Theories of Evolution

• Evolution - Process of gradual changes in organisms to form more and more complex forms
over a long period of time

4 main theories
1. Lamarck’s theory of Inheritance of acquired characters (Lamarckism)
2. Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)
3. De Vries theory of Mutation (Mutations)
4. Modern concept of Evolution (Synthetic theory)
 Lamarckism - Pre Darwin
● Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1744 - 1829) - French naturalist
● Doctrine of evolution - ‘Inheritance of acquired characters’
● ‘Philosophie Zoologique’ - 1809
● ‘Changes in structure or function of any organ acquired during the life time of an individual in
response to changes in the surrounding environment are inherited by its offsprings & keep on
adding up over a period of time’ — Changes accumulate & lead to origin of new species

Factors / postulates coming under Lamarck is,

1. New needs
2. Acquisition of New Characters
a) Use and disuse of organs
b) Effect of environment
3. Inheritance of acquired characters
1. New needs
• Changes in the environment creates new needs in living organisms to adapt to the changed
environment
• Results in the formation of a new organ or a part in the body

2. Acquisition of New characters

• New characters are acquired in 2 ways
a) Use and Disuse of organs
• Continuous or extensive use of certain organs - Keep them functional and make them stronger,
larger and more efficient
• Continuous disuse of organs - Gradual reduction in their size & final disappearance

b) Effect of Environment
• Changes in temperature, light, food etc - Influence the functioning & behaviour of organisms
• Introduce changes in their structure
3. Inheritance of acquired characters
• Acquired characters - Acquired during the lifetime
• Acquired characters pass on to next generation
• In every generations - Some new characters are acquired / older characters keep on increasing
or improving
• After many generations — Sp. becomes different from parent & ultimately leading to new
species
Evidences in favour of Lamarckism

● 1. Evolution of long neck in Giraffe

● 2. Evolution of aquatic birds
● 3. Evolution of snakes
● 4. Cave dwellers
1. Evolution of long neck in Giraffe
● Giraffe evolved from deer-like ancestors
● Had short neck & forelimb
● Grazed on grass
● As climate of this area gradually become arid — Rich vegetation was replaced by high trees
● Had to stretch their neck & forelimbs — To obtain leaves from tall trees
● The continuous stretching of neck and forelimbs — Gradual elongation of neck and forelimbs
● Transmitted to next generation — Further elongation occurred due to similar efforts
● Resulted in the present day long neck of giraffe
 2. Evolution of aquatic birds
● Aquatic birds like duck, swan etc Terrestrial ancestors by developing web between the
toe for wading in water (adaptation)
● Web develop because the ancestral form had to spread their toes and stretch skin between them
to rest on water
● Reduction in size of wings — Occurred due to continuous disuse
3. Evolution of snakes
● Ancestors of snake were limbed and lizard like
● Lived in thick forests
● Out of fear of mammals, they started creeping on forest floor and live in narrow crevices or
burrows
● For burrowing in narrow crevices, they stretch their body which gradually became elongated
● The legs were of no use in creeping and burrowing but were a hindrance which gradually
disappeared

4. Cave dwellers
● Animals (Moles) living in dark they lost the ability to view
● They lost the pigment in the eye because of disuse
Criticism of Lamarckism
• Faced severe criticisms
a. Tendency to increase in size in many forms - But evolution causes reduction in size also —
Trees are primitive - Shrubs, herbs & grass - Evolved later
• Persons constantly busy in reading & writing — Often develop impaired sight
b. New organs develop when organism feel their need — Not true
• Man has long desire to fly like birds - Has not developed the wings
c. Small feet of Chinese women - Considered most beautiful - Used very tight wooden or iron
shoes to restrict growth of feet - But new born girls are with normal feet
d. Piercing of nose & ears in Indian women — For several generations - But every girl is born
with out hole in ear & nose
- Again they have to pierce — If acquired characters inherit - No need to pierce
e. ‘Theory of continuity of germplasm’ by "August Weismann” (1892) and ‘Mendel's law of
Inheritance’ by Gregor Mendel (1865), were hard blow to Lamarck's theory

According to Germplasm theory, each organism has 2 types of cells

1) Germ cells - Found in gonads and pass on their hereditary material to next generation
2) Somatic cells - Which form body and do not pass their hereditary material to the offspring

f. August Weismann (1904) in his famous experiment - Cut off the tail of rats for about 80
generations - But tailless offspring were never born

Thus Lamarck’s theory is proved wrong

Only inherent characters can pass on from generation to generation - Not acquired characters
Neo-Lamarckism
• Neo-Lamarckians - T.H. Morghan & Cope
• Acquired characters incorporated in germplasm — Heritable & accumulate generations after
generations — Result origin of new species

Experiments in support of inheritance of acquired characters

• 1. White mice - Reared at high temp. (20-30oC) — Develop longer body, long tail and longer
hindlimb — These transmitted to generations after generations
• 2. Cell exposed to X-rays/ treated with certain chemicals — Develop changes in chromosome
structure

• Recently some theories have proven that some germ cells can form from somatic cells also
• So, we cannot completely discard Lamarckism
Neo-Lamarckism - postulates
1. Formation of Germ cells from Somatic cells
• In asexual reproduction — Germ cells derived from somatic cells (In adult plants) - With similar
number of chromosomes & genes of parent

2. Direct affect of environment on Germ cell

• Germ cells may carry acquired or somatic variation to the offspring
• E.g., ‘Tower’ - Exposed young ones of potato beetles to abnormal conditions (increased) of
temp. & humidity — Didn’t produce any somatic changes — But their offsprings showed colour
changes in next generations
 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism) - 1858
• This theory was combined effort of 2 different scientists
• Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) (English naturalists)
• In December 1831, Charles Darwin got an opportunity to travel by HMS Beagle (Her Majesty's Ship
- English warship) for a voyage of World exploration, planned by British Admiralty
• The voyage lasted for five years (27. Dec. 1831 — 02. Oct. 1836)
• Ship visited some of the islands of Atlantic Ocean, many points on the Southern tip of Africa, South
East Asia, some islands of South Pacific and coast of South America.
• Darwin carefully noted the flora, fauna and geology
• of these islands and collected numerous living and
• fossil specimens.

•
• Beagle sailed to Galapagos Islands - About 1,000 km away from the West coast of South America
• Composed of 127 islands, islets and rocks - 19 are large and 4 are inhabited.
• 97% of the total area was declared National Park in 1959.
• Darwin found a ‘living laboratory of evolution’
• Spent 5 weeks for studying the flora and fauna

• Identified 13 species of finches, each species occupying a different island

• They differed from each other as well as from the finches

present on the mainland of South America, from which they
all are supposed to have evolved.

• These birds are popularly known as Darwin's finches

• Meanwhile, Alfred Wallace was also doing his voyage in Archipelago Islands (Malay
Archipelago) (25,000 islands - Islands of Malaysia and Indonesia) - 1854
• Darwin - New species is formed from the already existing species by the selection of
nature
• Wallace also had similar finding that natural selection is the driving force behind
evolution
• Darwin - Arrived back to England (1836) - Started analysing his notes & worked out
major features of hypothesis (1840) - But hesitated to publish & continued to compile
more & more evidences - In June 1858, he received manuscript for evaluation from
Alfred Wallace - Wallace developed hypothesis of Natural selection identical to
Darwin’s theory
• On June 30, 1858 - Darwin and Wallace - Presented a paper jointly to Linnaean Society
of London
• Later in 1859, Darwin expanded this idea - ‘Origin of Species’

• Both scientist were influenced by - ‘The Principles of populations’ by Thomas Malthus

(Economist)
• According to him - Population is growing in exponential rate (xn)
• But food production is in arithmetic way (x+x+x+……)
• Leads to competition
• This helped Darwin and Wallace to come to the conclusion of natural selection or nature
selects the best
Postulates of Darwin's theory of Natural Selection
1. Overproduction or Rapid multiplication
● Whenever resources are available organism will multiply its maximum

2. Limited resources
● Resources are always limited in nature
● Nature can support only a particular number of organism
● Limited resource - competition will start

3. Struggle for existence

● Intraspecific
● Interspecific
● Struggle with the environment
● Intraspecific struggle: - Competition among individuals of the same species to gain dominancy
Eg. - Struggle by young trees in forest - Die soon due to lack of sufficient soil, moisture or
food

● Interspecific struggle: - Struggle between organisms of different species living together -

Compete for food, shelter and breeding places

● Struggle with the environment: - Struggle of living forms against extreme heat or cold, excess
moisture or draught, lightning, storms, earthquakes & volcanic eruptions, shortage of food,
water, oxygen etc
● Dinosaurs at the end of Mesozoic era became extinct due to environmental catastrophe
4. Variation
• When there is struggle for existence - Some organism will undergo some changes which are
favourable to them to adapt to the new situation
• These changes or differences - Variation
• Heritable Variation - Variations once appeared in parent generation continue to appear in
offsprings generation after generation
● Effect of x-rays or other radiations and other atmospheric changes - Introduce changes in genes
or chromosomes of germplasm - Responsible for Variation
● Variation may be harmful, useful or neutral
● Harmful Variation - Possessor unfit in the struggle of existence and will lead to extermination
● Example : Change leading to chlorophyll deficiency in a plant - Lower rate of photosynthesis
and weakening of plant
● Useful Variation : More successful in struggle of existence
● E.g.- Development of a thick exoskeleton in terrestrial organism - Protect them against water
loss
5. Natural selection and Survival of the fittest
● The one with favourable variation will be selected
● Individual with variation that are proved to be more beneficial in facing the hardships and
rigours of environment - Survive

● E.g., : In a herd of herbivores, only the weak are unable to flee fast - Attacked by predators
● Giraffe with short neck starved and died and gradually became extinct

6. Inheritance of useful variation

• Those who got useful variation that will be inherited to the next generation
7. Origin of New Species
• From the above observation, Darwin made certain conclusion and summarised under the
heading ‘Origin of Species by Natural Selection’
• As a result of struggle of existence, variability and inheritance, the successive generation tend
to become better adapted to their environment
• These adaptations are preserved and accumulated in the individuals of species
• Ultimately lead to the origin of new species from old ones
• As natural selection continues - Descendants after several generation become markedly distinct
from their ancestors

• Two or more species may arise from a single ancestral species

Evidences for Darwins Theory of Natural Selection
(Got support around 40 years - Romantic Period)
1. Artificial Selection
2. Mimicry of protective colouration
3. Position of nectaries in flower
4. Industrial melanism in England

1. Artificial Selection
• By controlled breeding and natural selection for several generation, many new varieties of
plants and breeds of domestic animals - Having desired traits have developed by man by
Artificial selection
• If man can produce new varieties in short time, nature with more time and vast resources can
easily produce new species by selection
• E.g. New races of dogs, horse, pigeon, poultry etc
 + =

Standard Poodle Labrador Retriever Labradoodle

=
+

Zebroid/ Zorse
2. Mimicry and protective colouration
• Some organisms are well adapted to camouflage in their surroundings
• Therefore, they are protected from predators
• E.g., Stick insect, Chameleon, Octopus etc

3. Coevolution
● Joint evolution of two interactive species, in response to solution imposed by one over the
other
● Common in flowering plants - Position of nectaries in flowers & length of proboscis of
pollinating insects - Show corresponding increase
● Darwin — There is corresponding modification between the length of floral tube and
proboscis - To ensure pollination for flower and availability of nectar for insect
4. Industrial melanism in England
• Industrial revolution started - Great Britain - 1760-1840
• Fuel - Coal, oil etc (fossil fuels)
• Before that - 2 types peppered moths Biston betularia (White (more) & black winged) - Nocturnal
and spends most of the day motionless on trees and rocks
• Biston betularia typica, the white-bodied. Biston betularia carbonaria the black-bodied
• Original population of moth had white wings that blended perfectly with lichen - covered tree trunks
• The moth's wings have a pattern that looks similar to lichens
• Until 1848 - These non-melanic forms nicely blended with surrounding and protected from
predatory birds
• With dramatic rise of industrialisation in Europe, the atmosphere became sooty and tree trunk
became dark in colour due to absence of lichens

● In 1848 - black variety of moth - 10%

● By 1898 - it formed 99% of total moth population
 After industrial revolution

Before industrial revolution

Evidences for the criticism for Darwinism
• Darwinism - Accepted by most biologists
• Criticisers - Sir Richard Owen & Adam Sedgwick
1. It does not explain the effect of use and disuse and the presence of vestigial organs. According
to natural selection, only organs which are useful will be selected. But vestigial organs are still
selected.
2. Over specialisation - Antlers of Irish deer or large tusk of Jefferson mammoth - they are
selected over a period of time but they are not having a particular use to the organism
3. No explanation for variation - Darwin told variation is leading to evolution or natural
selection but he could not give the reason for variation
4. Darwin’s theory stresses upon small fluctuating variations — But they are non-heritable & do
not play in evolution
5. Did not differentiate between somatic & germinal variations — Considered all variations are
heritable
Darwin's theory of Pangenesis
• To explain inheritance of characters from parents to offsprings he came up with the theory of
Pangenesis (1868)
• According to this theory,
• All somatic cells produce minute particles, gemmules or Pangenes - Carried away by the blood
stream & accumulated in germ cells
• Each gamete or germ cell represents a minute replica of the parent’s body & capable of
developing into adult
• This theory is completely discarded
● Neo Darwinism
● In the last 25 years, number of new facts have been added to the knowledge of evolution
● Reanalysed the Theory of Natural Selection - By Genetics, Mendelism, Population genetics &
Biological species concept — Neo-Darwinism
● Merger of Darwinian selection & Genetic theory
● Scientists try to prove Darwin's theory by giving more evidences
● According to this, both mutation and natural selection are responsible for evolution
Mutation Theory
 Mutation Theory
● Proposed by Hugo De Vries (Dutch Botanist - 1901)
● Driving force behind evolution is mutation
● Darwin - Slow, gradual directional process called natural selection
● De Vries - New species can be formed from an already existing species by a single process of
mutation which is sudden, inheritable genetic variation
● De Vries - Sudden distinct heritable changes Mutations
● Darwin - Sports
● Bateson - Saltatory variation
● Single step large mutation which leads to formation of new species in a single step - Such a
large mutation is called saltation
● He conducted his experiments in a plant called Evening Primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana)
● Observed sudden appearance of 7 new varieties near his garden
● De Vries — These characters originated suddenly and full fledged and were heritable
● The plants with new characters - Mutants
● Process/ changes - Mutation
● Based on this, he classified 8 varieties/ species into following categories,

1. Progressive species - New characters developed

2. Retrogressive species - Loss of some parental characters
3. Degressive species - Loss of some vital characters affecting their survival (Defective
chlorophyll system, narrow needle like leaves)
4. Inconstant species - These species do not breed true and often produce new varieties
(Produce flowers of its own variety + of the original variety)
 Salient Features of Mutation Theory
● 1. Mutations are sudden, large and distinct discontinuous heritable changes
● 2. Mutation is the raw material for evolution
● 3. Mutation happens suddenly and visible changes can be observed in the offspring
● 4. Newly formed offspring or mutant will be entirely different from parents without having
any intermediate changes
● 5. Mutations are subjected to natural selection. Beneficial mutations are selected and favoured
by nature; harmful and lethal mutations are eliminated by death of mutants
● 6. Mutations occur again and again, generation after generation. Thus they provide more and
more chances of selection by nature
● 7. Mutation has a genetic basis. New species can be formed from a pre-existing species only
by mutation
Evidences to support Mutation Theory
Mutant forms were observed in several organisms.
1. Appearance of a short legged Ancon Sheep to normal long legged parents in 1871 (by single
mutation)
2. Appearance of hornless Hereford Cattle from normal horned parents in 1889 in single
generation
3. Birth of hairless cats, dogs and mice from normal parents
4. Formation of seedless variety of banana
Merits of Mutation Theory
● Mutations are important for evolution or for the origin of new species
● Explains the importance of mutations as raw material for evolution
● It explains the cause of difference between related species

Criticism of Mutation Theory

● Mutations can not explain the presence of flightless birds on oceanic islands
● Mutations can not explain the occurrence of vestigial organs
● Mutations can not explain the phenomenon of mimicry, protective colouration & the
relationship between the position of nectaries in the flower & the length of proboscis of
insects that pollinate these flowers
● Most mutations are deleterious, harmful or lethal — Whereas evolution is based on the
usefulness of the mutant characters
● Mutation rate is very low (one per million). Then how mutations can help in evolution at such
a slow pace?
Modern theory of Mutation
● Mutations are universal & occur in all organisms
● Mutations occur in all types of cells. Somatic mutations that occur in the body cells are non-
heritable
● Mutations that occur in the germ cells are heritable
● Only heritable mutations help in evolution
● Mutations can be neutral, harmless, harmful or beneficial.
● The harmful or less useful mutations are gradually eliminated by natural selection
● Useful mutations keep accumulating in the gene pool of naturally breeding populations
generations after generations & lead to their divergence
Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution
Or
Evolutionary Synthesis
● Modern Synthetic Theory of evolution / Evolutionary synthesis: - Merger of Darwinian
selection + Genetic theory of heredity and variation

● The Origin of new species by synthetic theory can be discussed under following headings :
● 1. Genetic variation
● 2. Significance of genetic variability
● 3. Isolation
● 4. Natural selection and genetic drift
● 5. Origin of species
1. Genetic Variability
● Gene pool - Total gene content of all the individuals of a population
● Genetic variation - The presence of differences in sequences of genes between individual
organisms of a species.
1.1. Causes of Genetic Variation at Individual Level
1.2. Causes of Genetic variation at Population level

1.1. Causes of Genetic Variation at Individual Level

● Changes in the genes or chromosomes of gametes introduce genotypic differences in the
individuals of a population.
● Genotypic variations are essential for evolution.
These are introduced at two levels,
1. Gene mutation
2. Mendelian Recombination of genes
 1. Gene Mutations:
● Changes in the chemical and structural composition of genes
● These changes may occur by the rearrangement of nitrogenous bases present in a specific
DNA molecule or the addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides in a DNA segment.
These changes are also called point mutations
● Gene mutation occurs at random (non - specific & non - directional) - May produce drastic
changes or may remain insignificant
● Usually one gene mutates in every 2,000 gametes. Some genes mutate - several times, some
do not mutate at all. Some Genes mutate back to normal - Reverse mutation
● Artificial mutagenic agents - Radiations, chemicals, high temperature
● Most gene mutations are recessive to normal gene. Recessive mutations - expressed in
homozygous state
● Most gene mutations are deleterious or harmful (not all). Few - Beneficial.
● Harmful - Eliminated by Natural selection. Beneficial - Preserved in gene pool
● 2. Mendelian Recombination of genes
● Mixing of genes in sexually reproducing organisms - New combination of parental genes
in offspring

● It occurs in the following ways,

● By fertilisation - Union of male & female gamete
● By Meiosis - For the production of male & female gamete
● By crossing over - Exchange of chromosome-segments between maternal & paternal
chromosomes

●
● All these changes result in the new combination of dominant and recessive genes -
Introducing changes in the genotype and phenotype of individuals
1.2. Causes of genetic variation at Population level
● Variations are introduced by,
1. Chromosomal mutations or aberrations - Change in the structure of chromosomes
2. Change in the number of chromosomes (Heteroploidy)
3. Hybridisation

1. Chromosomal mutations or aberrations - Change in the structure of chromosomes

a) Changes in the number of Genes :
i) Deletion or deficiency : Loss of one or more genes
i) Duplication : Addition of one or more genes
b) Changes in the arrangement of Genes :
i) Inversion - Rotation of a block of genes in a chromosomes at 1800
ii) Translocation : Exchange of parts between non - homologous chromosomes
2. Change in the number of chromosomes (Heteroploidy)

a) Change involving entire sets :

i) Haploidy: Having only one set of chromosomes (n)
ii) Polyploidy: Each set of chromosomes represented more than twice Triploidy (3n),
Tetraploidy (4n), Pentaploidy (5n)

b) Changes involving the number of chromosomes in one set of chromosomes (Aneuploidy)

i) Monosomic: Loss of one chromosomes from one set - 2n-1
ii) Polysomic: Addition of one or more chromosomes to one set (2n+1 or 2n+2)
iii) Nullisomic: Loss of both chromosomes of a pair - 2n-2
 3. Hybridisation
● Intermingling of genes of two populations of a species or between individuals of two species
● This can occur either by migration or by Artificial cross breeding by man
● Hybrid shares genetic material from 2 different species

E.g.,
● Mule - Hybrid of horse and donkey
● Raphanobrassica - Raphanus (radish) and Brassica (cabbage)
● Pomato - Potato and tomato

● All these factors produce genetic variation

2. Significance of Genetic variability or Adaptation
● The success in survival and reproduction depends on characteristics of individuals
● During severe drought - plants and animals which can minimise loss of water and maximise
water absorption have better chance of survival
● Therefore Adaptation plays a major role in survival
● Thus, natural selection - selects and favours the multiplication of those genetic variation
which are of adaptive value to the organism - by encouraging survival and reproduction of
individuals with such gene combination
 3. Isolation
● Segregation of individuals of species into several groups
● Geographical Isolation: Physical barriers like mountains, rivers, oceans & long distances -
Prevent interbreeding between related forms
● Physiological barriers - Maintaining individuality of the species - Do not permit
interbreeding among the individuals of different species - E.g., Pollen grains from one species
when fall on stigma of other species, fail to germinate

4. Natural Selection and Genetic Drift

● Organisms which are more suited for environmental conditions will survive overpowering the
force of competition and produce more offspring
● Natural selection:- Is a creative process which uses variation and mutation as raw materials -
from which better adapted individuals with more chances of survival are obtained
 Genetic Drift
● In small populations, natural selection has less role to play in fixing a gene or Gene combination
● In small populations, gene frequencies fluctuate purely by chance
● This sudden drift or change in gene frequency is called genetic drift
● This was proposed by Sewall Wright - Sewall Wright effect
● When a small population gets isolated from the bulk of large population, it gradually
becomes genetically diversified from parent species - Because of fluctuation and fixation
of some characters and loss of others in small isolated population
 5. Origin of New Species
● The populations of a species, when present in different environments and are separated by
some of the mentioned barriers - Accumulate different mutations independently and
become genetically and morphologically so different - That they become reproductively
isolated and form new species
 Evolution of horse
• One of the oldest forms of mammal
• Horse - Appeared during ‘Eocene epoch’ (About 58-60 million years ago)
• Geological time scale - Arrangement of entire life span of earth - ~ 4.5 billion years ago
• Divided into intervals - Basis of fossils present in rocks
• Origination of life - ~ 3.8 billion years ago
• Major divisions - Eras - Periods - Epochs
• Geological time scale -
• 1. Azoic era - Time of no life - Earliest form of earth
• 2. Archeozoic era - Time of beginning of life - ~ 3,600 million years ago
• 3. Proterozoic era - Time of earliest life - ~ 1,600 million years ago
• 4. Palaeozoic era - Time of ancient life - ~ 600 million years ago
• 5. Mesozoic era - Time of middle life - ~ 230 million years ago
• 6. Coenozoic era - Time of recent life - ~ 63 million years ago
• Coenozoic era -
• (a) Tertiary period -
• (i) Paleocene epoch - 63 million years ago - Duration 5 million years
• (ii) Eocene epoch - 58-60 million years ago - Duration 22 million years
• (iii) Oligocene epoch - 36 million years ago - Duration 11 million years
• (iv) Miocene epoch - 25 million years ago - Duration 12-13 million years
• (v) Pliocene epoch - 13 million years ago - Duration 12 million years (Man is originated)

• (b) Quaternary period -

• (i) Pleistocene epoch - 1 million years ago - Ended by 8,000 to 10,000 BC
• (ii) Recent epoch - 10,000 BC
• Origination of horse - In the plains of north America
• Eocene epoch - Tertiary period - Coenozoic era
• Ancestors - small sized, rabbit or fox like forms
• They had 4 toes - in the Fore foot
• 3 toes - in Hind foot

Modifications
• Increase in size - From 1.5 feet to 6 feet tall animal
• Lengthening of limb; and Middle toe in both limbs, perfection of hoof for fast running
• Elongation of pre orbital/ facial region of skull
• Modification of teeth - Brachydont (low crowned) to Hypsodont (high crowned)
- To withstand tougher food (grass)
• Nostrils became wide to allow more air
 Important stages in horse evolution

1. Eohippus/ Hyracotherium
• ‘Dawn horse’ - common name
• Eocene epoch - 60 million years ago
• 40 cm height - Rabbit or Fox or Dog size
• Number of toes - 4 on Front limb
• 3 toes on Hind limb
• Teeth - Short crowned- for grinding
(Molar teeth) - soft vegetation

Hind limb
 2. Mesohippus
• 40 million years ago - Oligocene epoch
• Common name - ‘Intermediate horse’
• 3 toes on each foot (1 toe - raised)
• Teeth - Short crowned - for grinding (Molar teeth)
• Height - 60 cm
 3. Miohippus
• Weight much more than Mesohippus
• Head longer
• More or less similar to mesohippus / found overlapped for more than 4 million years
 4. Merychippus
• Common name - ‘Ruminant horse’
• Miocene epoch - 25 to 30 million years ago
• Height - 100 cm (size of an Ass)
• Still had 3 toes - Outside toes become weaker and shrink
• 3rd toe - Stronger Fossil horse
• Teeth - Long crowned for grazing

Hind limb

Hind limb
 5. Pliohippus
• Pliocene epoch - 10 to 13 million years ago
• Common name - ‘Pliocene horse’
• First single Toed horse/ hoofed horse - Adapted for fast running
• Height 108 cm
• Toes - Only third toe stronger - 2nd and 4th weaker and shorter
• Teeth - Long crowned for grazing
 6. Equus
• Pleistocene epoch - 0.5 - 1 million years ago
• Common name - ‘Modern horse’
• Height - 160 cm
• Toes - Only third toe (side toes - weaker)
• Modern horse has only one toe
• Teeth - Long crowned - larger and harder
• Diet change - Soft leaves to hard grass