DISCLAIMER

These unpolished learning modules were compiled and prepared for personal use of students in GEC
05: Mathematics in the Modern World of Southern Luzon State University (SLSU) ONLY, and not
as a reference material. Unauthorized distribution of the modules is not allowed. The topics included
are given in summary form and does not claim to be complete. The instructors do not claim
ownership of all the contents since it was taken from several resources including books, journals, and
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 Module 2
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

“Just as everybody must strive to learn language and writing before he can use them freely
for expression of his thoughts, here too there is only one way to escape the weight of formulas.
It is to acquire such power over the tool that, unhampered by formal technique,
one can turn to the true problems.
- Hermann Weyl [4]
INTRODUCTION

This module aims to familiarize on how to think mathematically that can serve you in different
circumstances. Usually, when you solve mathematical problems, you are very hesitant to do it further
because of difficulties that somehow you can’t even determine where those complications are coming
from. What you can do maybe is to look for examples, read again the problem to understand the
details and find the solution. In understanding the problem, you need a language that will help you
understand more clearly, exactly and unmistakably those mathematical ideas.

In this module, you will be introduced to some of the special language that is a foundation for
mathematical thoughts on the language of sets, relations and functions, binary operation and logic.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics;
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as language;
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions; and
4. Use mathematical language to describe and solve problems with mathematics content.

CORE IDEA

Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules.

DISCUSSION

I. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

Mathematics, as a body of knowledge, has a structure and all elements and operations in it, so we
can say that mathematical language is a system used to communicate mathematical ideas. It consists
of some natural language using technical terms (mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions,
supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic notation for mathematical formulas. This maybe not
apparent to you as student because you are often overwhelmed by topics discussed to you in math
subjects. You may be forgetting the basic concepts in mathematics that is very important as a
foundation in all mathematical learnings.
Mathematical language is your tool to communicate mathematical ideas easier because of the
following characteristics.
1. Math language is non-temporal. It has no past, present and future tense unlike in English
language. There is no conjugation of words and mathematics statements are presented
simple as “is”. Math language carries no emotional content.
2. It has no equivalent words for joy or sadness. Your aesthetic experience like
mathematicians about math is only a subjective experience. Good values are learned
thru mathematics but cannot be found in a mathematical language.
3. Math language is precise. Statements are exact and accurate. As you can observe math
language is clearly stated and lacks uncertainty.
4. Math language is concise. No need for unnecessary words and briefly stated.
5. Math language is powerful. Complex ideas are well expressed

Parts of Speech in Mathematics

1
1. Numbers or Constants 2, 4, , 5
2
2. Variables 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
3. Relation Symbols =, ≤, ≥,∪,∩, ∈, ⊂
4. Operation Symbols +, −,×,÷
5. Grouping Symbols ( ), { }, [ ]

II. Expressions vs Sentences

Every language has its vocabulary (the words) and its rules for combining these words into complete
thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. In studying the mathematical language, we
will make a very broad classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name
mathematical objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state complete
mathematical thoughts).

Mathematical Mathematical
Expression Sentence

Incomplete Complete
thought thought

Example: Example:
3x + 5 3x + 5 = 9
4y 4y > 2

Mathematical expression

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct arrangement of

mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest.

An expression does not state a complete thought; it does not make sense to ask if an expression is
true or false. The most common expression types are numbers, sets, and functions. Numbers have
lots of different names: for example, the expressions 5, 2 + 3, 10 + 2, (6 − 2) + 1, and 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
all look different, but are all just different names for the same number. This simple idea—that
numbers have lots of different names—is extremely important in mathematics!

Mathematical sentence

A mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of

mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. Sentences have verbs. In the mathematical
sentence ‘3+4=7, 3+4=7’, the verb is ‘=’. A sentence can be (always) true, (always) false, or
sometimes true/sometimes false.

Examples:
1+2 =3 True
1+2 =4 False
𝑥=2 Sometime true/sometimes false
It is true when 𝑥 is 2, and false otherwise.
𝑥+3 =3+𝑥 Always true, no matter what value is chosen
for 𝑥

III. Conventions in Mathematical Language

Mathematics has its own language, much of which we are already familiar with. For example, the
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are part of our everyday lives. There are many symbols in mathematics
and most are used as a precise form of shorthand. We need to be confident when using these
symbols, and to gain that confidence we need to understand their meaning. To understand their
meaning there are two things to help us:

✓ context - this is the context in which we are working, or the particular

topics being studied, and
✓ convention - where mathematicians and scientists have decided that
particular symbols will have particular meaning.

Mathematical Convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is generally agreed upon by
mathematicians. PEMDAS (Parenthesis, Exponent, Multiplication, Division, Addition and
Subtraction) is an example. All mathematical names and symbols are conventional.

Examples of conventions:
• The letters used for the sides of a triangle are usually 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, where 𝑐 is the hypotenuse.
The capital letters 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 are used for the angles.
• Functions are denoted by 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥), or ℎ(𝑥).
• In writing an algebraic expression, the numerical coefficient is written before the variable in
a term.
• The Greek letter ‘pi’, written π, is used to represent the number 3.14159....
• We often use α (‘alpha’), β (‘beta’), and θ (‘theta’) to represent angles.
• The Greek capital letter ‘sigma’ or Σ is frequently used to represent the addition of several
numbers.
There are many other conventions that most mathematicians have been practicing over the years. It
is not to say that other formats are incorrect, but since they are already conventions, then it will be
easier to use them to avoid confusion.

Common Mathematical Symbols

Symbols save time and space when writing. These are three groups of the most commonly used math
symbols that you need to learn in order to solve math questions. (Take time to research on other
examples.)

• Basic Math Symbols +, −,×,÷, =, ≠, ≥

• Set Theory Symbols ∈,∪,∩, ⊂, ⊆, ∉
• Logic symbols ¬, →, ^, ↔

IV. Sets, Functions, Relations, and Binary Operations

Sets
Any group or collection of objects is called a set. The objects that belong in a set are the elements, or
members of the set. For example, the set consisting of the four seasons has spring, summer, fall, and
winter as its elements.

A set is a well-defined collection of objects if it is possible to determine whether any given item is an
element of the set. For instance, the set of letters of the English alphabet is well defined. The set of
great songs is not a well-defined set. It is not possible to determine whether any given song is an
element of the set or is not an element of the set because there is no standard method for making
such a judgment. The statement “4 is an element of the set of natural numbers” can be written using
mathematical notation as 4 ∈ ℕ. The symbol ∈ is read “is an element of”. To state that “−3 is not an
element of the set of natural numbers,” we use ∉ as the symbol for “is not an element of ”, and write
-3 ∉ ℕ.

Example:
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
1. 4 ∈ {2,3,4,7} True, 4 is in the given set
2. −5 = {2,3,4,7} False, -5 is not in the given set
1 1
3. ∉𝐼 True, is not an integer
2 2
4. The set of nice cars is a well-defined set. False, nice is not precise.

Basic Number Sets

Natural Numbers or Counting Numbers ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }
Integers ℤ = {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }
𝑚
Rational Numbers ℚ = numbers that can be written in the form 𝑛 where 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
Irrational Numbers ℚ𝐶 = numbers that are not rationals
Real Numbers ℝ = the set of all rational or irrational numbers

There are two ways to describe a set. In Listing Method, all or partial members of the set are listed.
In Set-Builder Method, the set is described by listing the properties that describe the elements of
the set.
Examples:

Set Listing Method Set – Builder Method

Let 𝑨 be the set of natural
𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} 𝐴 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥 < 10}
numbers less than 10.
Let 𝑩 be the set of even
𝐵 = {6,8,10} 𝐵 = {𝑥 |𝑥 = 2𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 4 < 𝑥 < 12}
integers between 4 and 12.

❖ The empty set, or null set, is the set that contains no elements. The symbol ∅ or {} is used to
represent the empty set. As an example of the empty set, consider the set of natural numbers
that are negative integers.
❖ A set is finite if the number of elements in the set is a whole number. The cardinal number
of a finite set is the number of elements in the set. The cardinal number of a finite set A is
denoted by 𝑛(𝐴). For instance, if 𝐴 = {1, 4, 6, 9}, then 𝑛(𝐴) = 4.
❖ Equal Sets: Set A is equal to set B, denoted by 𝐴 = 𝐵, if and only if A and B have exactly the
same elements. For instance {𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓} = {𝑒, 𝑓, 𝑑}.
❖ Equivalent Sets: Set A is equivalent to set B, denoted by A _ B, if and only if A and B have the
same number of elements.
Set Operations

❖ The Universal Set is the set of all elements that are under consideration.This is usually
denoted by 𝑈.
❖ The complement of a set A, denoted by 𝐴’, is the set of all elements of the universal set 𝑈
that are not elements of 𝐴.

Example:
Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Find the complements of 𝑆 and 𝑇 if:
𝑆 = {𝑥 |𝑥 < 10 and 𝑥 ∈ odd counting numbers}, and
𝑇 = {2, 4, 6, 7}.

Solution:
The elements of the universal set are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. 𝑇 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Excluding the
elements of 𝑇 from 𝑈 gives us 𝑇’ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Also, from 𝑈, we wish to exclude the elements of
𝑆, which are 2, 4, 6, and 7. Therefore 𝑆’ = {1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10}.

❖ Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, if and only if every element of A is also an

element of B.

Subset Relationships
A ⊆A, for any set A
∅ ⊆ A, for any set A

The notation 𝐴 ⊄ 𝐵 is used to denote that A is not a subset of B. To show that A is not a subset of B,
it is necessary to find at least one element of A that is not an element of B.
Example:
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. {5, 10, 15, 20} ⊆ {10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
b. ℤ ⊆ ℚ
c. {2, 4, 6} ⊆ {2, 4, 6}
d. ∅ ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
Solution
a. False; 5 is not an element of the bigger set.
b. True; every integer is also a rational number
c. True; every set is a subset of itself.
d. True; the empty set is a subset of every set.

❖ Set A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵, if every element of A is an element of B,

and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵. In the previous example c., {2,4,6} is a subset of {2,4,6} but is not a proper subset
because proper subsets do not include the set itself.

The Number of Subsets of a Set

A set with n elements has 2n subsets.
Examples
1. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} has 6 elements, so it has 26 = 64 subsets.
2. {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ... , 15} has 12 elements, so it has 212 = 4096 subsets.
3. The empty set has 0 elements, so it has 20 = 1 subset.
4. {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} has 3 elements, so it has 23 = 8 subsets. (Can you name them all?)

❖ The union of sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set that contains all the elements that
belong to A or to B or to both. In symbols, 𝑨 ∪ 𝑩 = {𝒙|𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 𝐨𝐫 𝒙 ∈ 𝑩}.

Example:
Let 𝐴 = {1, 4, 5, 7}, 𝐵 = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and 𝐶 = {3, 6, 9}. Find 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶.

Solution:
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {1, 4, 5, 7} ∪ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 = {1, 4, 5, 7} ∪ {3, 6, 9} = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}

❖ The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of elements common to both A
and B. In symbols, 𝑨 ∩ 𝑩 = {𝒙/𝒙 ∈ 𝑨 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒙 ∈ 𝑩}.

Example:
Let 𝐴 = {1, 4, 5, 7}, 𝐵 _ = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, and 𝐶 = {3, 6, 9}. Find A ∩ B and A ∩ C.

Solution:
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 4, 5, 7} ∩ {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = {4, 5}
𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = ∅, 𝐴 and 𝐶 have no common element, then they are called disjoint sets.

❖ Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is the empty set. The sets A and C in the previous
example are disjoint.
Relations and Functions

A relation is used to describe certain properties of things. That way, certain things may be connected
in some way; this is called a relation. It is clear, that things are either related, or they are not, there is
no in between.

Recall from your Algebra class in high school that ordered pairs are defined in terms of sets,
cartesian product in terms of ordered pairs and relation in terms of cartesian product. All these
terms are somehow related, so thus, function.

A function 𝐹 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a relation with domain 𝐴 and co-domain 𝐵 that satisfies the
following properties:

1. For every element 𝑥 in 𝐴, there is an element 𝑦 in 𝐵 such that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹.

2. For all elements 𝑥 in 𝐴 and 𝑦 and 𝑧 in 𝐵, if (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹 and (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝐹, then 𝑦 = 𝑧.

Example:
Let 𝐴 = {2,4,6} and 𝐵 = {1,3,5}. Which among the relations 𝑅, 𝑆 and 𝑇 defined below are functions
from 𝐴 to 𝐵?

a. 𝑅 = {(2,5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5)}

b. For all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐴 𝑥 𝐵, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 means 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1
c. 𝑇 is defined by the arrow diagram

2• •1

4• •3

6• •5

Solution:
a. R is not a function because it does not satisfy property 2. Ordered pairs (4,1) and (4,3) have
the same first elements. It can also be illustrated in an arrow diagram in which you can see
clearly that there are 2 arrows coming out of 4 (one to many).
b. S is not a function because it did not satisfy property 1 since 𝐴 = {(2,3), (4,5)} as determined
by 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1. If 𝑥 is 6, then 𝑦 is 7 and 7 is not in set 𝐵, therefore 6 cannot be used as the
first component in S.
c. As shown in no. 3 problem, each element in {2,4,6} is related to some element in {1,3,5} and
no element in {2,4,6} is related to more than 1 element in {1,3,5}. (many to one)

Binary Operation

The word "binary" means composed of two pieces. A binary operation is simply a rule for combining
two values to create a new value. The most widely known binary operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on various sets of numbers. Thus, the binary operation can be defined as
an operation * which is performed on a set A. (Note: * is any operation.)
Properties of Binary Operation

Closure property:
An operation * on a non-empty set A has closure property, if
a ∈ A, b ∈ A if a * b ∈ A.

Let us show that addition is a binary operation on real numbers ℝ and natural numbers ℕ. So, if we
add two operands which are natural numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏, the result will also be a natural number. The
same holds good for real numbers. Hence,

+: ℝ + ℝ → ℝ is given by (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑎 + 𝑏
+: ℕ + ℕ → ℕ is given by (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑎 + 𝑏

Let us show that multiplication is a binary operation on real numbers (R) and natural numbers (N).
So, if we multiply two operands which are natural numbers a and b, the result will also be a natural
number. The same holds good for real numbers. Hence,

𝑥: ℝ × ℝ → ℝ is given by (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏
𝑥: ℕ × ℕ → ℕ is given by (𝑎, 𝑏) → 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏

V. Logic

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
Using the methods and techniques of logic—one can distinguish reliably between sound and faulty
reasoning.

Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and commands.
For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or

false, but not both true and false.

You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it is
false, and that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.

Example:
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. 𝑥 + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a statement.
 b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not a
statement.
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a whole
number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number. The sentence
is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a statement.
d. 𝑥 + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is false
for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement
that conveys two or more ideas. Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and,
or, if . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.

We will use symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧, ∨, ∼,
→ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ↔ to represent connectives as shown in the table below.

Example 1: (Negation)
Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Solution
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. Avatar was selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.

Example 2: (Conjunction)
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
b. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution:
a. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
b. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.

In any conditional statement represented by “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or by “If 𝑝, 𝑞” the 𝑝 statement is called the
antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent.
The conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false if 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false. It is true in all other cases. The conditional
statement, “If 𝑝, then 𝑞,” can be written using the arrow notation 𝑝 → 𝑞, read as “if p, then q” or as
“p implies q.”

Example 3: (Conditional)
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week.
b. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t stop and look around once in a while
Consequent: you could miss it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down
Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.

Example 4: (Conditional)
Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution:
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.

Example 5: (Biconditional)
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
b. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
Solution:
a. Both equations are true when 𝑥 = 3, and both are false when 𝑥 ≠ 3. Both equations
have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If 𝑥 = −6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus, this is a false
statement.
Example 6: (Translating Compound Statements)
Let p, q, and r represent the following simple statements:
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write (p ∧ q) → r as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you
will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a. Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form, they
are placed to the left of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus, the translation is:
“If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.”
 b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the comma in the
English sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus, the translation is: ~q → (~p ∧∼r)

In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called existential
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.

In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and
every are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.

Examples:
There exists a real number whose multiplicative inverse is itself.
All elements of the set of integers are elements of the set of rationals.

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement

Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. The table below lists some of
the various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement denoted by 𝑝 → 𝑞:

𝒒 is a necessary condition for

If 𝒑, then 𝒒. 𝒑 only if 𝒒. Not 𝒑 or 𝒒. 𝒒, if 𝒑.
𝒑.
If 𝒑, 𝒒. 𝑝 implies 𝑞. Every 𝑝 is a 𝑞. 𝑞, provided that 𝑝. 𝑝 is a sufficient condition for 𝑞.

Example 1:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by
b Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution:
a. The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2,” is in “q
provided that p” form. The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the consequent is “the
number is an even number.” Thus its “If p, then q” form is “If it is divisible by 2, then the
number is an even number.”
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” is in “p only if q” form.
The antecedent is “today is Friday.” The consequent is “yesterday was Thursday.” Its “If
p, then q” form is “If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.”

Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ∼p → ∼q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ∼q →∼p.

Example 2:
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.”

Solution:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
 Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.

REFERENCES

Aufman,Richard N.,et al,(2013), Mathematical Excursions. 3rd ed.,Brookes/Cole, Cengage Learning

Medallon, Merlita C. et al (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co., Inc.

Reyes, Juan Apolinario C. (2019), Mathematics in the Modern World, Unlimited Books Library Services
& Publishing Inc.

Sirug, Winston, (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co.,Inc.

Online References:

http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/MATH_2150%3A_Higher_Arithmetic
/1%3 Binary_operations/1.1%3A_Binary_operations