of core construction are illustrated in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Transformer constructions: (a) core type and (b) shell type

The core type has a rectangular core with the windings being mounted on each leg. The shell type has
three legs and both windings are mounted on the middle leg. The shell type ensures higher flux
5
linkage between the two windings; that is the shell construction results in lower leakage flux. Leakage
flux is that flux linking only one of the windings, as shown in figure 3.2(a). The flux linking both
windings is referred to as mutual flux.

The non-magnetic core material may be used on transformers designed for low-power electronic
applications. These are referred to as air-core transformers. In the iron-core transformers,
laminations are used to reduce eddy-current and hysteresis losses.

The schematic diagram of the transformer is shown in figure 3.3. The winding to which a voltage is
applied is referred to as the primary winding and the other is called the secondary winding. The two
windings may also be referred to as the high-voltage or low-voltage winding, depending on their
relative voltage levels.

Figure 3.3: Schematic diagram of the transformer

3.4 Uses of transformers

The primary function of a transformer is to change voltage levels for power transmission. Voltage is
generated at a relatively low voltage, for example, 17.5 kV, and then transformed to 400 kV for
transmission. The i2R losses are lower at high voltages. The voltage is then stepped down to various
safe levels for industrial and domestic use.

The transformer may also have the following uses:

(a) To isolate one electrical circuit from another; for example, to isolate low-power control
circuits from-high power circuits.
(b) Impedance matching for maximum power transfer.
(c) As an instrument transformer for the measurement of high voltages and currents. There are
some important differences between power transformers and instrument transformers, which
will not be dealt with in this module.

In this module, we shall focus on the application of the transformer for the transformation of voltage
levels for power transmission.

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3.5 The ideal transformer

The electrical quantities on the primary and secondary sides of a transformer are related by various
equations that will be derived by using what is referred to as an ideal transformer. A transformer is
ideal if

i. the resistance of the windings is negligible;

ii. the core losses are negligible;
iii. the core is of infinite permeability, meaning that zero magneto-motive force (m.m.f.) is
required to set up flux in the core; and
iv. there is no leakage flux; that is, the entire flux is confined to the core and links both windings.

Ampere's law states that the line integral of the magnetic field density about any closed path is equal
to the permeability (µ) times the current enclosed by that path, or in integral form:

∮ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑖, (3.5)

where B is the magnetic flux density and i is the current.

That is, the line integral (circulation) of the magnetic field around some arbitrary closed curve is
proportional to the total current enclosed by that curve, as depicted in figure 3.4.

4444⃗
𝒅𝒍

Figure 3.4: Ampere's law

Now, since 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻, equation (3.5) may be written as

∮ 𝐻 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑖, (3.6)

where H is the magnetic flux intensity.

If the core centre line (with length l) as shown in figure 3.5 is selected as the closed path, and if H is
constant along the path, then equation (3.6) can be written as

𝐻𝑙 = 𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝑁* 𝑖* . (3.7)

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If a load is connected to the secondary terminals as illustrated in figure 3.5, a current i2 flows setting
up an m.m.f. equal to N2i2. A primary current I1 must then flow setting up an opposing m.m.f. N1i1,
equal to N2i2, to satisfy the requirement that zero m.m.f. is required to set up flux in the core. That is

𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝑁* 𝑖* = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 0. (3.8)

i1 i2

Figure 3.5: Transformer action

Equation (3.8) may be written as

7$ /% 1
= = , (3.9)
7% /$ "

where a is the turns ratio. That is, the current is inversely proportional to the turns of the winding.

With reference to the two-winding transformer in figure 3.5, if an alternating voltage v1 is applied to
the primary winding, then

$%
𝑣1 = −𝑒1 = 𝑁1 $'
, (3.10)

where e1 is the e.m.f. induced in the primary winding.

An e.m.f. e2 is induced in the secondary winding as

$%
𝑣* = −𝑒* = 𝑁* $'
, (3.11)

where v2 is the terminal secondary voltage.

Dividing equation (3.10) by (3.11) gives

8$ /$
= = 𝑎. (3.12)
8% /%

Since the transformer is assumed lossless, the input power is equal to the output power or

𝑣1 𝑖1 = 𝑣* 𝑖*. (3.13)

These transformer equations may be written in terms of the r.m.s. values, thus

8
 :$ /$
= = 𝑎 = 𝑁: 1 for step down and 1: 𝑁 for step up transformers. (3.14)
:% /%

;$ /% 1
= = (3.15)
;% /$ "

𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉* 𝐼* (3.16)

3.6 Polarity

It is necessary to know the polarity of the transformer terminals, especially when these must be
connected in parallel. For example, if at any instant terminal 1 in figure 3.6(a) is positive with respect
to terminal 2, we need to know which of the terminals 3 or 4 is positive with respect to the other. If
terminal 3 is positive with respect to 4 when 1 is positive with respect to 2, then terminals 1 and 3 are
of the same polarity. This polarity is indicated by dots on the schematic diagram. The polarity of the
terminals depends on the sense or how the windings are wound on the core (remember the thumb
rule?). When the polarities are known, transformers may be connected in parallel to supply a common
load as shown in figure 3.6(b).

(a) (b)

Figure 3.6: Transformer polarity

3.7 Referring loads

The transformer circuit model includes a magnetic coupling. This magnetic coupling makes it difficult
to solve an electrical circuit containing a transformer. The magnetic coupling must be eliminated from
the circuit, which is accomplished by referring any secondary loads to the primary side or vice-versa.
Figure 3.7(a) shows a transformer with impedance Z2 connected across the secondary terminals. This
impedance is
:%
𝑍* = ;%
.

If primary current I1 flows, then the impedance as seen by the supply is

:$ ":% :
𝑍1 = ;$
=; = 𝑎* ;% = 𝑎* 𝑍* .
% /" %

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 Figure 3.7: Transformer circuit

Therefore,

𝑍1 = 𝑎* 𝑍* = 𝑍*= . (3.17)

That is, Z2 will appear as an impedance 𝑍*= looking into the primary as shown in figure 3.7(b).

Similarly, an impedance Z1 on the primary side may be transferred to the secondary, thus

1
𝑍1= = 𝑍1 . (3.18)
"%

Example 3.1: Ideal, single-phase two-winding transformer

A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 3300/240 V, 50 Hz. A source connected to

the 3300 V winding supplies an impedance load connected to the 240 V winding. The load absorbs 15
kVA at 0.8 p.f. (lagging) when the load voltage is 228 V. Assuming that the transformer is ideal,
calculate the following:
(a) The magnitude of the supply (primary) voltage
(b) The load impedance
(c) The load impedance referred to the 3300 V winding
(d) The real and reactive power supplied to the 3300 V winding

Solution:

In the circuit below, winding 1 denotes the 3300 V winding and winding 2 denotes the 240 V
winding.

(a) Selecting the load voltage V2 as the reference,

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 𝑉* = 228∠0> 𝑉.
The turns ratio is
/ : ??@@
𝑎 = /$ = :$&"'() = *A@
= 13.75.
% %&"'()

The primary supply voltage is

𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉* = 3135∠0> 𝑉.

(b) The complex power S2 absorbed by the load is

𝑆* = 𝑉* 𝐼*∗ = 228 𝐼*∗ = 15000∠𝑐𝑜𝑠 C1 (0.8) = 15000∠36.87> 𝑉𝐴.

Solving the load current I2 is
𝐼* = 65.79∠−36.87> 𝐴.
The load impedance Z2 is
:%
𝑍* = ;%
= 3.466∠36.87> Ω.

(c) The load impedance referred to as the 3300 V winding is

𝑍*= = 𝑎* 𝑍* = 47.658∠36.87> Ω.

(d) Since for the ideal transformer S1 = S2,

𝑆1 = 𝑆* = 15000∠36.87> = (12000 + 𝑗9000)𝑉𝐴.

Thus, the real and reactive powers supplied to the 3300 V winding are

𝑃1 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑆1 = 12000 𝑊 = 12 𝑘𝑊 and
𝑄1 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑆1 = 9000 𝑊 = 9 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑟.

3.8 Practical transformer

The circuit model of the ideal transformer used thus far does not adequately represent the performance
of the practical transformer. This was a result of the assumptions made to derive the transformer
equations. The following are true about the practical transformer:

i. The windings have resistance.

ii. Not all the flux links both windings.
iii. The permeability of the core is finite.
iv. Core losses exist due to the time-varying flux in the core.

An appropriate circuit model must be derived that takes account of these practical factors.

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 Figure 3.8: Practical transformer

In figure 3.8, R1 and R2 represent the resistance of the windings. The effects of leakage flux Fl1 and
Fl2 are accounted for by an inductance, referred to as the leakage inductance. These leakage
inductances are defined as

/$ %*$
𝐿D1 = 7$
= leakage inductance of winding 1; and

/% %*%
𝐿D* = 7%
= leakage inductance of winding 2.

The leakage inductances are represented in the circuit model by leakage reactances, as shown in
figure 3.9.

𝑋D1 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿D1 , and 𝑋D* = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿D*

Figure 3.9: Circuit model of the practical transformer

The permeability of the core is finite; hence an m.m.f. is required to establish flux in the core. That is,

𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝑁* 𝑖* = 𝐻𝑙, from equation (3.7).

Now, since 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 and the core flux Φ = 𝐵𝐴, where A is the cross-sectional area of the core,
equation (3.7) may be written as

E D
𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝑁* 𝑖* = 𝑙 = 2 4 Φ, and (3.19)
F FG

D
𝑅 = FG . (3.20)

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𝑅 is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, which indicate the resistance for the flux to flow in the
core. (The lower the reluctance the easier it is for the magnetic flux to flow).

Equation (3.19) may then be written as

𝑁1 𝑖1 − 𝑁* 𝑖* = 𝑅Φ. (3.21)

Assuming a sinusoidal-steady-state flux with constant frequency w, and representing e(t) and F(t) by
their phasors E and F, equation (3.2) becomes

𝐸 = 𝑁(𝑗𝜔)Φ. (3.22)

Dividing equation (3.21) by N1 and using (3.22),

/ H H - H
𝑖1 − 2/% 4 𝑖* = / Φ = / 2I0/ 4 = −𝑗 20/%4 𝐸, (3.23)
$ $ $ $ $

H
where 20/%4 𝐸 = 𝐼! is referred to as the magnetising current.
$

The magnetising effect can be represented in the transformer model by a shunt inductor with
susceptance

H
𝐵! = 20/%4.
$

More commonly, this magnetising effect is accounted for by a magnetising inductance Lm that draws
the magnetising current. This inductance is represented in the circuit model by a magnetising
reactance Xm = 2pf Lm as shown in figure 3.9.

The core losses are represented by a conductance Gc or resistance Rc that draws a loss current Ic as
shown in figure 3.9.

When the core loss current is included, equation (3.23) becomes

/
𝑖1 − 2/% 4 𝑖* = 𝐼J + 𝐼! = (𝐺J − 𝑗𝐵! )𝐸. (3.24)
$

The alternative circuit model of the transformer that represents magnetising and core losses using Gc
and Bm is shown in figure 3.10.

13
 Figure 3.10: Circuit model of the practical transformer

3.9 Referred equivalent circuit

The secondary side quantities may be referred to as the primary side as shown in figure 3.11.

E1 = a E2 = E2
'

V 2 = aV 2
'

I2 = I2a
'

X2 =a X2
' 2

R2 = a R2
' 2

Figure 3.11: Circuit model with circuit quantities referred to the primary side

If the load is also transferred to the primary side, then the ideal transformer section of the model may
be left out completely, as shown in figure 3.12. This circuit may then be solved based only on
electrical principles.

Figure 3.12: Circuit model with all quantities referred to the primary side
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Now, |𝐸1 | ≈ |𝑉1 |. Therefore, the shunt impedances, Rc and Xm, may be connected directly across the
primary supply terminals, as indicated by the dashed line in figure 3.12. The resulting circuit is
referred to as the approximate equivalent circuit model of the transformer. This circuit is simpler to
analyse than the exact circuit.

3.10 Determination of equivalent circuit parameters

The equivalent circuit parameters may be determined from two tests that are carried out on the
transformer, namely the short-circuit and the open-circuit tests.

3.10.1 Open-circuit test

The rated voltage V1 is applied to the primary terminals of the transformer. The secondary terminals
are open-circuited. The primary input current, I1, and the power input, Po/c, are measured.

Figure 3.13: Open circuit test

It will be seen from figure 3.13 that when the secondary is an open circuit, the input current, I1, is
equal to the exciting current, Io. This exciting current is the phasor sum of magnetising current Im and
the core loss current, Ic. That is,

I 1 = I o and
I o = I c + I m (phasor sum).

It therefore follows that the wattmeter reading gives the core loss (represented by Rc), and Xm does
not absorb any real power. When rated voltage is applied to the winding, the rated flux is established
in the core and hence the maximum core loss is measured.

Thus,

:$%
𝑃>/J = H+
(3.25)

from which Rc may be obtained.

:
Also, 𝐼J = H$ and (3.26)
+

15
 1K
𝐼! = (𝐼1* − 𝐼J* ) * (3.27)

Xm may then be obtained from

:$
;!
= 𝑋! . (3.28)

:
If V2 is also measured, the turns ratio 𝑎 = :$ .
%

This test is carried out on the primary side, but it can also be performed on the secondary side.

3.10.2 Short-circuit test

The secondary is short circuited and the rated current is injected into the primary winding by applying
a small voltage. I1 and the input power, PSC, are measured.

Figure 3.14: Short circuit test

The impedance of the excitation (shunt) branch is much greater than the series impedance

(R + R )+ j(X
1
'
2 1 )
+ X '2 .

Therefore, when a small voltage is applied to the primary, a small excitation current flows that implies
small core losses during the short-circuit test. PSC, therefore, gives the copper loss in the windings.
Thus,

𝐼1 ≈ 𝐼* since Io is negligible.

𝑃,J = 𝐼1* 𝑅LM (3.29)

from which Req (= R1 + R2') may be obtained.

:$
Also, 𝑍LM = ;$
and (3.30)

1K
* * *
𝑋LM = o𝑍LM − 𝑅LM p (3.31)

where 𝑋LM = 𝑋1 + 𝑋*= and 𝑍LM = 𝑅LM + 𝑗𝑋LM .

16
It is, however, difficult to separate R1 and R2'or X1 and X2' by using the short-circuit test. In an ideal
transformer, though,

𝑅1 = 𝑎* 𝑅* = 𝑅*= and (3.32)

𝑋1 = 𝑎* 𝑋* = 𝑋*= . (3.33)

The short-circuit test may also be performed on the secondary side having short circuited the primary.

Example 3.2: Transformer short-circuit and open-circuit tests

A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 3300/240 volts, 50 Hz. During a short-
circuit test, where rated current at rated frequency is applied to the 3300-volt winding (denoted
winding 1), with the 240-volt winding (winding 2) shorted, the following readings are obtained: V1 =
35 volts, P1 = 30 W. During an open-circuit test, where rated voltage is applied to winding 2, with
winding 1 open, the following readings are obtained: I2 = 24 A, P2 = 3 kW.

(a) From the short-circuit test, determine the equivalent series impedance Zeq1 = Req1 + jXeq1
referred to winding 1. Neglect the shunt admittance.

(b) From the open-circuit test, determine the shunt admittance Ym = Gc - jBm referred to winding
1. Neglect the series impedance.

Solution:

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.15: (a) Short-circuit test (neglecting shunt admittance), (b) Open-circuit test
(neglecting series impedance)

(a) The equivalent circuit for the short-circuit test is shown in figure 3.15(a), where the shunt
admittance branch is neglected.

17
 Rated current for winding 1 is
N&"'() *@@@@
𝐼1+"'L$ = = = 6.06 𝐴.
:$&"'() ??@@

Req1; Zeq1 and Xeq1 are then determined as follows:

From
𝑃,J = 𝐼1* 𝑅LM1 , obtain Req1 = 0.817 W
:$
𝑍LM1 = ;$
= 5.78 Ω and
1K
* * *
𝑋LM1 = o𝑍LM1 − 𝑅LM1 p = 5.722 Ω
𝑍LM1 = 𝑅LM1 + 𝑗𝑋LM1 = 0.817 + 𝑗5.722 = 5.78∠81.87> Ω

(b) The equivalent circuit for the open-circuit test is shown in figure 3.15(b), where the series
impedance is neglected.

Turns ratio a = V1/V2 = 13.75

𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉* = 3300 𝑉
1
𝐼1 = " 𝐼* = 1.745 𝐴

Gc; Ym, and Bm are then determined as follows:

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚
:$%
𝑃>/J = H+
, obtain Rc = 3.63 kW and Gc = 0.000275 S
:
𝐼J = H$ = 0.909 𝐴 , and
+

1K
𝐼! = (𝐼1* − 𝐼J* ) * = 1.490 𝐴

Xm may then be obtained from

:$
𝑋! = = 2.215 𝑘Ω and Bm = 0.000452 S
;!

𝑌! = 𝐺J − 𝑗𝐵! = (0.000275 − j0.000452)𝑆 = 0.00529∠−58.68> S

Alternative solution:

𝑃>/J = 𝐺J 𝑉1* , from which Gc = 0.000275 S

;$
|𝑌! | = = 0.000529 𝑆 and
:$
1K
𝐵! = (𝑌!* − 𝐺J* ) * = 0.000452 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑌! = 𝐺J − 𝑗𝐵! = (0.000275 − j0.000452)𝑆 = 0.00529∠−58.68> S

18
3.11 Transformer saturation and inrush current

Several transformer phenomena are not represented by the equivalent circuit of figure 3.9:

i. Saturation
ii. Inrush current

3.11.1 Saturation

When deriving the equivalent circuit of the transformers, it was assumed that the permeability of the
core is constant. However, the relationship between magnetic flux B and magnetising force H for
ferromagnetic materials used for transformer cores is nonlinear and multivalued. Figure 3.16 shows a
set of typical B–H curves. As shown, each curve is multivalued, which is caused by hysteresis. The
dashed line drawn through the curves in figure 3.16 is an approximation normally used for analysis
purposes. As H increases, the core becomes saturated; that is, the curves flatten out as B for large H. If
the magnitude of the voltage applied to a transformer is too large, the core will saturate and a high
magnetising current will flow. The core of the transformer must, therefore, be designed such that, in
steady state, flux density corresponding to the knee-point occurs at the peak of the supply voltage.
This ensures a low value of magnetising current under normal operating conditions. The knee point is
defined as the voltage at which a 10% increase in applied voltage increases the magnetizing current
by 50%.

Figure 3.16: B-H curves

3.11.2 Inrush current

Under steady-state conditions, the magnetising flux in a transformer lags the induced voltage by 90o
as shown in figure 3.17(a). When the transformer is de-energised, a residual flux might remain. When
the transformer is next energised assuming zero residual flux, the resulting flux must start from zero
19
rather than its negative maximum as shown in figure 3.17(b-c). The flux will therefore rise to twice
the normal peak value during the first half of the voltage wave. This level of flux drives the
transformer into saturation and requires a very large exciting current, as shown in figure 3.17(c). If the
transformer is energised with a residual flux, the saturation will even be greater, drawing magnetising
currents several times the rated current of the transformer.

Figure 3.17: (a) Steady-state voltage and flux waveforms, (b) Typical magnetising characteristic,
(c) Magnetising inrush current spike

The inrush current is non-sinusoidal and highly distorted as illustrated in figure 3.18. The waveform
can be symmetrical or asymmetrical about the horizontal axis depending on the energising conditions.
Fourier analysis shows that the typical inrush current will contain both even and odd harmonics.

Figure 3.18: Magnetising inrush current waveform

Example 3.3: Per-unit impedance: single-phase transformer

A single-phase two-winding transformer is rated 20 kVA, 3300/240 volts, 50 Hz. The equivalent
leakage impedance of the transformer referred to the 240-volt winding, denoted winding 2, is 𝑍LM* =
0.0525∠78.13> Ω. Use the transformer ratings as base values to determine the per-unit leakage
impedance of part (a) and part (b).

Solution:

As discussed in learning unit 1, an advantage of the per-unit system is that by properly specifying
base quantities, the transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified. The ideal transformer winding

20
can be eliminated, such that voltages, currents and external impedances and admittances expressed in
per-unit do not change when they are referred from one side of a transformer to the other. Before
proceeding with the solution to this problem, review the discussion of the per-unit system given in
section 1.8 of learning unit 1 and revise example 1.7 of learning unit 1.

(a) The values of Sbase, Vbase1 and Vbase2 are from the transformer ratings:

Sbase = 20 kVA; Vbase1 = 3300 volts; Vbase2 = 240 volts

The base impedance on the 240-volt side of the transformer is

%
:,"-(%
𝑍E",L* = = 2.88 Ω.
N,"-(

The per-unit leakage impedance referred to winding 2 is

Q(.%
𝑍LM*O.P. = = 0.0182∠78.13> 𝑝. 𝑢.
Q,"-(%

(b) Turns ratio a = V1/V2 = 13.75.

If Zeq2 is referred to winding 1, then

𝑍LM1 = 𝑎* 𝑍LM* = 9.926∠78.13> Ω.

The base impedance on the 3300-volt side of the transformer is

%
:,"-($
𝑍E",L1 = N,"-(
= 544.50 Ω.

Then, the per-unit leakage impedance referred to winding 1 is

Q(.$
𝑍LM1O.P. = Q = 0.0182∠78.13> 𝑝. 𝑢.
,"-($

Thus, the per-unit leakage impedance remains unchanged when referred from winding 2 to winding 1.

3.12 Voltage regulation

The output voltage of the transformer drops as the load is increased. This is a result of the increased
volt drop, IZeq, across the series impedance Zeq illustrated in figure 3.19.

Figure 3.19: Transformer voltage drop

The shunt circuit is neglected as it does not contribute to the volt drop. Voltage regulation is defined
as
21
 !!(#$%&$'() "!!(*+&&%&$'()
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑉𝑅 = !!(*+&&%&$'()
. (3.34)

Using the equivalent circuit referred to the primary,

! , !(-.) "! , !(/.)

𝑉𝑅 = ! , !(/.)
. (3.35)

= = =
Now, 𝑉*(RS) = 𝑉*(H"'L$) and 𝑉*(/S) = 𝑉1 .

!0 "! , !(1'23()
Therefore, 𝑉𝑅 = ! , !(1'23()
. (3.36)

The volt drop, IZeq, and hence the voltage regulation, depends on the following two factors:

i. Zeq of transformer
ii. The power factor of the load

Effect of Zeq:

The primary voltage 𝑉1 = 𝑉*= + 𝐼*= 𝑍LM = 𝑉*= + 𝐼*= 𝑅LM +𝑗𝐼*= 𝑋LM. (3.37)

The effect of Zeq is apparent from equation (3.37).

Effect of power factor:

The phasor diagram of the transformer on load is shown in figure 3.20. In the diagram,

• f is the angle of the load impedance (i.e., load power factor angle) assumed lagging, initially,
and
• fZeq is the angle of the transformer equivalent impedance Zeq. That is,
𝑋LM
𝜙QLM = 𝑡𝑎𝑛C1 w x𝑅 y. (3.38)
LM

Figure 3.20: Effect of power factor on voltage regulation

22
As the load power factor is varied, the locus of V1 follows a circle of radius z𝐼*= 𝑍LM z. It can be seen
that V1 is a maximum when the phasor 𝐼*= 𝑍LM is in phase with 𝑉*= . That is, when

fZeq - f = 0
or fZeq = f.

The voltage regulation is a maximum when

i. the power factor angle of the load is equal to the transformer impedance angle, and
ii. the load power factor is lagging.

3.13 Efficiency

The efficiency of the transformer

T/0'10'1/2(& T/0'
𝜂= = , (3.39)
T3410'1/2(& T/0' UT+ UT+0

where Pc = core loss. Pc is a function of peak flux in the core and is assumed constant at its
maximum value since the transformer is normally operated at its rated voltage. Pc may be obtained
from no-load tests.

Pcu = copper loss = 𝐼1* 𝑅1 + 𝐼** 𝑅* = 𝐼1* 𝑅LM1V 𝐼** 𝑅LM* , where subscript 1 or 2 refers to quantities referred
to primary or secondary. Pcu at full load may be obtained from short-circuit tests.

Pout = V2I2cosf

Therefore,

:% ;% J>,W
𝜂= . (3.40)
:% ;% J>,WUT+ ;%% UH(.%

V2 is usually fixed. Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer depends on the load current, I2, and
the power factor, f.

It is of interest to find the conditions under which the transformer operates at maximum efficiency.
The effect of the two variables, I2 and f will be considered partially.

Effect of load current:

$X
Maximum efficiency occurs when $;%
= 0 for fixed V2 and f. Applying this condition to the above

equation yields,

23
 𝑃J = 𝐼** 𝑅LM* (3.41)

for maximum efficiency. (The actual derivation is left to the reader).

That is, for maximum efficiency, the core loss = copper loss.

Effect of power factor:

$X
For constants V2 and I2, maximum efficiency occurs when = 0. Applying this condition as above
$W

yields

f = 0 (i.e., cos f = 1)

for maximum efficiency.

The two conditions for maximum efficiency, therefore, are

i. the load power factor must be unity; and

ii. the load current must be such that the copper losses equal the core losses.

The variation of efficiency with load and power factor is illustrated in figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21: Variation of transformer efficiency with load and power factor

3.14 Three-phase transformers

Three-phase transformers, for three-phase application, are constructed from the following:

i. Connecting three single-phase transformers.

ii. Mounting the three-phase windings on a common magnetic structure.

3.15 Three-phase transformer on a common magnetic structure

The structure consists of a three-legged ferromagnetic core that is laminated to reduce eddy-current
and hysteresis losses. The primary and secondary windings of a phase are placed on the same leg, as

24
shown in figure 3.22. These two windings will carry the same flux and hence the two voltages will be
in phase.

Figure 3.22: Three-phase transformer on a common magnetic structure

The windings of the transformer may be brought out to six terminals on each side: primary or
secondary. This would imply six conductors to supply a three-phase load. However, the primary and
secondary windings are connected in either star (Y) or delta (D) configurations, as discussed in
learning unit 1.

The primary windings may be connected in star and the secondary windings in delta, resulting in the
Y/D connection. Three other transformer connections are possible, namely

D/Y, D/D or Y/Y.

The choice of connection that must be used in any application depends on various factors, including:

• The voltage and current ratings of the transformer.

• The phase shift required between the primary and secondary line voltages: A phase shift
influences power flow in a power network. This is discussed further in learning unit 4.

• System protection: Faults occur on the power network and protective devices need to be
installed. These detect and isolate faulted parts of the system to protect equipment and
personnel. The level of the fault currents and the type of protective devices that must be used
are, to some extent, influenced by the transformer connections. This topic is outside the scope
of this module and is not discussed any further.

3.16 The star-delta connection

The Y/D connection will be used to illustrate the implications of connecting the transformer windings
in any one of the four possible configurations.

25
 Figure 3.23: (a) Schematic diagram; (b) Phasor diagram

Figure 3.23(a) shows the transformer connection for the Y/D configuration. Figure 3.23(b) shows the
phasor diagrams for the primary and secondary sides, respectively. The phasor diagrams are based on
the fact that the primary and secondary voltages of one phase are aligned; for example, VAN and Va (=
Vab) are in phase.

The voltage transformation (line-line) will depend on the following

i. The turns ratio between the phases

ii. The type of interconnection between the phase windings; i.e., star or delta

It is seen from figure 3.23(b) that a phase shift has been introduced between the primary and
secondary line voltages, for example, VAB leads Vab by 30o.

Therefore, the line voltage magnitudes and the phase shifts depend on the type of connection.

When a bank of three single-phase transformers is used to build a three-phase transformer, these are
also connected in star or delta, as explained above.

Example 3.4: Voltage calculations: balanced Y–Y and D–Y transformers

Three single-phase two-winding transformers, each rated 400 MVA, 13.8/ 230.94 kV, with leakage
reactance Xeq = 0.10 per unit, are connected to form a three-phase bank. Winding resistances and
exciting currents are neglected. The high-voltage windings are connected in Y. A three-phase load
operating under balanced positive-sequence conditions on the high-voltage side absorbs 1000 MVA at
26
0.90 p.f. (lagging), with 𝑉G/ = 220∠0> kV. Determine the voltage Van at the low-voltage bus if the
low-voltage windings are connected

(a) in Y, and
(b) in D.

Solution:

The per-unit network is shown in figure 3.24. Using the transformer bank three-phase and line-voltage
ratings as base quantities,

Sbase3f = 1200 MVA, VbaseHV = 400 kV, and IbaseHV = 1.732 kA.

The per-unit load voltage and load current are then

𝑉G/ = 1.0∠0> p.u.

N5/")
𝐼G = ∠−𝑐𝑜𝑠 C1 (0.9) = 1.443∠−25.84> kA
√?×:67

In the per unit,

1.AA?
𝐼G = ∠−25.84> = 0.833∠−25.84> p.u.
Z8"-(9:

(a) For the Y–Y transformer, figure 3.24(a),

𝐼" = 𝐼G = 0.833∠−25.84> p.u.

𝑉"[ = 𝑉G/ + 𝑗(𝑋LM )𝐼" = 1.039∠4.14> p.u.

Since VLNbase = 13.8 kV for the low-voltage Y windings,

Van = 1.039 x VLNbase = 14.34∠4.14> kV.

(b) For the D–Y transformer, figure 3.24(b), the secondary (Y) voltage phasors lag the primary
voltage phasors by 30o. Therefore,

/
𝑉G/ = 𝑒 CI?@ 𝑉G/ = 1.0∠−30> p.u.

/
𝐼" = 𝑒 CI?@ 𝐼G = 0.833∠(−25.84> − 30> ) = 0.833∠−55.84> p.u.

𝑉"[ = 𝑉G/ + 𝑗(𝑋LM )𝐼" = 1.039∠−25.86> p.u.

Further, since VLNbase = 13.8⁄√3 kV for the low-voltage D windings,

27
 Van = 1.039 x VLNbase = 8.28∠−25.86> kV

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.24: (a) Y-connected low voltage winding; (b) D-connected low voltage
winding

3.17 Single-phase equivalent circuit

Solving a network problem involving a three-phase transformer supplying a balanced three-phase load
will produce identical results for all three phases. It is, therefore, sufficient to solve just one of the
phases using the single-phase equivalent circuit of the three-phase transformer. This circuit is based
on the equivalent Y-connected transformer as phase-to-neutral quantities are used.

Where the three-phase transformer is D-connected, a D-to-Y transformation needs to be performed to

obtain the phase quantities.

The transformation of a Y/D-connected transformer to a Y/Y transformer would be used to illustrate

the Y-D transformation. The transformation of the D-connected load to Y-connected load was
discussed in learning unit 1.

For the two circuits in figure 3.25 to be equivalent, they must have the same line voltage o𝑉 ⁄√3 𝑎p
and the same line current o√3𝑎𝐼p. The phase voltages and the phase impedances are then as shown in
figure 3.25(b), which are used in the equivalent single-phase circuit shown in figure 3.26. The
equivalent transformer has a transformation ratio

: ⁄√?
𝑎= = :⁄?" = √3𝑎, (3.42)

where a is the original ratio.

28
 Figure 3.25: (a) Y-D connected transformer; (b) Equivalent Y-Y transformer

Figure 3.26: The equivalent transformer

3.18 Open-delta (V-) connection

When one phase of a D/D-connected transformer is removed or damaged, the transformer can still
transfer three-phase power with the remaining two phases, though with a reduced capacity. This is
shown by the following derivation:

Winding ac of the transformer in figure 3.27(a) is removed and the remaining windings ab and bc,
forming a V-connection, deliver the power. Figure 3.27(b) shows the resulting phasor diagram for the
transformer.

From the phasor diagram, the power delivered by ab,

𝑃"] = 𝑉"] 𝐼" 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30> + 𝜙) (3.43)

and that delivered by bc,

𝑃]J = 𝑉J] 𝐼J 𝑐𝑜𝑠(30> − 𝜙). (3.44)

For a resistive load, the power delivered by the V-connection

29
 𝑃: = 𝑃"] + 𝑃]J = 2𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠(30> ) (3.45)

where V and I are the transformer-rated values.

The normal power delivered with the full D-connection

𝑃^ = 3𝑉𝐼. (3.46)

Therefore,

T: *J>,(?@/ )
= = 0.58. (3.47)
T; ?

That is, the open-delta (V-) connection can deliver 58% of the rated three-phase power without
overloading the transformer.

Figure 3.27: (a) Schematic diagram; (b) Phasor diagram

3.19 Three-winding transformers

A third or tertiary winding may be added to the transformer giving a three-winding transformer, as
illustrated in figure 3.28(a). The third winding may be needed -for the following reasons:

i. Enable the connection of compensating equipment, such as inductors and capacitors, at low
voltage, for example, 11 kV.
ii. Provide a circulating path for third harmonics so that these currents do not appear outside the
transformer.

30
 (a) (b)

Figure 3.28: Three winding transformer, (a) basic core and winding configuration, and (b)
equivalent circuit model

The equivalent circuit model of the three-winding transformer circuit is shown in figure 3.28(b). The
series impedances of the equivalent circuit Z1, Z2, Z3 are obtained by open- and short-circuit tests
through measurement of:

Z12 = impedance of the primary when the secondary is short-circuited and the tertiary open;
and
Z13 and Z23 defined and measured in a similar manner.

The impedances are referred to the same base.

From figure 3.28(b),

Z12 = Z1 + Z2 (3.48)
Z13 = Z1 + Z3 (3.49)
Z23 = Z2 + Z3 (3.50)

From which,

Z1 = ½ (Z12 + Z13 – Z23) (3.51)

Z2 = ½ (Z12 + Z23 – Z13) (3.52)
Z3 = ½ (Z13 + Z23 – Z12) (3.53)

Example 3.5: Three-winding single-phase transformer: per-unit impedances

The ratings of a single-phase three-winding transformer are

Winding 1: 300 MVA; 11 kV

Winding 2: 300 MVA; 230.94 kV
Winding 3: 50 MVA; 19.05 kV

The leakage reactances from short-circuit tests are

31
 X12 = 0.10 per unit on a 300-MVA; 11 kV base
X13 = 0.16 per unit on a 50-MVA; 11 kV base
X23 = 0.14 per unit on a 50-MVA; 230.94 kV base

Winding resistances and exciting currents are neglected. Calculate the impedances of the per-unit
equivalent circuit by using a base of 300 MVA and 11 kV for terminal 1.

Solution:

Sbase = 300 MVA is the same for all three terminals. Also, the specified voltage base for terminal 1 is
Vbase1 = 11 kV. The base voltages for terminals 2 and 3 are then Vbase2 = 230.94 kV and Vbase3 = 19.05
kV, which are the rated voltages of these windings. From the data given, X12 = 0.10 per unit was
measured from terminal 1 by using the same base values as those specified for the circuit. However,
X13 = 0.16 and X23 = 0.14 per unit on a 50-MVA base are first converted to the 300-MVA circuit base.

Using the formula,

]",L :G
𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍[L_ = 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍`78L[ w]",L :G 4(2 y
<3=(4

X13 = 0.96 p.u.

X23 = 0.84 p.u.

Then, from equations (3.51) – (3.53),

X1 = ½ (X12 + X13 – X23) = 0.11 p.u.

X2 = ½ (X12 + X23 – X13) = - 0.01 p.u.
X3 = ½ (X13 + X23 – X12) = 0.85 p.u.

Example 3.6: Three-winding three-phase transformer: balanced operation

Three transformers, each identical to that described in example 3.5, are connected as a three-phase
bank to feed power from a 900-MVA, 11-kV generator to a 400-kV transmission line and a 33-kV
distribution line. The transformer windings are connected as follows:

• 11-kV windings (X): D, to the generator

• 230.94-kV windings (H): solidly grounded Y, to 400-kV line
• 19.05-kV windings (M): grounded Y through Zn = j0:10 W, to 33-kV line

The positive-sequence voltages and currents of the high- and medium-voltage Y windings lead the
corresponding quantities of the low-voltage D winding by 30o. Draw the per-unit network by using a

32
three-phase base of 900 MVA and 11 kV for terminal X. Assume balanced positive-sequence
operation.

Solution:

The per-unit network is shown in figure 3.29.

VbaseX = 11 kV, which is the rated line-to-line voltage of terminal X.

Since the M and H windings are Y-connected,

VbaseM =√3(19.05) = 33 kV and

VbaseH = 400 kV,

which are the rated line-to-line voltages of the M and H windings.

Also, a phase-shifting transformer is included in the network to affect the 30o phase shift.

The neutral impedance is not included in the network since there is no neutral current under balanced
operation.

Figure 3.29: Per-unit network for example 3.6

3.20 Autotransformer

The autotransformer consists of a single winding mounted on the core. When one voltage (primary) is
applied to the full winding, the other (secondary) is taken from a tap on the winding, as shown in
figure 3.30.

:$ /$
= =𝑎 (3.54)
:% /%

where N1 and N2 are the respective number of turns on the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer.

33
 Figure 3.30: Autotransformer action

The ampere-turns provided by the upper half of the winding should equal the ampere-turns due to the
lower half.

That is

(𝑁1 − 𝑁* )𝐼1 = 𝑁* (𝐼* − 𝐼1 ) (3.55)

1 /$
or 21 − 4 𝑁1 𝐼1 = (𝐼* − 𝐼1 ) (3.56)
" "

;$ 1
and ;%
= ". (3.57)

That is, the voltage and current relationships are the same as those applicable to the two-winding
transformer.

The autotransformer has the following advantages over a two-winding transformer of the same rating:

i. Lower losses due to the smaller amount of copper conductor.

ii. Lower exciting current due to the smaller size of a magnetic core.
iii. Lower leakage reactances. The flux is linked with only one winding.
iv. Increased kVA rating compared to a two-winding transformer utilising windings of the same
rating.
v. A variable output voltage is possible.

The major disadvantage of the autotransformer, however, is the direct electrical connection between
the primary and secondary.

Example 3.7: Autotransformer: single-phase

The single-phase two-winding 20 kVA, 3300/1000 V transformer with leakage impedance of

0.0182∠78.13> per unit is connected as an autotransformer, where the primary winding is the 1000 V
winding. For this autotransformer, determine,

34
(a) The voltage ratings EX and EH of the low- and high-voltage terminals.
(b) The kVA rating.
(c) The per-unit leakage impedance.

Solution:

The autotransformer connection is shown in figure 3.31:

Figure 3.31: (a) two-winding transformer, and (b) Autotransformer

(a) Since the 1000-volt winding is connected to the low-voltage terminal, EX = 1000 volts.

When EX = E1 = 1000 volts is applied to the low-voltage terminal, V2 = 3300 volts is induced
across the secondary winding, neglecting the voltage drop across the leakage impedance.
Therefore, EH = E1 + E2 = 1000 + 3300 = 4300 V.

(b) As a normal two-winding transformer rated at 20 kVA, the rated current of the 3300 V
winding is

I2 = IH = 20,000/3300 = 6.06 A.

As an autotransformer, the 3300 V winding can carry the same current.

Therefore, the kVA rating SH = EHIH = 26.06 kVA.

Note also that when IH = I2 = 6.06 A, a current I1 = 3300/1000(6.06) = 20.0 A is induced in

the 1000 V winding.

Therefore, IX = I1 + I2 = 26.06 A and

SX = EXlX = (1000)(26.06) = 26.06 kVA,

which is the same rating as calculated for the high-voltage terminal.

c) The leakage impedance is 0.0182∠78.13> per unit as a normal, two-winding transformer.

35
 As an autotransformer, the leakage impedance in ohms is the same since the core and
windings are the same; however, the base impedances are different.

For the HV terminal

??@@%
𝑍a]",L(>D$) = *@×1@> = 544.5 W as a normal transformer

A?@@%
𝑍a]",L([L_) = *@×1@> = 924.5 W as an autotransformer

Therefore,

Q98"-((/*))
𝑍O.P.([L_) = 𝑍O.P.(>D$) wQ y = 0.0107∠78.13> p.u.
98"-((4(2)

It can be seen from this example that the autotransformer has a rating of 26.06 kVA, 1000/4300 V
versus 20 kVA, 1000/3300 V as a normal transformer. The autotransformer has both a larger kVA
rating and a larger voltage ratio for the same cost. Also, the per-unit leakage impedance of the
autotransformer is smaller. However, the increased high-voltage rating, as well as the electrical
connection of the windings, may require more insulation for both windings.

3.21 Transformers with off-nominal turns ratio

The definitions that make per-unit calculations possible require that a common base-MVA be defined
for the whole system and that different base-voltages be defined for every different voltage section
between transformers. The base voltages are related to the nominal voltage ratios across transformers.
When single transformers or transformers with identical voltage ratios are installed, there is no
problem with this aspect of the definition. However, if transformers are installed in parallel with
different open-circuit voltage ratios or if transformers with adjustable voltage ratios are installed, this
causes a problem because it is not possible to redefine all the base voltages in the system every time a
tap setting is changed.

To overcome the problem, a fictitious ideal transformer is inserted in tandem with the given
transformer to adapt the rated (off-nominal) value to the ratio of the base voltages as shown in figure
3.32.

Figure 3.32: Representing an off-nominal transformer as two transformers in tandem

36
The ratio of the rated voltages of the transformers is defined as

V1rated
at = (3.58)
V2rated

and the ratio of the base voltages as

Vbase 1
b= . (3.59)
Vbase 2

Then the ratio of the two transformers in tandem can be expressed as

at
at = b æ ö = b c, (3.60)
èbø

where c is the voltage ratio of the fictitious transformer that must be installed in tandem with the
transformer with nominal voltage ratio b that corresponds to the defined base values and represents a
transformer for which the standard per-unit models apply, with respect to leakage impedance as well
as core excitation. It is assumed that the fictitious transformer is ideal and does not have leakage
impedance or core excitation current.

When the right-hand side transformer of figure 3.32 is represented as a per-unit model, only the off-
nominal voltage ratio c remains in the model as shown in figure 3.33. Although this is a perfectly
valid model, it retains an ideal transformer and implies a voltage ratio. It is possible to replace the
ideal transformer in this model with passive components, provided that c is not complex.

To overcome the difficulty associated with the ideal transformer in a power-flow analysis, it is
possible to replace the circuit in figure 3.33 with an equivalent circuit containing only passive
components. It can be replaced by an equivalent p two-port network as shown in figure 3.34 in which
1
Yeq = .
Zeq

Figure 3.33: Per-unit equivalent circuit of the off-nominal voltage-ratio transformer

37
 Figure 3.34: p-circuit per-unit network of the off-nominal voltage-ratio transformer

Writing nodal equations for figure 3.34 yields

é I1 ù é Y11 Y12 ù é V1 ù
ê ú=ê úê ú. (3.61)
ë -I2 û ë Y21 Y22 û ë V2 û

The network in figure 3.34 is a two-port and it can be shown that the following relationships hold for
the short-circuit parameters:

I1 ï
Y11 = = Yeq (3.62)
V1ïV2 = 0

-I2ï
Y22 = = |c|2 Yeq (3.63)
V2 ïV1 = 0

I1 ï
Y12 = = - c Yeq (3.64)
V2ïV1 = 0

#𝑰#
𝒀!" = #
𝑽$ & '(
= −𝑐 ∗ 𝑌*+ (3.65)
#

In the above discussions, a simple equivalent impedance Zeq was assumed for the leakage impedance
of the transformer. The per-unit two-port network of figure 3.34 now replaces this transformer in the
network. In the case of two parallel transformers with dissimilar voltage ratios, the chosen base values
of the primary and secondary side voltages would preferably be chosen to be equal to the voltage ratio
of one of them. Then it will only be necessary to do a two-port substitution for the other one. If the
voltage ratios across the two transformers are different from that of either one, a two-port substitution
will be necessary for both.

Example 3.8: Tap-changing three-phase transformer: per-unit positive-sequence network

A three-phase generator step-up transformer is rated 1000 MVA, D/Y-connected, 13.8/345 kV, with
Zeq = j0.10 per unit. The transformer high-voltage winding has ±10% taps. The system base quantities
are

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 Sbase3f = 500 MVA
VbaseLV = 13.8kV
VbaseHV = 345 kV

Determine the per-unit equivalent circuit for the following tap settings:

(a) Rated tap

(b) -10% tap (providing a 10% voltage decrease for the high-voltage winding)

Assume a balanced positive-sequence operation. Neglect transformer winding resistance, exciting

current and phase shift.

Solution:

(a) Using equations (3.52) and (3.53) with the low-voltage winding denoted winding 1,
1?.b
𝑎' = ?Ac
= 0.04
:8"-(5: 1?.b
𝑏= = = 𝑎'
:8"-(9: ?Ac

c=1
]",L :G4(2
𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍[L_ = 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑍`78L[ w y
]",L :G<3=(4

Zp.u.new = j0.05 p.u.

The per-unit equivalent circuit, not including winding resistance, exciting current and phase
shift is:

(b) Using equations (3.52) and (3.53),

1?.b
𝑎' = = 0.04444
?Ac(@.d)
: 1?.b
𝑏 = : 8"-(5: = ?Ac
= 0.04
8"-(9:
"'
𝑐= = 1.1111
]

From figure 3.32,

1
𝑐𝑌LM = 1.1111 2I@.@c4 = 𝑗22.22 𝑝. 𝑢.

from which Yeq = -j20.

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 (1 − 𝑐)𝑌LM = 𝑗2.222 𝑝. 𝑢.
(|𝑐|* − 𝑐)𝑌LM = −𝑗2.469 𝑝. 𝑢.

The per-unit positive-sequence network is

3.22 Transformer operating limits

3.22.1 Operating temperature

The thermal rating of a transformer is determined by the following three factors:

• The amount of heat produced in the windings and connections

• The amount of heat produced in the iron core
• How effectively the heat can be removed from the transformer when the thermal rating of the
transformer is reached. At this point, the heat being produced must equal the heat being removed
or dissipated – thermal equilibrium.
• The colour of outside conservation tanks

These losses may be classified as copper or I2R losses and core or iron losses.

However, it should be noted that the efficiency of modern power transformers is high, especially for
large transformers, at full load.

3.22.2 Current limits

Current has the following two direct effects on the transformer:

• It produces heat in the windings of the transformer.

• It produces a voltage drop across the output winding proportional to the load current. As the
transformer is loaded, the secondary voltage will fall due to the effects of winding resistance and
reactance.

For example, a transformer having an impedance of 5% will have a secondary voltage drop of 5%
between no load and full load. At half load, the voltage drop will be half, i.e., 2.5%.

In all circumstances, the loading of the transformer must be kept below the VA rating.

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3.22.2 Voltage and frequency limits

To minimise the amount of iron in the core, the modern transformer is designed to operate near the
knee-point. Any increase in the power frequency voltage, in addition to the increased stress on
insulation, will lead to an increase in working flux causing an increase in iron loss and magnetising
current, a phenomenon referred to as over-fluxing. (A drop in frequency may also cause over-fluxing;
in principle, the V/f ratio should be maintained below a certain level to avoid over-fluxing). This may
result in the flux being diverted from the laminated core into structural steel parts. Core bolts are
subjected to large fluxes leading to a temperature rise in the bolts destroying their insulation.

The operating voltage and frequency of the transformer must, therefore, be kept within rated values.
When any transformer is operating at its rated voltage and frequency, it will be operating with its
rated value of flux in the core. So, if the voltage rises while the frequency remains constant, or the
frequency falls while the voltage remains constant, the core flux will increase.

3.23 Conclusion

In this learning unit, we discussed the basic operating principle and construction features of the
transformer. The concept of an ideal transformer was introduced and used to build the relationships
between the electrical quantities on the primary and secondary sides of a transformer. Various
components were then added to the circuit model of the ideal transformer to adequately represent the
performance of a practical transformer. An approximate equivalent circuit model that simplifies
calculations was introduced. It was also noted that the use of the per-unit system greatly simplifies
transformer calculations by eliminating the air-gap, or ideal transformer, from the circuit model,
thereby removing the need to transfer quantities from one side of the transformer to the other. The
performance of the transformer in terms of voltage regulation and efficiency was also discussed.
Three-phase transformer connections and the corresponding phasor diagrams were discussed, as well
as three winding transformers and the autotransformer.

Problems

P3.1 A single-phase transformer rated 7.2 kVA, 1.2 kV/120 V has a primary winding of 800 turns.
Determine,

(a) The turns ratio and the number of turns in the secondary winding, and
(b) The current carried by the two windings when the transformer delivers its rated kVA at
rated voltages.

(Answers: (a) 10; 80 (b) 6 A; 60 A)

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P3.2 A single-phase transformer of Problem P3.1 is delivering 6 kVA at its rated voltages and 0.8
p.f. (lagging).

(a) Determine the impedance Z2 connected across its secondary terminals.

(b) What is the value of this impedance referred to the primary side (𝑍*= ).
(c) Using the value of 𝑍*= obtained in part (b) above, determine the magnitude of the primary
current and the kVA supplied by the source.

(Answers: (a) 2.4∠36.9> ; (b) 240∠36.9> ; (c) 5 A; 6 kVA

P3.3 A single-phase transformer rated 1.2 kV/120 V, 7.2 kVA has the following winding
parameters: r1 = 0.8 W, x1 = 1.2 W, r2 = 0.01 W and x2 = 0.01 W. Determine,

(a) The combined winding resistance and leakage reactance referred to the primary side.
(b) The values of the combined parameters referred to the secondary side,
(c) The voltage regulation of the transformer when it is delivering 7.5 kVA to a load at 120 V
and 0.8 p.f. (lagging).

(Answers: R1 = 1.8 W; X1 = 2.2 W (b) R2 = 0.018 W; X2 = 0.022 W (c) 1.38 %

P3.4 A single-phase transformer rated 1.2 kV/120 V, 7.2 kVA yields the following test results:

Open-circuit test (primary open)

Voltage, V2 = 120 V; current, I2 = 1.2 A; power, P2 = 40 W

Short-circuit test (secondary shorted)

Voltage, V1 = 20 V; current, I1 = 6.0 A; power, P1 = 36 W

Determine,

(a) The parameters 𝑅1 = 𝑟1 + 𝑎* 𝑟* , 𝑋1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑎* 𝑥* ; Gc and Bm referred to the primary

side.
(b) The values of the above parameters referred to the secondary side.
(c) The efficiency of the transformer when it delivers 6 kVA at 120 V and 0.9 p.f.

(Answers: (a) R1 = 1.0 W; X1 = 3.18 W; Gc = 2.78 x 10-5 S; Bm = 9.606 x 10-5 S

(b) R2 = 0.01 W; X2 = 0.0318 W; Gc = 2.78 x 10-53 S; Bm = 9.606 x 10-3 S (c) 98.81 %

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P3.5 A balanced D-connected load of 8000 kW is connected to the low-voltage side, D-connected
side of a Y-D transformer rated 10000 kVA, 138/13.8 kV. Find the load resistance in ohms in
each phase as measured from line to neutral on the high-voltage side of the transformer.
Neglect transformer impedance and assume rated voltage is applied to the transformer
primary.

(Answer: 2380 W)

P3.6 A three-phase transformer rated 5 MVA, 115/13.2 kV has per-phase series impedance of
(0.007 + j0.075) per unit. The transformer is connected to a short distribution line which can
be represented by a series impedance per phase of (0.02 + j0.10) per unit on a base of 10
MVA, 13.2 kV. The line supplies a balanced three-phase load rated 4 MVA, 13.2 kV, with
lagging power factor 0.85.

(a) Draw an equivalent circuit of the system indicating all impedances in per unit. Choose 10
MVA, 13.2 kVA as the base at the load.
( b) With the voltage at the primary side of the transformer held constant at 115 kV, the load
at the receiving end of the line is disconnected. Find the voltage regulation at the load.

(Answers: (a) Equivalent circuit:

(b) 6.72 %

P3.7 Three identical single-phase transformers, each rated 1.2 kV /120 V, 7.2 kVA and having a
leakage reactance of 0.05 per unit, are connected together to form a three-phase bank. A
balanced Y-connected load of 5 W per phase is connected across the secondary of the bank.
Determine the Y-equivalent per-phase impedance (in ohms and in per unit) seen from the
primary side when the transformer bank is connected (a) Y-Y, (b) Y-D, (c) D-Y and (d) D-D

(Answers: (a) (500 + j10) W; (b) (1500 + j10) W; (c) (166.67 + j3.33) W; (d) (500 + j3.33) W

43