MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #1

The purpose of this set of homework is to give you a feel for the design values of practical engines. Not all the
relevant numbers are given in the problem statement. Make reasonable estimates and engineering judgments of the
unknown parameters.

You have to calculate a lot of numbers. Use Matlab or Excel to do the calculations.

Problems (the problem numbers refer to the ones in the text book):

1.2 Draw a free body diagram of the piston. Also calculate the cylinder pressure force on the piston for a
highly boosted turbo-engine at 100 bar pressure with a bore of 85 mm.

2.5 Note the relative magnitude of the different terms in the road power requirement. Also estimate the
force for accelerating the vehicle on a flat road from 40 to 60 mph in 5 seconds.

2.8 Calculate bsfc in g/kW-h. The exercise is to get a sense of the bfsc values; note the differences due
to the differences in fuel LHV.

2.13 See Figure 1-8 for timing information and Fig 2.2 for piston speeds. Combustion starts at ~20o
BTDC and ends at ~40o ATDC. (Note that the pressure values in that figure are for part-load and not
for WOT operation. We are, however, only interested in the timing of the various processes; so the
figure is still relevant.)

Exercise that you do to enrich yourselves but you do not have to hand in anything:

Go to the “Related Resources” section, look at the “engine performance specifications” spread sheet.
Explore the spread sheet by sorting the data according to years, BMEP, peak power density, etc. Note
some of the outliers, e.g. the Honda Formula One race engine. Get a feel for the peak power density and
the max BMEP of the typical engines. (There are separate sheets for SI and light duty Diesel
engines.)
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Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #2

Problems (the problem numbers refer to the ones in the text book):

3.1 Also calculate the power output, assume fuel conversion efficiency is 0.3.

3.3 Exercise in exhaust gas analysis.

3.13 This problem gives you some feel for what comes out in the exhaust pipe. The reason for doing the
“dry” versus “wet” analysis is because water vapor is usually removed from the exhaust gas before
the CO and CO2 measurements (to prevent condensation on the instruments).

Hint: Do the stoichiometric balance with  moles of fuel under lean and rich condition separately.
For the former, there is no CO or H2; for the latter, assume that in the exhaust, there are a moles of H2
and 3a moles of CO. You can relate a to  by elemental balance.

Use Matlab or a spread sheet to calculate the numbers.

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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #3

Problems:

1) The NOX emission from automobiles is a mixture of NO and NO2. At high temperatures, the mixture is
mostly NO, and at low temperatures, mostly NO2. Consider a mixture with elemental composition of 1
mole of nitrogen atom and 2 moles of oxygen atoms at a fixed pressure of 1 atmosphere. Plot the
equilibrium mole fraction of NO as a function of temperature in the 600 to 1000 K range. (The actual
exhaust gas is not in equilibrium; therefore, the equilibrium value of NO is a lower bound.) Note that at
equilibrium above 1000 K, most of the gas is NO.

(Note: you have to solve a non-linear equation. Use Matlab or Excel.)

The equilibrium constants from the JANAF table are:

T(K) Log10Kp for NO Log10Kp for NO2
600 -7.210 -6.111
700 -6.086 -5.714
800 -5.243 -5.417
900 -4.587 -5.185
1000 -4.062 -5.000

2) Problem 3.8 of text

In part (c), the equilibrium constant should be 1010.2 instead of 10.2. Also, assume that there is no
dissociation of the N2 and H2O.

Hint: in solving for the amount of CO, assume that the amount is negligibly small compare to the amount
of CO2. Justify posteriori.

3) Problem 4.1 of text.

Calculation of exhaust composition under fuel rich condition is a tedious exercise which is usually
computerized. You can use the exhaust composition program on the web (under “good stuff”). Look at
the source listing to see what is involved. If you want to, you can set K=3.5 instead of 3.7; it does not
make that much difference. You can also do it using the information on p. 104-105 of the text, especially
table 4-3. Then you have to solve the quadratic equation 4.6 yourselves ― the Matlab program on the
web, exhaust_compo, essentially does that. You have to supply the input variable in the calling program
to solve the problem.)

4) Problem 4.9 of text

Hint: using the exhaust composition, write the stoichiometric equation for the reaction.
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #4

Problems:

1) The fuel injector flow rate (mass per unit time) is constant so that the amount of fuel delivered is
controlled by the pulse width. This flow rate is sized by the requirements that at idle, the injector should
meter the fuel accurately (thus the lower the flow rate the better, since the corresponding pulse width will
be longer and the metering error will be less), and at WOT and max engine speed, there is enough fuel
delivered within the time constrain of a cycle.

For a four-cylinder 2L displacement engine, with a max speed of 6500 rpm

(a) Estimate the smallest injector flow rate that will do the job
(b) What is the fuel pulse width at idle? (Idle intake pressure ~0.3 bar.)

2) Consider the discrete form of the x- model. At cycle i, the following definitions are used:
fi mass of fuel injected
Mi puddle mass
k fraction of puddle mass evaporated; can be interpreted as t/ where t is the time per cycle
mi mass of fuel vapor delivered to cylinder
x fraction of injected fuel going into puddle
The fuel puddle dynamics may then be described by the finite difference equations

Puddle increment : Mi  Mi1  xfi  kMi1

Vapor to cylinder : mi  (1 x)fi  kMi1

(a) if the fuel injection amount is a constant equal to f0, what are the equilibrium values for the puddle
mass M0 and the fuel delivered to the cylinder m0?
(b) If the fuel injection has a step change from f0 to f1, the fuel delivered will not jump to the new
equilibrium value instantaneously. Simulate on the computer the time history of mi and Mi . The
numerical values for a typical 2L, 4-cylinder engine are f0=10 mg, f1=35 mg, k=.05, x=0.7. (You can
also work out the problem analytically. The puddle mass development is a geometric series.)
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #5

Problems:

1) Problem 6.1 of text book. For part (c), think about under the same engine speed and BMEP, why would the
inlet manifold pressure and thus the Pumping MEP be different for the two fuels. Hint: the volumetric
efficiency is due predominantly to quasi-static effects as depicted in Eq. 6.2, for which the {} term and the
intake temperature may be assumed to be the same for the two fuels.

2) This problem is an exercise to get an idea of the flame propagation environment under typical engine
condition. In the problem set directory, the simulation results for operating an engine under vehicle cruise
condition (see engine specification below) are tabulated in the ascii file si_sim.oum. The columns are
explained in the matlab m-file si_sim.m and also documented below. (If you are using matlab, executing
the m-file si_sim.m will automatically load the data file into the various variables; if you want to use Excel,
you can import the ascii file into a spread sheet.)
Engine specification: 1500 rpm; intake pressure=38 kpa;  =1; ignition at 30o BTC
Bore = 86 mm; stroke = 86 mm; con-rod to bore ratio = 1.58
Clearance vol.=58.77 cc.
Plot the following quantities as a function of the mass burned fraction. Use Eq. 9.36 for the laminar flame
speed calculation. The residual gas mole fraction is 20%. After the plots (by the computer), take a look at
the values to appreciate the magnitude of the various quantities. Note that for stoichiometric gasoline
combustion, the burned and unburned gas have approximately the same molecular weights of 29. (Good
engineers/scientists should always be familiar with the numbers for the phenomena they are working on.)

(i) The unburned and burned gas temperatures

(ii) The pressure
(iii) The laminar flame speed
(iv) The laminar flame expansion velocity
(v) The mass fraction burn rate d(xb)/d
(vi) The volume of burned gas as a fraction of the charge volume
(vii) Assuming that the engine has a flat head and a flat piston, and assuming that the burned gas occupies a
cylindrical volume of radius R and a height equals to the combustion chamber height, plot the ratio of 2R/B
where B is the bore. (In reality, the ‘flame ball’ is more likely to be roughly hemispherical at first until it
touches the piston; then it will transition into a cylindrical geometry.)

_________________________________________________________________
For Problem 2, the columns of data in the file si_sim are:
theta=si_sim(:,1); %crankangle
p =si_sim(:,2); %pressure (bar)
tu =si_sim(:,3); %unburned gas temp (k)
tb =si_sim(:,4); %bunred gas temp (k)
m_int=si_sim(:,5); %cumulative mass inducted (g)
m_exh=si_sim(:,6); %cumulative mass exhausted (g)
viv =si_sim(:,7); %velocity at intake valve (m/s)
vexh =si_sim(:,8); %velocity at exhaust valve (m/s)
xb =si_sim(:,9); %mass fraction burned
x_net=si_sim(:,10); %net ht rel / (LHV*fuelmass)
qdot_h=si_sim(:,11); %heat transfer (J/deg)
w_pist=si_sim(:,12); %work transfer to piston (KJ)
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #6

Problems

1) Many inventors claim that they have invented a high energy spark plug which would substantially
improve combustion and engine efficiency. Typical commercial spark discharge system puts out ~30 mJ
per pulse; because of heat loss to electrodes, only about 10% of this energy gets delivered to the charge.
(For a stoichiometric mixture, only ~0.2 mJ is needed for ignition.) For a high energy spark plug (300 mJ
per pulse – ten times the energy delivered by the commercial system), say 30 mJ is delivered to the
charge. To see whether this has substantial effect on the overall combustion behavior, estimate the size
of the flame such that the heat release from the burned gas is equivalent to 30 mJ. (You may assume a
spherical flame ball and determine its radius. The mixture is stoichiometric with 20% residual)

2) One strategy to prevent the engine from knocking is to enrich the mixture to a fuel equivalence ratio of 
=1.2. There are two effects: (a) the lowering of the charge temperature by more fuel being evaporated;
(b) the value of  for the unburned mixture decreases with . Compared to the case of  =1, estimate the
decrease in compression temperature due to the effects of (a) and (b). You may assume a compression
ratio of 9, and  = 1.33 and 1.30 for  = 1 and 1.2, and make other reasonable assumptions.

3) The large local pressure and temperature rises due the very fast compression ignition of the end gas
(knocking) could cause severe damage to the combustion chamber. To estimate the magnitude of these
quantities, consider the constant volume combustion of a mass element of stoichiometric gasoline
mixture with 10% residual gas at TDC of a naturally aspirated SI engine operating at WOT. The
effective compression ratio is 9 (the effective compression ratio is due to that IVC is not at BDC).
Assume that the density of the trapped charge is 1 kg/m3at IVC, and that the charge may be considered as
an ideal gas with  = 1.33.

(a) What is the pressure rise due to the constant volume combustion of the mixture?
(b) If the pressure before knocking is 20 bar, what is the temperature of this burned gas?
(The actual temperature is lower because of dissociation.)
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #7

Problems:

1) Problem 11.3 of text book. Interpret both the fuel and the measured HC as hydrocarbons with H/C ratio of
1.87.

2) Problem 11.9 of text book; but change the problem to reflect the values for modern engines:
 The cylinder bore is 8.6 cm; the stroke is 8.6 cm (instead of 10 cm x 10cm) so that the displacement
volume per cylinder is 500 cc.
 The compression ratio is 10 (instead of 8).
 The top land height is 6 mm (instead of 9.52 mm), and the piston/bore clearance is 0.27 mm (instead of 0.3
mm.) Also the piston crevice would include the clearance volume behind the top ring and between the ring
top and piston groove; so the total piston crevice volume is 1.2 times the top land clearance volume.

3) Problem 11.10 of text book. This problem gives you an idea of the time scale for NO formation under
engine combustion condition. For the last part of the problem, see Eq. 4-32 and Fig. 4-17 for gas
properties.
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.61 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #8

Problems:

1) The following exercise is for you to get a feel for the magnitude of things for a modern turbo-charged
truck diesel engine. The Hino K13C 4-stroke turbo-charged diesel engine has the following specifications:

No. of cylinders 6
Total displacement 12882 cc
Bore x Stroke 135 mm x 150 mm
Compression ratio 16.5
Rated power 294 KW @2000 rpm
bsfc @ rated power 200 g/KW-hr
Injection: common rail; max pressure 1400 bar
Nozzles 8 per injector @ 200 m diameter each
Compressor pressure ratio at rated power 2.5
Intercooler outlet temperature at rated power 120o C

At rated power, the volumetric efficiency is approximately 0.8. The fuel pulse width is 40o crank angle.
We’ll assume that the injection rate is constant (at the average value) for the following analysis. (The
actual needle lift profile has a triangular shape delivery rate.)

Compute the following quantities at rated power: (You may assume that the cylinder condition at the time
of injection to be 50 bar and 800K.) Diesel fuel at 120o C (the fuel operating temperature) has s.g. = 0.78
and viscosity = 5x10-4 N-s/m2.)

(a) What are the air mass flow rate and the average fuel flow rate for the engine? What is the A/F?
(b) On a per cylinder, per cycle basis, what are the air mass, the fuel mass and fuel volume injected per cycle?
(You should get a mental picture of these quantities.)
(c) What is the average flow velocity through each nozzle hole?
(d) If the nozzle hole has a length to diameter ratio of 10, what is the pressure drop? Is this drop significant?
(e) What is the average discharge coefficient for each nozzle?
(f) If the critical Webber number is 30, what is the average droplet diameter of the diesel spray? (The surface
tension of the diesel fuel at the injection condition is 0.025 N/m.)
(g) If all the drops are of the same size as calculated in (f), how many drops are there? If these drops are to be
distributed uniformly in the cylinder at TDC, what is the average distance between the drops? What is the
implication of these facts on the air/fuel mixing process? (Neither assumption is a good one, but the
estimates give a picture of the difficulty of air utilization.)

2) The compression ratio of a diesel engine must be high enough for fast auto-ignition. An acceptable
ignition delay is 20o crank angle. We’ll use the ignition delay equations – Eq. (10-37, 38 and 39) to study
this. The inlet pressure and temperatures are 1 bar and –20oC (253K). The cranking speed is 200 rpm.
The fuel has a cetane number of 45.
There is a typo in Eq. 10-37; a + sign is missing between the two ( )’s. The correct equation is
  1 1   21.2  
0.63

id (CA)  (0.36  0.22Sp )exp EA     


  RT 17,190   p 12.4  
(a) For a truck engine with a 135 mm stroke at this low ambient temperature, the polytropic exponent (n) for
compression is 1.2. Plot the ignition delay as a function of compression ratio (CR) in the range of 12 to
25. Determine the minimum CR required.
(b) For a small passenger car diesel engine with a stroke of 80 mm, because of the higher heat loss, n = 1.12.
Plot the ignition delay on the same graph as in (a) and determine the minimum CR required.
3) The soot burn-up rate may be obtained by the Nagle and Strickland-Constable formula which is given by
Eq. (11.41),(11-42) and Table 11.10 of the text. The value w in the formula is the surface oxidation rate in
g/cm2-s. Since the data for the correlation were obtained from graphite oxidation experiments, the rate is
the value for carbon. We’ll assume that the oxidation of soot particle is at the same rate as that of carbon.
Also the density of the soot is assumed to be 2 g/cc.

Do the calculations for the following conditions:

(a) p=100 bar and T = 2500 K
(b) p=70 bar and T = 2000 K
(c) p=30 bar and T = 1400 K
The three conditions represent roughly at the peak pressure point, at the end of combustion, and late in the
expansion process.

(i) To show that mass transport is not the limiting process for oxidation of small particles, calculate the
transport time (  = d2/D) for particle diameter d of 10, 100 and 1000 nm. The mass diffusivity D is:
p T
D(m 2 / s)  1.8x10 5 ( 0 )( )1.81 where p 0  1bar and T0  300K
p T0
(Note that the mean free paths ( under these conditions are of the order of 50 nm. Therefore the 10 nm
particle would be in the free flow or Knusen regime for which the transport time is approximately
 ~ (d2/D)* /(3d), which is not that different from the estimate by using just d2/D.)

(ii) Calculate the time to oxidize particle of diameter 100 nm for oxygen mole fractions of 0.1%, 1% and 10%.
Note that to have fast oxidation, sufficient oxygen has to be available at high temperatures.
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 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

2.615 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Homework Set #9
Optional

Problems:

1. The purpose of this problem is to let you have a feel for the magnitudes of the heat load under typical engine
condition. Use the spark ignition engine data from si_sim.oum file (an ASCII file used in HW5) for your
calculation; assume that the volumetric efficiency based on intake condition is 0.7. The overall heat transfer
correlation is given by
  hA(T  T )
Q g w
where A is the surface area (estimated by assuming a flat piston and a flat head), and h is calculated from the
Nusselt correlation
Nu  0.35 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4
The Reynolds number is based on the mean piston speed and bore diameter. The Prandtl number is 0.8. Note
that the heat transfer correlation used in the problem is based on the average gas temperature, which can be
estimated from the burned and unburned gas temperatures. To simplify the problem, you may use constant
values for the gas properties:
Specific heats cp,unburned =1.2 kJ/kg; cp,burned = 1.5 kJ/kg.
Viscosity  = 7x10-5 kg/m-s
Thermal conductivity k = 0.15 W/m-K
Average molecular weight = 29
The average wall temperature is 400K.

Plot as a function of the crank angle, the values of: A, h, Tg - Tw , Q and the cumulative heat transfer Q as a
function of crank angle from when the intake valve closes to when the exhaust valve opens. (In the data file,
TDC compression is 360o; IVC at 234o; EVO at 483o.)

Note that the Q you calculated is the overall heat transfer based on the average gas temperature. There is a Q
listed in the data file; that value is based on the heat transfer from the burned gas through the “wetted” area
the burned gas covers. You should compare the two values. You should also note that the Q values you
calculated are based on time and those listed in the file are crank angle based so that conversion is needed
before you can compare them.

2. The lubrication film under the top piston ring will break though somewhere near the end strokes where the piston
velocity is low. The resulting boundary lubrication manifests as liner wear, of which the wear pattern can be seen
when the engine is disassembled. The wear near TDC is more severe than that near BDC because the ring
pressure is higher. This phenomenon could be interpreted by the Stribeck diagram (see Fig. 13-3). For the piston
ring, the non-dimensional Sommerfeld number S (which is graphed as the x-axis in the Stribeck diagram):
U()
S
aP()
where  is the lubricant viscosity, a is the piston ring thickness, and U() and P() are the instantaneous piston
speed and cylinder pressure at crank angle . Film break through occurs when S is less than a critical value Scritical.
For the pressure data of HW4, plot S as a function of  for a = 1 mm;  = 0.01 Kg/m-s. If Scritical = 10-5, where are
the transition points (in terms of CA) near TDC in the compression and expansion strokes under the following
conditions
(a) Under the operating condition of the data file.
(b) When the speed is increased from 1500 rpm to 4500 rpm at the same load
(c) When the load is increased by a factor of 2 (speed kept at 1500 rpm).

In these calculation, the shape of P() may be considered the same; thus for part (c), the pressure curve will be
scaled by a factor of 2.
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Note:
1.The inertia force term changes
direction during the piston
descend.
2. The side thrust Fs is the
normal reaction to balance out
the x-component of the
connecting rod force.

For a 85 mm bore piston at p=100

bar, the pressure force is
B2P 0.0852 x107
FP  
4 4
 5.67x10 N
4

 12740 lb
l·a
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Moles per φ
moles of fuel
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HW 3 solution
Problem could be solved easily using the computer program "exhaust_comp" on the web.

Combustion inefficiency=6.7%; combustion efficiency=(100-6.7)%=93.3%

Inefficiency due to fuel in the exhaust = 1.83%
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Note that actual injectors are not sized for
continuous injection at max rpm and full load. It is
sized for delivery of enough fuel at cold start
cranking. So the maximum delivery rate is much
higher. The pulse width at idle is then much lower,
at about 1 to 2 ms or so.
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 Homework #5 solution

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T(K)
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20 Pressure
10 Mass burn rate
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Mass fraction burned
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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 2.61 Homework #6 solution
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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MIT OpenCourseWare
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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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2.61 Internal Combustion Engines

Spring 2017

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